WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?
-Intelligence encompasses a number of mental
abilities such as reasoning, planning and problem-solving. The topic of intelligence is
one of the biggest and most debated in psychology. Learn more about some of the
many theories of intelligence, the history of intelligence testing and much more.
While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within psychology, there is
no standard definition of what exactly constitutes 'intelligence.' Some researchers
have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while other believe that
intelligence
encompasses
a
range
of
aptitudes,
skills
and
talents.
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The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.
Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general
intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to to examine a number of
mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who
performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly
on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that
could be measured and numerically expressed.
Louis L. Thurstone - Primary Mental Abilities:
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing
intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental
abilities." The abilities that he described were:
Verbal comprehension
Reasoning
Perceptual speed
Numerical ability
Word fluency
Associative memory
Spatial visualization
Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of
focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence
are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences
that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are:
Visual-spatial Intelligence
Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
Logical-mathematical Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence
Musical Intelligence
Intra personal Intelligence
Naturalistic Intelligence
Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation
to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to ones life." While he agreed with Gardner
that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's
intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.
Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three different
factors:
Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.
Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations
using past experiences and current skills.
Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.
Final Thoughts:
While there has been considerable debate over the exact nature of intelligence, no definitive
conceptualization has emerged. Today, psychologists often account for the many different theoretical
viewpoints when discussing intelligence and acknowledge that this debate is ongoing.
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What Factors Determine Intelligence?
Answer: In addition to disagreements about the basic nature of intelligence, psychologists have spent a
great amount of time and energy debating the various influences on individual intelligence. The debate
focuses on one of the major questions in psychology: Which is more important - nature or nurture?
Today, nearly all psychologists recognize that both genetics and the environment play a role in determining
intelligence. It now becomes matter of determining exactly how much of an influence each factor has.
First, it is important to note that genetics and the environment interact to determine exactly how inherited
genes are expressed. For example, if a person has tall parents, it is likely that the individual will also grow
to be tall. However, the exact height the person reaches can be influenced by environmental factors such as
nutrition and disease.
Evidence of genetic influences:
Twin studies suggest that identical twins IQ's are more similar than those of fraternal twins
(Promin & Spinath, 2004).
Siblings reared together in the same home have IQ's that are more similar than those of adopted
children raised together in the same environment (McGue & others, 1993).
Evidence of environmental influences:
Identical twins reared apart have IQ's that are less similar than identical twins reared in the same
environment (McGue & others, 1993).
School attendance has an impact on IQ scores (Ceci, 2001).
Children who are breastfed during the first three to five months of life score higher on IQ tests at
age 6 than same-age children who were not breastfed (Reinberg, 2008).
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StanfordBinet Intelligence Scales
StanfordBinet Intelligence scales
Diagnostics
ICD-9-CM
MeSH
94.01
D013195
The development of the StanfordBinet Intelligence Scales initiated the modern field of intelligence
testing and was one of the first examples of an adaptive test. The test originated in France, then was revised
in the United States. The StanfordBinet test started with the French psychologist Alfred Binet, whom the
French government commissioned with developing a method of identifying intellectually challenged
children for their placement in special education programs. As Binet indicated, case studies might be more
detailed and helpful, but the time required to test many people would be excessive. In 1916, at Stanford
University, the psychologist Lewis Terman released a revised examination which became known as the
"StanfordBinet test".
How Are Scores on IQ Tests Calculated? Answer: While people often talk about
test scores, many people are confused about exactly what these test scores mean. In order to adequately
assess and interpret test scores, psychometritians use a process known as standardization. The
standardization process involves administering the test to a representative sample of the entire population
that will eventually take the test. Each test taker completes the test under the same conditions as all other
participants in the sample group. This process allows psychometricians to establish norms, or standards, by
which individual scores can be compared.
Intelligence test scores typically follow what is known as a normal distribution, a bell-shaped curve in
which the majority of scores lie near or around the average score. For example, the majority of scores
(about 68%) on the WAIS-III tend to lie between plus 15 or minus 15 points from the average score of 100.
As you look further toward the extreme ends of the distribution, scores tend to become less common. Very
few individuals (approximately 0.2%) receive a score of more than 145 (indicating a very high IQ) or less
than 55 (indicating a very low IQ) on the test.
What Is Considered a High IQ?The following is a rough breakdown of various IQ score
ranges. However, it is important to remember that IQ tests are only one measure of intelligence. Many
experts suggest that other important elements contribute to intelligence, including social and emotional
factors.
115 to 129 - Above average; bright
130 to 144 - Moderately gifted
145 to 159 - Highly gifted
160 to 179 - Exceptionally gifted
180 and up - Profoundly gifted
It is important to recognize the difference between rational, nonrational, and irrational
thinking. Irrational thinking negates rational thinking, and nonrational thinking operates
according to a different intelligence than logical, rational thought. The world of art and
aesthetics, for example, requires nonrational intelligence to appreciate it fully; while
much intelligence goes into the production of great works of art and literature, it has little
to do with rational intelligence. Part of the difficulty of explaining the world of art and
literature is that the verbal tools of explanation belong to the realm of linear thought in
which the rational intelligence operates.
