SyntheticApertureRadar(SAR):

PrinciplesandApplications
AlbertoMoreira

GermanAerospaceCenter(DLR)
MicrowavesandRadarInstitute
82230Oberpfaffenhofen,Germany
email:alberto.moreira@dlr.de/Web:www.dlr.de/HR
23/07/2013

Remote Sensing: Motivation

Provides unique information to solve societal changelles of global dimension

Climate Change

Environment

Resources

Sustainable Development

Megacities

Mobility

Hazards

Disaster

German Aerospace Center

slide 2

Microwaves and Radar Institute

Remote Sensing: Motivation

Provides unique information to solve societal changelles of global dimension

85 cm/day

0 cm/day

Glacier Movement &

Ice Melting, Switzerland

Deforestation, Brazil

Copper Mine (DEM), Chile

Subsidence, Mexico

Climate Change

Environment

Resources

Sustainable Development

Cars
velocity

Urban Planing, Istanbul

Traffic monitoring, Prien

Vulcano Monitoring, Island

Flooding, Deggendorf,
Germany

Megacities

Mobility

Hazards

Disaster

German Aerospace Center

Microwaves and Radar Institute

slide 3

Remote Sensing

Measuring objects properties from distance with dedicated instruments

Acquired information
spatial (geometric resolution)
spectral (frequency resolution)
intensity (radiometric resolution)
temporal (revisit time)

Landsat image

Land Use map

Different types of remote sensing sensors:

Sentinel-2

Optical and infrared sensors

passive:
High-resolution
Multispectral, hyperspectral
active: Lidar

German Aerospace Center

slide 4

Microwaves and Radar Institute

Remote Sensing
Measuring objects properties from distance with dedicated instruments

Acquired information

Venice, Italy

spatial (geometric resolution)

Subsidence map

spectral (frequency resolution)

intensity (radiometric resolution)
temporal (revisit time)

Different types of remote sensing sensors:

Microwave sensors
passive (radiometers)
active (radars)
Scatterometer, Altimeter
Synthetic Aperture Radar - SAR

German Aerospace Center

Sentinel-1

Microwaves and Radar Institute

slide 5

Types of Remote Sensing Sensors

Spaceborne sensors for Earth remote
sensing with electromagnetic waves

active
sensors

Radar
K

Lidar

Ka

Frequency (Hz)
1015
100 nm

1014
1 m

visible

1013
10 m

thermal Infrared

1012
100 m

1011
1 mm

Ku

S
C

1010
1 cm

109
10 cm

1m

wave length

Microwave
radiometers

Infrared

optical
sensors

passive
sensors

Microwaves: 300 MHz 300 GHz:

(1 m 1 mm)
6

Spaceborne Radar Remote Sensing

Radar Altimeter
Measures surface topography (surface height)

Weather Radar
Measures three-dimensional rainfall distribution

Radar Scatterometer

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

Measures surface backscattering (sea winds)

Measures 2D surface backscattering

X-band, High Resolution Airborne SAR, F-SAR, Kaufbeuren, Germany

X-band, Airborne SAR, F-SAR, Full Polarimetric

C-band, Airborne SAR, F-SAR, Full Polarimetric

TerraSAR-X, Mississippi, USA - Flooding

FloodedareasinformationretrievedfromTerraSARXdata

TerraSAR-X, Drygalski Glacier, Oct 2007 July 2008

TerraSAR-X, Las Vegas, USA (time series of 20 images)

Mato Grosso, Brazil - Deforestation

SAR Tomography, L-Band, Airborne SAR, F-SAR, Germany

Amplitude

Phase

Digital Elevation Model

TanDEM-X, Atacama Desert, Chile

ENVISAT/ASAR, Bam Earthquake, 2003 ( ESA)

Motivation for Spaceborne SAR

- Complementary information to optical systems (e.g. polarimetry)

TerraSAR-X, Pyramids of Giza, Egypt

F-SAR, Kaufbeuren, Germany

F-SAR, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany

Motivation for Spaceborne SAR

- Complementary information to optical systems
- Penetration of radar waves

Forest height with

polarimetric SAR interferometry

Infrared image

SAR image
Forest profile with SAR tomography

10

Motivation for Spaceborne SAR

- Complementary information to optical systems
- Penetration of radar waves
- Weather independent

ENVISAT (ASAR and MERIS), Alps, Austria

SIR-C/X-SAR image, Kamchatka, Russia

average global cloud coverage

Landsat

Radar

Motivation for Spaceborne SAR

- Complementary information to optical systems
- Penetration of radar waves
- Weather independent
- Day-and-night imaging capability

Flooding, Deggendorf, Germany

Wilkins ice shelf collapse during the antarctic winter

11

www.DLR.
de
Chart 23

Motivation for Spaceborne SAR

- Complementary information to optical systems

- Penetration of radar waves
- Weather independent
- Day-and-night imaging capability
- Geometric resolution independent of the distance

TerraSAR-X, multi-temporal, Sydney, Australia

TerraSAR-X, Berlin

Motivation for Spaceborne SAR

- Complementary information to optical systems
- Penetration of radar waves
- Weather independent
- Day-and-night imaging capability
- Geometric resolution independent of the distance
- New image products by coherent combination of radar images
(i.e. using phase information in the radar images)

3D Mapping
(Digital Elevation Model)

Tomography
(Urban Mapping)

Differential Interferometry
(Earthquake deformation)

Differential Interferometry
(Subsidence)

12

SAR Main Properties and Applications

high resolution capability (independent of flight altitude)
weather independence by selecting proper frequency range
day/night imaging capability due to own illumination
complementary to optical systems
polarization signature can be exploited (physical structure, dielectric constant)
innumerous applications areas:
Topography (DEM generation with interferometry)
Oceanography (wave spectra, wind speed, ocean currents)
Glaciology (snow wetness, snow water equivalent, glacier monitoring)
Agriculture (crop classification and monitoring, soil moisture)
Geology (terrain discrimination, subsurface imaging)
Forestry (forest height, biomass, deforestation)
Moving Target Indication (MTI)
Volcano and earthquake monitoring (differential interferometry)
Environment monitoring (oil spills, flooding, urban growth, global change)
Military surveillance and reconnaissance (strategic policy, tactical assessment)

Outline of Lecture
Part I : Motivation for Spaceborne SAR Remote Sensing

Part II : Basics of Synthetic Aperture Radar

Radar principle, SAR basic principles, backscattering coefficient,
geometric resolution, spaceborne SAR systems, frequency bands,
summary

Part III: Theory: SAR Image Formation, Image Properties

SAR block diagram, synthetic aperture, SAR image formation,
impulse response function, calibration, SAR signal for distributed targets,
speckle, multi-look processing

Part IV: Advanced SAR techniques and Future Developments

ScanSAR imaging, Spotlight SAR imaging, outlook, references

German Aerospace Center

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Microwaves and Radar Institute

13

Radar: Radio Detection and Ranging

German Aerospace Center

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Microwaves and Radar Institute

Christian Hlsmeyer and the Radar Invention (1904)

German Aerospace Center

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Microwaves and Radar Institute

14

Radar Principle

Transmit pulse
Echo

Radar system

German Aerospace Center

Microwaves and Radar Institute

slide 29

Radar Measurement Principle

Range distance ro

co

(velocity of light)

Tx
object
Rx

Received echo signal (back-scattered signal of imaged object):

Total time delay =

2 . ro
co
t (time)

receive

transmit

German Aerospace Center

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Microwaves and Radar Institute

15

Side-Looking Radar Imaging Geometry

German Aerospace Center

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Microwaves and Radar Institute

Side-Looking Radar Imaging Geometry

German Aerospace Center

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Microwaves and Radar Institute

16

Side-Looking Radar Imaging Geometry

German Aerospace Center

slide 33

Microwaves and Radar Institute

Side-Looking Radar Imaging Geometry

azimth

slant range

Pulsed radar system

illuminated area

German Aerospace Center

slide 34

Two-dimensional imaging
(azimuth x slant range)

Microwaves and Radar Institute

17

Side Looking Geometry and Timing

z
z
Platform

(pulse duration)

Azimuth

D = depression angle

r0 = slant range

H
r0

Swath width (SW)

Timing of the Radar:

Tx

Tx
Rx

Rx

T = 1/PRF
PRF = pulse repetition frequency

German Aerospace Center

slide 35

Microwaves and Radar Institute

Basic Radar Block Diagram

Transmitter
Antenna

Radar Pulse
Receiver

Data
Recording

Circulator

Transmitter generates a high power pulse

Circulator or Switch - switches transmitted pulse to antenna,
returned echoes to receiver
Antenna directs transmitted pulses towards the target area
Receiver amplifies the received signal and converts to base band

German Aerospace Center

slide 36

Microwaves and Radar Institute

18

What does the Radar measure ?

Radar reflectivity (backscattered signal) of targets as a function of their position

radar transmits a pulse

(travelling velocity is equal
to velocity of light)

some of the energy in the radar pulse is

reflected back towards the radar.
This is what the radar measures.
It is known as radar backscatter o
(sigma nought or sigma zero).

German Aerospace Center

slide 37

Microwaves and Radar Institute

What does the Radar measure ?

Normalized radar cross-section (backscattering coefficient) is given by:

o (dB) = 10. Log10 (energy ratio)

Isotropic

whereby

scatterer
received energy by the sensor
energy ratio =
energy reflected in an isotropic way

The backscattered coefficient can be a positive number if there is a focusing of

backscattered energy towards the radar
or
The backscattered coefficient can be a negative number if there is a focusing of
backscattered energy way from the radar (e.g. smooth surface)

German Aerospace Center

slide 38

Microwaves and Radar Institute

19

Backscattering Coefficient o
Levels of Radar backscatter

Typical scenario

Very high backscatter (above -5 dB)

Man-Made objects (urban)

Terrain Slopes towards radar
very rough surface
radar looking very steep

High backscatter (-10 dB to 0 dB)

rough surface
dense vegetation (forest)

Moderate backscatter (-20 to -10 dB)

medium level of vegetation

agricultural crops
moderately rough surfaces

Low backscatter (below -20 dB)

smooth surface
calm water, road
very dry terrain (sand)

German Aerospace Center

slide 39

Microwaves and Radar Institute

Backscattering Coefficient o
Variation of o as a function of incidence angle i

z
Platform

Sigma0,

o (dB)

incidence angle, i (degree)

Dynamic range of received SAR signal is usually greater than 50 dB
German Aerospace Center

slide 40

Microwaves and Radar Institute

20

Range and Azimuth Resolution for a Radar System

Range Resolution depends on the bandwidth or pulse duration of transmitted signal
Te

Te 1
Be

c .T
c
e o e o
2
2. Be

Be ...

Bandwidth of the radar

Azimuth Resolution depends on the azimuth size of the antenna and increases with range
ro
ro

a a . ro

da

da
da

. ro

a
a

a
a

Example 1: Airborne system in X-Band, 25 MHz bandwidth, 3 m antenna, 3000 m range

e = 6 m

a = 30 m

Example 2: satellite system in X-Band, 25 MHz bandwidth, 12 m antenna, 800 km range

e = 6 m
German Aerospace Center

a = 2000 m !
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Microwaves and Radar Institute

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

German Aerospace Center

slide 42

Microwaves and Radar Institute

21

Carl Wiley and the Invention of the Synthetic Aperture Radar

(Carl Wiley, Patent in 1954)

German Aerospace Center

Microwaves and Radar Institute

slide 43

SAR Basic Principle

z
Synthetic
Aperture

swath
width

x
y

German Aerospace Center

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Microwaves and Radar Institute

22

SAR Basic Principle

beamwidth of real antenna

beamwidth of synthetic antenna

imaged swath

Pulsed radar system

Radar system must be coherent (stable local oscillator).
Phase information is preserved
Two-dimensional imaging (azimuth x slant range)
Azimuth resolution is independent on range distance !

German Aerospace Center

Microwaves and Radar Institute

slide 45

Azimuth Resolution of a SAR system

z

Length of the synthetic aperture: Lsa

a
r0

Beamwidth of the synthetic antenna: sa

Lsa

Azimuth resolution: a

azimuth resolution = half antenna length in azimuth

German Aerospace Center

slide 46

Microwaves and Radar Institute

23

Formation of a Synthetic Aperture

da

Lsa

da

sa

factor 1/2 due to

doubling of phase shifts
(i.e. two-way path)

V
formation of synthetic aperture
(i.e. SAR processing)
German Aerospace Center

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Microwaves and Radar Institute

Single Channel Radar Image

E-SAR image (X-band) processed in real-time, 3 x 3 m resolution, 6 looks

German Aerospace Center

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Microwaves and Radar Institute

24

First Civilian SAR Satellite: SEASAT (1978)

German Aerospace Center

Launch

June 26, 1978

Frequency

Altitude

~780 km

Bandwidth

1,275 GHz
19 MHz

Weight

2300 kg

Inc. Angle

~ 23

Antenna
Size

10,74 m x
2,16 m

Swath Width

100 km

Resolution

25 m x 25 m

Microwaves and Radar Institute

slide 49

Spaceborne SAR Systems

SEASAT
NASA/JPL (USA)
L-Band, 1978

ERS-1/2
European Space Agency (ESA)
C-Band, 1991-2000/1995-2011

J-ERS-1
Japanese Space Agency (JAXA)
L-Band, 1992-1998

SIR-C/X-SAR
NASA/JPL, L- and C-Band (quad)
DLR / ASI, X-band 1994

RadarSAT-1
Canadian Space Agency (CSA)
C-Band, 1995-2013

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)

NASA/JPL (C-Band), DLR (X-Band)
February 2000

ENVISAT / ASAR
European Space Agency (ESA)
C-Band (dual), 2002-2012

ALOS / PALSAR
Japanese Space Agency (JAXA)
L-Band (quad), Jan. 2006-2011

SAR-Lupe
BWB, Germany
5 satellites, X-Band, 2006/2008

25

Spaceborne SAR Systems

RadarSAT-II
Canadian Space Agency (CSA)
C-Band (quad), 2007

TerraSAR-X/TanDEM-X
DLR /Astrium, Germany
X-Band (quad), 2007/2010

HJ-1C -SAR
CRESDA/CAST/NRSCC, China
S-Band (HH or VV), 2013

RISAT-1
Indian Space Agency (ISRO), India
C-Band (quad), 2012

ALOS-2
Japanese Space Agency (JAXA)
L-Band (quad), 2014

SAOCOM-1/2
CONAE/ASI, Argentina
L-Band (quad), 2016/2018

COSMO-SkyMed
ASI, Italy
4 Satellites, X-Band (dual),
2007/2010

SENTINEL-1a/b
ESA, Europe
C-Band (dual), 2014/2015

Radarsat Constellation 1-3

CSA/MDA, Canada
C-band (dual), 2016/2017

Kompsat-5
KARI, Korea
X-band (dual), 2013

PAZ
Ministry of Defence, Spain
X-Band (quad), 2014

BIOMASS
ESA, Europe
P-Band (quad), 2019

Commonly Used Frequency Bands

Frequency

Frequency range

Application Example

band
VHF

300 KHz -

300 MHz

Foliage/Ground penetration, biomass

P-Band

300 MHz -

1 GHz

biomass, soil moisture, penetration

L-Band

1 GHz

2 GHz

agriculture, forestry, soil moisture

C-Band

4 GHz

8 GHz

ocean, agriculture

X-Band

8 GHz

12 GHz

agriculture, ocean, high resolution radar

Ku-Band

14 GHz

18 GHz

glaciology (snow cover mapping)

Ka-Band

27 GHz

47 GHz

high resolution radars

26

C-band
R: HH G: HV B: VV

P-band
R: HH G: HV B: VV

Frequency and Polarisation Diversity

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic Spectrum including the attenuation in the atmosphere

27

PART III
Theory: SAR Image Formation and
Image Properties

German Aerospace Center

slide 55

Microwaves and Radar Institute

SAR Image Formation

28

SAR Basic Principle

z
1) pulsed radar system
(PRF = Pulse Repetition Frequency)

Antenna

2) two dimensional imaging

(range x azimuth)
Azimuth

Te

3) range resolution

range

co
Te . co

2
2 . Be

4) azimuth resolution

da
2

5) Radar system must be coherent!

Lsa

SAR Data Flow

> 100 Mbit/s

kbit/s

antenna

raw data

image data

29

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

I/Q demodulator

signal generator
Mixer

power
amplifier

circulator

low noise
amplifier

base band signal

I

-90

Q
D

ultra stable
oscillator

Coherent Measurement Principle

Total time delay 1 =

2 . r1
co
t (time)

transmit
Received echo signal 1

Imaginary Part

Coherent demodulation

phase
phase change 1

4.

Real Part

.r1 object

30

Coherent Measurement Principle

Total time delay 2 =

2 . r2
co
t (time)

transmit
Received echo signal 2

Imaginary Part

Coherent demodulation
A

phase

4.

phase change 2

Real Part

.r2 object

Phasor Representation of SAR Signal

complex representation:

A cos2 f0 t

after demodulation:

A exp j

amplitude:

intensity, power:

A2

A exp j 2 f0 t

Imaginary Part

Real Part

phase:

Every pixel of a complex SAR image consists of a real and an imaginary part,
i.e. it is a phasor and contains amplitude and phase information.
amplitude information backscattering coefficient

phase information

4.

.r object

31

2D Raw Data Matrix

2D Raw Data Matrix

32

Synthetic Aperture Formation

point target

beamwidth
of real aperture
antenna

flight
direction

SAR
sensor
Two-way antenna
pattern

received azimuth signal

phase
corrections

coherent summation
SAR
processor

Detection

point target response

convolution

resolution of synthetic aperture

Synthetic Aperture Formation

point target

beamwidth
of real aperture
antenna

flight
direction

SAR
sensor
Two-way antenna
pattern

received azimuth signal

phase
corrections

coherent summation
SAR
processor
point target response

Detection

convolution

resolution of synthetic aperture

33

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

SAR Processing (Image Formation)

raw data
range compression

range reference function

azimuth reference function

azimuth compression

SAR image

34

Pulse Compression by Convolution

Te

range
SAR signal

t
convolution

range
reference

function

point target response

Pulse Compression by Convolution

range

Te

SAR signal

t
convolution

range reference
function

e
point target response

35

Linear Superposition of Chirps

SAR signal

t
convolution

range
reference

function

response of 3 point
targets

Folie 72

SAR raw data

36

SAR Processing (Image Formation)

range compressed data

image data

range
range

raw data

azimuth

azimuth

azimuth
range reference

azimuth reference

function

function

point target

range

far range

near range
amplitude

azimuth

Summary: SAR Processing

1. Step: Range compression

Generation of range reference function

Matched filtering using convolution of range signal with range reference
function

2. Step: Azimuth compression

Generation of azimuth reference function

Matched filtering using convolution of azimuth signal with azimuth
reference function

3. Step: Calculation of the modulus of the SAR image (detection)

This step is not required in case that the phase information is used (e.g.
polarimetry, interferometry etc.)

Normally the convolution is carried out in frequency domain

37

SAR Processing: 2D Matched Filter

so (x, r)

range
compression

azimuth
compression

detection

he (x, r)

ha (x, r)

ui2 + uq 2

2D pulse

|uo (x, r)|

SAR Processing

impulse
response
function

Calibration of SAR Images

38

Calibration Devices
Examples of calibration targets with well-known reflectivity (Radar
Cross Section) for external calibration of the SAR system

Transponder
Corner Reflector

SAR Image of ASAR/ENVISAT, 12-10-02

Munich

D02
D06

D01
D03

Strasbourg

D07

D05

D14

D11

D12

Alps

39

resolution:
3mx3m

SAR Image Properties

- Speckle -

40

ERS-1 image / ESA

Kaufbeuren, Germany
F-SAR, X-band quadpol
0.25m resolution

URSI 2011
Andreas Reigber

41

Kaufbeuren, Germany
F-SAR X-band quadpol
0.25m resolution

Speckle

URSI 2011
Andreas Reigber

SAR signal modeling

SAR image can be modeled as:

where

|u(x, r)| = | (x, r) uo (x, r) |

|u(x, r)| SAR image

For a point target:

(x, r)

=1
pulse
modulation
se (x, r)

Scene
(x, r)

scene complex reflectivity

uo (x, r) SAR impulse response

azimuth
modulation
sa (x, r)

SAR system

SAR image

detection

|uo (x, r)|

ui2 + uq2

azimuth
compression
ha (x, r)

pulse
compression
he (x, r)

SAR processing

42

SAR signal modeling

Distributed targets have surface roughness comparable or smaller than
radar wavelength
Resolution of the SAR sensor cannot resolve individual scatterers
For each resolution cell,

(x, r) is equal to the sum of all scatterers contributions i. e.

i (x , r ) u
o

|u(xo, ro)| = | (xo, ro) uo (x, r) | = |

(x, r) |

random sum

imaginary

real

Speckle

Szene mit Streuobjekten

imaged area with

distributed targets

Im
Im
random sum

random sum

Re
Re

Radarbild
SAR
image (Betrag)

43

Speckle
Inherent to coherent systems
Probability distribution function has a exponential distribution, i.e.
average value = standard deviation
Speckle makes SAR image interpretation more difficult

E-SAR high resolution image

(0.6 m x 2 m)

Multi-Look Processing

44

Multi-Look Processing
5 azimuth looks

3 looks with 50% overlap

azimuth

azimuth

Look 2

Look 1
Look 3

antenna diagram
in azimuth direction

overlap of 50% between the looks

is commonly used.

Multi-Look Processing (@ SAR Processor)

ha1 (x, r)
sa (x, r)

u1 ( x , r )

ui2 + uq 2

ha2 (x, r)

ui2 + uq 2

ha3 (x, r)

ui2

+ uq

u2 ( x , r )
u3 ( x , r )

uML ( x, r )

SAR impulse response function with multi-looking ( L looks):

azimuth resolution deteriorates:

uML ( x, r )
2

u x, r
i 1

a , ML a .L

Standard deviation of the speckle noise is reduced by the square root of the number of looks:
standard deviation = average value / sqrt( L)

45

frequency

frequency

frequency

Multi-Look Processing

image value

image value

image value

Statistics of SAR Signal for Distributed Targets

Gamma
distribution

Doppler
Modulation
Scene

(x)

ha1 (x)

= 2 i2
2= 2 / L0

ui2 + uq 2

Spectrum
f

Ba

ha2 (x)

i = q= 0

i= q= P0 / 2
Gaussian
distribution

ui2 + uq 2

uML

i = q= 0

= 2 i2

i= q= P0 / 2

2= 2

Gaussian
distribution

ui2 + uq 2

uML

-distribution

Exponential
distribution

... average value ; ... standard deviation

46

Multi-Look Processing (@ SAR Image)

u ( x, r )

sa (x, r)

ha(x, r)

ui2 + uq 2

Average
(boxcar
window)

nm L

SAR impulse response function with average of L image pixels:

azimuth resolution deteriorates:

uML ( x, r )

a , ML a .L

n ,m 1

uML ( x, r )

u xn , rm

L = number of looks

Standard deviation of the speckle noise is reduced by the square root of the number of looks:
standard deviation = average value / sqrt( L)

Single-Look and Multi-Look Processing

5 looks

320 looks (average of 64 images)

20 m x 20 m resolution

20 m x 20 m ground resolution

ERS-1 satellite images (processing DLR-IMF)

47

Single-Look and Multi-Look Processing

E-SAR single-look image

(0.6 m azimuth resolution)

E-SAR multi-look image, 8 looks, 50 % overlap

(2 m range resolution, 3 m azimuth resolution)

E-SAR: airborne SAR of DLR

Speckle Reduction with Image Filtering

original SAR image (1 look)

Airborne SAR AeS-1

speckle filtered
Adaptive Filtering
(Model based approach)

48

Summary: Speckle
SAR image of distributed targets contains speckle noise.
Speckle noise is inherent in coherent radar systems.
The average value of the speckle amplitude is equal to its standard deviation
(exponential distribution).
Multi-look processing or spatial averaging is used to reduce the speckle
noise. Standard deviation decreases with

Leff .

An overlap of 50% between the looks is commonly used.

Speckle noise can also be reduced by averaging the final image

PART IV
Advanced SAR Techniques
and Future Developments

49

Advanced SAR Imaging Modes

- ScanSAR Mode -

ScanSAR Imaging

Synthetic aperture is shared between the subswaths (not contiguous within one
subswath)
Mosaic Operation is required in azimuth and range directions to join the azimuth
bursts and the range sub-swaths

50

ScanSAR Main Properties

ScanSAR leads to a large swath width
The azimuth signal consists of several bursts

Azimuth

Azimuth resolution is limited by the burst duration

Each target has a different frequency history depending on its azimuth location

B
C

Spectrum

C
azimuth frequency

51

ScanSAR Imaging (Chickasha, Oklahoma, USA)

Subswath
1
(near range)

SIR-C image
L-band, VV

Subswath
2

Subswath
3

Subswath
4
(far range)
azimuth

ASAR SCANSAR Image (Munich Area)

ASAR ScanSAR Image

ASAR Image

52

Comparison: ScanSAR vs. Stripmap (TerraSAR-X)

ScanSAR (HH)
150 MHz
17 m resolution
1 (az) x 6.9 (rg) looks
ascending orbit

Stripmap (HH)
150 MHz
7 m resolution
2.9 (az) x 3.4 (rg) looks
descending orbit

3 days time separation

ScanSAR
EEC-RE
17 m res.

illumination

~3 km x 4 km

ScanSAR

53

Stripmap
EEC-RE
7 m res.

illumination

~3 km x 4 km

Stripmap

TOPS-SAR (Terrain Observation by Progressive Scan)

ScanSAR
Shares illumination time between
multiple swaths

TOPS-SAR
Shares illumination time between
multiple swaths
Improved image quality

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Advanced SAR Imaging Modes

- Spotlight Mode -

Spotlight SAR Imaging

Spotlight Synthetic Aperture
Begin of
imaging
Azimuth

End of
imaging

image center

synthetic aperture of
stripmap mode

Non continuous imaging mode, but very high azimuth resolution

Spotlight azimuth resolution

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Spotlight SAR Imaging

Stripmap image
3 m azimuth resolution

Spotlight image
0.46 m azimuth resolution

E-SAR System, X-Band, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany

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L1B SAR Processing: High Resolution Spotlight

HR Spotlight (VV), 150 MHz range bandwidth, incid 35, 5 km x 10 km
rng

az

High Resolution Spotlight, HH-Pol., spot_040, 37 inc. angle, 150 MHz

Chuquicamata, Chile
Chuquicamata, Chile

Folie 114 Pau.Prats@dlr.de

Spotlight Imaging Mode

Oberpfaffehofen

57

Outlook

SAR Application Trends

Trends in Earth Science & Applications:
Day / night, all-weather coverage of the Earths surface

Frequent revisit times (time series):

hours to 1 day: coastal zones, ocean, traffic and disaster monitoring
days to weeks: differential interferometry, soil moisture, agricultural areas
months to year: tropical, temperate and boreal forests, differential interf.
Variable resolution (1 to 100 m) and wide coverage (25 to 450 km swath width)
High (2 m) and medium resolution (10-15 m) global topography
Information products of key inputs to global change models:
above ground biomass, soil moisture, wetland areas, land cover types
ocean surface & currents, ice mass balance, glacier velocity
Calibrated and geo-coded data products are required (e.g. compatibility to GIS)
Model based inversion algorithms are needed for reliable information extraction

58

Launch: June 15, 2007

Launch: June 21, 2010

Atacama Desert, Chile

59

Future SAR System Concepts

Geostationary Illuminator +
LEO Receivers

LEO Satellites

MEO Satellites

Short revisit times by

multiple SAR satellites

Constant illumination with

geostationary transmitter

Huge simultaneous
access area

Conventional technique
with low risk

Signal reception by
passive micro-satellites

Multiple revisits per day

with one satellite

Summary: SAR Principles and Applications

High resolution capability (independent of flight altitude)
Weather independence by selecting proper frequency range
Day/night imaging capability due to own illumination
Complementary to optical systems
Polarization signature can be exploited (physical structure, dielectric constant)
Terrain Topography can be measured by means of interferometry
Innumerous applications areas
Great interest in the scientific community as well as for commercial and
security related applications

German Aerospace Center

slide 120

Microwaves and Radar Institute

60

References

References I
SAR Principles and Applications
CEOS EO Handbook Catalogue of Satellite Instruments. On-line available: http://www.eohandbook.com, Oct. 2012.
Curlander, J.C., McDonough, R.N.: Synthetic Aperture Radar: Systems and Signal Processing. Wiley, 1991.
Elachi, C. and J. van Zyl, Introduction to the Physics and Techniques of Remote Sensing. John Wiley & Sons, 2006
Henderson, F. und Lewis, A.: Manual of Remote Sensing: Principles and Applications of Imaging Radar. Wiley, 1998.
Lee, J.S. and Pottier, E.: Polarimetric Radar Imaging: From Basics to Applications. CRC Press, 2009.
Massonnet, D. and Souryis, J.C.: Imaging with Synthetic Aperture Radar. EPFL & CRC Press, 2008.
McDonough, R.N. et al: Image Formation from Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar Signals. Johns Hopkins APL
Technical Digest, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1985, S. 300-312.
Moreira, A., Prats-Iraola, P., Younis, M., Krieger, G., Hajnsek, Irena and Papathanassiou, K.: A Tutorial on Synthetic
Aperture Radar. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine, 1 (1), 2013, pp. 6-43.
Tomiyasu, K.: Tutorial Review of Synthetic-Aperture Radar (SAR) with Applications to Imaging of the Ocean Surface.
In: IEEE Proc., Vol. 66, No. 5, May 1978.
Woodhouse, I.: Introduction to Microwave Remote Sensing, CRC, Taylor & Francis, 2006.

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References II
SAR Processing
Cumming, Ian and Frank Wong, Digital Processing of Synthetic Aperture Radar Data, Artech House, 2005

Franceschetti G. und R. Lanari.: Synthetic Aperture Radar Processing. CRC Press, USA, 1999
Li, F.K., Croft, C., Held,D.: Comparison of Several Techniques to Obtain Multiple-Look SAR Imagery. In: IEEE
Trans. Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 21, No. 3, Juli 1983.
Moreira, A., Mittermayer, J., Scheiber, R.: Extended Chirp Scaling Algorithm for Air- and Spaceborne SAR Data
Processing in Stripmap and ScanSAR Imaging Modes. In: IEEE Trans. Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 34,
No. 5, 1996.

SAR Image Properties

Oliver, C. und S. Quegan. Understanding Synthetic Aperture Radar Images. SciTech Publishing, Inc., 2004.
Raney, R. K.: Theory and Measure of Certain Image Norms in SAR. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, Vol. 23,
No.3, Mai 1985.
Raney, R. K. und Wessels, G. J.: Spatial Considerations in SAR Speckle Simulation. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote
Sensing, Vol. 26, No. 5, Sept. 1988, S. 666-672.
Tomiyasu, K.: Conceptual Performance of a Satellite Borne, Wide Swath Synthetic Aperture Radar. In: IEEE Trans.
Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 19, No. 2, April 1981, S. 108-116.

alberto.moreira@dlr.de

TanDEM-X, Kori Kollo, Bolivia

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