Eo ES mo ore a rox] . 3-80-61-2 Section 2 DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE 2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.1.1 In this section, the means of describing the motion of a particle will be investi- gated. The study of particle dynamics provides a logical starting point for the further examination of more complicated dynamical problems. In particular, several of the concepts developed in this section are used formally in the establishment of the theory of the dynamics of a rigid body. Further, in many physical problems of interest, the bodies involved may be considered to be particles; practical solutions are thus obtained without the need of more complex theory. The development in this section is purely Newtonian. No enorgy considerations will be included in the discussion. 2,2 DEFINITION OF A PARTICLE 2.2.1 A particle is defined in terms of its following properties: © The particle has a finite mass m. © The particle has a measurable position, but no extension or dimension; it is analogous to a geometrical point in this respect. 2.3 POSITION, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION 2.3.1 Let the position of a moving particle be measured at some instant in a fixed Cartestan coordinate system (Pig. 17). In vector notation, the position of the particle is given by the position vector Pos ix tjy +k LOCKHEED mis: LES & SPACE Con NY3-80-61-2 5 E where 7, J, and K are unit vectors along the X, ¥, and Z axes, respectively, am OS ss eo x Fig. 17 Of The instantaneous velocity ¥ is then defined as l U ee pM a7 ypae Gx +p 4 hey = ER 7M ae But, since the unit vectors are constant in magnitude and direction, SS om and t LOCKHEED Mr companyoo aus gm a sat 3-80-61-2 and the velocity vector is tangent to the path of the moving particle at any point along the the path, The instantaneous acccleration 4 is defined as Sf Ge . 5a y gaz at ge lat ka) The magnitude of the acceleration is given by z a 2, 2, 2 i (4) (S at at In further discussion, frequent use will be made of dot notation, whereby the symbol + 4s used to represent differentiation with respect to time, Thus, EB » 1 If the motion of the particle lies wholly in a plane, it may be convenient in the solution of a particular problem to use polar coordinates. We shall therefore investigate the representations of velocity and acceleration, as defined above, in terms of the polar coordinates r and @ (Fig. 18). Let 7, and 6, be unit vectors in directions along and por F. Attime t, the position of the particle is ndicular to the position vector given by the position vector F(t). Ata slightly later time t + At, the position of the particle is F(t + At). The displacement of the particle in the time increment At is therefore F(t + At) - F(t) Fig. 18 LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY3-80-61-2 which is the vector AF in Fig. 18. The displacement AF can be resolved into com- ponents and 6 inboth @ and r directions as in 4r=a+h = ab +br = rae tare, Dividing by At, gives and taking limits, we have and Ver +ré 6 2) Having thus found the velocity vector in polar coordinates, we proceed to derive an expression for the acceleration, as in CLG ALAR ee ae FH, +8 Oy) PE eR 4 Gi + rd)G, ar Since the unit vectors r, and 6, change their orientation as the particle moves, their derivatives do not, in general, equal zero, 2-4tm a 7 baer = axa ea 8-80-61-2 Changed 4 Jan 1963 To evaluate #, , consider the infinitesimal displacement AF, (Fig. 19) which the unit vector #, undergoes in an infinitesimal increment of time At : Fig. 19 To evaluate 8, , consider the infinitesimal displacement Ad, (Fig. 20) which the unit vector 5. undergoes in an infinitesimal increment of tim2 At : Aa 18,149(-7,) = -1 + aor, Ab. “at a0 and, talting limits, we obtain Fig. 20 Substituting for 7, and 8, in the expression for A , we have (2.2) = (bo r8 oS ectbacina = (F- r6°)3, + (2rd + 78)d, LOCKHEFM Migeu re o enaae on3-80-61-2 . Thus, in Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), we now have expressions for the velocity and accelera~ tion of the particle in polar coordinates. See paragraph 2.7 for an application of these equations. Similar considerations would lead to representations of these vectors in any other two-or-three-dimensional coordinate system. 2.4 NEWTON'S LAWS. 2.4.1 The basis for the mechanics presented in this report is that expressed in the form of Newton's "laws" of motion, first enunciated in the Principia Mathematica: 1. Every particle continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is acted upon by some exterior force. ML. The rate-of-change of momentum of a particle is proportional to the force impressed upon it, and is in the direction in which the force is acting. Ml. To every action, there is an equal and oppositely cirected reaction. It is not within the province of this discussion to investigate formally the interpretation of these laws, but a few comments on their meaning are appropriate. The first law depends for its meaning on an understanding of the concept of force. One has an intuitive feeling for the meaning of the word foree in terms of a push or Pull, and, from this sort of notion, a qualitative idea of the sense of the first law ean be obtained. However, no quantitative knowledge can be gained from the first law, except possibly the definition of zero force; that is, no force is acting when the ideal State described exists. The first law is therefore a kind of qualitative introduction to the second law. LOCKHEED MISSI Fa a @OARE RAtinsene A a os oo oo a Eo mm om em cs3-50-61-2 The second law expressed the following mathematical relationship between the force acting on a particle and the mass of the particle: a F = (my) For most purposes outside the field of relativity, mass is constant; thus, the above equation reduces to Jn order for such a relationship to express something mesningful, we must not only Imow what force is and how to measure it, we must also krow the meaning of the mass m ef the particle, Newton considered the notion of mass, like that of force, as more or less intuitively known. Thus, the inherent difficulties in the concepts of force and mass remained largely unresolved until the appearance of Ernst Mach's Mechanics cal at the end of the nineteenth century. Mach provided a sound and logical theo: basis which replaces Newton's laws as a foundation of mechanics, and which leads to the results which Newton sought to draw from these laws. Mach's development pro- vides postulational definitions of mass and force which lead to the deduction of Newton's third law, A more detailed discussion of this subject is not pertinent here; suffice it to say that classical Newtonian mechanics does have a logical theoretical basis, although the formal development of that basis did not come until the end of the 19 century. 2.5 THE EQUATION OF MOTION 2.5.1 Having reassured ourselves that Newtonian mechanies has a logical basis, we shall utilize the relationship (paragraph 2.3.1) between the behavior of a particle to the force acting upon it through a second-order vector differential equation: (2.3) LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY3-80-61-2 : where F is the resultant force acting on the particle; i.e., the vector sum of all the individual forces. Equation (2.8) is called the equation of motion of the particle, Sub- stitution of a particular functional form of F (where F is, in general, a function of position, velocity, and time) in Eq. (2.3) yields a set of three scalar second-order differential equations in terms of the three components of 7, Solution of these equa- tions of motion, subject to the constraints of given initial conditions, gives the position and velocity of the particle at any time, Jn practice, a form of F is guessed at, and, if the solution of the resulting equation yields answers which are in agreement with both past and future observations, the assumed description of the force in considered to be accurate, Since the equation of motion is of the second order, the solution always involves two arbitrary constants which must be specified in order to provide the final solution in any given problem. Knowledge of the position and velocity at a given instant is sufficient to fix these constants; these constants are the usual boundary conditions involved in particle dynamics, 2.6 MOTION UNDER A CONSTANT FORCE 2.6.1 As an elementary example of the tt method of solution of the equation of motion, consider the motion of a particle under a con- stant force of magnitude mg acting in the negative y direction of an arbitrary xyz co. ordinate system (Fig. 21). Further, let us assume that the initial position of the particle is at the origin and that the initial velocity Vector of the particle is of magnitude V, and lies in the xy plane at an angle y, above the xz plane, LOCKHEED missiL COMPANY ee oe So oom 5 2 oo cos f] 3-80-61-2 Changed 4 Jan 1903 With F = - mg}, the equation of motion is - mg, Writing the three scalar component differential equations, we have 0 -mg mz = 0 Heo Integrating each of these equations twice yiolds For the First Integration For the Second Integrati. xo * = % * Vyot ee Vyo ~ st Y= Yo * Wot = Sp z0 z * Veot » V,, are constants of integration, According to our initial conditions, F(0) = 0; i.e., x(0) = 0, y(0) = 0, and 2(0) = 0. Evaluation of the equations for x,y, end z at t = 0 yields x(0) ¥(0) = yg, and 2(0) = 25. Thus, x =y, =z, =0. The initial component values of the velocity vector are obtained from the initial conditions: (0) = V, cos 4(0) =v, sin ° #(0) = 0 Evaluation of the equations for x, ¥, and & at t = 0 yields &(0) = vas F(0) = yor #(0) = V,g- Thus V,, = V, 008 1, Vyo = Vo sin y+ and Vio =O: Zo 2-9 FOCKHEER tienen a3-80-61-2, Having thus evaluated all six constants of integration, we may write the parametric equations for the position and velocity of the particle at any time t , as followa; xe = Ve cos 1, ye y= Visin y, - et Ze =0 Since z = 0 for all time, the motion of the particle takes place entirely within the xy plane, a fact which is intuitively obvious from the statement of the initial conditions, To obtain an equation for the path of the particle in space, we may eliminate t from the position equations. Solving the x equation for t, we get - x V5 c08 % t Substituting for t in the y equation, ‘This equation reprosents a parabola, as shown in Fig. 22, The range R of the par- ticle is given by the solution of the above equation when y = 0 (of course, the other solution is given by x = 0, yielding the initiel point of the particle). Fg « ES & SPACE CAMasnw ES om mm or ores roe oe os ooa Ble we 3-80-61-2 Changed 4 Jan 1963 tan ¥, 0 aco y, Solving for R , we get 2 sos? " 2 v2 2V, cos" y tan y 28in y, cosy, V5 Vosin 2y, & & g It is seen that for a given launch velocity V, , maximum range will be obtained at a Taunch angle y, of 45°, in which case, sin 2y, = 1, and It is clear that the above example represents a rough approximation to a trajectory computation, an approximation based on the assumption of a flat earth, the existence of a constant gravitational acceleration -g , and the neglect of aerodynamics and other forces, This example, though elementary in nature, hes served to illustrate a method by which the equation of motion is solved, and the role which the initial conditions play in arriv- ing at an exact solution to a particular problem. We shall now consider a more complex example; namely, motion under a central force. 2.7 MOTION UNDER A CENTRAL FORCE. 2.7.1 A central force is defined as force whose direction is along the position vector ¥ of the particle, and whose magnitude is a function only of the distance r between the particle and the origin. Q-11 LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY3-80-61-2 . Thus, the general central foree may be represented as follos F = F(z, where Tr, is a unit vector along the radius vector as explained in paragraph 2.8. It is easily seen that all motion under a central force must be in a plane. This plane is de- fined by the initial foree vector, which acts along the initial radius vector, and the initial velocity vector. Since the force always acts along the instantaneous radius vec- tor, there is never a force component perpendicular to this plane of motion, and, there- fore, no component of acceleration normal to the plane. Thus, as we found in the Previous example, the motion of the particle lies entirely in this plane. Description of this motion is most easily accomplished in terms of polar coordinates, and the results of our computation of velocity and acceleration vectors in polar coord- inates, Eqs. (2. 1) and (2. 2), will be of value here, Writing the equation of motion in polar coordinate Writing the scalar component equations, we have se ep? F, = F(r) = m(# - ré?) m (26 + rd) First, solving the differential equations in @ yields 26 +18 = 0 (2.4) LOCKHEED Miss! & SPACE COMPANY Gi ES oe omarg i 3-80-51-2 A physical meaning is readily attached to this re: In an infinitesimal interval of time At, the radius vector sweeps out the area of the triangle shown in Fig. 23, }y- rao. ‘The rate at which area is being swept out is given by Lim $r6 At~o Therefore, in the case of a central force what we have shown is that the areal velocity remains constant. Fig. 23, The next stop in our investigation Is to eliminate time from our parametric equations, Yielding a second-order differential equation in r and @ alone. It will be recalled that in the previous example (paragraph 2.6, 1) this step was teken only after integration of the equations of motion was complete, Solution of the current example, however, is more easily accomplished if we take this course of action now. From Eq. (2.4), we get (2.5) Substituting this result for § into the r-component differential equation, we have F(x) = m(# - ry (2.6) Next, changing our independent variable from t to @ and representing differentiation with respect to 0 by the symbol * yields de {from Eq. (2.5)] 2-13 FEN MIEN EG nm EBAre eatnaniySubstituting for 6 from Eq. (2.5), we have Substituting for ¥ in Eq. (2.6) yields FO) LR a’ 2K (2.7) m "4 3 We now introduce a change of variable by making the substitution w Thus, l F(r) = F(A) = t¢uy re 2-14 LOCKHEEN Ausen reo ee SS SS eo om re oe ee a 23-80-61-2 Substituting for x, r!, r'', and F(r) in terms of u in Eq. (2.7), fu wh) 4.2.5 ce) Bt (28 ny ay w £0) aPuw? Puan — aePuu? — 023 ~ AOD 2 Par 4 Pe Finally, dividing both sides of the above equation by ku? , we get weg = 0, (2.8) mk ae We have thus obtained a second ori describes the motion of a particle under any centrel force, A solution of this equation er differential equation, independent of time, which awaits a particular foree formulation, £(u) . 2,8 MOTION UNDER AN INVERSE SQUARE FORCE LAW. 2.8.1 As a particular example of some importance,we shall consider a force of attrac~ tion which obeys the inverse square law; that is, F(r) F(r) ” *(u) = = ow8-80-61-2 . Substituting this value of f(u) into Eq. (2.8) yields ety = So mk! i geet ute a) Let w = u-—S5 , and it follows that w! =u. Making the indicated substitution mk’ in the above equation, we get wo +0 =0 ‘The general solution to this simple second-order differential equation may be written w = Acos (0 - a) where A and @ are constants of integration, © Since w =u Acos (6 - a) +—& mk’ Substituting for u in terms of r (r = 1/u), we have Acos (8 - a) ons ak’ LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY fo opes |e ee oe oo oo om cS GO or oo om om ca =3ea 6 u 3-80-61-2 We now define two new constants, ¢ and p , in terms of the other constants as follows: We then have 1 Ree ay +E 1 ¥ Ap cos (0 and finally, see >a (2.9) This expression may be recognized as the equation of a conic section in polar coordi- nates, with the origin at one of the foci. € is the eccentricity of the orbits if © <1, the path is an ellipse; if € = 1, the path is a parabola; and if © > 1, the path is a hyperbola. ‘The quantity p is the semi latus rectum. The angle 0 is the polar angle, and a is the angle between the polar axis (@ = 0) and the transverse axis of the conte (Fig. 24). Conic Transverse Axis Be Fig. 24 LOCKHEED MISSI Fe nm Gears Rauinese4 dan 1963 For any parlfeular problem, evaluation of the constants A, a, k and ¢ depends on initial conditions of position (r, , 6) and velocity Gy 4) . We may utilize the above result to obtain an expression which includes time. For simplicity, let us assume that the conic section representing the path of the particle 4s oriented with its axis along the polar axis. Equation (2.9) then becomes po Te cos 6 Differentiating with respect to 6, we have dr _ =p(-esin 6) _ epsing _ do 1 +e 603 0)? (e/r)? Since oo 1 T= TF ees amd cos o = 2/2. 1) 7 Delay . 2 [2 py? ear ) ab fel ) 2-18 LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY SS ER ma pen ree ee [iw] = 3 os Ln]B-80-81-9 = 1 nro + 2pr - pe ce ae ey Ly ‘The above integral is readily evaluated, and, with the specification of initial conditions ty and 14, an explicit relationship between r and t is ob!aied. 2.9 KEPLER'S LAWS, 2.9.1 In the early part of the seventeenth century, Kepler stated three laws governing the motion of a planet around the sun: I. Each planet moves in an ellipse about the sun, with the sun at one of the foci of the ellipse. I, The areas swept out in cqual times by the radius yeetor from the sun to auy planet are equal. Ml. The cubes of the major axes of the various planetary ellipses are directly proportional to the squares of the corresponding periods. LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPARE COMPANY3-80-61-2 Changed 4 Jan 1963 Newton later showed that Kepler's three laws are equivalent to a single simple law, as in the following argumeat. Kepler's second law states that the rate~of-change of the areal velocity (paragraph 2.7 is zero; that is, Taking the cross product of both sides of the above equation with F, we have E = eee Fxmr = meExr = mi (Fx ry since Bix de Px Feb Fx Feo Expressing ¥ in polar coordinates, Fie Fx(etperd a) f Fx =o +r HF x Gy = x? HF xd) = 288 0 at where $B is the areal velocity, Thus, ) MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY HE ) Co SS SS &8 oo og es as om mm eo [. 8-80- 61-2 But Kepler's second law stutes that a a (Fy = 0 therefore, F x F = 0 If this relation is true in general, F and ¥ 1oust be colincar; and, therefore, F is a central force. Kepler's first law states that, for any planet, So = T¥e cos 6 which is the equation of an ellipse in polar coordinates 1 fy Ifwe let u + wo have : Thus, » SPACE COMPANY3-80-61-2 We have seen in section 2.7 that the general differential equation in w and @ for any central force [Eq. (2.8)] is an Au) wus - fo, mk*u? Thus, Thus for any planet, the force is attractive, with a magnitwio inversely proportional to the planet's distance from the sun. The period T of any planet around its ellipse is given by T Big where A is the area enclosed by the ellipse and $4 ig the magnitude of the previously @efined areal velocity, which we have stated to be constant, Analytic geometry gives us the area of an ellipse in terms of its seminajor a and semiminor b axes. avi A= mab and b 2-22 LOCKHEED ACE Conamany = os SI co [3 oe et om om oe om ro ox Go os Ese 3-80-62~ where € is the eccentricity. Therefore, where k is defined as in Eq. (2.5) to be twice the erecl veloc! ‘The equation of the ellipse we have seen to be r= PRP I¥e€ cos 8 7 is ata maximum when @ = 0 and is ate minimum when @ = 5. ‘Thus, 2. + g R oy al as Substituting for “in the expression for T , we have 3/2 1/2 ae a? pM? In section 2.8, the constant p was defined as LOCKHEED MISSILES & SeARE erm ny3-80-61-2 . where ¢ {= the constant of proportionality of the Inverse-square force law. Thus, ne a? ve vek 3/2 T= ma vm (2.10) ve Since for each planet, Kepler's thind law may be deduced from, the other two. Thus, Kepler's ‘three lavis are equivalent to the one statement: The force relating the motion of each of the planets about the sun (origin) is given by ny r This reduction of Kepler's three empirical laws to a single statement concerning the force acting on each planet led Newton to his formulation of the law of universal gravitation, 2.10 ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR VELOCITY 2.10.1 Consider a particle moving in a cireular are: In a time increment At, the Particle will have moved through an angle Ag. ‘The angular velocity @ is defined as a vector with magnitude ds lim Ag ad” ato At Witt dizection norsaal to the plane of motion (shown ag postitve in Fig. 25). B28 LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE renenaaw ES 83 Se oy em es rs ae 3 oma 3-80-61-2 Changed 4 Jan 1963 3 ince @ is a vector quantity, several simultan- cous angular motions can be composed by the Jaw governing composition of vectors | 2 P BB, +B, +... +3, Fig. 25 This definition, though somewhat artificial, proves of great value in mechanies, particularly inthe theory of dynamics of a rigid body. We now proceed to find the relationship between the linear velocity ¥ and the angular velocity @. In Tig. 26, OB is the axis of rotation. ‘The radius of the eiveular of motion BP is equslto r sin @. The lincar Velocity, then, has a magnitude of BP @ = r@ sin @ = rw sin @. If point O is taken as the origin of a coordinate system, F is the position vector of the particle, Then 6 Fig. 26 Ivl = |#] |o] sino and the direction of ¥ is perpendicular to the plane defined by the vectors # and @. We can thus write Bx fi Which relates the angular velocity to the linear velocity.3-80-61-2 o 2.11.1 All the work done to this point has been based on the implicit assumption that the vectors ¥ and & have been measured in a fixed coordinate system of some sort. In the real world, aowever, the concept of a fixed ecordinate system is harder to visuelize and impossible to find. The most nearly fixed reference frame susceptible to description is one oriented with respect to the average positions of the "fixed" stars. ‘This system is generally called the primary inertial syste Newton's laws, and the equations of motion derived from them, do not generally hold true in a reference frame moving with respoct to the primary inertial eystem, We can show, however, that there is a type of moving system in which the equations of motion hold true, Suppose we have a reference system (X', Y', 2!) moving with respect to the primary inertial system (X, Y, %) at a constant velovity ¥_ without rotation, The position of a point in the moving system can then be written in terms of the primary inertial system: Thus, where T, is the initial position of the origin of the X', Y', Z! frame. Difierentiat~ ing twice with respect to time, Thus, the equation of motion remains invariant with a change of coordinate sys: and we have 2-26 LOCKREED MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY a rot oesi 3-60-61-2 Any such systema moving with constant velo: with respect tu the primary inertial system is called a scoond: al eystem, and we have seen that the Newtonian equations of motion preserve their form in ell such inertial systems. Reference frames which are clearly noninertial may be considered inertial for a specific problem when the variation of the true motion, 28 measured in the noninertial frame from the Nevtonian-derived motion, is small enough to be ignored. For many problems, on the other hand, this variation cannot be overlooked, requiring us to extend our concepts of velocity and acceleration to noainertial reference frames. First, we shall consider a more general problem: Suppose we have two reference frames and that each possesses motion relative to the other. For convenience, we call one the reference frame and the other, the moving frame; however, we must remember that neither is assumed to be fixed in an inertial sense, An observer statfoned on the moving frame measures the time rate of change of & vector quantity ins a value $f rate of change of g measured byen observer stationed on tho reference frame? & and od ‘The question can thea bo asked: What will be the time To answer this question, let us consider the frame(X, Y, Zin motion with respect toa reference framo(X,, Yj. 25) (Fig. 27). ‘ Y (Xys2) Y, LOCKHT EN miseTaking the derivative of g, we have oe a a tae Px tiy thy = (ks 4hey + (ine ] hz) Now (i x +] ¥ +2) is the time derivative of & measured by an observer stationed on the moving frame, and is defined by the relation Brey Uk +]y +E Where &,o is the time derivative of % relative to the moving freme, Substitution yields ae ixejy+k Sg t xtjy+is) 2.1) To obtain expressions for 7, } and &, consider 1-7 = 1, Differentiating, we have Sa.a- Therefore, i is generally perpendicular to 7. Similarly, jij and Kuk, Since 1 is perpendicvler to i, be written 26 a linear combination of the J and & unit vectors. Thus, lies in a plane parallel to the Y-Z plane, and can therefore a Similarly, j=ei+ak and & SPACE COMPANY poe Ce om om oem st oes 3 &9 em ma ey era 3-80-G1-2 In the above expressions, the coefficients a, b, ¢, dy and f are goncrally functious of time. Further, we recall that i =ixj. Differentiating the above expression for 7 gives and substituting the values of ] and k found above, we have i= jx (bi+fj) +(ei+aky xk -bR+EG x5) - ec] + ack +k) -ej-bi In similar fashion, we find that and R= -di-aj ‘Thus we hove the following expressions for 1, 5, and & from which, we sec thet asf be -d ene Leckuren nar3-80-61-2 and we now write The vector (1x +}y + 2) can now be written: Gix+iy+iz) (c]- bR)x + (ak - ely +(bi- ajyz (bz =e y)I + (cx -az)j + (ay - bx)k iB kl a ob | x y gq = OxXE where @ is a vector with components a, b, and o; thatis, @ = al + bj+ck. We can now rewrite Eq. (2.11) as ag Es +BxE (2.12) Fret To see what physical interpretation cun be assigned to the vector » consider g tobe fixed in the toving frame. Then we have Bye = 0+ Now we are left with the expres ‘on (2.13) a 4 x 7 LOCKHEED MISSILES no emaee mauinsane SS 2 oe oe mrt es ms Prrsce] oma [ase]3-80-61 Changed 4 Jan 1963 Suppose the moving frame is not rotating and is in translational motion with respect to the reference frame; that is, the X, ¥, and % axes maintain a constant orientation with respect to the X.Y,» and 2, axes as the frame moves. Then the unit voctors i}, and k remain constant in orientation as well as in magnitude, and 1, }, and & are zero. Since te oe eee ee { then @ x g = 0 when the moving frame is not rotating with respect to the reference frame, Now consider the ease (Fig. 28) in which the moving frame is rotating and is not in translational motion with respect to the reference frame, Let the instantaneous angular velocity of the moving frame be @ . Since g is fixed in the moving frame by assump- tion, it, too, possesses the angular velocity with respect to the reference frame. As tho moving coordinate frame rotates, the tip Xo al of the vector § sweeps through an are in space. The linear velocity of this point along the are is given by ag at x But (paragraph 2. 10) the Lncar velocity of a point fs related to the angular velocity of its ————= Xo osition veet position vector by : = z dee axe Fig. 28 2-13-80-G1-2 Referring to Fq. (2.18), we sec that the vector © is actually the angular of the moving frame. velocity 2 Thus, when two coordinate systems are in motion with respect to each other, the time derivative of a vector § measured in one frame is equal to the time derivative of the same vector measured in the other frame (J.e., £ B,q)) Plus aterm @x%, where @ is the angular velocity of the second frame with respect to the first. This relation- ship is stated in Eq. (2.12). (Since the designations reference frames and moving frames are arbitrarily assigned, we did not use them here. ‘The stated relationship is a mutual one; either frame may serve as the reference frame.) Now we may turn our attention to the problem originally posed: How can we extend our concepts of velocity and acceleration to noninertial reference frames? In Fig. 29, we consider a reference frame (X,Y, , Z,) and a second frame (X , ¥ , Z) tn motion with respect to it, The reference frame may or may not frame. Fig. 29 2-22, be an faertial Cr rokot me a 3-80-61-2 An observer stationed on the moving frame measures the velocity of a particle P with respect to his coordinate system. Let this velocity be denoted Vyqq + the velocity of the particle relative to the moving coordinate system. We now wish to find the velocity of the particle with respect to the reference frame. From Fig. 29, we have bet where p is the position vector of the origin of the moving frame, ¥ is the position vector of P measured in the moving frame, and ¥, is the position vector of P measured in the reference frame. Differentiating, we have We have seen in Eq. (2.12), however, that ‘axe ing) FOE where © is the angular velocity of the moving frame with respect to the reference frame. Thus, 6 eo ir e.1)f] Equation (2, 14) expresses the relationship between the velocity of a particle relative to a reference frame and the velocity of the particle relative to a second frame in motion with respect to the reference frame. 2-38, LOCKHEED MISSILES fp Spare caumeeny8-80-61-2 To determine an expression for the acceleration of the particle relative to the refer ence frame in terms of its acecleration relative to tho moving frame, we shall formally differentiate Eq. (2.14): =%, Yep FOX E+OXE From Eq. (2.12), we have OxXE and Yret = Bret + ® * Fee where 4,1 is the acceleration of the particle as measured by an observer stationed on the moving frame. Substitution of these values for F and Vee Yields 9 TP tig FOX EHD KT +o x (Dx H (2.15) We are particularly interested in the case where the reference frame is an inertial frame, for Bys. (2.14) and (2, 16) express the inertial velocity and acceleration of a particle, in terms of which, the equation of motion of the particle can be written ma, = ma PtOxE+WxV +Ox (OXF Femi, = mig tmip tox +25 xi) +5 x (Gx F)] mag ~ F-m[o+oxF +2 x¥ +0 x (Bx F)] (2.16) LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY ig ER fo ta3-80-61-2, An observer stationed on the moving frame measures the yelecity of a particle P_ with respect to his coordinate system. Let this velocity be denoted ¥,_., , the velocity of the particle relative to the moving coordinate system, We now wish to find the velocity of the particle with respect to the reference frame. From Fig. 29, we have where p is the position vector of the origin of the moving frame, ¥ is the position vector of P measured in the moving frame, and 7, is the position vector of P measured in the reference frame. Differentiating, we have de, We have seen in Eq. (2.12), however, that +OxE ‘rel * ? * where @ is the angular velocity of the moving frame with respect to the reference frame, Thus, @ raf] Equation (2.14) expresses the relationship between the velocity of a particle relative to a reference frame and the velocity of the particle relative to a second frame in motion with respect to the reference frame. 2-38,3-80-61-2 a To determine an expression for the acceleration of the partiele relative to the refer- ence frame in terms of its acceleration relative to the moving frame, we shall formally differentiate Eq. (2.14): + er x . er x ne From Eq. (2.12), we have rel and Yret ~ fret *® * Yyey where &,) is the acceleration of the particle as measured by an observer stationed on the moving frame. Substitution of these values for F and ¥,.1 yields pti XE+Ox (ig tO x 7) b+ ay HOKE +O XY +O x Gx F) (2.15) We are particularly interested in the case where the reference frame is an inertial frame, for Eqs. (2. 14) and (2. 15) express the inertial velocity and acceleration of a particle, in terms of which, the equation of motion of the particle can be written = ma 4Ox Vip tO x (OXF fo FMA tm [P+OxE + Ww x H+ x (Bx FD] rhea co “rel mp +OxE 4 wx EL +S x wx FD] (2.16) 2-84 LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY [a a] Sa cs oo3-80-G1-2 To an observer in the moving frame, the particle would appoar to be moving in accord ance with the equation of motion where F is the true force acting on the particle, and app is an apparent force also influencing the particle, and where Fom[p+OxF 4K Hy tO x (Gx F)) (2.17) app As an example of this apparent force, consider an inertial coordinate system fixed at the center of the earth (of course, since the earth is rotating around the sun, which is in turn in motion, the system is not truly inertial, but its motion has nogligible effect on the problem under consideration): An observer is making observations of particle motion in a reference frame fixed to the earth with origin at the center of the earth, and this noninertial frame is rotating with respect to the inertial frame with angular Further, assuming velocity @, . Since the origins of both frames coincide, p & to be constant in magnitude and direction, @, = 0. Equation (2. 16) thus reduces to mig = F- m (2% x %, ‘rel +x (@ xD) ol The apparent force - 2m x ¥,,.) is the Coriolis force, whose action is perpendicular to the relative velocity vector ¥,.). The apparent force -mw x (@xT) is the ifugal force whose action is outward from the earth's axis. ‘The equation of motion written in the noninertial system must include these two apparent forces in addition to the true force F. 2-35 LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY2-80-61-2 We have seen that, when we are interested in finding the metion of a particle with ro~ spect to a noninertial reference frame, the equation of metion can be written in two forms: 2-36 ‘app rel Here, the acceleration of the particle relative to the moving frame is obtained directly from solution of the equation of motion written in terms of the moving frame. It will be noted, however, that all the apparent forces appearing in (2. included as ¥, Eq. (2.17) must be included as Fy, F = mi, Here, the inertial acceleration of the particle is found directly from the true forces acting on the particle. Integration leads to the inertial velocity and inertial position of the particle at any instant of time. ‘The position of the particle relative to the moving frame at any instant can be found from the in- bed ertial position by means of a coordinate transformation of the type des: in Section 1, LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE COMPANY ca oo