Middle Platonism
Middle Platonism is the modern name given to a stage
in the development of Platonic philosophy, lasting from
about 90 BC when Antiochus of Ascalon rejected the
scepticism of the New Academy until the development
of Neoplatonism under Plotinus in the 3rd century. Middle Platonism absorbed many doctrines from the rival
Peripatetic and Stoic schools. The pre-eminent philosopher in this period, Plutarch (c. 45-120), defended the
freedom of the will and the immortality of the soul. He
sought to show that God, in creating the world, had transformed matter, as the receptacle of evil, into the divine
soul of the world, where it continued to operate as the
source of all evil. God is a transcendent being, which operates through divine intermediaries, which are the gods
and daemons of popular religion. Numenius of Apamea
(c. 160) combined Platonism with Neopythagoreanism
and other eastern philosophies, in a move which would
pregure the development of Neoplatonism.
dle Platonists were engaged like the later Peripatetics in
scholarly activities such as the exposition of Platos doctrines and the explanation of his dialogues; on the other
hand they attempted to develop the Platonic theories systematically. In so far as it was subject in this to the inuence of Neopythagoreanism, it was of considerable importance in preparing the way for Neoplatonism.[4]
The most important of the Middle Platonists was Plutarch
(45-120), who also won fame as an historian. Although
he was a Platonist, he was open to the inuence of the
Peripatetics, and even, in some details, to the Stoics, despite his polemics against their principles; he rejected absolutely only Epicureanism.[5] In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean atheism, he cherished a pure
idea of God that was more in accordance with Plato.[5]
Nevertheless, he adopted a second principle in order to
explain the constitution of the physical world.[5] This
principle he sought not in any indeterminate matter, but
in the evil world-soul which had from the beginning been
bound up with matter, but in the creation was lled with
reason and arranged by it.[5] Thus it was transformed
into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.[5] He elevated God above
the nite world, but he believed that God comes to our
aid by direct revelations; this enabled Plutarch to justify
popular belief in prophecy.[6] The gods of popular religion are merely dierent names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve them.[6] Daemons
were for him agents of Gods inuence on the world.[5]
Plutarch defended freedom of the will and the immortality of the soul.[5] Platonic-Peripatetic ethics were upheld
by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics
and Epicureans.[5]
History
Antiochus of Ascalon (c. 125-68 BC), was the pupil of
Philo of Larissa, and the teacher of Cicero. Through
his inuence, Platonism made the transition from New
Academy Scepticism to Eclecticism.[1] Whereas Philo
had still adhered to the doctrine that there is nothing
absolutely certain, Antiochus returned to a pronounced
dogmatism. Among other objections to Scepticism, was
the consideration that without rm convictions no rational content of life is possible.[1] He pointed out that it
is a contradiction to assert that nothing can be asserted
or to prove that nothing can be proved; that we cannot
speak of false ideas and at the same time deny the distinction between false and true.[2] He expounded the Academic, Peripatetic, and Stoic systems in such a way as
to show that these three schools deviate from one another only in minor points.[2] He himself was chiey interested in ethics, in which he tried to nd a middle way
between Zeno, Aristotle and Plato. For instance, he said
that virtue suces for happiness, but for the highest grade
of happiness bodily and external goods are necessary as
well.[2]
Among later Middle Platonists there were Theon of
Smyrna, who wrote a mathematical introduction to Plato,
and Gaius (2nd century) who was a teacher of Platonist
philosophy.[6] His pupil, Albinus, wrote an account of his
lectures, of which we possess the introduction.[6] Around
the same time, Alcinous wrote an extant treatise on Platonism, in which he postulated three principles: the rst
God, the ideas, which are regarded as thoughts of this
rst God, and matter.[7] Apuleius (c. 125), a popular
writer, expounded an eclectic Platonism in his books On
the God of Socrates and On Plato and his Doctrine which
are written in Latin.[7] Maximus of Tyre (c. 180), like
Plutarch, endeavoured to bridge the gulf between a transcendent God and matter by the assumption of numerous daemons as intermediaries.[7] Atticus (c. 175) opposed the eclecticism which had invaded the school and
This eclectic tendency was favoured by the lack of dogmatic works by Plato.[3] Middle Platonism was promoted
by the necessity of considering the main theories of the
post-Platonic schools of philosophy, such as the Aristotelian logic and the Stoic psychology and ethics (theory of goods and emotions).[4] On the one hand the Mid1
contested the theories of Aristotle as an aberration from
Plato. He was an uncompromising supporter of Plato
and regarded the theory of immortality as the basis of
his whole system. Nevertheless, in this theology he approached more closely to the Stoic idea of immanence.[7]
Numenius of Apamea (c.
160) combined both
Neopythagoreanism and Platonism.[7] He exhibited a fargoing syncretism. Like Plutarch he supposed that an evil
soul was combined with matter.[8] From this the mortal
part of the human soul is derived, which he described as
the second irrational soul.[8] Because of its guilt the soul
had to descend from its bodiless life into the body, and
after its departure from the body, if it does not need to
undergo further incarnation, it becomes indistinguishably
united with God.[8] A gift of God is the wisdom which is
the highest good, and this gift is only granted to those who
devote themselves to the ultimate good to the exclusion of
all other thoughts.[8]
See also
Allegorical interpretations of Plato
References
[1] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy,
13th Edition, page 273
[2] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy,
13th Edition, page 274
[3] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy,
13th Edition, page 305
[4] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy,
13th Edition, page 306
[5] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy,
13th Edition, page 307
[6] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy,
13th Edition, page 308
[7] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy,
13th Edition, page 309
[8] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy,
13th Edition, page 310
Further reading
Dillon, John, M. (1977), The Middle Platonists,
Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
EXTERNAL LINKS
5 External links
Middle Platonism in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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