Expanded Course Notes on Complex Numbers from

the Cambridge Text by Arnold and Arnold

By Mr Scovell

Complex Numbers
Explanation & Arithmetic of complex numbers.
Why do we need complex numbers?
The need for complex numbers arises when we solve equations that previously have had no solution.
Consider the solution to x2 4x + 13 = 0
x =

4 36
2

To solve this equation we would need to extend the number system to include numbers with negative
squares. To do this we let
i=

i2 = -1

Then every real number would have two square roots.

For example: 4 could be written as 4 i2

then 4 has two square roots, 2 i and - 2 i

We can now solve more complicated equations

Example:

Solve x2 4x + 13 = 0

Solution
x =

4 36
2

4 36 1
2
4 6 1
=
2
4 6i
=
2

= 2 + 3i or

2 3i

The notation of complex numbers.

Complex numbers are symbolized by the pronumeral z. They comprise of two parts:
z = x + iy
The Real part of z, written

Re (z) = x

The Imaginary part of z, written

Im (z) = y

where x,y are elements of

Note the description complex does not imply non-real.

For example: the number 3 is a complex number and can be written as z = 3 + 0i
The number 3i is also a complex number z = 0 + 3i but is considered non real.
The following Venn diagram shows the relationship between:
~ The set of complex numbers
~ The set of real numbers
~ The set of rational numbers
Z ~ The set of integers
M ~ The set of imaginary numbers

Arithmetic of complex numbers.

Equality
a + bi = c + di

a=c b=d

Conjugate
If

z = x + iy

then the complex conjugate

z = x iy
Examples:

Find the complex conjugate of

I) 2 3i

II) i

III) 2

z = 0-i

z = 2 0i

Solution

z = 2 + 3i
Addition

z1 + z2
(a + bi) + (c + di)

Example:

If z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = 4 3i

(a + c) + i(b + d)
evaluate z1 + z2

Solution
z1 + z2 = 3 + 2i + 4 3i
=7i

Multiplication

z1.z2
(a + bi) (c + di)

Example:

If z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = 4 3i

(ac - bd) + i(ad + bc)

evaluate z1 z2

Solution
z1 z2 = (3 + 2i)(4 3i)
= 18 i

Reciprocals & realising the denominator

The reciprocal of z is

1
, usually the reciprocal is written in the form x + iy.
z

This involves a procedure similar to rationalising the denominator.

Example:

1
in the form a + ib
z

If z = 4 + 3i find

Solution

1
1
=
z
4 3i
=

1
4 3i

4 3i 4 3i

4 3i
16 9i 2

4 3i
16 9

4 3i
25

4
3
i
25
25

i2 = -1 so

Square roots of complex numbers

Example:

If z2 = 3 + 4i

find z

Solution
Let z = x + iy
Then

where x,y are

z2 = (x + iy)2
(x + iy)2 = 3 + 4i
x2 + 2xyi + y2i2 = 3 + 4i
x2 + 2xyi + y2(-1) = 3 + 4i
5

x2 y2 + 2xyi

= 3 +4i

Equating real and imaginary parts

x2 y2 = 3

-----1

2xy = 4

-----2

and

Solving simultaneously
in order to get a y2 to substitute into
4x2y2 = 16
x2y2 = 4
y2 =

4
x2

Substitute y2 into
x2 -

4
x2

=3

x4 4 = 3x2
x4 3x2 4 = 0
Let m = x2

then

m2 3m 4 = 0
(m 4)(m + 1) = 0
m=4

If

or

m = 1

x2 = 4

x2 = 1

x = 2

x = i (but x is an so x i)

x=2 y=1
x = -2 y = -1

z=2+i

or

z = -2 i
6

Examples:
I

If z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = 1 + i
a)

find

Re (z1 +z2)

b) Im (z1 z 2 )

Solution
z1 + z2 = (2 +3i) + (1+ i)

z1 z 2

= (2 + 3i)(1 i)
= 2 2i + 3i 3i2

= 3 + 4i

=2+i+3
=5+i
Re (z1 +z2) = 3

II

Im (z1 z 2 )

= 1

Show that zz = x 2 y 2

Solution
Let

z = x + iy

z = x iy
z z = (x + iy)(x iy)
= x2 y2i2
= x2 + y2
III

[HSC 2000

3 mks]

Find all pairs of integers x and y that satisfy (x + iy)2 = 24 + 10i

Solution
Let

z = x + iy
z2 = 24 + 10i

You can see that we are just finding the square root of 24 + 10i

Solving
(x + iy)2 = 24 + 10i
7

x2 + 2xyi + y2i2 = 24 + 10i

x2 y2 + 2xyi = 24 + 10i

Equating real and imaginary parts

x2 y2 = 24

-------

2xy = 10

------

and

Rearranging to make y2 the subject

xy = 5
x2y2 = 25
y2 =

25
x2

Substituting y2 into
x2 x4 25

25
= 24
x2

= 24x2

x4 24x2 25 = 0
Let m = x2
m2 24m 25 = 0
(m 25)(m + 1) = 0
m = 25

When

or

m = -1

x2 = 25

x2 = -1

x = 5

x I since x

x=5 y=1
x = -5 y = -1

i.e

z=5+i

or

z = -5 i
8

IV

[HSC 1990
Express

2 marks]

z
in the from x + iy , where x and y are real.
3 5i

Solution
Let z = a + ib
z
a ib
Then
=
3 5i
3 5i

a ib
3 5i

3 5i
3 5i

3a 5ai 3bi 5i 2 b
9 25i 2

3a 5b i(3b 5a)
9 25

3a 5b i(3b 5a)
34

3a 5b (3b 5a)
+
i
34
34

[HSC 2003 2 marks]

Let z = 2+ i and w = 1 i. Find in the form x + iy,

Solution
(i)

zw

ii)

4
z

4
z

4
2i

= 2 + 2i + i + i2

2i
4

2i 2i

= 1 + 3i

8 4i
4 i2

z w = (2 + i)(1 + i)

8 4i
5
8 4
= - i
5 5
=

Students attempt CAMBRIDGE EXERCISE 21 on p. 31

9

Geometrical representation of complex numbers.

The Argand diagram
Complex numbers can be plotted on an Argand diagram.
z = x + iy

Example:

If z = 3 + 2i ,

(x, y)

plot z and z on an Argand diagram

Solution
z = 3 + 2i

A (3, 2)

z = 3 - 2i

B (3, -2)

Radians (background knowledge).

Geometry uses degrees, minutes & seconds to measure an angle.
Another way to measure angles is in radians. A radian is the angle
an arc of 1 unit subtends at the centre of the circle of radius 1 unit.

radians = 180
1 =

radians
180

10

To convert degrees to radians:

Divide the angle (in degrees) by 180 (usually resulting in a fraction) and multiply by .
Example:

Convert to radians

a) 30

b) -120

Solution
=

30

180

120

180

2
3

Polar co-ordinates.
The point A with the Cartesian co-ordinates (a, b) on an Argand diagram can also be specified by polar
co-ordinates (r, ).
(r, ) :

r is the length the point is from the origin, r > 0

is the angle from the positive direction of the x-axis to the ray r.

For the point A to have unique polar co-ordinates (r, ) it is necessary to restrict to 2.

7
Otherwise points will be indistinguishable. For example (2, ) (2,
). We will make the
6
6
restriction - < , as illustrated below .

11

Examples:
I)

(1,

Plot on an Argand diagram the following polar co-ordinates:

)
4

II)

(-2,

2
)
3

III)

(1,

)
3

IV)

(2,

)
2

V)

(1,

B
A

E
C

5
)
6

Modulus Argument form.

With regard to the polar co-ordinate (r, ):
r is called the modulus of a complex number and is written z
z = x + iy =

x2 y2 = r

is called the argument (or principal argument) and is written as

y
arg z = tan-1 x =

12

arg z

Examples:

Find z and arg z of

Solution
I)

z = 2 + 2i

22 22

z =

=2 2
(2, 2)
arg z

2
= tan-1 2

2
2

= 45
=

II)

z = 3 + i

3 12

=
=2

arg z

1
= tan-1 3

(3, 1)
1

= 30
3

=
6

III)

z = -3 + i

3 1
2

=2

arg z

= - tan
3
-1

= 180 - 30
=-

5
6

13

(-3, 1)
= arg z

1
3

IV)

z = 2 + 4i

22 42

z =

(4, 2)

=2 5

arg z

4
= tan 2
-1

2
= 6326 (in radians ??)
= tan-12

V)

z=1-i

z = 12 (1) 2
=1

arg z

1
= 0 - tan-1 1

= 0 - 45
=

VI)

z = 3 i

(1, -1)

3 (1)
2

=2

arg z

1
= - + tan-1 3

= -180 + 30
= - +

5
6

14

3
1
(-3, 1)

= arg z

Modulus-Argument form.
y

From trigonometry

(r, )

x = r cos
r

y = r sin

z = x + iy
= rcos + i.rsin
= r(cos + isin)

[this is called modulus-argument form]

[can be abbreviated to rcis ]

r = z

where

Example:

[HSC 1997 2 marks]

= arg z in radians
Express 3 i in modulus-argument form

Solution

r =

(1) 2

= 2
tan

arg z =

1
3

So,

3 i = 2(cos

= 2(cos

15

+ isin
)
6
6

- isin ) *
6
6

Vectors.
A vector is a graphical representation of a magnitude and a direction.
Thus

z = x + iy

= OP

P (x, y)
r

Magnitude of OP

= length OP

= z

Direction of OP

= arg z
z as a vector can be written in

Cartesian form (x + iy)

Modulus-argument form (rcis)

Examples:

Sketch the following vectors on an Argand diagram

Solution
I)

z=3i

II)

z = 2 cis

2
3

y
Q
0

x
2

2
3

P (3, -1)

x
0

16

Since a vector is just a magnitude and a direction these vectors can be reproduced by translation.
Consider

z=1+i

marked by OP below.

y
P
2

1
x

the vector OP CD AB
B (3, 2)

y
2
A (2, 1)

P
2
1

0
D (-1, -1)

C (-2, -2)

17

Operations with vectors.

tip to tail

Addition

p+q =z
q

p
q
p

Subtraction

p-q =z
-q
Z

q
p

Examples:

If z1 = 3 2i

and z2 = -1 + 4i

sketch z1, z2, z1 + z2

Solution

z2
z1 + z2
z2 moved tip to tail
x
z1

y
18

In the above example, could you easily sketch a vector equivalent to z1 z2 ?

z2
z1 - z2

x
z1

Example:

In the following diagram find vectors if OP = z

a) BP

b) CP

c) PA

d) DP

Solution
Some other vectors we can easily find are
BO = 4

OC = 3i

OA = 1
P

a) BP = BO + OP

C (0,3)

=4+z
b) CP = OP OC
= z 3i
c) PA = OA OP

B (-4,0)

=1z
D (0,-3)
y

d) DP = DO + OP
= 3i + z

19

x
A (1,0)

Multiplication & division

Consider the following vectors

OAB OCD

OD OC
=
OA OB

& z1.z2
D

arg z3 = arg z1 + arg z2

= arg (z1.z2)
z3

z3
z1

z2

C
z2

A
z1

z3 = z2z1
1

= z1.z2

z3 = z1.z2

Rule: When multiplying

When dividing

~ multiply moduli and add arguments

~ divide moduli and subtract arguments

20

B (1, 0)

Example:
a) find

If z1 = 1 + i

and

z2 = 3 i

z1
z2

z
b) find arg 1
z2
c) hence find the smallest positive integer n such that if z =

1 i
, zn is real and evaluate zn
3 i

Solution

a)

z1 = 12 12
= 2

3 (1) 2

z2 =
= 2

z
z1
= 1
z2
z2
=

2
2

y
arg z1 = tan-1

b)

z1

=
1
1

= -

Note the sign as the arg is

below the x axis.

3
z2

1
arg z2 = - tan-1 3

1
1

z

arg z = arg 1 (from pt b) =
-
4
z
6
2

21

5
12

Subtracting the args as two

vectors are being divided.

c)

If zn is real then

arg zn = 0, , 2, 3,

i.e graphically zn is

= k , where k = 0, 1, 2
= n arg z

Now arg zn
So

= n

5
12

n =k

(prove later with de Moivre)

(from above)

5
12

12k
,
5

where k = 0, 1, 2

Since n is an integer > 0 the first value of k that makes n > 0 is k = 5

n = 12
Because zn is real it lies on the x axis.
z12 = z12
2

z12

arg z12 = 5
12

1
64

1
cis5
64

22

Triangular inequality
A

Draw any triangle ABC

What can you say about the relationship

between a,b & c?

b
C

a+bc
Example:

abc

[triangular inequality]

If z1 = 3 + 4i and z2 = 13

a)

find the greatest value of z1 + z2.

b)

If z1 + z2 takes its greatest value, express z2 in the form a + i b

Solution

a)

z1 + z2 z1 + z2

(triangle inequality)

32 42

z1 =
=5
So,

5 + 13 z1 + z2
18

z1 + z2

thus a maximum value of 18 is obtained.

b)

z2= kz1,

where k

z2 = k.z1

13 = k.5

k =

13
5

13
(3 + 4i)
5

39
42
+
i
5
5

(when z1 + z2 is a max)

Students attempt CAMBRIDGE EXERCISE 22 & 23 on p. 43 & 54

23

Powers & roots of complex numbers.

De Moivres theorem

Example:

(cos + i sin)n = cosn + i sinn

Prove De Moivres theorem by mathematical induction

Solution

S(n):

(cos + i sin)n

= cosn + i sinn),

n = 1, 2, 3,

S(1):

(cos + i sin)1

= cos + i sin

TRUE

If S(k) is true,

S(k + 1):

(cos + i sin)k

cosk + i sink

i.e. show (cos + i sin)k + 1 = cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1)

(cos + i sin)k + 1

= (cos + i sin)k (cos + i sin)

= (cosk + isink) (cos + i sin)
= cos k cos i cos k sin i cos sin k i 2 sin k sin
= cos k cos sin k sin i cos k sin cos sin k
= cos k i sin k
= cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1)

TRUE

If S(1) is True, S(k) is ture & S(k + 1) is true then

(cos + i sin)n

cosn + i sinn)

24

by induction

Example:

Show that z n z n , where n is an integral

Solution

Let

z = r(cos + i sin)

then

z = r(cos i sin)
zn = r n (cos + i sin)n

z n = r n (cos i sin)n

LHS

z n = r n (cos i sin)n
= r n (cosn i sinn)

RHS

[De Moivres theorem]

z n = rn(cos - i sin)n

= rn (cosn - i sinn)

[De Moivres theorem]

LHS = RHS

25

Example:

Express (3 + i)8 + (3 - i)8 in the form a + i b

Solution
Let
Now

z = 3 + i

z = 3 i
2

3 12

z =

arg z = tan-1

=2

z = r (cos + isin)
= 2 (cos

Now

1
3

= 30
=

So

(3, 1)

1
3

z = r (cos i sin)

+ isin )
6
6

z8 = 28 (cos

= 2 (cos

i sin )
6
6

+ i sin )8
6
6

= 28 (cos

4
4
+ i sin
)
3
3

[De Moivres theorem]

And from previous example z n z n

So

z 8 = z8

= 28(cos

- i sin )8
6
6

= 28 (cos

Now

(3 + i)8 + (3 - i)8

4
4
- i sin
)
3
3

z8 + z 8 = 28 (cos

[De Moivres theorem]

4
4
4
4
+ i sin
) + 28 (cos
- i sin
)
3
3
3
3
4
4
+ 28 cos
3
3

28 cos

256 - 05

- 256 + 0i

26

+ 256 - 05

Example:

a)

By expressing cos4, sin4 in terms and powers of cos and sin show that
tan4 =

4 tan 4 tan 3
1 6 tan 2 tan 4

Solution

Let

z = cos + isin
z4 = (cos + isin)4
= cos4 + isin4

and

[De moivres theorem]

z4 = (cos + isin)4 =

Ck an-k bk

Ck (cos)n-k (i sin)k

k 0

[polynomial expansion]

k 0

= 4C0(cos)4 (i sin)0 + 4C1(cos)3 (i sin)1 + 4C2(cos)2 (i sin)2 + 4C1(cos)1 (i sin)3 + 4C4(cos)0 (i sin)4
= cos4 + 4cos3 i sin + 6cos2 i2sin2 + 4cos i3 sin3 + i4 sin4
= cos4 + 4cos3 i sin + 6cos2 (-1)sin2 + 4cos (-1i) sin3 + (+1)sin4
= cos4 + 4icos3sin - 6cos2 sin2 - 4icossin3 + sin4
= cos4 - 6cos2 sin2 + sin4

i(4cos3sin - 4cossin3)

[in the form x + i y ]

Equating real and imaginary parts

cos4 = cos4 - 6cos2 sin2 + sin4

and

sin4 = 4cos3sin - 4cossin3

tan4 =

4cos 3 sin 4 cos sin 3

cos 4 6 cos 2 sin 2 sin 4

4 tan 4 tan 3
=
1 6 tan 2 tan 4

when divided thru by cos4

27

b)

Hence solve the equation t4 + 4t3 6t2 4t + 1 = 0

Solution
Rearranging the equation
t4 + 4t3 6t2 4t + 1 = 0
t4 6t2 + 1
1

= 4t 4t3
=

dividing thru by LHS

4t 4t 3
t 4 6t 2 1

Let t = tan

then

4t 4t 3
t 4 6t 2 1

4 tan 4 tan 3
=
1 6 tan 2 tan 4

solving tan4 = 1

tan4 = 1

let v = 4

tan v = 1
=

5 9 13
,
,
,
,
4
4
4
4

But v = 4

5 9 13
,
,
,
,
4
4
4
4

5 9 13
,
,
,
,
16 16 16
16

(4k 1)
16

finding a general rule

where k = 0, 1, 2, 3

28

Examining solutions remembering that the solution t = tan

16

5
16

9
16

13
16

17
16

21
16

25
16

019

149

-502 -066

019

149 -502

We can see that for values above k = 3 the solution repeats.

Hence the solutions are
t = tan

5
9

13
, tan
, tan , tan
16
16
16
16

29

Show that zn + z -n = 2cosn

Example:

Let z = cos + i sin

zn = (cos + i sin)n
= cosn + i sinn

[De Moivres theorem]

z -n = (cos + i sin)-n
=

1
(cos i sin ) n

1
cosn i sin n

1
cosn i sin n

cos n i sin n cosn i sin n

cos n i sin n
cos2 n i sin 2 n

realizing the denominator

= cosn - i sinn
So zn + z n

= cosn + i sinn

cosn - i sinn

= 2cosn

{students can prove z n z n = 2i sinn }

30

Example:

Show that sin3 = (3sin sin3)

*reasonably hard question

Method 1. Using the above results

Let z = cos + i sin
z1 z 1 = 2i sin
(z1 z 1)3

[from identity zn z n = 2i sinn ]

= (2i sin)3
= 8i3 sin3
= - 8i sin3

z3 z 3 = 2i sin3

Now

(z1 z 1)3

[from identity zn z n = 2i sinn ]

Ck an-k bk

Ck (z)n-k (-z -1)k

k 0

[polynomial expansion]

k 0

C0 (z)3 (-z -1)0

C1 (z)2 (-z -1)1 +

z3 - 3 z2 z -1 + 3 z1 z -2 - z 3

z3 - 3z + 3 z -1 - z 3

z3 - z 3

- 3z + 3 z -1

z3 - z 3

- 3(z - z 1)

C2 (z)1 (-z -1)2

C3 (z)0 (-z -1)3

Substituting the identities above

(z1 z 1)3

z3 - z 3

- 3(z - z 1)

- 8i sin3

2i sin3

- 3(2i sin)

- 8i sin3

2i sin3

- 6i sin

sin3

2i sin 3 6i sin

8i
8i

dividing through by 8i

31

sin3

sin 3 3 sin

4
4

sin3

1
(-sin3 + 3sin)
4

1
(3sin sin3)
4

RHS

Mr. Scovells way

Method 2.

Note: Use this (as it is the most consistent method in attacking problems) way unless

Asked to prove z n z n = 2i sinn

You encounter a problem (see question re: 16cos4 = 2cos4 + 8cos2 + 6)

or zn + z -n = 2cosn in a previous question

The method illustrated below is consistent with HSC questions. See Q.2 part d) 2003 HSC.

Let

z = cos + i sin
z3 = (cos + i sin)3
= cos3 + i sin3

[De Moivres theorem]

also
(cos + i sin)3

Ck an-k bk

Ck (cos)n-k (i sin)k

k 0

[polynomial expansion]

k 0

= 3C0(cos)3 (i sin)0 + 3C1(cos)2 (i sin)1 + 3C2(cos)1 (i sin)2 + 3C1(cos)0 (i sin)3

= cos3 + 3cos2 i sin + 3cos i2sin2 + i3 sin3
= cos3 + 3cos2 i sin - 3cos sin2 - i sin3
= cos3 - 3cos sin2 + i 3cos2sin - i sin3
= cos3 - 3cos sin2 + i (3cos2sin - sin3)

32

cos3 + i sin3

So

= cos3 - 3cos sin2 + i (3cos2sin - sin3)

Equating imaginary parts

sin3 = 3cos2sin - sin3
sin3

= 3cos2sin sin3
= 3(1 sin2)sin sin3
= 3sin 3sin3

- sin3

4sin3 = 3sin sin3

sin3

1
(3sin sin3)
4

Students can attempt showing

RHS

16cos4 = 2cos4 + 8cos2 + 6

Note: Mr. Scovells method will fail here due to 8cos2 which wont occur in the expansion.

33

Roots of unity & complex roots

Discussion
If

z = rcis
zn = rncisn

What about the reverse situation;

Solve z3 = 1

Example:
Let

given zn find z ?

= r(cos + i sin)

z3 = r3(cos + i sin)3
= r3 cos3 + i sin3
r3 cos3 + i sin3

= 1

r3 cos3 + i sin3 = 1 + 0 i

z3 = 12 0 2
=1

Now

z3 = 1 then
z = 1
Arg z3 = 0
z3

This means

= cos3 + i sin3

= cos0 + i sin0

Equating real & imaginary parts

cos3 = 1

and sin3 = 0

Solving for
3

= 0, 2, 4, 6, 8,

34

= 0,

2 4
,
,
3
3

Finding a general rule

2k
,
3

where k = 0, 1, 2, 3,

[Note that there a 3 distinct k values to correspond with 3 distinct solutions. We know there are 3
solutions because we are solving z3]

Now substituting what we know to evaluate the solutions of z

z = r = 1

2k
3

z = r(cos + i sin)
z = cos

2k
2k
+ i sin
3
3

When k = 0
z1

z1 = cos 0 + i sin0

1
=1

z2
When k = +1
3
2

2
2
z2 = cos
+ i sin
3
3
3
1
=
+
i
2
2

2
3

1
2

[In the form x + iy]

35

= 120

When k = - 1
z3 = cos

2
2
+ i sin
3
3

1
2

1
2

3
i
2

2
3

3
2

= 120

z3

[Note that if you had let k = 0, 1, 2 then]

For k = 2
z = cos

4
4
+ i sin
3
3
1
2

3
i
2

= z3
Also note that for z3 = 1 there are the equally spaced solutions around the unit circle, namely
1,

cos

2
2
+ i sin
,
3
3

cos

2
2
+ i sin
3
3

z2
2
3

z3

36

z1

If w is a non-real cube root of unity show that 1 + w + w2 = 0

Example:
w3 = 1

w3 1 = 0
(w 1)(w2 + w + 1) = 0
So

w1 =0

or

w2 + w + 1 = 0

w2 + w + 1 = 0

Since w is a NON-REAL root

w1

Example:

Let

a)

Find the values for which z6 = -64

z = r(cos + i sin)
z6 = r6(cos6 + i sin6)

[De Moivres theorem]

z6 = r6(cos6 + i sin6) = - 64 + 0i

642 02

z6 =

= 64 = r6
z

64

= 2

arg z6 =
= r

Arg z6 =
Rearranging - 64 + 0i into mod-arg form
z6 = r6(cos6 + i sin6) = 64 (cos + i sin)
6 = , 3, 5,

3 5
,
,
,
6 6
6

37

z6

Finding a general rule

2k
+
6
6

(2k 1)
6

k = 0, 1, 2, - 3

z = r(cos + i sin)

Substituting into

r=2

where

z = 2(cos

(2k 1)
6

where

k = 0, 1, 2, - 3

(2k 1)
(2k 1)
+ i sin
)
6
6

When k = 0,
z1 = 2(cos

= 2(
=

+ i sin )
6
6

3
1
+ i)
2
2

3 i

When k = -1
z2

= 2(cos

+ i sin
)
6
6

= 3 i

When k = 1
z3 = 2(cos

3
3
+ i sin
)
6
6

= 2i
38

When k = -2
z4

= 2(cos

3
3
+ i sin
)
6
6

= - 2i

When k = 2
z5

= 2(cos
=-

5
5
+ i sin
)
6
6

3 i

When k = -3
z6

= 2(cos
=-

5
5
+ i sin
)
6
6

3 i

Plotting the points

z3
z5

z1

z2

z6
z4

Note: z2 = z1

z4 = z 3

39

z6 = z 5

b)

Express z6 + 64 = 0 as a product of quadratic factors

z6 + 64 = 0
(z z1)(z z2)(z z3)(z z4)(z z5)(z z6) = 0

From above:

z2 = z 1

z4 = z 3

z6 = z 5

[(z z1)(z z1 )] [(z z3)(z z 3 )] [(z z5)(z z 5 )] = 0

[z2 z.z1 - z z1 + z1 z1 ] [z2 z.z3 - z z 3 + z3 z 3 ] [z2 z.z5 - z z 5 + z5 z 5 ] = 0
[z2 z(z1 + z1 ) + z1 z1 ] [z2 z(z3 + z 3 ) + z3 z 3 ] [z2 z(z5 - z 5 ) + z5 z 5 ] = 0

From above

z1 =

3 i

z3 = 2i

z5 = -

z1 =

3 i

z 3 = -2i

z5 = -

3 i
3 i

So
[z2 z( 3 i + 3 i ) + ( 3 i )( 3 i )][z2 z(2i + -2i) + (2i.-2i)][z2 z(- 3 i + (- 3 i ).( - 3 i )] = 0

3 i) +

[z2 2 3 z + 3 - i2] [z2 - 4i2] [z2 +2 3 z + 3 - i2] = 0

[z2 2 3 z + 4] [z2 + 4] [z2 +2 3 z + 4] = 0

Note: Some questions are more easily answered or require an answer using modulus-argument form
for z1, z2, z3

40

Example:

Factorise z5 1 into real linear and quadratic factors.

First step would be to solve z5 1 = 0

The working for the solutions is not shown here {students can solve for themselves as practice later ~
also in Ex 24 as a q}.
The 5 solutions would be

z1 = 1

when k = 0

z2 = cos

2
2
+ i sin
5
5

when k = +1

z3 = cos

2
2
+ i sin
5
5

when k = -1

z4 = cos

4
4
+ i sin
5
5

when k = 2

z5 = cos

4
4
+ i sin
5
5

when k = -2

Note:

z3 = z 2

Now

z5 = z 4

z5 1 = (z z1)(z z2)(z z3)(z z4)(z z5)

= (z z1)(z z2)(z z 2 )(z z4)(z z 4 )
= (z z1)[z2 z(z2 + z 2 ) + z2 z 2 ] [z2 z(z4 + z 4 ) + z4 z 4 ]

Note the identities: In x + i y

z + z = 2x

= (z 1)[z2 z(2 cos

[we could have used these identities in the previous Q]

z. z = x2 + y2 = 1 in the case where r = 1
r2 otherwise

4
2
) +1] [z2 z(2 cos
) + 1]
5
5

Students attempt CAMBRIDGE EXERCISE 24 on p. 60

41

Curves & regions in the Argand diagram.

Discussion.
Consider z to be a complex number that satisfies

Re (z) = 3

On the Argand diagram Re z would be a locus as illustrated below.

All the dotted lines represent the vectors z where Re z = 3. There are infinite amount of vectors
terminating along the bold line.

Sketching a curve
Example:

a) Sketch the curve defined by the equation

Im (z 1 + 3i) = 4

Let z = x + iy
Then

z 1 + 3i

= x + iy - 1 + 3i
= x - 1 + i( y + 3)

Since Im (z 1 + 3i) = 4

1
( y + 3) = 4
z

y = 1

All the dotted vectors z have Im z = 1 and terminate along the bold line. You dont have to draw the
dotted vectors. They are there simply to illustrate the concept.

42

b)

Find the minimum value of z for which Im (z 1 + 3i) = 4 occurs and state the vector z
for this condition.

1
z

z will have a minimum value when z is perpendicular to y = 1

z

=0+i
=i

Example: Sketch the region in the Argand diagram defined by

6 Re [(2 3i) z ] < 12

Let
Then

and

Re z . Im z 0

z = x + iy
[(2 3i) z ] = (2 3i)( x + iy)
The shaded area represents

= 2x + 2iy 3ix 3i2y

6 2x + 3y < 12

= 2x + 3y + i (2y 3x)

and the intersection with

So

Re [(2 3i) z ] = 2x + 3y

We need to graph 6 2x + 3y < 12

x.y 0
2

And the intersection of

Re z . Im z = x . y
Which is the graph of

2x +3y = 12
2x +3y = 6

x.y0

[Note xy 0 are all points in the first quadrant]

43

Example:
a)

z satisfies z 1 + 2i = z + 3

Sketch the locus of the point P representing z

ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
Let

z = x + iy

Then z 1 + 2i = z + 3 becomes
1

x + iy 1 + 2i = x + iy + 3
x 1 + i(y + 2) = x + 3 + iy

Finding the modulus of each side

( x 1) 2 ( y 2) 2
(x 1)2 + (y + 2)2

( x 3) 2 y 2

= (x + 3)2 + y2

x2 2x + 1 + y2 + 4y + 4 = x2 + 6x + 9 + y2

4y = 8x + 4
y = 2x + 1

GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION
Let the point P be the locus of z
Rearranging

z 1 + 2i = z + 3

z (1 - 2i) = z (- 3)
z z2

z z1 = z z2
-3

Geometrically this means that the distance of z

from the point (1, -2) is equal the distance from
the point (-3, 0).
Since z is equidistant from the two points the locus of z
must be the perpendicular bisector of the two points.

z z1
x

(1, -2)

Note: the vectors z z1 & z z2

y
Start from the respective points and end along the bold line.
If they have trouble with the above geometry- can use below to reinforce the geometrical concepts.
44

z starts from the origin and terminates in infinite places along the dotted line
z2 starts from the orgin and ends at the point (-3, 0)
z z2 is found with vector subtraction

z z2

-3

-3

z2

z2
z z2

b)

Find the minimum value of z

The minimum value of z is the perpendicular distance from the origin to the locus.
d

ax1 by1 c

a2 b2

2(0) 1(0) 1
2 2 (1) 2
x

1
units
5

45

Discussion
Sketch the region defined by z 2
The shaded region defines all vectors with a modulus 2
2

z
-2

2
z

-2

Example:

If z satisfies z 2 2i =

a)

Sketch the locus of point P representing z on an Argand diagram.

b)

Find the maximum value for z

c)

Find the range of values for arg z

ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
a)

Let z = x + iy

z 2 2i =

x + iy 2 2i =
x 2 + i(y 2 ) =

2
2

46

( x 2) 2 ( y 2) 2

(x 2)2 + (y 2)2

= 2

x 2 + i(y 2 )=

This is a circle with centre (2, 2) and a radius of

2 units

zmax
(2, 2)

zmin
x

GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION
Let z = 2 +2i
z 2 2i =
z (2 + 2i) =
z z1 =

(2, 2)

z1

Constructing the answer in parts

z1 is a vector starting at the origin and
terminating at (2, 2)
Since we are dealing with the modulus z z1
47

The vector

z z1 has a distance of

2 units

z z1 will be a vector originating at (2, 2) and meeting vector z

2 units away (in all directions).

y
z z1=

z z1
(2, 2)

z
z1

b)

The maximun value for z

z has a maximum modulus when z

y
(3, 3)

is furthest from the origin. Remember z

2

starts at the origin and terminates at any

(2, 2)

point on the circle. The maximum

1
value of z occurs at the point (3, 3).
zmax
So

z = 3 + 3i

48

c)

The range of values for arg z

Finding COD & AOD

OB =

2+

is found by COD arg z

AOD

2 = 2 2

A
2

BOD

= 45

(2, 2)

=
4

z1
2 2

C
AOB = BOC = sin

2
=
2 2

1
=
2

Now COD = BOD BOC ( )

=

6 4

12

And AOD = BOD + AOB

=

+
6

5
12

the range of values for arg z is

arg z
12
12

49

Discussion
Consider the Argand diagram below and the equation of the locus z

O
-
3

arg z =

The gradient of OP is

= tan
=-

the equation of the locus is

3
3 x where x >0

y=-

[in the form y = mx + b]

Note since the locus has an argument z 0 as the vector z = 0 has no argument.

Example:

Shade in the region in the Argand diagram defined by

arg z
4
2

z< 2

OR*

* Note OR and not AND. This means you shade in the union of both regions and not the intersection.

-2

-2

50

Example:
a)

Sketch the locus

arg (z 1 2i) =

When dealing with arguments a GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION is sometimes easier.

GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION

arg (z 1 2i) =

Note the point from which the locus

originates is (1, 2). The locus then

arg (z [1 + 2i]) =
3

heads in the direction of

Let z1 = 1 + 2i

[see z1 below]

.
3

Note that it does not include the

arg (z z1) =
3

point A

z - z1

z1
z

51

b)

i) sketch arg (z 1 2i) =

arg (z 1 2i) =

arg (z [1 + 2i]) =
Let z1 = 1 + 2i
arg (z z1) =

6
[see z1 below]

z - z1
A
z
z1

ii)

What is the Cartesian equation of the locus?

We know a point (1, 2) and the gradient can be found using
m = tan
= tan

y y1 = m(x x1)
y2

1
3

1
(x 1)
3

y=

y =

52

1
1
x+2
3
3
1
2 3 1
x+
where x > 1
3
3

Example:

z is a complex number that satisfies

2 z + 3 3

and

0 arg (z + 3)

Find the area & perimeter of the region so formed by these conditions.

GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION
2 z + 3 3
2 z - (- 3) 3

Let z1 = - 3
2 z z1 3

0 arg (z - z1)
3

is a circle with centre (-3, 0) and radii 2 & 3 respectively

0 arg (z + 3)

is the direction of the vector z z1 from the point (-3, 0)

(-3, 0)

53

-1

Area

1
(R2 r2)
6

2
(3 22)
6

5
units2
6

=2 +

Example:

Perimeter =

1
1
2R +
2r + 1 + 1
6
6
1
2(3 + 2) + 2
6

5
units
3

If z satisfies arg (z + i) = arg (z 1), sketch the locus of P representing z in the

Argand diagram. [reasonably hard question]

GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION
arg (z + i) = arg (z 1)
The vectors

(z + i) starts from the point (0, -1)

(z 1) starts from the point (1, 0)

P1
z

O
-i

+1

B (1, 0)
P2

A (0, -1)

P2

The vector z could terminate at the points P1, P2, & P3 however
54

Case

P1

If P1 represents z then
AP = z + i
BP = z 1
And

arg AP = arg BP

[both vectors head is a positve direction]

[the direction itself does not matter so long as it is the same direction for both vectors]
The interval containing P1 is a possible locus of arg (z + i) = arg (z 1)
Case

P2

If P2 represents z then
AP = z + i
BP = z 1
arg AP arg BP

But

[the vectors arguments are opposite]

[AP is in a positive direction while Bpis in a negative]

The interval with P2 can not be a possible locus of arg (z + i) = arg (z 1)

Case 3

P3

If P3 represents z then
AP = z + i
BP = z 1
And

arg AP = arg BP

[both vectors head is a negative direction]

The interval containing P3 is a possible locus of arg (z + i) = arg (z 1)

Students attempt CAMBRIDGE EXERCISE 25 on p. 71

55

Formula test.

56

57

58

59

60