1

These Learning
Outcomes
correspond
by number to
this chapters
modules and
indicate what
you should be
able to do after
completing
the chapter.

An Introduction to
Anatomy and Physiology
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SECTION 1

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Describe homeostasis and identify basic study skill strategies to use in this course.

Describe the universal characteristics of living things.

Define anatomy and physiology, and describe macroscopic and microscopic anatomy.

Explain the relationship between structure and function.

SECTION 2

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Describe the various levels of organization in the human body.

Describe various types of cells in the human body and explain the basic principles
of the cell theory.

Define histology and explain the interrelationships among the various types of
tissues.

Identify the 11 organ systems of the human body, and describe the major
functions of each.

Describe the major organs of the integumentary, skeletal, muscular,

and nervous systems and briefly describe their functions.

Describe the major organs of the endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic,

and respiratory systems and briefly describe their functions.

Describe the major organs of the digestive, urinary, and

reproductive systems and briefly describe their functions.

SECTION 3

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Describe the mechanisms of homeostatic regulation.

Discuss the roles of negative feedback and positive

feedback in maintaining homeostasis.

SECTION 4

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Learning Outcomes
are repeated at the
bottom of each
module.

Describe the history of anatomical terminology.

Use correct anatomical terms to describe superficial

and regional anatomy.

Use correct directional terms and sectional planes to

describe relative positions and relationships among
body parts.

Identify the major body cavities of the trunk and the

subdivisions of each.

Module .

Focused study is important for

learning anatomy and physiology
Human anatomy and physiology considers
how the human body performs the functions
that keep you alive and alert. You will learn
many interesting and important facts about
the human body as we proceed. However,
the approach you learn and the attitude you
develop will be at least as important as the
things you memorize. The basic approach in
A&P can be summed up as What is that
structure, and how does it work? The complexity of the answer depends on
the level of detail you need. In science, if we know what something does but
we dont know how, its usually called a Black Box. The more you learn, the
smaller (and more numerous) those Black Boxes become. That is, the more
you learn, the more you realize how much you dont know.

S E C T I O N 1
t

A&P in Perspective

Tips on How to Succeed

in Your A&P Course
t Approach the information in dierent
ways. For example, you might visualize
the information, talk it over with or teach
a fellow student, or spend additional
time in lab asking questions of your lab
instructor.
t Set up a study schedule and stick
to it.
t Devote a block of time each day to your
A&P course.
t Practice memorization. Memorization
is an important skill, and an integral part
of the course. You are going to have to
memorize all sorts of thingsamong
them muscle names, directional terms,
and the names of bones and brain parts.
Realize that this is an important study
skill, and that the more you practice, the
better you will be at remembering terms
and definitions. We will try to give you
handles and tricks along the way, to help
you keep the information in mind.
t Avoid shortcuts. Actually there are no
shortcuts. (Sorry.) You wont get the grade
you want if you dont put in the time and
do the work. This requires preparation
throughout the term.
t Attend all lectures, labs, and study
sessions. Ask questions and participate in
discussions.
t Read your lecture and lab assignments
before coming to class.
t Do not procrastinate! Do not do all
your studying the night before the exam!
Actually STUDY the material several times
throughout the week. Marathon study
sessions are often counterproductive.
There is no easy button; you must push
yourself.
t Seek assistance immediately if you
have a problem understanding the
material. Do not wait until the end of the
term, when it is too late to salvage your
grade.

We will devote considerable time to explaining how the body

responds to normal and abnormal conditions and maintains
homeostasis, a relatively constant internal environment. As we
proceed, you will see how your body's anatomy and physiology
work together to cope with injury, disease, or anything else that
threatens homeostasis.

. Describe homeostasis and identify basic study skill strategies to use in this course.

Module . Review
a. Identify several strategies for success in
this course.
b. Explain the purpose of the learning
outcomes.
c. What do scientists mean when they use
the term "Black Box?

Module .

Biology is the study of life

The world around us contains a variety of living
organisms with different appearances and lifestyles.
Despite this diversity, all living things perform the same
basic functions:
1. Living things respond to changes in their immediate
environmentPlants orient to the sun, you move your
hand away from a hot stove, and your dog barks at
passing strangers.
2. Organisms show adaptabilityTheir internal
operations and responses to stimulation can vary from
moment to moment.
3. Over time, organisms grow and develop, and
reproduceThis creates subsequent generations
of similar, but not identical, organisms.
4. Many organisms are capable of some degree of
movement. If that movement takes them from one
place to another, we call the process locomotion.
Responsiveness, adaptability, growth and development,
reproduction, and locomotion are active processes
that require energy. This energy must continually be
replaced as it is used. For animals, energy capture
typically involves oxygen absorption from the
atmosphere through respiration and the absorption of
various chemicals from the surrounding environment.
Each living organism also generates and discharges
waste products into the environment in the process of
excretion. These are the basic characteristics of living
things, both plant and animal.
For very small organisms, absorption, respiration, and
excretion involve simply transferring materials across
exposed surfaces. But for larger creatures like dogs,
cats, or human beings, this is not possible. For example,
human beings cannot absorb steaks or ice
cream without processing them first.
That processing, called digestion,
occurs in specialized areas where
complex foods are broken down
into simpler components that
can be easily absorbed. Finally,
because absorption, respiration,
and excretion are performed
in different portions of the
body, most animals have an
internal distribution system,
or circulation, that transports
materials from one place to
another.


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Characteristics of Living Organisms

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Responsiveness

Indicates that the organism

recognizes changes in its internal
or external environment

Required for adaptability

Adaptability

Changes the organism's behavior,

capabilities, or structure

Required for survival in a

constantly changing world

Growth and
development

Inherited patterns for growth (an

increase in size) and development
(changes in structure and
function) produce organisms
characteristic of their species

Growth and development

to maturity is controlled by
inherited instructions in the
form of DNA

Reproduction

Produces the next generation

Sexual reproduction between

two parents produces ospring
with varied characteristics

Movement and
locomotion

Distributes materials throughout

large organisms; changes
orientation or position of a plant
or immobile animal; moves
mobile animals around the
environment

Animals show locomotion at

some point in their lives

Respiration*

Usually refers to oxygen

absorption and utilization, and
carbon dioxide generation and
release

Oxygen is required for chemical

processes that release energy in
a usable form; carbon dioxide is
released as a waste product

Circulation*

Movement of fluid within the

organism; may involve a pump
and a network of special vessels

The circulation provides an

internal distribution network

Digestion*

The chemical breakdown of

complex materials for absorption
and use by the organism

The chemicals released can be

used to generate energy or to
support growth

Excretion*

The elimination of chemical

waste products generated by the
organism

The waste products are often

toxic, so their removal is
essential

* The mechanics of the process depend on the size and complexity of the organism.

In the next 26 chapters we will

consider the mechanics of each of
these vital processes. Although we
will examine the functions of the
human body, the basic concepts
have broad application in biology.

Module . Review
a. Define biology.
b. List the basic functions shared by all
living things.
c. Explain why most animals have
an internal circulation system that
transports materials from place to
place.

. Describe the universal characteristics of living things.

M01_MART8949_02_SE_CH01.indd 5

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Module .

Anatomy is the study of structure . . .

Anatomy, which means a cutting open, is the study of internal and external
structures of the body and the physical relationships among body parts. Here
is an overview of the anatomy of the heart, with the walls opened so that you
can see the complexity of its internal structure.
Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, involves the examination of
relatively large structures and features usually visible with the unaided eye.
This illustration of a dissected heart is an example of gross anatomy.
1

Pulmonary
trunk
Superior
vena cava
Ascending
aorta
Left
atrium
Right
atrium

Left
ventricle

Right
ventricle
Inferior
vena cava
Descending
aorta

All specific functions are performed by specific structures. The link

between structure and function is always present, but not always
understood. For example, although the anatomy of the heart was
clearly described in the 15th century, almost 200 years passed before
the hearts pumping action was demonstrated.

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Microscopic anatomy deals with

structures that cannot be seen
without magnification, and thus the
equipment used establishes the
boundaries of what can be seen. With a
dissecting microscope, you can see
tissue structure. With a light microscope, you can see basic details of cell
structure. With an electron microscope, you can see individual molecules
that are only a few nanometers (nm;
billionths of a meter) across.
2

Endocardium
(inner lining of heart)
Myocardium
(heart muscle)
Epicardium
(outer surface
of heart)

. . . and physiology is the study of function

Physiology is the study of function and how living organisms perform their vital functions.
These functions are complex and much more difficult to examine than most anatomical
structures. A physiologist looking at the heart focuses on its functional properties, such as the
timing and sequence of the heartbeat, and its effects on blood pressure in the major arteries.
The heartbeat is coordinated by electrical events within the heart muscle. Those electrical events
can be detected by monitoring electrodes placed on the body surface. A record of these electrical
events is called an electrocardiogram, or ECG.
3

Valve to
aorta closes

120
Valve to
aorta opens

Press
ure in
majo
r arte
ries

Pressure (mm Hg)

90

60
Pressure in
left ventricle

Pressure in
left atrium

30

Valve between atrium

and ventricle closes

Valve between atrium

and ventricle opens

0
0

200

400

600

800

Time (msec)

As the heart beats, pressure rises and falls within the major
arteries and the chambers of the heart. Blood pressure in the
major arteries must be maintained within normal limits to prevent
vessel damage (from high pressures) or vessel collapse (from low
pressures).
4

Module . Review
a. Define anatomy and physiology.
b. What are the dierences between gross
anatomy and microscopic anatomy?
c. Explain the link between anatomy and
physiology.

. Define anatomy and physiology, and describe macroscopic and microscopic anatomy.

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Module .

Structure and function are interrelated

Physiology and anatomy are closely interrelated both theoretically and
practically. Anatomical details are significant only because each has an effect
on function, and physiological mechanisms can be fully understood only in
terms of the underlying structural relationships.
This relationship is easily understood at the gross anatomical
level. You are well aware that your elbow joint functions like a
hinge. It lets your forearm move toward or away from your shoulder,
but it does not allow twisting at the joint. These functional limits are
imposed by the internal structure of the joint.
1

The elbow joint functions as a hinge

that permits movement only in one
plane.

Humerus
Radius
Ulna
The end of the humerus,
the upper arm bone, has
a cylindrical articulating
surface.

With this interlocking

arrangement, which is
stabilized by ligaments and
surrounding muscles, only
hinge-like movement is
permitted.

The end of the humerus fits into a broad,

deep depression near the end of the
ulna, the larger of the two bones of the
forearm. Note the corresponding ridges
and flanges that help hold the humerus
in position and prevent twisting.

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The relationship between

structure and function also
applies at the chemical level. Cells
throughout your body communicate with one another through the
use of chemical messengers, which
you will learn more about in later
chapters. The detection of and
response to these messengers
usually involves the attachment of
the chemical messenger released
by one cell to a receptor molecule
at another cell. That attachment
depends in large part on the
three-dimensional shapes of the
messenger and the receptor, and
how well they fit together.
2

Each chemical compound

has a specific size and threedimensional shape. Chemical
messengers come in a variety
of sizes and shapes. In general,
they are released by one cell to
affect other cells.

Plasma
membrane

Plasma
membrane

Receptor molecules can be on the

outer surface or inside the cell.
This figure shows that one
receptor extends across the
plasma membrane (boundary of
a cell). The plasma membrane is
also known as the cell membrane.

Chemical messengers are detected

when they attach, or bind, to a
receptor that has the proper shape.
Binding creates a new structure
messenger and receptorand the
entire complex often changes
shape as a result. This can change
the function of the receptor. In this
case, the messenger binding opens
a passageway through the receptor
molecule, permitting substances to
cross the plasma membrane.

Its important to realize that no mysterious forces are involved in the

workings of the body. Although our knowledge is incomplete, it is quite
clear that living systems are subject to the same laws of physics and
chemistry as buildings, oceans, and mountain ranges. In fact, many
advances in our understanding of the human body came only after
advances in one of the physical or applied sciences. For example, the
action and purpose of the heart valves remained a mystery until the
1600s, when pumps containing valves were developed to remove the
water from flooded coal mines. An English physician, William Harvey,
was then astute enough to demonstrate that those design principles
explained the function of the heart and the circulation of the blood.

. Explain the relationship between structure and function.

Module . Review
a. Describe how structure and function
are interrelated.
b. Compare the functioning of the elbow
joint with a door on a hinge.
c. Predict what would happen to the
function of a structure if its anatomy
were altered.

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For each of the following descriptions, write the appropriate characteristic of living things in the
corresponding blank.
1

Usually refers to the absorption and utilization of oxygen and the generation and release
of carbon dioxide

______________________________

Produces organisms characteristic of its species

______________________________

Changes in the behavior, capabilities, or structure of an organism

______________________________

Movement of fluid within the body; may involve a pump and a network of special vessels

______________________________

Elimination of chemical waste products generated by the body

______________________________

Chemical breakdown of complex structures for absorption and use by the body

______________________________

Transports materials around the body of a large organism; changes orientation or

position of a plant or immobile animal; moves mobile animals around the environment
(locomotion)

______________________________

Indicates that the organism recognizes changes in the internal or external environment

______________________________

Write each of the following terms

under the proper heading.
t
Right atrium
t
Myocardium
t
Valve to aorta opens
t
Left ventricle
t
Valve between left atrium and left ventricle closes
t
Pressure in left atrium
t
Electrocardiogram
t
Endocardium
t
Superior vena cava
t
Heartbeat

Anatomy

Physiology

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

4IPSU
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Briefly describe how the relationship of form and function of a house key and its front door lock are
both similar to and dierent from a chemical messenger and its receptor molecule.

____________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

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How might a large organisms survival be aected by an inadequate internal circulation network?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Module .

S E C T I O N 2
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Levels of Organization

The human body has multiple

interdependent levels of organization
The human body is complex, but the apparent complexity represents multiple
levels of organization. Each level is more complex than the underlying one,
but all can be broken down into similar chemical and cellular components.

Organism Level. An organismin this case, a humanis the

highest level of organization. All organ systems of an
organisms body work together to maintain life and health.

Organ System Level. (Chapters 527) Organs interact in

organ systems. Each time it contracts, the heart pumps and
pushes blood into a network of blood vessels. Together, the
heart, blood, and blood vessels form the cardiovascular
system, one of 11 organ systems in the body.

Organ Level. An organ consists of two or more tissues

working to perform several functions. Layers of heart muscle
tissue, in combination with connective tissue (another type
of tissue), form the bulk of the wall of the heart, a hollow
internal organ.

Tissue Level. (Chapter 4) A tissue is a group of cells and cell

products working together to perform one or more specific
functions. Heart muscle cells, or cardiac muscle cells (cardium,
heart), form cardiac muscle tissue.

Cellular Level. (Chapter 3) Cells are the smallest living units in

the body. Their functions depend on organelles, intracellular
structures composed of complex molecules. Each organelle has
a specific function; for example, one type provides the energy
that powers the contractions of muscle cells in the heart.

Chemical Level. (Chapter 2) Atoms, the smallest stable units

of matter, can combine to form molecules with complex
shapes. The functional properties of a particular molecule are
determined by its unique shape and atomic components.

Atoms in
combination

Complex protein
molecules

Protein
filaments

Module . Review
a. Define organ.
b. Name the lowest level of organization that includes the smallest
living units in the body.
c. List the levels of organization between cells and an organism.
. Describe the various levels of organization in the human body.

Module .

Cells are the smallest units of life

Free-living cells are the smallest living structures, with all of the characteristics described earlier
in the chapter. Most of the plants and animals you are familiar with are multicellular, consisting of
thousands to billions of cells. These cells do not exist as independent entities. They work together,
each with its own characteristics and functions. Cells are the living building blocks of our bodies.
There are literally trillions of cells in your body, but there are only an estimated 200 different types
of cells. Nevertheless, those 200 types show remarkable diversity in appearance and function.
The human body contains about 200 different cell types. The dimensions of cells are
usually given in terms of micrometers (m). One micrometer is one-millionth of a
meter, or approximately 1/25,000th of an inch. All the cells illustrated here are shown with
the dimensions they would have if they were magnified about 1500 times. The skeletal
muscle cells that give you the ability to move around are too large to illustrate here. At this
magnification a large skeletal muscle cell would have the diameter of a small dinner plate
and be over 300 m long.
1

Smooth muscle cells

Blood cells

Bone cells

Fat cells

Smooth muscle cells,

found in many organs,
are long and slender.

Blood cells are either

flattened discs (red blood
cells) or roughly spherical
(white blood cells). Red
blood cellsthe most
abundant cells in the
bodytransport oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the
bloodstream. White blood
cells are responsible for
fighting off infection and
combating disease.

Bone cells reside within small

cavities inside the mass of a
bone. These cells maintain
bone and recycle the calcium
and phosphate stored there.

Fat cells are spherical storage

containers. Whenever we take in
more energy than we expend, the
excess energy obtained from the
food gets stored as fat, and these
cells get larger and more numerous.

The importance of cells is apparent in the cell theory,

one of the foundations of modern biology. The basic
principles of the cell theory are as follows:

Basic Principles of the Cell Theory

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Cells lining the digestive tract

Cells lining the digestive tract are relatively
delicate. These cells absorb the nutrients,
vitamins, minerals, and water we need.

Oocyte

Sperm

Reproductive cells (sex cells)

Nerve cells (neurons)

Cells involved in sexual reproduction are

called sex cells. Women produce relatively
large oocytes in very small numbers, usually
at monthly intervals. Males continuously
produce relatively tiny sperm in enormous
numbers.

Nerve cells, or neurons, are the equivalent of computer chipsthey process

information. Thought, memory, consciousness, and muscle control are all
based on the actions of, and interactions among, neurons. There are many
different types and shapes of neurons. This is a neuron from a part of the
brain involved with the control of balance and movement. The extensive
branching provides a huge surface area for communicating with other
neurons.

The cells of the body work together, and our lives ultimately depend on
their actions. If they dont do the right thing at the right time, were in
trouble. If our cells cant survive, were doomed. Yet each individual cell
remains unaware of its role in the big pictureit simply responds
and adapts to changes in its local environment. How the responses of
cells in different parts of the body are coordinated and controlled is
obviously a key question, and we will spend considerable time in later
chapters considering the answers.

Module . Review
a. Name and define the unit used to
measure cell size.
b. List the three basic principles of the cell
theory.
c. Relate the functions of a fat cell and a
neuron to their shapes.

. Describe various types of cells in the human body and explain the basic principles of the cell theory.

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Module .

Tissues are specialized groups

of cells and cell products
The roughly 200 different cell types in the body combine to form tissues,
collections of cells and cell products that perform specific functions. Histology
(histos, tissue) is the study of tissues. This module introduces the four primary
tissue types that, in various combinations, form the tissues of the body:
epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and
neural tissue.
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EPITHELIAL TISSUE

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

The most common type of epithelial

(ep-i-TH-l-ul) tissue is a layer of cells
that forms a barrier with specific properties.
Epithelia cover every exposed body surface; line
the digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and
urinary tracts; surround internal cavities such as
the chest cavity or the fluid-filled chambers in
the brain, eye, and inner ear; and line the inner
surfaces of the blood vessels and heart.
1

MUSCLE TISSUE

NEURAL TISSUE

Connective tissue is quite diverse in appearance. All

forms of connective tissue contain cells and an extracellular matrix that consists of protein fibers and a liquid known
as the ground substance. The amount and consistency of the
matrix depend on the particular type of connective tissue.
In blood, the cells are suspended in a watery matrix called
plasma. Bone has a more durable matrix, with crystals of
calcium salts organized around a fibrous framework, and
very little ground substance.
2

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

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Muscle tissue is unique because individual muscle

cells can contract forcefully. Major functions of
muscle tissue include skeletal movement, soft tissue
support, maintenance of blood flow, movement of materials
along internal passageways, and the stabilization of normal
body temperature. There are three different types of muscle
tissue.
3

MUSCLE TISSUE
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Neural tissue is specialized to carry information or

instructions from one place in the body to another.
Two basic types of cells are present: nerve cells, or neurons
(NOO-rons; neuro, nerve), and supporting cells, or neuroglia (noo-RG-l-uh; glia, glue). Neurons transmit information in the form of electrical impulses. Neuroglia isolate and
protect neurons while forming a supporting framework.
The neural tissue in the body can be divided on anatomical
grounds into the central nervous system, which consists
of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous
system, which includes the nerves connecting the central
nervous system with other tissues and organs.
4

NEURAL TISSUE
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. Define histology and explain the interrelationships among the various types of tissues.

M01_MART8949_02_SE_CH01.indd 15

a. Define histology.
b. Identify the four primary tissue types.
c. Explain the functions of each of the
primary tissue types.


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Module .

Organs and organ systems perform vital functions

An organ is a functional unit composed of more than one tissue type. The
particular combination and organization of tissues within an organ both
determines and limits the organs functions. For example, an organ with a flattened
shape can provide protection (like a sheet of cardboard on a table surface), and an
organ with a three-dimensional shape can house additional structures (like a
cardboard box and its contents). An organ system consists of organs that interact to
perform a specific range of functions, often in a coordinated fashion.
1

The heart, for example, is an organ

that contains cardiac muscle
tissue, epithelial tissue, connective
tissues, and neural tissue. The
interconnections between cardiac
muscle cells ensure that the
contractions are coordinated,
producing a heartbeat; the neural
tissue adjusts the heart rate. When
the heart beats, the internal
anatomy of the heart, largely
composed of cardiac muscle tissue
and connective tissue, allows it to
function as a pump.

Organism
level

Organ
level

Cardiovascular System

Endocrine
Nervous
Muscular
Organ system
level

Skeletal

Integumentary

The cardiovascular system includes the

heart, blood vessels, and circulating
blood. This system distributes oxygen,
nutrients, water, and heat throughout
the body, and transports waste
products to sites where they can be
excreted.

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Major Functions

Organ Systems
The table at right lists the 11 organ systems in
the human body. Although this categorization is
a convenient way to organize information, the concept
of separate organ systems is artificial and somewhat
misleading. Nothing in the body functions in
isolationnot cells, not tissues, not organs, and
certainly not organ systems. Organs and organ systems
are interdependent, and something that affects one
organ will affect the functioning of the body as a
whole. For example, the heart cannot pump blood
effectively after massive blood loss. If the heart cannot
pump and blood cannot flow, oxygen and nutrients
cannot be distributed. Very soon, cardiac muscle tissue
begins to break down as individual muscle cells die
from oxygen and nutrient starvation. These changes
will not be restricted to the cardiovascular system. All
cells, tissues, and organs in the body will be damaged,
with potentially fatal results.
2

Integumentary
system

Protects against environmental hazards;

helps control body temperature

Skeletal
system

Provides support; protects tissues;

stores minerals; forms blood cells

Muscular
system

Produces movement; provides support;

generates heat

Nervous
system

Directs immediate responses to stimuli,

usually by coordinating the activities of
other organ systems

Endocrine
system

Cardiovascular
system

Transports cells and dissolved materials,

including nutrients, wastes, and gases

Lymphatic
system

Defends against infection and disease;

returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream

Respiratory
system

Delivers air to sites where gas exchange

occurs between the air and circulating
blood; produces sound

Digestive
system
Lymphatic

Directs long-term changes in other

organ systems

Processes food and absorbs nutrients

Urinary
system

Eliminates excess water, salts, and

wastes; controls pH

Reproductive
system

Produces sex cells and hormones;

supports embryonic development
from fertilization to birth (female)

Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive

Module . Review
a. List the 11 organ systems of the body.
b. Explain the relationship between
the skeletal system and the digestive
system.
c. Using the table as a reference, describe
how falling down a flight of stairs could
aect at least six of the organ systems.

. Identify the 11 organ systems of the human body, and describe the major functions of each.

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Module .

Organs of the integumentary, skeletal, and

muscular systems support and move the body
Integumentary System

Skeletal System

Protects against environmental hazards;

helps control body
temperature

Provides support; protects tissues;

stores minerals; forms blood cells
Hair

Axial Skeleton

Skull
Epidermis and
associated
glands

Appendicular Skeleton

Supporting
bones

Sternum
Ribs

Upper limb
bones

Vertebrae
Sacrum

Nails

Supporting bones

Lower limb
bones

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Cutaneous Membrane
Epidermis

Covers surface; protects deeper tissues

Bones, Cartilages,
and Joints

Support, protect soft tissues; bones store

minerals

Dermis
Hair Follicles

Nourishes epidermis; provides strength;

contains glands
Produce hair; innervation provides
sensation

Hairs

Provide protection for head

Sebaceous glands

Secrete lipid coating that lubricates hair

shaft and epidermis

Sweat Glands

Produce perspiration for evaporative cooling

Nails

Protect and stiffen distal tips of digits

Sensory Receptors

Provide sensations of touch, pressure,

temperature, pain

Hypodermis

Stores lipids; attaches skin to deeper

structures

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Axial skeleton (skull,

vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx,
sternum, supporting
cartilages and ligaments)

Protects brain, spinal cord, sense organs,

and soft tissues of thoracic cavity;
supports the body weight over lower
limbs

Appendicular skeleton:
limbs and supporting
bones and ligaments

Provides internal support and positioning

of the limbs; supports and moves axial
skeleton

Bone Marrow

Primary site of blood cell production (red

marrow); stores of energy in fat cells
(yellow marrow)

 and organs of the nervous system

provide rapid control and regulation
Muscular System

Nervous System

Produces movement; provides

support; generates heat

Directs immediate
responses to stimuli,
usually by coordinating
the activities of other
organ systems

Central Nervous System

Brain
Spinal cord

Peripheral
nerves
Appendicular
muscles

Axial
muscles

Tendons

Peripheral Nervous System

Organ/Structure

Primary Functions

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Skeletal Muscles

Provide skeletal movement; control

entrances to digestive and respiratory
tracts and exits from digestive and
urinary tracts; produce heat; support
skeleton; protect soft tissues

Central Nervous System

(CNS)

Acts as control center for nervous system;

processes information; provides short-term
control over activities of other systems

Axial muscles

Support and position axial skeleton

Appendicular muscles

Support, move, and brace limbs

Tendons, Aponeuroses

Use forces of contraction to perform

specific tasks

Brain

Performs complex integrative functions;

controls both voluntary and involuntary
activities

Spinal cord

Relays information to and from brain; performs

less-complex integrative activities

Special senses

Provide sensory input to the brain relating to

sight, hearing, smell, taste, and equilibrium

Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)

Links CNS with other systems and with sense

organs

Module . Review
a. Identify the major organs of the integumentary,
skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems.
b. Explain the functions of each of these systems.
c. How would a nervous system disorder aect the
muscular system?
. Describe the major organs of the integumentary, skeletal,
muscular, and nervous systems and briefly describe their functions.

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Module .

Organs of the endocrine system secrete chemicals that are

carried by organs of the cardiovascular system
Endocrine System

Cardiovascular System

Directs long-term changes in

other organ systems

Transports cells and dissolved

materials, including
nutrients, wastes,
and gases

Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Parathyroid gland

Thyroid gland

Thymus
Heart
Adrenal gland

Pancreas
Capillaries
Artery
Vein

Testis in male

Ovary in
female

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Pineal Gland

May control timing of reproduction and set

day-night rhythms

Heart

Propels blood; maintains blood pressure

Pituitary Gland

Controls other endocrine glands; regulates

growth and fluid balance

Thyroid Gland

Controls tissue metabolic rate; regulates

calcium levels

Blood Vessels
Arteries
Capillaries

Distribute blood around the body

Carry blood from the heart to capillaries
Permit diffusion between blood and
interstitial fluids

Parathyroid Glands

Regulate calcium levels (with thyroid gland)

Thymus

Controls maturation of lymphocytes

Adrenal Glands

Adjust water balance, tissue metabolism,

cardiovascular and respiratory activity

Kidneys

Control red blood cell production, elevate blood

pressure, and assist in calcium homeostasis

Pancreas

Regulates blood glucose levels

Gonads
Testes
Ovaries

Support male sexual characteristics and

reproductive functions (Module 1.11)
Support female sexual characteristics and
reproductive functions (Module 1.11)

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Veins
Blood

Return blood from capillaries to the heart

Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
blood cells; delivers nutrients and
hormones; removes wastes; assists in
temperature regulation and defense
against disease

 organs of the lymphatic system defend the body, and

organs of the respiratory system exchange vital gases
Lymphatic System

Respiratory System

Defends against infection and

disease; returns tissue fluid
to the bloodstream

Delivers air to sites where

gas exchange occurs
between the air and
circulating blood;
produces sound

Nasal cavity
Sinus

Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea
Thymus

Lymph nodes

Bronchi

Lung
Diaphragm

Spleen

Lymphatic
vessel

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Lymphatic Vessels

Carry lymph (water and proteins) and

lymphocytes from peripheral tissues to
veins of the cardiovascular system

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Nasal Cavities and

Paranasal Sinuses

Filter, warm, humidify air; detect smells

Pharynx

Conducts air to larynx; a chamber shared with

the digestive tract

Larynx

Protects opening to trachea and contains

vocal cords

Lymph Nodes

Monitor the composition of lymph; engulf

pathogens; stimulate immune response

Spleen

Monitors circulating blood; engulfs

pathogens and recycles red blood cells;
stimulates immune response

Trachea

Filters air; cartilages keep airway open

Bronchi

Conducts air between trachea and lungs

Controls development and maintenance

of one class of lymphocytes (T cells)

Lungs

Responsible for air movement; alveoli within

the lungs are sites of gas exchange between
air and blood

Thymus

Module . Review
a. Identify the major organs of the endocrine,
cardiovascular, lymphatic, and respiratory systems.
b. Explain the functions of each of these systems.
c. How would a lymphatic system disease aect the
cardiovascular system?
. Describe the major organs of the endocrine, cardiovascular,
lymphatic, and respiratory systems and briefly describe their functions.

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Module .

Organs of the digestive system make nutrients

available and with the urinary system excrete wastes
Digestive System

Urinary System

Processes food and absorbs

nutrients

Eliminates excess water,

salts, and wastes

Oral cavity
Pharynx

Salivary gland

Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder

Kidney

Stomach

Pancreas
Small intestine

Ureter

Urinary
bladder

Large intestine

Urethra
Anus

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Oral Cavity (Mouth)

Cavity for food; works with associated

structures (teeth, tongue) to break up food
and pass food and liquids to pharynx

Kidneys

Form and concentrate urine; regulate blood

pH and ion concentrations; perform
endocrine functions

Salivary Glands

Provide buffers and lubrication; produce

enzymes that begin digestion

Ureters

Conduct urine from kidneys to urinary

bladder

Pharynx

Conducts solid food and liquids to esophagus;

chamber shared with respiratory tract

Urinary Bladder

Stores urine for eventual elimination

Esophagus

Delivers food to stomach

Stomach

Secretes acids, enzymes, and hormones

Urethra

Conducts urine to exterior

Small Intestine

Secretes digestive enzymes, buffers, and

hormones; absorbs nutrients

Liver

Secretes bile; regulates nutrient composition

of blood

Gallbladder

Stores and concentrates bile for release into

small intestine

Pancreas

Secretes digestive enzymes and buffers;

contains endocrine cells

Large Intestine

Removes water from feces; stores wastes

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 and organs of the male and female reproductive

systems provide for the continuity of life
Female Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Produces sex cells and hormones;

supports embryonic
development from
fertilization to birth

Produces sex cells

and hormones

Mammary
gland
Uterine tube

Prostate gland
Seminal gland
Ductus deferens

Ovary

Urethra

Uterus
Vagina

Epididymis

External
genitalia

Testis
Penis
Scrotum

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Organ/Structure

Primary Function

Ovaries

Produce oocytes and hormones

Testes

Produce sperm and hormones

Uterine Tubes

Deliver oocyte or embryo to uterus;

normal site of fertilization

Uterus

Site of embryonic development and

exchange between maternal and fetal
bloodstreams; sheds lining during
menstruation

Accessory Organs
Epididymis
Ductus deferens
Seminal glands
Prostate gland
Urethra

Acts as site of sperm maturation in each testis

Conducts sperm from the epididymis
Secrete fluid that contributes to semen
Secretes fluid and enzymes
Conducts semen to exterior

Vagina

Site of sperm deposition; acts as a

birth canal during delivery; provides
passageway for fluids during
menstruation

External Genitalia
Penis

Deposits sperm in vagina of female

External Genitalia
Clitoris

Labia
Mammary Glands

Contains erectile tissue; provides

pleasurable sensations during sexual
activities
Contain glands that lubricate
entrance to vagina
Produce milk that nourishes newborn
infant

. Describe the major organs of the digestive, urinary, and

reproductive systems and briefly describe their functions.

Scrotum

Surrounds the testes and controls their

temperature

Module . Review
a. Identify the major organs of the digestive, urinary,
and reproductive systems.
b. Explain the functions of each of these systems.
c. How would a reproductive system disorder aect
the urinary system?


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to fill in the blank boxes to correctly
complete the map.
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Extracellular
materials and fluids
combine
to form

combine
to form

Tissues

interact in

11

16

covers

contains

contracts
to produce

consists of

17

Cells

12

and produces

Neurons

consists of
of

10

13

14

15

7PDBCVMBSZ
Reorder the levels of organization listed below into the
correct sequence from simplest to most complex.
t
organ system
t
tissue
t
organism

t
organ
t
chemical
t
cellular

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

4IPSU
BOTXFS
Summarize the major functions of each of the following organ systems.

Integumentary

_______________________________

25

Lymphatic

_______________________________

Skeletal

26

Respiratory

Muscular

_______________________________
_______________________________

27

Digestive

_______________________________
_______________________________

28

Urinary

29

Reproductive

Nervous

Endocrine

_______________________________
_______________________________

Cardiovascular

_______________________________

_______________________________
_______________________________

4FDUJPO
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For five dierent organ systems in the human body, identify a specialized cell type found in that system.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Module .

S E C T I O N 3
t
Homeostasis

Homeostatic regulation relies on a

receptor, a control center, and an eector
Homeostasis (h-m--ST-sis; homeo, unchanging + stasis, standing) is the presence
of a stable internal environment. Maintaining homeostasis is absolutely vital to an
organisms survival. Failure to maintain homeostasis soon leads to illness or even
death. The principle of homeostasis is the central theme of this text and the foundation
of all modern physiology. Homeostatic regulation is the adjustment of physiological
systems to preserve homeostasis in environments that are often inconsistent,
unpredictable, and potentially dangerous. An understanding of homeostatic regulation
is crucial to making accurate predictions about the bodys responses to both normal
and abnormal conditions.

HOMEOSTASIS
Normal
condition
restored

Normal
condition
disturbed

Normal room
temperature
RESPONSE:
Room temperature
drops

STIMULUS:
Room temperature
rises
1

EFFECTOR
Air conditioner
turns on

RECEPTOR

Sends
commands
to

20

30

40

Air
conditioner
turns off

Set point

22

Normal range
Time

Homeostatic control is not

preciseit maintains a normal range
rather than an absolute value. The same is
true for controlling room temperaturea
house may have the thermostat on one
wall of one room, and the air conditioning
outlets at multiple locations. Over time,
the temperature in the house will oscillate
around the set point.
2

Thermometer

CONTROL CENTER
(Thermostat)

Room temperature (C)

Air
conditioner
turns on

Information
affects

(C)

Maintaining a relatively constant temperature in your living space is a

familiar example of homeostasis. Like all homeostatic regulatory
mechanisms, it consists of (1) a receptor or sensorin this case, a
thermometerthat is sensitive to a particular environmental change, or
stimulus; (2) a control center or integration centerin this case, a
thermostatwhich receives and processes the information supplied by the
receptor, and which sends out commands; and (3) an effectorin this case,
an air conditionerwhich responds to these commands by opposing the
stimulus. The net effect is that any variation outside normal limits triggers a
response that restores normal conditions.

The setting on a thermostat establishes

the set point, or desired value, which
in this case is the temperature you
select. (In our example, the set point is
22C, or about 72F.) The function of the
thermostat is to keep room temperature
within acceptable limits, usually within a
degree or so of the set point.

. Describe the mechanisms of homeostatic regulation.

Module . Review
a. Define homeostasis.
b. Why is homeostatic regulation important
to an organism?
c. Describe the three parts necessary for
homeostatic regulation.

Module .

Negative feedback provides stability . . .

Feedback occurs when receptor stimulation triggers a response that changes
the environment at the receptor. In the case of temperature control by a thermostat, temperature variation outside the desired range triggers an automatic
response that corrects the situation. This method of homeostatic regulation is
called negative feedback, because an effector activated by the control center
opposes, or negates, the original stimulus. Negative feedback thus tends to
minimize change, keeping variation in key body systems
within limits compatible with our long-term
survival.
HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis
restored
3

At normal body temperature

(set point: 37C or 98.6F), the
temperature control center is
relatively inactive; superficial
blood flow and sweat gland
activity are at normal
levels.

EFFECTORS
Increased activity in the control
center targets two effectors: (1)
smooth muscle in the walls of
blood vessels supplying the skin
and (2) sweat glands. The smooth
muscle relaxes and the blood
vessels dilate, increasing blood
flow through vessels near the
body surface; the sweat glands
accelerate their secretion. The
skin then acts like a radiator by
losing heat to the environment,
and the evaporation of sweat
speeds the process.

Start
Homeostasis
disturbed
1

If body temperature rises above

37.2 C (99F), two sets of
temperature receptors are
stimulated. Located in the skin
and the brain, they send signals
to the homeostatic control
center.

Homeostasis and body temperature

2

RECEPTORS

CONTROL CENTER
The temperature control center
receives information from
the two sets of temperature
receptors and sends commands
to the effectors.

In this graph of body temperature

over time in a warm environment,
note that body temperature declines past
the set point as the sweat already secreted
continues to evaporate.
2

Negative feedback is the primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation,

and it provides long-term control over the bodys internal conditions and
systems. Homeostatic mechanisms using negative feedback normally ignore
minor variations, and they maintain a normal range rather than a fixed value.
The regulatory process itself is dynamic, because the set point may vary with
changing environments or differing activity levels. For example, when you are
asleep, your thermoregulatory set point is lower, whereas when you work
outside on a hot day (or when you have a fever), it is higher. Thus, body
temperature can vary from moment to moment or from day to day for any
individual, due to either small oscillations around the set point or changes in
the set point. Comparable variations occur in all other aspects of physiology.

Vessels
dilate,
sweating
increases

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Body temperature (C)

Vessels
constrict,
sweating
decreases

37.2
37
36.7

Normal
range

Time

. . . and positive feedback

accelerates a process to completion
In positive feedback, an initial stimulus produces a response that exaggerates
or enhances the change in the original conditions, rather than opposing it. You
seldom encounter positive feedback in your daily life, simply because it tends to
produce extreme responses. For example, suppose that the thermostat in your
house was accidentally connected to a heater rather than to an air conditioner.
Now, when room temperature exceeds the set point, the thermostat turns on
the heater, causing a further rise in room temperature. Room temperature will
continue to increase until someone switches off the thermostat, turns off the
heater, or intervenes in some other way. This kind of escalating
cycle is often called a positive feedback loop.
A break in a
blood vessel
wall causes
bleeding

Clotting
accelerates

Positive
feedback
loop

Chemicals

Damage to cells in the

blood vessel wall releases
chemicals that begin the
process of blood clotting.

The chemicals start chain

reactions in which cells,
cell fragments, and soluble
proteins in the blood begin
to form a clot.

Chemicals

Blood clot

As clotting continues, each

step releases chemicals that
further accelerate the
process.

This escalating process

is a positive feedback
loop that ends with the
formation of a blood clot,
which patches the vessel
wall and stops the bleeding.

In the body, positive feedback loops are

typically found when a potentially dangerous
or stressful process must be completed quickly
before homeostasis can be restored. For example,
the immediate danger from a severe cut is blood
loss, which can lower blood pressure and reduce
the hearts efficiency.
3

Module . Review
a. Provide an example of negative feedback
homeostatic regulation in the body.
b. Explain the function of negative feedback
systems.
c. Why is positive feedback helpful in blood
clotting but unsuitable for regulating
body temperature?

. Discuss the roles of negative feedback and positive feedback in maintaining homeostasis.

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Write the term for each of the following descriptions in the space provided.
Mechanism that increases a deviation from normal limits after an initial stimulus

_________________________________

Adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis

_________________________________

The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment

_________________________________

Homeostatic regulatory component that detects changes

_________________________________

Corrective mechanism that opposes or cancels a variation from normal limits

_________________________________

Indicate whether each of the following processes represents negative feedback or positive feedback.

A rise in the level of calcium dissolved in the blood stimulates the release of a hormone
that causes bone cells to deposit more of the calcium in bone.

_________________________________

Labor contractions become increasingly forceful during childbirth.

_________________________________

An increase in blood pressure triggers a nervous system response that results in

lowering the blood pressure.

_________________________________

Blood vessel cells damaged by a break in the vessel release chemicals that accelerate
the blood clotting process.

_________________________________

4IPSU
BOTXFS
Assuming a normal body temperature range of 36.737.2C (9899F), identify from the graph below what would happen if there were an increase or
decrease in body temperature beyond the normal limits. Use the following descriptive terms to explain what would happen at (10) and (11) on the graph.
t
body surface cools
t
shivering occurs
t
sweating increases

37.8C/100F

10

36.737.2C/9899F

Normal range

36.1C/97F

11

t
temperature declines
t
body heat is conserved
t
blood flow to skin increases

t
blood flow to skin decreases

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

t
temperature rises

___________________________________

___________________________________

4FDUJPO
JOUFHSBUJPO
It is a warm day and you feel a little chilled. On checking your temperature, you find that your body temperature is 1.5 degrees below normal. Suggest
some possible reasons for this situation.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Module .

S E C T I O N 4
t
Anatomical Terms

Anatomical terms have a

long and varied history
Early anatomists created maps of the human body, and we still
rely on maps for orientation. The landmarks are prominent
anatomical structures; distances are measured in centimeters
or inches; and we use specialized directional terms. In effect,
anatomy uses a special language that must be learned almost
at the start. Many terms are based on Latin or Greek words
used by ancient anatomists. However, Latin and Greek
terms are not the only ones that have been imported into the
anatomical vocabulary over the centuries, and the vocabulary
continues to expand. Many anatomical structures and clinical
conditions were initially named after either the discoverer or,
in the case of diseases, the most famous victim. Most of these
commemorative names, or eponyms, have been replaced by
more precise terms, but a few persist.
1

The table below lists some eponyms you may already know,
along with their equivalent anatomical or medical terms.

Eponym

Equivalent Term

Achilles tendon

Calcaneal tendon

Broca's area

Speech center

Eustachian tube

Auditory tube

Krebs cycle

Citric acid cycle

The study of human anatomy by medical professionals in a

university setting can be traced back to Medieval Europe.
Founded in 1088, the University of Bologna in Italy is
considered to be the first university in the modern sense.
2 Frontispiece to John of Kethams Fasciculus
Medicinae, 1493 showing Mondino dei Liuzzi, the
The most famous anatomist at Bologna was Mondino dei
Liuzzi, who joined the faculty in 1306. He wrote the Anatomia, lofty figure adorned with the ornate collar, presiding over
a dissection.
which is perhaps the first anatomy text for university students.
Mondino was so revered, that images of him presiding over dissections were included in other anatomy texts for many years.
Anatomy as a science was dramatically improved during
the Renaissance at the University of Padua. Established in 1222
in Italys Venetian Republic, Paduas most famous anatomist was
Andreas Vesalius, who conducted frequent, detailed dissections.
The result was a visually beautiful and amazingly accurate
Module . Review
anatomical text titled De Humani Corporis Fabrica. Published
in 1543, this text corrected the mistakes of previous anatomists
a. Which languages are the source of many
modern anatomical terms?
and served as an early model for modern anatomy education.
As you begin your anatomy studies, consider yourself
b. Define the word eponym.
as the latest generation of college and university anatomy
c. In what country was anatomy established
students. You are studying an area of science that is centuries
as a discipline studied by medical
professionals?
old and rich with history.
. Describe the history of anatomical terminology.

M01_MART8949_02_SE_CH01.indd 29

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Module .

Superficial anatomy and regional anatomy

indicate locations on or in the body
This illustration shows the body in the
anatomical position. In this position, the
hands are at the sides with the palms facing
forward, and the feet are together. Unless otherwise noted, all descriptions in this text refer to the
body in the anatomical position. A person lying
down in the anatomical position is said to be
supine (soo-PN) when face up, and prone when
face down.

Frontal or
forehead

Nasal or nose
Ocular, orbital
or eye

Cephalic or head

Cranial
or skull

Otic or ear
Buccal or cheek

Facial
or face

Cervical or neck

Oral or mouth
Mental or chin

Thoracic
or thorax,
chest
Mammary
or breast

Axillary or armpit
Brachial or arm

Abdominal Trunk
(abdomen)

Antecubital
or front of elbow

Umbilical
or navel

Antebrachial
or forearm

Why is it important to learn these

terms? We need common anatomical
terms to communicate effectively in a
medical setting. For example, stating that a
patient has a bump on the back does not
give very precise information about its
location. So, anatomists created maps of
the body, naming superficial anatomical
structures and identifying regional
landmarks to help locate the exact point of
that bump on the back.
2

Pelvic
(pelvis)

Carpal or wrist
Palmar
or palm

Manual
or hand

Pollex or
thumb

Inguinal or groin

Digits (phalanges)
or fingers (digital
or phalangeal)

Pubic (pubis)

Patellar or kneecap

Femoral or thigh

Crural or leg
Tarsal or ankle

Digits (phalanges)
or toes (digital or
phalangeal)

Pedal or foot

Hallux or great toe

Body regions:
Anterior view

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Clinicians refer to
four abdominopelvic quadrants formed by
a pair of imaginary
perpendicular lines that
intersect at the umbilicus
(navel). This simple
method provides useful
references for the
description of aches,
pains, and injuries. The
location can help physicians determine the
possible cause.

Quadrants

Anatomists prefer
more precise terms
to describe the location
and orientation of
internal organs. Anatomists use nine abdominopelvic regions.

Regions

Cephalic
or head
Acromial or
shoulder

Cervical
or neck

Dorsal or
back

Olecranal
or back
of elbow

Upper
limb

Lumbar
or loin

The image at the

lower right shows
the relationships among
quadrants, regions,
and internal organs.
5

Right
Upper
Quadrant
(RUQ)
Right Lower
Quadrant
(RLQ)

Left
Upper
Quadrant
(LUQ)
Left Lower
Quadrant
(LLQ)

Right
hypochondriac
region

Epigastric
region

Left
hypochondriac
region

Right lumbar
region

Umbilical
region

Left lumbar
region

Right inguinal Hypogastric Left inguinal

region
(pubic)
region
region

Internal
organs

Stomach
Liver
Spleen

Gluteal
or buttock

Gallbladder
Large intestine

Popliteal or
back of knee

Lower
limb

Small intestine
Appendix
Urinary bladder

Sural or calf

Module . Review
a. Describe a person in the anatomical position.

Calcaneal or
heel of foot

b. Contrast the descriptions used by clinicians

and anatomists when referring to the positions
of injuries or internal organs of the abdomen
and pelvis.

Plantar or
sole of foot
Body regions:
Posterior view
. Use correct anatomical terms to describe superficial and regional anatomy.

c. A massage therapist often begins a massage

by asking clients to lie face down with their
arms at their sides. Which anatomical term
describes that position?


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Module .

Directional terms and sectional planes

describe specific points of reference
The figures on this page introduce the principal directional terms and examples of
their use. There are many different terms, and some can be used interchangeably. As
you learn these directional terms, it is important to remember that all anatomical directions utilize the anatomical position as the standard point of reference.
1

Superior
Above; at a higher level
(in the human body,
toward the head)
The head is superior to
the knee.

Lateral
Away
from the
midline

Cranial or Cephalic
Toward the head
The cranial, or cephalic, border of
the pelvis is superior to the thigh.
Proximal
Toward an
attached base
The shoulder is
proximal to the
wrist.

Posterior or Dorsal
Posterior: The back
surface
Dorsal: The back
The scapula (shoulder
blade) is located
posterior
to the rib cage.

Medial
Toward the
midline

Anterior or Ventral
Anterior: The front
surface
Ventral: The belly side
The umbilicus (navel)
is on the
anterior (or ventral)
surface of the trunk.

Proximal

Right

Left

Distal
Away from an
attached base
The fingers are
distal to the wrist.

Caudal
Toward the tail;
(coccyx)
The hips are
caudal to the
waist.

OTHER DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Distal

Superficial
At, near, or relatively close
to the body surface
The skin is superficial to
underlying structures.
Deep

Inferior
Below; at a lower
level; toward the
feet
The knee is inferior
to the hip.

Toward the interior of the body;

Anterior view

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farther from the surface

The bone of the thigh is deep to
the surrounding skeletal muscles.

Lateral view

A presentation in sectional view is

sometimes the only way to illustrate
the relationships between the parts of a
three-dimensional object. The development
of medical imaging techniques has made it
even more important to understand
sectional planes and terms.
2

Sagittal plane
Plane is oriented parallel to
long axis

Frontal, or
coronal, plane
Plane is oriented
parallel to long axis
A frontal, or
coronal, section
separates anterior
and posterior
portions of the
body. Coronal
usually refers to
sections passing
through the skull.

Midsagittal plane

A sagittal section
separates right and left
portions. You examine a
sagittal section, but you
section sagittally.
In a midsagittal section,
the plane passes through
the midline. It separates
the body into equal right
and left sides.
A parasagittal section
misses the midline. It
separates the body into
unequal right and left
sides.
Directional term: sagittally

Transverse, or
horizontal, plane

Directional term:
frontally or
coronally

Plane is oriented
perpendicular to long axis

Transverse plane
(inferior view)
Frontal plane

A transverse, or horizontal,
section separates superior
and inferior portions of the
body. A cut in this plane is
also called a cross section.
Directional term:
transversely or horizontally

Sectional planes are used for visualization

purposes. Here, we are serially sectioning
a bent tube, which looks like a piece of elbow
macaroni. Notice how the sectional views
change as you approach the curve. Keep in
mind these effects of sectioning when you are
looking at slides under the microscope. These
sectional views also affect the appearance of
internal organs when seen in a CT or
MRI scan. For example, the small
intestine is a simple tube, but it
can look like a pair of tubes, a
dumbbell, an oval, or a solid,
depending on where the
section was taken.
3

Module . Review
a. What is the purpose of directional and
sectional terms?
b. In the anatomical position, describe an
anterior view and a posterior view.
c. What type of section would separate
the two eyes?

. Use correct directional terms and sectional planes to

describe relative positions and relationships among body parts.

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Module .

Body cavities protect internal organs

and allow them to change shape
The interior of the trunk of the body is often subdivided into regions established by the body
wall. For example, everything deep to the chest wall is considered to be within the thoracic
cavity, and all of the structures deep to the abdominal and pelvic walls are said to lie within
the abdominopelvic cavity. Many vital internal organs within these regions are suspended
within closed, fluid-filled chambers that are true body cavities. True body cavities are lined
by a serous membrane and share a common embryonic origin. They have two essential
functions: (1) They protect delicate organs from shocks and impacts; and (2) they permit
significant changes in the size and shape of internal organs.
The internal organs that are partially or completely enclosed by
body cavities are called viscera (VIS-e-ruh) or visceral organs.
Viscera do not float within the body cavitiesthey remain connected
to the rest of the body. To understand the physical relationships, we
will examine the pericardial cavity that surrounds the heart.
1

The relationship between the heart and

the pericardial cavity resembles that of a
fist pushing into a balloon. The wrist
corresponds to the base (attached
portion) of the heart, and the balloon
corresponds to the lining of the pericardial
cavity.

The body cavities of the trunk contain the organs of

the respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive, urinary,
and reproductive systems. The two major body cavities of
the trunk are the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
They are separated by the diaphragm. The boundaries of
these cavities are indicated in red. Note that there are
three subdivisions of the thoracic cavity.
2

BODY CAVITIES OF THE TRUNK

The pericardium (peri-, around + cardium,

heart) is a delicate membrane, called a
serous membrane, lining the pericardial
cavity.

During each beat, the heart changes size

and shape. The pericardial cavity permits
these changes, and the slippery
pericardial lining prevents friction
between the heart and adjacent
structures.

Cardiac muscle
of the heart wall

A serous membrane covers the

viscera and lines the true body
cavities of the trunk.

A watery fluid secreted by the

serous membranes coats the walls
of these internal cavities and
covers the surfaces of the enclosed
viscera. It keeps the surfaces moist
and reduces friction.

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THORACIC CAVITY

The diaphragm, a
muscular sheet, separates
the thoracic cavity from
the abdominopelvic
cavity.
ABDOMINOPELVIC
CAVITY

The thoracic cavity contains the lungs, heart, and other structures.
Its boundaries are established by the chest wall and diaphragm.
THORACIC CAVITY
Each lung is enclosed within a pleural cavity, lined by a
shiny, slippery serous membrane called the pleura (PLUR-uh).

Note the
orientation of
the section.
Unless otherwise
noted, all cross
sections are
shown as if the
viewer were
standing at the
feet of a supine
person and
looking toward
the head.

Heart enclosed
by pericardial
cavity
Right lung
Left lung

A horizontal section through the

thoracic cavity shows the relationship
between its three subdivisions.

The pericardial cavity is embedded within the

mediastinum, a mass of connective tissue that separates
the two pleural cavities and stabilizes the positions of
embedded organs and blood vessels.

ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
The abdominopelvic cavity
encloses the peritoneal
(per-i-t-N-al) cavity, a chamber
lined by a serous membrane
known as the peritoneum
(per-i-t-N-um). A few organs,
such as the kidneys and pancreas,
lie between the peritoneal lining
and the muscular wall of the
abdominal cavity. Those organs are
said to be retroperitoneal
(re-tr-per-i-t-N-al; retro, behind).
The peritoneum covers the ovaries
and the uterus in females, as well
as the superior portion of the
urinary bladder in both sexes.
Organs such as the urinary bladder
and the distal portions of the ureters and large intestine, which extend
inferior to the peritoneal cavity, are said to be infraperitoneal.

The boundaries of the abdominopelvic cavity are established

by the diaphragm, the muscles of the abdominal wall, the
trunk muscles and inferior portions of the vertebral column, and
the bones and muscles of the pelvis. It may be subdivided into the
abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity.
4

. Identify the major body cavities of the trunk and the subdivisions of each.

Diaphragm
Peritoneum (red)
showing the boundaries
of the peritoneal cavity
The abdominal cavity
contains many digestive
glands and organs
Retroperitoneal area
The pelvic cavity contains
the urinary bladder,
reproductive organs, and
the last portion of the
digestive tract. Many of
these structures lie
posterior to, or inferior to,
the peritoneal cavity.

Module . Review
a. Describe two essential functions of true body cavities.
b. Identify the body cavities of the trunk.
c. If a surgeon makes an incision just inferior to the
diaphragm, what body cavity will be opened?


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Label the directional terms
in the figures at right.

1
3

11
5

9
12

10

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Body Cavities of the Trunk

Use each of the following terms

once to fill in the blank boxes to
correctly complete the body cavities
concept map.

are found in two general regions

separated by

13

19

18

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digestive glands and organs

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abdominopelvic cavity
contains the

t
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t
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R. pleural
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surrounds

14
contains

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includes

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Right
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contains

contains

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peritoneal cavity

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Abdominal
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16

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Major
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surrounds

21

Urinary
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23

Distal end of
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17

M01_MART8949_02_SE_CH01.indd 36

03/12/13 12:26 PM

$ ) " 1 5 & 3
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An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Study Outline
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1. The basic approach in A&P can be summed up as What is
that structure and how does it work?
2. Homeostasis is a relatively constant internal environment.
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3. All living things perform the same basic functions:
respond to the environment, adapt to stimuli, grow
and reproduce, movement or locomotion, digestion,
respiration, excretion, and circulation.
4. The basic functions of life are active processes that require
energy.
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5. Gross or macroscopic anatomy examines relatively large
structures that are visible with the unaided eye.
6. Microscopic anatomy deals with structures that cannot
be seen without magnification.
7. Physiology is the study of the complex functions of the
human body.

The many dierent kinds

of cells in the human
body each have their
own characteristics and
functions. This nerve cell
(neuron) is from a part of
the brain involved with
the control of balance and
movement. The extensive
branching provides a
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15. An organ is a functional unit composed of more than
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16. The 11 organ systems of the body are: integumentary,
skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular,
lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.

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8. An example of how structure and function are related
is how the anatomical shape of the end of the humerus
allows the elbow to function as a hinge joint.
9. An example of physiological mechanisms is how chemical
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10. Progressing from smallest to largest, the levels of
organization are: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ
system, and organism.

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11. Cells are the smallest independent organisms and they are
remarkably diverse.
12. Cell theory states that cells are the structural building
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13. Histology is the study of tissues, which are groups of cells
that perform specific functions.
14. There are four primary tissue types: epithelial,
connective, muscle, and neural.

An organ system
consists of organs that
interact to perform
a specific range of
functions, often in a
coordinated fashion.
The cardiovascular
system (left), and the
male reproductive
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An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology (continued)
.

Organs of the integumentary, skeletal, and muscular

systems support and move the body, and organs of the
nervous system provide rapid control and regulation p. 18
17. The integumentary system protects against
environmental hazards and helps control body
temperature.
18. The skeletal system provides support, protects tissues,
stores minerals, and forms blood cells.

30. Homeostatic regulation is the adjustment of

physiological systems to preserve homeostasis and
consists of three necessary parts: a receptor or sensor, a
control center, and an eector. Homeostasis functions
around a desired value or set point.

19. The muscular system produces movement, provides

support, and generates heat.
20. The nervous system directs immediate responses to
stimuli by coordinating the activities of the other organ
systems.

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21. The endocrine system
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in other organ systems.
22. The cardiovascular
system transports cells
and dissolved materials,
including nutrients,
wastes, and gases.
23. The lymphatic system
defends against infection
and disease and returns
tissue fluid to the
bloodstream.
24. The respiratory system
delivers air to sites where
gas exchange occurs
between the air and
circulating blood, and
produces sound.

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p. 29
33. Many anatomical structures are named after the
discoverer, whereas many diseases are named after the
most famous victim of that disease. Such names, called
eponyms, have been replaced with more precise terms.
34. Anatomy as a discipline studied by medical professionals
began at the University of Bologna in Italy, which is
considered the first modern university.

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25. The digestive system processes food and absorbs nutrients.
26. The urinary system eliminates excess water, salts, and
wastes.
27. The female reproductive system produces sex cells and
hormones and supports embryonic development from
fertilization to birth.
28. The male reproductive system produces sex cells and
hormones.

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29. Homeostasis is the presence of a stable internal
environment.

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35. In the anatomical position, the hands are at the sides
with the palms facing forward and the feet together. A
person lying down in the anatomical position is said to be
supine when face up and prone when face down.

The
lymphatic
system

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31. Negative feedback regulates homeostasis by correcting
any variation away from set point. It is the primary
mechanism of homeostatic regulation.
32. In positive feedback, a stimulus produces a response that
exaggerates change, creating a positive feedback loop.
Positive feedback is seldom encountered in our daily lives
because it produces extreme responses.

36. To describe the location of internal organs, clinicians refer

to four abdominopelvic quadrants. Anatomists use nine
more precise abdominopelvic regions.

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37. Directional terms utilize the
anatomical position as a point of
reference. The principal directional
terms are superior, inferior,
proximal, distal, medial, lateral,
cranial (or cephalic), caudal,
anterior (or ventral), posterior (or
dorsal), superficial, and deep.
38. The sectional planes used to
illustrate the relationship between body structures are
frontal (coronal), sagittal, and transverse (horizontal).

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39. Body structures deep to the chest wall are within the
thoracic cavity; body structures deep to the abdominal
and pelvic walls lie within the abdominopelvic cavity.
40. True body cavities are lined by a serous membrane
and share a common embryonic origin. They function
to protect organs from shocks and impacts, and permit
significant changes in the size and shape of internal organs.

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M01_MART8949_02_SE_CH01.indd 38

03/12/13 12:26 PM

41. Viscera are internal organs that are partially or completely

enclosed by body cavities. The heart, for example, is
enclosed by the pericardial cavity, which is lined with a
serous membrane called the pericardium.
42. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs, heart, and other
structures. Its boundaries are the chest wall and a muscular
sheet called the diaphragm.
43. The thoracic cavity consists of two pleural cavities, each
surrounding a lung and each lined with a thin membrane
known as the pleura. A tissue mass known as the mediastinum
separates the pleural cavities. Within the mediastinum is the
pericardial cavity that surrounds the heart.

44. The boundaries of the abdominopelvic cavity are the

diaphragm, the abdominal wall muscles, the trunk muscles
and inferior portions of the vertebral column, and the
bones and muscles of the pelvis. It can be subdivided into
the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity.
45. The abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity contain the
peritoneal cavity, a chamber lined by the peritoneum, a
serous membrane.
46. Some organs lie between the peritoneal lining and the
muscular wall of the abdominal cavity, and are said to
be retroperitoneal. Other organs extend inferior to the
peritoneal cavity and are said to be infraperitoneal.

Chapter Review Questions

-BCFMJOH
Identify the body cavities as well
as the organs they enclose.
33

44

55

66

.BUDIJOH
Match each lettered term with the most closely related description.
a. cytology

h. endocrine

________________ Study of tissues

________________ Negative feedback

b. physiology

i. temperature regulation

c. histology

j. labor and delivery

________________ Constant internal

environment

________________ Serous membrane

d. anatomy

k. supine

________________ Face up position

________________ Study of internal and

external body structures

e. homeostasis

l. prone

________________ Study of functions

________________ Diaphragm tissue

f. muscle

m. abdominopelvic cavity

________________ Positive feedback

________________ Peritoneal cavity

g. heart

n. pericardium

________________ Organ system

________________ Organ

________________ Study of cells

________________ Face down position

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An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology (continued)
.VMUJQMF
DIPJDF
Select the correct answer from the list provided.

What is the correct order, from simplest to most complex, of the

six levels of organization that make up the human body?
a) cell, chemical, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
b) chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
c) chemical, cell, tissue, organ system, organ, organism
d) chemical, cell, organ, tissue, organ system, organism
e) cell, tissue, chemical, organ, organism, organ system

The two major body cavities of the trunk are the

a) pleural cavity and pericardial cavity.
b) pericardial cavity and peritoneal cavity.
c) pleural cavity and peritoneal cavity.
d) thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity.

Which of the following is OPU a characteristic of life?

a) responsiveness
b) movement
c) manipulation of external environment
d) reproduction

A plane through the body that passes perpendicular to the long

axis of the body and divides the body into a superior and an
inferior section is a
a) sagittal section.
b) transverse section.
c) coronal section.
d) frontal section.

The unit used to measure cell dimensions is the

a) centimeter (cm).
b) millimeter (mm).
c) micrometer (m).
d) kilometer (km).

The increasingly forceful labor contractions during childbirth are

an example of
a) receptor activation.
b) eector shutdown.
c) negative feedback.
d) positive feedback.

Which sectional plane would divide the body so that the face
remains intact?
a) sagittal plane
b) frontal (coronal) plane
c) midsagittal plane
d) parasagittal plane

The mediastinum is the region between the

a) lungs and heart.
b) two pleural cavities.
c) chest and abdomen.
d) heart and pericardium.

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Define anatomy. Define physiology.

Describe the three basic principles of the cell theory.

In which body cavity would each of the following organs be

enclosed? Heart, small intestine, large intestine, lung, kidneys.

Identify each of the four primary tissue types and give an example
of where in the body that tissue would be found.

The hormone calcitonin is released from the thyroid gland in

response to increased levels of calcium ions in the blood. If this
hormone is controlled by negative feedback, what eect would
calcitonin have on blood calcium levels?

A stroke occurs when there is a disruption in blood flow to the

brain, causing brain cells to die. Predict the kind of symptoms
a stroke patient would have. Apply your knowledge of organ
system function.

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