Growel' Swine

Nutrition Guide
Preface
The objective of the Swine Nutrition Guide emphasizing a balanced approach to this sometimes
remains the same: to provide the reader with a complex subject but also briefly explaining the
simple, easy-to-read source of practical information specific mechanics as well.
on the nutrition of the pig. Fundamentally, the pig
has changed little since 1989 when the first edition Chapters 6 to 9 discuss the day-to-day feeding of
was released; of course, genetic progress has been various classes of swine. Because nutrition cannot
impressive, but the list of nutrients required by the be considered in isolation, other aspects of manage-
pig and how they are used have remained much the ment are also included. The authors have taken a
same. more factorial approach to the design of feeding
programs than in the first edition. This reflects
What has changed over the past 6 years is the what we believe to be a growing trend in pig nutri-
tremendous growth in knowledge on how to define tion - to define nutrient requirements on the basis of
nutrient requirements and how to provide these specific traits and desired levels of productivity,
nutrients more precisely and effectively with a with economics being considered in all instances.
keener eye to economics. Perhaps even more
striking has been the rapid progress of pork produc- Chapter 10 considers the processing and manufac-
ers in their ability to take advantage of this informa- turing of pig diets, a step that is often taken for
tion and apply it "on the farm." granted - at considerable peril. Mixing and delivery
of feed to the pig represents the final step in the
The target audience of the Swine Nutrition Guide nutrition continuum. Failure to manufacture diets
also remains the same: pork producers, workers in properly can erase any gains achieved through
agribusiness and extension, and students. The improved diet formulation or ingredient selection!
common interest is information on how the pig uses
nutrients, how to determine the nutrient require- Chapter 11 provides information on toxins or
ments of a given class of swine and how feedstuffs antinutritional factors that may be present in feeds
can be most effectively employed in the diet. We and feedstuffs, either as a consequence of contami-
sincerely hope that the Guide continues to fill this nation or due to the natural composition of the
need - serving as a single source reference on these feedstuff itself. A new chapter (12) on water has
topics. been added to the second edition of the Swine
Nutrition Guide, discussing both nutritional and
The book is not intended to make all readers pig quality issues.
nutritionists, but rather to provide an understanding
and appreciation for the importance of a holistic We trust that the interests of the individual pig are
approach to the subject; the pig does not exist in a not lost in the pages of this book. Readers will note
vacuum and to be successful, feeding programs that considerations of pig behaviour creep into
must be designed with many factors in mind, many chapters as we learn more about this aspect of
including genetics, the environment, herd health the animal that we serve - and who has served us so
and, of course. economics. well. Our respect and affection for this creature, at
once both intelligent and stubborn, fun and frustrat-
The format of the second edition remains the ing, neat and messy, motivate us to again dedicate
same as the first. Chapters l, 2 and 3 provide the Swine Nutrition Guide to the pig.
background on the more fundamental aspects of
nutrition. Chapter 4 describes more than 40 com-
mon ingredients, including recommendations on J.F. Patience
how they might be used in pig diets. Chapter 5 then P.A. Thacker
explains how to successfully formulate diets, C.F.M. de Lange
Table of Contents
1. The Science of Nutrition I
What is Nutrition 1
The Role of the Computer . 3
The Future of Nutrition 4

2. Gastrointestinal Physiology 5
The Role of the Digestive Tract .. . 5
Types of Digestive Tracts 6
Eating and Swallowing 7
The Stomach . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . .. . . . .. . 7
The Small Intestine . . . . 9
The Large Intestine .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . 12

3. Nutrients 15
What is a Nutrient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 15
Nutrient Availability 15
Nutrient Requirements .. . . . . 16
Energy 16
Amino Acids . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. 22
Minerals 31
Vitamins .. . . .. . 40
Essential Fatty Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. .. .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . 48
Water 49

4. Ingredients 51
Ingredient versus Nutrient .. 51
Animal Sources 53
Blood Meal .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 54
Bone Meal 55
Feather Meal 55
Fish Meal .. .. 56
Fish Silage 57
Meat and Bone Meal .. .. 59
Whole Milk 60
Dried Skim Milk 61
Whey 61
Plant Sources . . . . . . . .. 63
Alfalfa 63
Barley 65
Barley: High Moisture 67
Barley: Hulless 69
Beet Pulp 71
Buckwheat 71
Cano la Meal . . . .. .. 73
 Canola Seed: Full Fat 74
Corn . 76
Corn By-Products . 78
Dried Bakery Product . 80
Fababeans . 80
Field Peas .. 82
Grain Dust . 84
Grain Screenings 84
Lentils 86
Molasses 87
Oats 87
Oats: Naked .. . . . . . 89
Oat Groats . . . . . 90
Potatoes and Potato Products . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . .. . . .. 90
Rye 92
Soybeans: Full Fat . . .. 93
Soybean Meal 96
Sunflower Meal . . . 97
Sunflower Seeds . .. . . . 98
Triticale . . .. .. . . . . . 100
Wheat 101
Wheat Bran .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . 104
Wheat Shorts . . . 105
Wild Oat Groats . . . . . . 105
Fats and Oils . . . . . .. 107
Mineral Ingredients .. .. 112
Probiotics 113
Synthetic Amino Acids 115
Organic Acids 115
Feed Flavours . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. 116

5. Diet Formulation 119

Define Objectives . .. . . 119
Define Requirements 121
Select and Characterize Ingredients 122
Diet Formulation 123
Evaluating Diet Quality 128
Conducting a Feeding Trial 131
Common Calculations and Conversions 132

6. Nutrition of the Breeding Herd 133

Feeding and Management of Replacement Gilts 134
Feeding the Sow During Gestation 137
Feeding the Sow Around Farrowing Time 151
Feeding the Sow During Lactation 154
Feeding the Sow at Weaning 161
Feeding Boars 162
7. Feeding the Suckling Piglet 167
The Importance of Colostrum . .. 167
The Need for Supplementary Iron 168
Water Requirements 168
Use of Milk Replacers I 69
Creep Feeding . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . 169

8. Feeding the Weaned Pig 173

Stresses at Weaning 173
Performance Targets 174
Maximizing Feed Intake I 74
Managing the Early-Weaned Pig 176
Nutrient Requirements of the Weaned Pig 177
Feeding Programs .. . . 178
Diet Composition . . . . .. 180
Diet Formulations . . . 183
Feed Additives .. ... . . . . 183
The Pig's Environment 184

9. Feeding Management of Market Hogs 187

Goals for the Feeder Barn . 187
Lean Tissue Growth in Growing-Finishing Pigs 188
Feed Intake in Feeder Pigs . .. .. . . . . .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . J 91
Feed Utilization in Feeder Pigs . . 192
Factors Affecting Nutrient Requirements in Growing-Finishing Pigs l 94
Nutrient Allowances and Diet Formulation . 196
Typical Diets .. . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . 20 l
Feed Additives . .. .. . . 203
Phase Feeding 203
Split-sex Feeding 204
Feeding to Appetite Versus Restricted Feeding . . 206
Choice Feeding .. . . . . .. 207
Feeding of Pigs Housed Outdoors . . 207
Feed Separation . . . 208
Feed Wastage .. . 209
Monitoring Performance . .. .. 210
Meat Quality 213

10. Diet Processing and Delivery 215

Grinding . . .. . . . .. .. . 216
Mixing 219
Pelleting . .. . . . . . . . . . 220
Liquid Feeding 223
Drying Grains 224
High Moisture Grains 224
Mixing Feeds on the Farm 225
Processing Problems 226
Feeds Act and Regulation 227
 11. Toxic Substances in Feeds 231
Toxicants Produced by Plants 231
Exogenous Microbes and Toxin Producers 235
Prevention of Mycotoxin Contamination 239
Treatment 239
Safety 240

12. Water 241

Requirements and Intake .. . . 241
Gestating Sows . . . .. 242
Lactating Sows 243
Piglets . . . .. .. . .. 243
Weanling Pigs . 244
Water Delivery .. 244
Water Quality 245
Impact of Water Quality . 248
Response to Poor Quality Water 249

Appendix I. Typical Nutrient Composition of Selected Feed Ingredients 253

Appendix II. Calibrating Proportioner-Type Mills 261

Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Glossary . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. .. 265
Index 271
List of Tables
3-1. Essential Nutrients in the Diet of the Pig 15
3-2. Proportions of Gross, Digestible and Metabolizable
Energy (Kcal/kg) in Common Ingredients 18
3-3. Fibre Content of Ingredients Used in Swine Diets 19
3-4. Digestibility of Ether Extract of Common Feedstuffs 20
3-5. Effect of Bushel Weight on Nutrient Content of Cereal Grains 21
3-6. Minimum Recommended Bushel Weightsfor Grains Used in
Swine Rations 21
3-7. Nitrogen Content of Amino Acids 24
3-8. Protein Estimation Adjusted for Corrected Nitrogen Factors
and Non-Protein Nitrogen Content 24
3-9. Amino Acid Profile of Various Protein Fractions in Com 26
3-10. Effect of Increasing Total Nitrogen (Crude Protein) on the Lysine
Content of Wheat and Oats 26
3-11. Average Apparent Availability of Amino Acids(%) in
Common Ingredients 28
3-12. Suggested Optimum Amino Acid Balance in Protein
(Ideal Protein) for Swine 31
3-13. Approximate Mineral Composition of the Animal Body 32
3-14. Total Phosphorus Content and Phosphorus Availability
of Some Common Ingredients 33
3-15. Feed Grade Phosphate Sources 33
3-16. Calculating 'Salt' Values from Sodium or Chloride Assays in Swine Diets 35
3-17. Maximum Tolerable Limits and Supplemental Sources
of the Microminerals 37
3-18. Stability of Vitamins in Premixes and During Pelleting and Extrusion 43
3-19. Alpha-tocopherol Content of Feed Ingredients 45

4-1. Consistency ofVarious Protein Sources used in Swine Diets 52

4-2. Performance of Weanling Pigs Fed Diets Containing Graded
Levels of fish Silage 58
4-3. Performance of Growing Pigs (25 to 55 kg body weight) Fed Diets
Containing Graded Levels of Oily Fish Silage (44% fat in the pure product) 58
4-4. Effect of Feeding Fish Silage on the Reproductive Performance of Sows 58
4-5. Replacement Scheme for Using Whole Milk in Swine Diets 61
4-6. Growth, Feed Intake and Carcass Characteristics of Pigs
(54-100 kg) Fed Alfalfa 64
4-7. Composition of Barley Varieties and Performance of
Growing-finishing Pigs (approximately 20-95 kg body weight)
Fed Various Barley Varieties 65
4-8. Utilization of Frozen or Sprouted Barley (Bonanza) by Growing Pigs 67
4-9. Chemical Analysis of High Moisture and Dry Barley 68
4-10. Amount of High Moisture Grain Necessary to Supply the Same
Amount of Dry Matter as Regular Barley (90% DM) 69
4-11. Performance and Carcass Characteristics of Pigs Fed Acid-treated
High Moisture Barley (74.5% CM) or Regular Barley (85.8% DM) 69
4-12. Performance of Starter Pigs Fed Condor Hulless or Samson Hulled Barley 70
4-13. Performance of Growing-finishing Pigs Fed Diets Based on Hulled or
Hulless Barley 70
4-14. Performance of Growing Pigs (20-60 kg) Fed Diets Containing
Various Levels of Buckwheat in Combination With Barley 72
4-15. Performance of Female and Castrated Male Pigs Fed Diets
Containing Equal Levels of Digestible Nutrients 73
4-16. Performance of Starter Pigs Fed Diets Containing Whole Canola Seed 75
4-17. Performance and Carcass Composition of Pigs Fed Diets Containing
Whole Canola Seed 75
4-l8. Nutritional Value of Immature Com
for Starter Pigs Fed Corn-Soybean Meal Based Diets 77
4-19. Effect of Bushel Weight on Rate and Efficiency
of Growth and on Digestibility of Energy in Corn 79
4-20. Performance of Starter Pigs ( l 0-25 kg) Fed Graded Levels of Fababeans 81
4-21. Performance of Grower Pigs ( 16-45 kg) Fed Diets Containing Fababeans 81
4-22. Effect of Fababeans on Reproductive Performance 81
4-23. Performance of Pigs (27-95 kg) Fed Peas as a Replacement for Soybean Meal 83
4-24. Performance of Growing-finishing Pigs (25-90 kg) Fed a
Mixture of Peas and Canola Meal 83
4-25. Comparison of the Composition of Grain Dust and Parent Grains 84
4-26. Chemical Composition of Five Samples of
Feed Wheat Screenings Compared to Wheat 85
4-27. Effects of Feeding Cull Lentils on Digestibility and Pig Performance (23-100 kg) 86
4-28a. Effect of Substituting Oats for Com on the Performance of Weaner Pigs 88
4-28b. Effect of Substituting Oats for Com on Grower Pig Performance 88
4-29. Comparison of Naked Oats and Other Cereal
Grains as an Energy Source for Weaner Pigs (25-56 days). 89
4-30. Performance of Market Hogs Fed Naked Oats (32- 79 kg) 89
4-31. Effect of Enzyme Supplementation on the Performance of
Growing Pigs (20-98 kg) Fed Rye 93
4-32. The Effect of Heat Treatment on the Digestible Energy Content of Soybeans 95
4-33. Performance of Growing-finishing Pigs Fed Roasted Beans as the
Sole Supplemental Protein Source in Com-based Diets 96
4-34. Effect of Feeding Sunflower Seeds on the Performance of Weaner Pigs 99
4-35. Performance of Growing Pigs Fed Graded Levels of Sunflower Seeds 99
4-36. Trypsin Inhibition Levels in Spring Triticale I 00
4-37. Performance of Grower Pigs Fed Diets Containing Triticale, Wheat or Com lOI
4-38. Comparison of Hard and Soft Wheat in the Diet of Pigs from 61 - L2 l kg 102
4-39. Replacement of Hard Red Spring Wheat
with Soft Wheat in Pig Starter Diets l 02
4-40. Performance of Starter Pigs Fed Either Sprouted or Regular Soft Wheat I 04
4-4 l. Typical Specifications for Wheat and its By-products I 05
4-42. Performance of Starter Pigs (7-25 kg) Fed Various Oat Products 106
4-43. Estimating Iodine Value from Fatty Acid Composition of a Fat l 09
4-44. Digestible Energy Content of Selected Fat Sources 11 O
4-45. Summary of Responses to Supplemental Fat in Sow Diets 11 I
4-46. Fat Content - Common Feed Ingredients III
4-47. Typical Analysis(%) of Common Mineral
Ingredients Used in Swine Diets 112
a. Macrominerals 112
b, Microminerals 113
4-48. Performance of Starter Pigs Fed Diets Containing a Probiotic 114
4-49. Performance of Growing Pigs (23-38 kg) Fed Diets Containing a Probiotic 114
4-50. Effect of Organic Acid Supplementation on Starter Pig Performance 116

5-1. Typical Ingredient Output from a Feed Formulation Program 124

5-2. Typical Nutrient Output from a Feed Formulation Program 125
5-3. Diet Composition from Pierson Square Calculation 127
5-4. Recommended Schedule for Feed Testing on a Farm Manufacturing Three Diets 129
5-5. Calculation of the Theoretical Nutrient Composition of a Feed 130
5-6. Examples of Conclusive and Inconclusive Test Results Based on ADG 132

6-1. Reproductive Efficiency of Average and Superior Swine Herds 133

6-2. Influence ofFeeding Level Following Mating on Embryo Survival in Gilts 136
6-3. Effect ofFeed Level in Early Gestation
on Plasma Progesterone Levels and Embryo Survival 136
6-4. Effect of Energy Intake (day 75 to I 05 of Gestation) on Mammary
Development in Gilts 137
6-5. Comparison of Sows Fed with Electronic Sow Feeders or in Gestation Stalls 139
6-6. The Influence of Dispensing Speed on the Behaviour and Feed Intake of
Sows Using the Slow Feeding System 141
6-7. Effect of Feeding Level During Last 23 days of Gestation on
Reproductive Performance 144
6-8. Components of Gestational Weight Gain 144
6-9. Feed Allowances for Dry Sows According to Body Condition Score 145
6-10. Metabolic Body Weights of Sows and Maintenance Energy Requirements 145
6-1 I. Energy Requirements of Sows (estimated) During Gestation 147
6-12. Daily Amino Acid Requirements for Maintenance of Gestating Sows 148
6-13. Daily Amino Acid Requirements {g/day) for Growth of Gestating Sows 148
6-14. Estimated Total Amino Acid Needs of Pregnant Sows Under
Various Conditions 149
6-15. Mineral Requirements of Gestating Sows 150
6-16. Vitamin Requirements of Gestating Sows 150
6-17. Effects of Folic Acid Supplementation of Diets Fed to Gestating Sows 150
6-18. Effect of injection of Beta-Carotene on Reproductive Performance of
Multiparous Sows 151
6-19. Effect of Vitamin E on Sow Productivity 151
6-20a. Examples of Gestation Diets 153
6-20b. Examples of Lactation Diets 153
6-21. Effect of Type of Fat Fed During Late
Gestation and Early Lactation on Sow Productivity 154
6-22a. Effect of Sow Feed Intake During Lactation
on Subsequent Reproductive Performance 154
6-22b. Effect of Feed Level on Milk Yield at 21 Days 155
6-23. Effect of Feed Intake During Pregnancy on Feed Intake During Lactation 155
6-24. Effect of Feeding Various Levels of Protein During Lactation
on Sow Feed Intake and Body Condition 156
6-25. Effect of Method of Feeding on Sow Feed
Intake and Weight Change During Lactation 156
6-26. Performance of Sows Fed Artificial Flavours During Lactation 157
6-27. Effect of Environmental Temperature on Feed Intake and Weight
Loss of the Sow and Weight Gain of the Litter 158
6-28. Estimated Daily Energy Requirements of Lactating Sows 159
6-29. Estimated Daily Amino Acid Requirements for Milk Production by the Sow 160
6-30. Estimated Total Daily Amino Acid Requirements of Lactating Sows 161
6-31. Effect of Feed and Water Deprivation.
Prior to Weaning, on Days to Successful Service After Weaning 161
6-32. Effect of Feed Intake During the Weaning to Remaining Interval
on the Reproductive Performance of Gilts and Sows 162
6-33. Nutrient Requirements of Developing Boars (20-100 kg) 163
6-34. Energy Requirements of Working Boars 164
6-35. Composition of Diets for Adult Boars 165
7-1 Effect of Weaning Weight at 25-29 Days
of Age on Piglet Performance to 78 Days of Age 167

8-1. Recommended Weaning Age for Disease Elimination 174

8-2. Performance Targets for Pigs from 7 to 25 kg Body Weight 174
8-3. Nutrient Requirements of the Weanling Pig 176
8-4. Diet Composition Guidelines for the Weanling Pig 181
8-5. Sample Diets for Weanling Pigs 182
8-6. Effect of Medication on the Performance of Weanling Pigs in a High Health Herd 183
8-7. Recommended Floor Space Allowances for Weanling Pigs 185

9-1. Goals for the Feeder Barn 187

9-2. Saskatchewan Grading Table 190
9-3. Observed Lean Growth Rates in Growing-finishing Pigs in
Relation to Growth Rates and Carcass Lean Yield Content 191
9-4. Effect of Health Status on Performance in Growing-finishing Pigs 195
9-5. Estimated Available (apparent ilea! digestible) Lysine Requirements
for a Growing Pig at 50 kg Body Weight 196
9-6. Estimation of the Lowest Cost per Unit of Energy in Growing Pig Diets 197
9-7. Effect of Dietary Energy Density on the Voluntary Feed Intake
and Performance of Entire Male Pigs between 22 and 50 kg Body Weight 197
9-8. Recommended Allowances of Available(apparent ilea) digestible)
Lysine in Relation to Lean Growth Potential and Body Weight
in Growing-finishing pigs 198
9-9. Estimated Change in the Balance in which Amino Acids are
Required by Growing Pigs with Average Lean Growth
Potentials and with Increasing Body Weights 199
9-10. Recommendations for Vitamin Fortification of Grower and
Finisher Diets 199
9-11. Recommendations for Mineral Levels in Grower and finisher Diets 200
9-12. Examples of Growout Diets based on Wheat and Barley 201
9-13. Examples ofGrowout Diets Based on Corn 202
9-14. Pig Response to Antimicrobials in Feed of Growing-finishing Pigs 203
9-15. Estimated Value of a One versus Two versus Three Phase Feeding
Program in Pigs with Average Lean Growth Potential 204
9-16. Performance of Barrows and Gilts Fed a Similar Diet 204
9-17. Effect of Sex and Dietary Lysine Level on Performance in Finishing Pigs 205
9-18. Estimated Effect of Level of Feed Intake on Animal and Financial
Performance in Pigs with a Slightly Better than Average
Lean Growth Potential 207
9-19. Performance Data Comparing Shelter and Conventionally Raised
Feeder Pigs During the Summer, Fall and Winter 208
9-20. Effect of Feed Handling on Pig Performance 209
9-21. Effect of Floor feeding on Growing-finishing Pig Performance 209
9-22. Effect of Feed Form on Performance of ad libitum Fed Pigs 210
9-23. Calculation of Days to Market Based on Inventory Turnover 211
9-24. Estimated Performance of Feeder Pigs Based on Feed Intake and
Growth Curves Presented in Figure 9-11 213
9-25. Recommended Pen Floor Space Allowances for Growing Pigs 214

10-1. Effect of Fineness of Grind on the Performance of Weanling Pigs

Fed Barley-based Diets 216
10-2. Effect of Fineness of Grind on the Performance of Finishing
Pigs Fed Barley-based Diets 216
10-3. Effect of Particle Size on the Performance of Lactating Sows
Fed a Corn-based Diet 217
10-4. Impact of Fineness of Grind on Mill Productivity and Energy Efficiency 217
10-5. Effect of Screen and Hammer Wear on Grinding Effectiveness 218
10-6. Effect of Fineness of Grind of Corn on Incidence of Ulcers
and other Stomach Lesions in Swine 219
10-7. Effect of Fineness of Grind of Barley on the Incidence of Ulcers
and other Stomach Lesions in Swine 219
10-8. Impact of Mixing Time on Diet Uniformity and Performance of
Weanling Pigs 219
10-9. Impact of Mixing Time on Diet Uniformity and Performance of
Finishing Swine 220
10-10. Impact of Pelleting Corn-based Diets on Finishing Pig Performance.
Nutrient Digestibility and the Incidence of Ulcers 221
10-11. Effect of Pelleting Diets based on Canola and Cereal Grains on
Pig Performance 222
10-12. Effect of Pellet Fines on Performance of Finishing Pigs Fed a
Corn-based Diet 222
10-13. Effect of Pelleting and Fines on Performance of Newly-weaned
Pigs Fed Com-based Diets 223
10-14. Separation of Feeds Following Mixing on the Farm 226
10-15. Nutrient Guarantees Required for Swine Diets that are Exempt
from Registration Requirements 228

11-1. Phytate Phosphorus Content of Common Feedstuffs 232

11-2. Naturally-occurring Phytase in Common Feedstuffs 232
11-3. Results of Salmonella Assays Reported by the Veterinary
Diagnostic Laboratory at the Pennsylvania State University 235
11-4. Survey of Raw Materials Provided by Five Feed
Compounders in the U.K. 235

12-1. Nipple Drinker Flow Rates on Saskatchewan Farms 244

12-2. Recommended Nipple Drinker Flow Rates for Various Classes of Swine 245
12-3. Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for Livestock 245
12-4. Assays to Include in the Chemical Evaluation
of Water Used in Pig Production 246
12-5. Effect of Aeration and Seven Days Settling on Water Chemistry 247
12-6. Effect of Water Quality on the Performance
of Weanling Pigs Fed a Diet Containing Antibiotics 248
12-7. Effect of Water Quality on the Performance of
Weanling Pigs Fed a Diet Free of Antibiotics 249
12-8. Effect of Pen Temperature and Water Quality on the
Performance of Newly-weaned Pigs 249
List of Figures

I-la. Cost of Production Budget: all costs

I-lb. Cost of Production Budget: variable costs only

2-1. Gastrointestinal Tracts 6

2-2a. Capacity of Gastrointestinal Tract 7
2-2b. Length of the Gastrointestinal Tract 7
2-3. Nutrient Digestion along the Gastrointestinal Tract of the Pig 12

3-1. Pig Response to Level of Nutrient in the Diet 16

3-2. Distribution of Dietary Energy 17
3-3. Relationship of Protein Content to Protein Type in Cereal Grains 26
3-4. Relationship between Amino Acid Level in Diet and Observed
Apparent and Calculated "True" Ilea! Amino Acid Digestibilities
(Figure 3-4a.), and the Relationship between Amino Acid Level in Diet
and Observed Recovery at Distal £1eum (total endogenous and
non-digested dietary aminoacids) (Figure 3-4b.) 29
3-5. Diagram Tllustrating What is Meant by the Term Amino Acid Balance
as it Relates to Evaluating Swine Diets 30

4-1. Flow Diagram Showing Choices in Selection

of Ingredients used in Practical Diets 53
4-2. Triglyceride 107

5-1. Determination of a Nutrient Requirement Showing the Pig Response to

increasing Nutrient Supply 122
5-2. Quality Control Procedures on the Farm 130

6-1. Effects of Feed Intake During Pregnancy on Sow Productivity 138

6-2. Diagram of Slow Feeding System for Sows 140
6-3. Diagram of Woldrix Feeding System for Sows 141
6-4. Diagram of Hurnick-Morris System for Gestating Sows 142
6-5. Guides to Condition Scoring Sows, Including Photographs of
Representative Animals 146
6-6. Example of a Card for Monitoring Lactation Feed Intake 159

7-1. A Lactation Curve for a Sow 169

7-2. Digestive Enzyme Activity Pattern in Young Swine 170

8-1. Average Daily Gain versus Days to Market 173

8-2. Growth Curves for Pigs Demonstrating Good, Better and Best
Performance to IO Weeks of Age 175
8-3a. Starter Feed Usage: Two Week Weaning 178
8-3b. Starter Feed Usage: Three Week Weaning 178
8-4. Relationship Between Dietary Energy Concentration and Body Protein
Gain in Weanling Pigs 178

9-1. Sigmoidal Growth Curve 188

9-2. Relative Proportions of Muscle Bone and Fat at Birth and 28 Weeks of Age 188
9-3. Description of PI, P2, and P3 Fat Measurements 189
9-4. Typical Feed Intake Curve for Growing Pigs Consuming a Diet
with a DE Content of Either 3150 or 3400 kcal/kg. 192
9-5. Relationship between Feed lntake and Tissue Accretion Rates in Growing Pigs 193
9-6. Effect of Feed Intake on Lean Tissue Growth and Body Fat
Deposition in Finishing Pigs with Average ("average pig")
and High ("good" pig) Lean Tissue Growth Potential 193
9-7. Relationship between Feed Intake and
Performance in Growing Pigs where Energy Lntake Limits Lean
Growth (Figure a), and in Finishing Pigs Where Feed Intake
does not Limit Lean Growth (Figure b) 194
9-8. Effect of Dietary Lysine Levels and Pig Type on Lean Growth Rates 194
9-9. Change in Required Dietary Nutrient Levels in Relation to Body Weight 195
9-10. Feed Intake Curves of Barrows and Gilts Fed a Similar Diet and
Housed in Groups of 12 Pigs per Pen 205
9-l 1. Estimated Feed lntake and Growth Curves
Derived from a Limited Number of Detailed Observations on
Feed Lntake and Body Weights in a Feeder Barn 212

10-1. Improvement due to Grinding on the Digestibility of Nutrients for

Two Sizes of Pigs 216

12-1. Water Balance in the Pig: Intake and Output 241

12-2. Typical Water Intake Pattern During the Post-weaning Period 244
 DIET INGREDIENTS

BLOOD MEAL BONE MEAL

• ••

•
. , • ... .

• • •
FEATHER MEAL FISH MEAL FISH SILAGE (CAPELIN)

SKIM MILK POWDER WHEY POWDER ALFALFA: DEHYDRATED

MEAL

BARLEY BARLEY:HULLESS
BEET PULP CANOLASEED CANOLA MEAL

.1;.' •.. , ..· .... , ,'.. _. ..,.',, '!-' ','.,.�

;-:_, '') 'I • I
. -c..· ,,, ·. --.••
. It ... •• > .,.. • . ' .. ,\li"J, .

.�----J' •;- .. , i;.'1_

• ; ,: ·�.� �.-•.

•.Jo_�:·"" . \:.,\�.�... .: ;
• '{ y'·�
�I :.,': ....

+-&-,. �
'

.• . ... , . ':j
\ !
' • I I
' '. ·,ll"".•: •
• , {
i � 'l\_
> � . ;' ....
"i!'
1··; s -.,I,,I .• • . .;\. I.:--..:.·'(. e .,. • " •
...... '. ' -.' .,,..· .�· :·' ...-'( '•� ... -·,
I

. �··.
,«•... .. _-,\'..... , ,;·.'·,· •..•.• �.-
,, ... ' A' • ,. • � •I �� .,, • • ��

«r: �.
I

• . •. -�' -' ;I.•.a---;'

• I• 4 • :'� '. / I ..,/

.tt -. .. ", �� ...

CANOLA: FINE CORN CORN:CRACKED

SCREENINGS

CORN: DISTILLER'S CORN: MOLDY

GRAIN

DRIED BAKERY PRODUCT ERGOT FABABEANS

FIELD PEAS (PRINCESS) FIELD PEAS (TIPU) LENTILS (LAIRD)

MOLASSES OATS OATS: NAKED (TARA)

DEHYDRATED

RYE RYE: WITH ERGOT

SOYBEAN SEED SOYBEAN MEAL SUNFLOWER SEEDS

SUNFLOWER MEAL: TRITICALE WHEAT
DEHULLED

WHEAT BRAN CANOLA OIL: CRUDE,

DEGUMMED

MHA LIQUID DL-METHIONINE

L-THREONINE L-TRYPTOPHAN LYSINE HCI

1. THE SCIENCE OF NUTRITION
Despite major changes in the nature of the swine It is our experience that much can be
industry in Canada, the cost offeed remains the accomplished to reduce feed costs and increase net
largest single expense involved in raising pigs. income. Linking nutrient supply to nutrient
Although the exact cost varies greatly depending on requirements represents a reasonable, if not
grain and protein markets, the total feed bill for the essential goal, but it becomes difficult at the farm
Canadian pork industry approaches one billion level due to differences in genetics, housing, health
dollars. Even modest savings would provide status and overall production objectives.
benefits to the swine industry in the millions of
dollars. Recently, a sampling of farrow-to-finish
operations on the Canadian prairies suggested that
At the farm level, feed represents slightly more feed costs, expressed on a per pig sold basis, varied
than 50% of the total cost of production and about by almost 100%! While the lowest feed cost may
7 5% of the variable costs (Figure 1-1 ). It surpasses not be associated with the highest profitability, it is
the next largest expense - fixed costs associated clear that such variability is inexplicable by normal
with housing- by a factor of three. Simple logic economic and biological principles. The obvious,
dictates that optimizing feed costs - selecting and correct conclusion is that nutrients are being
feeding programs that maximize net income - is a wasted; the source of such waste varies from poor
critical step in ensuring success in pork production. feed presentation through to diet over- formulation.

Clearly, opportunities exist for significant cost

savings through the application of increased knowl-
edge in nutrition. The nutritionist must be able to
identify such opportunities and exploit them effec-
tively. The purpose of this book is to provide
practical information on the subject of nutrition to
afford nutritionists, pork producers and their associ-
ates the capability to exercise greater control over
their feeding programs.

What is Nutrition?
Figure 1-la. Cost of production budget: all costs. What exactly is nutrition? It is the science that

..
studies the nutrients needed by animals: how much
of each is required in a healthy diet, how they can
be supplied in an economical fashion andhow the

•
body utilizes them for maintenance, growth and
production. Nutritionists are concerned with
improving the chemical analysis of feeds and
feedstuffs to better reflect their true value to the
II FEED 11 animal. Information is drawn from other fields of
111111111 72% 11111111 science, such as biochemistry and physiology, to
11111 111111 help us understand the basic processes in the body
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
that dictate the ultimate fate of the feed that animals
eat. The essence of nutrition is to define the
nutrients required by the animal to perform at a
Figure 1-1 b. Cost of production budget: variable
costs only.
desired level, identify a suitable source of these
nutrients and match the two (requirement and
source) in a diet formulation.

This is not a simple task. Nutrient requirements

fluctuate according to many environmental, genetic
and physiological influences. For example, grow-
ing pigs with a maximum protein deposition rate
(Pdma.> of 170 grams per day will have a very
different requirement for essential amino acids than
those with a Pd ma., of 150 grams per day. Sows
housed outdoors require more nutrients, and thus
more feed, than sows housed indoors. This is
particularly true during the winter.

Diets, therefore, cannot be formulated in a Diets can not be formulated in a vacuum. Like designing
vacuum; the total circumstances surrounding the a barn, feed formulation must consider the total manage-
ment situation including genetics, housing, health, and of
animal including its environment and the type of
course. economics.
farming operation involved must be considered. In
the same way that an engineer designs a barn with a
The nutrients supplied by a given ingredient are
view towards the producer's management style and
sometimes difficult to determine with precision, due
his overall production objectives, the nutritionist
partly to the limitations of the chemical analyses
must formulate diets that will complement other
currently available and in part to the many factors
aspects of the farm. No single diet will suit all
that influence how available these nutrients might be
farming operations.
to the animal.

t>
t<>
o 0
NUTRIENTS

QUANTITY
EATEN I t» <>
PER DAY \ 0 I> 0
"-.. \ <> g <>o
i t» <> 0
MIXED DIET INGREDIENT A INGREDIENT B

Pig nutrition embraces three components: nutrient requirements, nutrient sources, and daily feed intake.

2
 It is also a challenge to determine the intake of computer has led to errors in diet formulation, but
diets, since feed intake will obviously dictate invariably these can be traced to human mistakes in
nutrient intake. The physical capacity of the gas- programming.
trointestinal tract plays a role, particularly in nurs-
ing sows, weanling pigs and growing pigs. The Photo 1 - 1.
importance of feed intake in practical nutrition is
becoming increasingly apparent, in part because of
the considerable variation that exists among farms -
in the order of 30% in the grow out period, for
example. Measuring true feed intake is being
viewed as increasingly important, although it tends
to be a time consuming process.

Palatability is another factor. However, people

will often make the mistake of ascribing human
tastes to the pig. Yet, the pig will eat many things
that humans will not, while some components of the
human diet are met with disdain by the pig! Great
care should be taken to avoid altering the diet to
improve what we might think is its palatability. The
pig may have very different opinions on the subject,
and the producer may end up with a more expen-
sive, but no more desirable diet. The computer can be an enormously useful tool to help
monitor the performance of the breeding herd. It is not a
replacement for good management; it just makes it easier
The Role of the Computer and more effective.
In the past 15 years. the computer has become an
indispensable tool to the professional nutritionist for
formulating diets. Farmers who choose to manufac- The computer has allowed the nutritionist to
ture their own diets now have the added option of move ahead with much greater speed. A balanced
using feed formulation programs designed for the diet contains 40 or more known nutrients. Using
home computer. Time will tell if pork producers manual calculation methods, it would be impractical
choose this option, or decide to leave diet formula- to consider more than three or four nutrients at a
tion to professional nutritionists working for the time. With computers. all nutrients can be moni-
feed industry, provincial extension services or tored simultaneously and least-costing programs
private consultants. focus on a dozen or more of the most critical
nutrients. The computer also demands much more
The use of the computer in formulating diets has of its nutritionist master in terms of precise infor-
met with considerable skepticism, focusing on the mation on nutrient composition, availability, re-
mechanical and unfeeling way with which it com- quirements and cost. Researchers have responded
bines feedstuffs into a diet. This ignores the incred- by developing knowledge to accommodate this
ible power the computer brings to the whole area of expanded need. Finally, computers are being used
diet formulation. Certainly, the computer is only as increasingly in the development and application of
good as the nutritionist operating it and mistakes growth simulation models, with the result that
can be made. However. the chances of error are far specific feeding and management programs can be
more likely with manual calculation. For all their generated for individual farms. Clearly, in every
faults, computers are notably less prone to mistakes respect, the livestock farmer has been a beneficiary
than their human masters! Dependency on the of these developments.

3
The Future of Nutrition growth and production. It will allow us to
formulate diets for very specific conditions, such as
What does the future hold for the science of
the growth of lean as opposed to fat in the carcass;
nutrition? Already, the advent of biotechnology is
and to integrate environment, disease and genetics
having an effect. Reduced costs of synthetic amino
into the final ration. The costly waste of excess
acids means that we will have more options for
nutrients will be eliminated and pork production
balancing diets, and that our dependency on con-
will become a much more efficient process.
ventional protein sources such as soybean meal and
canola meal will diminish.
The rise of the environment as a key issue in pork
production, and the role of the diet in determining
Both improved crops and superior genetic quality
the nutrient content of slurry, dictates that nutrition
of pigs will alter the way in which we formulate
and the environment will be intimately linked in the
diets. The most exciting development, however,
future. Indeed, diet formulation with a view to
will be a vastly improved ability to understand how
minimizing nutrient waste not only benefits the
the pig grows and uses nutrients. This knowledge
environment, but it often leads to reduced produc-
will be of tremendous benefit because it will expand
tion costs. It has forced us all to question bow we
our ability to match the pig's diet with its needs for
balance diets and design feeding programs, particu-
larly with respect to amino acid (nitrogen) and
phosphorus supply.

CROP \

The pig plays an integral part in the environment.

4
 2. GASTROINTESTINAL PHYSIOLOGY
The science of nutrition is closely linked to other The breakdown of food into simpler and smaller
scientific disciplines, one of the most important compounds is called digestion. Digestion not only
being physiology. Gastrointestinal physiology is converts proteins into amino acids, but it also
the study of the stomach, the small and large intes- breaks carbohydrates down into sugars such as
tines and related tissues. It is a subject that helps us glucose or fructose. Fats in the diet are converted
better understand nutrition. into their constituent parts, largely free fatty acids,
monoglycerides and related compounds. Minerals
The Role of the Digestive Tract are also separated into individual elements. Salt is
Before feed can be used by the pig, it must first an example. Salt is chemically known as sodium
be absorbed from the digestive tract into the body. chloride and is broken down into its individual
From a physiological point of view, the material molecules of sodium and chloride. Although not
contained in the digestive tract is considered to be digested, some vitamins must be modified in the
outside the body. There are very good reasons for gut to facilitate their transfer across the gut wall.
this. Some parts of the undigested food are actually All of these processes are required in order to
toxic to the body; the intestinal wall acts as a barrier prepare the nutrients for absorption. The enzymes
to prevent, or at least attempt to prevent, the entry involved in the digestion of feed are represented
of unwanted compounds. For example, some intact below. The dual processes of digestion and ab-
proteins can cause an allergic reaction in the animal. sorption are discussed in more detail later in this
The proteins in the diet are therefore broken down chapter.
into their constituent parts called amino acids,
before being allowed to enter the body.

e,oSE

Feed ingredients must be broken down in the gastrointestinal tract into individual nutrients such as protein into amino
acids or starch into glucose.

5
Types of Digestive Tracts As a result of the differences in the digestive
There is an old saying that "You are what you tracts of cattle and pigs, their diets are also differ-
eat!" In actual fact, all animals must cat according ent. The ruminant digestive tract lends itself to the
to what "they are". Each member of the animal use of feeds with a high fibre content while that of
kingdom has a digestive tract that determines the the pig utilizes more easily digested. low-fibre feeds
type of diet best suited to the animal and dictates such as grains.
how it should be fed. For example, cattle and other
ruminant animals have a complex stomach which All animals with a simple stomach are not alike
includes four distinct segments each of which has a in terms of nutrition. Chickens and pigs both have
specific function. The rumen is the largest of these simple stomachs but differ in many areas.
and functions as a large fermentation vat containing
both bacteria and protozoa. The action of these
microbes serves to degrade many feed components
and convert them into more simple compounds.
This fermentation process allows the cow to take
advantage of the "bugs" that can break down fibre
or roughage into products that, upon entering the
intestinal tract, can be digested and absorbed.

Pigs differ from cattle in that they possess only a

simple stomach. The pig must depend on its own
digestive abilities because it cannot depend on
microbes in a rumen to do the job for it. The pig is Small lnlesllne

able to compensate for this, to some extent, because

"bugs" do live in its large intestine and help to
digest fibre after it leaves the small intestine.
Bacterial digestion is believed to provide a signifi-
cant amount of energy to the pig, somewhere in the
range of20 percent of its maintenance energy
requirement.

When one considers all of these differences, it is

easy to understand why the digestibility of lower
quality feedstuffs such as barley or oats, is higher in
swine than in poultry, while the digestibility of
higher quality or more easily digested feed ingredi-
Stomach Small lnttttlne
ents such as corn or fish meal, is higher in poultry.
The reason appearers to be that the combination of
rate of passage and mixing, which occurs in the
intestinal tract of the chicken, maximizes the use of
highly digestible ingredients, but reduces its ability
Figure 2-1. Gastrointestinal Tracts. to extract nutrients from feedstuffs requiring more
prolonged digestion.

6
 PIGS DIFFER FROM CHICKENS
* The pig has a stronger sense of
taste, so palatability is of greater concern
with swine than with poultry.

* Poultry have a shorter intestinal

tract but compensate by moving digesta
back and forth within it more effectively
than pigs and thus enhance nutrient ab-
sorption. E3 SMALL INTESTINE (18.3 M)

* The rate of passage of material D CECUM (0.2 M) � COLON (5.0 M)

throughout the gut of the pig is slower
than that of the chicken. This helps the Figure 2-2b. Length of the Gastrointestinal Tract.
pig increase its nutrient absorption. Adapted from E.T. Moran, 1982.

* Chickens have a smaJler total

capacity in the large intestine than pigs,
and thus the contribution of microbial Eating and Swallowing
fermentation is reduced. Digestion of food actually begins in the mouth
where chewing accomplishes at least two important
objectives. The grinding action of the teeth serves
to break down food particles into smaller pieces to
facilitate swallowing and to increase their exposure
The physiology of the gastrointestinal tract of the to digestive enzymes.
pig plays an important role in determining what
constitutes a good or bad diet. Figure 2-2 illustrates Secondly, chewing mixes saliva into the food.
the size and capacity of various segments of the The saliva lubricates the material to make swallow-
gastrointestinal tract in the fully grown pig. ing easier. It also contains digestive enzymes which
initiate the breakdown of the food bolus. For
example, an enzyme called amylase, which helps to
break down starches, is a component of saliva. The
29.2% amount of starch digestion occurring in the pig due
to salivary enzymes is not substantial. It has been
estimated that the quantity of salivary amylase is
less than 0.001 percent that of pancreatic amylase.

The Stomach
33.5% Once food enters the stomach, the next phase of
digestion begins. The stomach serves as a large vat
in which food is mixed with acid and digestive
enzymes plus a substance called intrinsic factor.

[ill STOMACH (8.0 L) D CECUM (1.6 L)

Because the stomach secretes acid into itself, its
structure must be such that it does not digest itself!
§ SMALL INTESTINE (9.2 L} � COLON (8. 7 L) Mother nature works in wonderful ways, and in this
case, the stomach also produces a mucous-like
Figure 2-2a. Capacity of the Gastrointestinal Tract. substance that lines the stomach and helps prevent
acid from damaging it.

7
 Acid secreted in the stomach serves to alter the In summary, the stomach of the pig secretes acid,
structure of food proteins making them more pepsinogen and intrinsic factor which all contribute
accessible to digestive enzymes and initiating the to the digestion and absorbtion of food. The stom-
action of certain digestive enzymes. For example, ach also acts as a regulator of food entry into the
the stomach secretes a compound called small intestine, helping to prevent either overloading
pepsinogen. When pepsinogen is exposed to the or deprivation.
acid of the stomach, it is converted into pepsin, a
very potent enzyme involved in the digestion of The stomach of the pig is susceptible to ulcers,
proteins. especially in the esophageal region. Ulcers are
common in growing and adult swine, although most
The intrinsic factor is an interesting compound producers do not recognize the problem until death
also secreted by the stomach. It is absolutely occurs. Symptoms of bleeding ulcers include dark
critical in the prevention of a disease called perni- feces and anemia, both due to the loss of blood into
cious anemia, which is due to a vitamin B12 defi- the intestinal tract. Animals with a chalky, white
ciency. The intrinsic factor must bind to the colour may also have a bleeding ulcer. Ulcers can
vitamin B12 supplied by the diet if the vitamin is to impair growth in swine and in severe cases, result in
be absorbed. Supplements of the vitamin will not death. Detailed information on ulcers is surprisingly
prevent pernicious anemia if the intrinsic factor, limited, but it is suggested that economic losses are
which cannot be added to swine diets, is not present greater with subclinical ulcers which reduce animal
to allow for its absorption. performance, than from death loss itself.

The secretory activity of the stomach must not be The cause of gastric (stomach) ulcers is not really
underestimated. For example, in one study, 40 kg known. Many factors are associated with them but
pigs were found to secrete four to eight litres of more research needs to be carried out in this area.
total fluid per day.
CURRENT THEORIES ON THE
A major role of the stomach is to control the rate CAUSES OF ULCERS
of entry of food into the small intestine and thus
contribute to a more gradual supply of nutrients * Some suggest that "stress" is involved but
from the gut. After a single meal, the stomach can this has not really been studied nor quantified.
mete out digesta to the lower gut over a period of * Diet type may be involved with wheat and
18 hours or more. corn showing more of a connection with ulcers
than barley or oats. This may be due to their
It has been postulated that in the young pig, the different fibre contents.
formation of the 'milk clot' in the stomach is * Pelleted diets may also contribute to ulcers
critical in slowing the entry of food into a relatively and yet the number of animals fed pelleted diets
immature small intestine. The problem with diets without apparent problems suggest that it is not
containing little or no milk is that clotting is im- the sole cause. The fine grind required to manu
paired and transit time is increased. An excessive facture firm pellets is probably more of a factor
rate of passage of food into the small intestine than the pelleting process itself.
overloads the system. The problem is compounded * Other dietary factors that may be involved
by the reduced digestive abilities of the small include fineness of grind, the presence of milk
intestine of the young pig. This is extremely proteins, high fat content, especially of unsatu
important to consider at the time of weaning. Once rated, long-chained triglycerides and deficiencies
poorly digested material overwhelms the gut, in thiamine and vitamin E.
undesirable bacterial fermentation begins and * Ulcers also appear to be a greater problem in
scouring results. lt is recommended that recently minimum disease herds, possibly because other
weaned pigs fed non-milk diets should be limit-fed health problems are reduced or because animal
for five to seven days to help prevent scouring. performance is higher.

8
Photo 2 - I. Photo 2 - 2.

Cross section of the intestinal tract, showing the villi A more powerful microscope shows the micro-villi
extending into the lumen of the gut(top). The mus- (top) typical of the small intestine. The dark oblong
cles of the gut, which allow it to mix and move its structures below the micro-villi are called
contents, appear at the bottom of th� photo. The mitochondria; they act like little power plants to
micro-vllli, too smaJI to be seen in this photo appear drive the many activities of the gut.
opposite.

The Small Intestine

An outbreak of ulcers can be treated by adding
The small intestine works in conjunction with a
coarse fibre to the diet. Oats appear to be particu-
number of tissues to achieve its objectives of
larly effective. The inclusion of 10% whole oats
digestion and absorption of as much food as possi-
even in pelleted diets is beneficial, although pellet
ble. For example, it accepts digestive enzymes
quality will suffer. If oats are added, adjustments
from the pancreas to supplement those it manufac-
need to be made to the diet to account for the drop
tures itself. Tt gets bile from the liver to assist in the
in energy. In some cases, long hay can be offered to
absorption of fats and fat soluble vitamins. Many
affected pigs to increase the fibre level in their diet.
hormones produced throughout the body regulate
but this is generally impractical in barns with liquid
the activity of the small intestine in relation to
manure systems. A coarser grind of the total grain
feeding, appetite and other external signals. As
in the diet may also prove helpful. The topic of
well there are internal stimuli, such as gut fill and
grinding is covered in more detail in Chapter I 0.
the presence of certain materials in the gut which

9
also help to regulate its activity. It is quite clear The structure of the small intestine is uniquely
then that the small intestine does not work in designed to accomplish its objectives of digestion
isolation, but is influenced by many other tissues in and absorption of nutrients. The wal I is heavily
the body. Once food enters the small intestine from muscled which permits the intestine to expand and
the stomach, digestion speeds up and absorption contract in a rhythmic manner to move material
begins. More enzymes are added to the digesta, as along its length and to assist in mixing enzymes,
well as mucous, buffers and bile. Some of the bile and other secretions into its contents. The
enzymes are produced locally by the intestine; process also ensures that material ready for absorp-
others arrive from the pancreas. tion is brought into contact with the absorptive cells
found along the intestine surface. The constant
Specific enzymes have specific roles to play. mixing motion is absolutely critical if the process of
Carbohydrates, such as starches and sugars, are absorption is to be efficient.
broken down by the action of enzymes which are
very specific with respect to the carbohydrates they The small intestine is designed to maximize
will attack. Amylase breaks down starches such as absorption. The surface consists of finer-like
those found in grains. Sucrase degrades sucrose projections called villi which increase the surface
(table sugar) and lactase degrades the 'milk sugar', area of the gut and thus increase its absorptive
lactose. capacity. Along the villi are further projections,
called microvilli which also increase surface area
Proteins are digested by a totally different set of and thus, the absorptive capacity of the small
enzymes. Proteins must be broken down into intestine.
amino acids before crossing the intestinal wall.
Protein digestion begins in the stomach but be- Another interesting feature of the small intestine
comes much more effective in the small intestine. is the way in which the absorptive cells grow. They
Examples of protein-degrading enzymes include are called enterocytes and are formed at the base of
trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase and the villi and then migrate up along its surface as
carboxypeptidase. The protein-degrading they mature. The maturation process is important
(proteolytic) enzymes attack proteins at very spe- because the more mature these cells are, the greater
cific locations in their structure. is their content of digestive enzymes. The migra-
tion of enterocytes along the surface of the villi
Fats in the diet must also be digested before from the base to the tip, ensures that the mature
being absorbed. An enzyme called lipase, derived cells receive maximum exposure to the contents of
from the work lipid which is another name for fat, the intestine; meanwhile, the immature cells located
breaks fats into smaller parts which are then com- at the base of the villi are protected rom the physi-
bined with bile salts to form a compound that can cal forces of food moving along the length of the
cross the intestinal barrier. Bile salts are produced intestine. Once the enterocytes reach the tip of the
in the liver and are an absolute necessity for proper villi, they are sloughed off into the lumen of the
fat digestion. intestine, to be digested and absorbed. These
sloughed off cells, together with enzymes secreted
lt can be seen that a very competent system has into the intestine, constitute what are cal1ed endog-
been devised to allow the pig to digest the various enous protein. This endogenous protein has been
components in the diet. Failure of any part of this estimated to represent anywhere from 25 to 75% of
system will result in impaired utilization of food. It the protein digested and absorbed by the gut. The
is a complex system, with details far beyond the diet makes up the remainder.
scope of this book. lt is important, though, to
recognize that digestion is not a simple matter and The cells have a very brief existence even under
that what and how we feed the pig, how we house conditions of good health. The life expectancy of
it, how old it is and how healthy it is can all influ- an enterocyte in a one week old piglet is only two to
ence the final outcome of the digestive processes. four days. Sometimes the enterocytes do not reach

10
THE SMALL INTESTINE OF THE PIG BLOOD VESSELS

�����2----/
Moving through
the lumen, feed Is
digested and absorbed
Into the body of the
pig. Muscles surround
the Intestinal tissue;
their contraction
moves the dlgesta
along the tract and
helps mix In digestive
enzymes.

Folds in the
intestine are lined
with projections called
villi. The villi
increase the surface
area, thus enhancing
both digestion and
, absorption.
-,
'>1--.
'�"-.
DISCARDED CELLS

����' �<',<
."�" , " ' '\..o
$�
":/ o 0}
-,
!1
The individual villus consists of
cells that form at the base and migrate
to the tip, where they are sloughed off
Into the lumen of the intestine. As the
cells migrate they mature, Increasing
their ability to break-down and absorb
nutrients from the lumen of the gut. It
takes a cell 2-5 days to move from the
base to the tip. Each day, literally
billions of cells are discarded along the
length of the pig's gastrointestinal
tract. The villi are also the site of
absorption, where nutrients pass
through the cells to enter the blood
stream.

NUTRIENTS ABSORBED INTO BLOOD

11
maturity, but are sloughed off into the intestinal
lumen prematurely. As a result, the 'oldest' cells in
the system arc still immature. If this happens, the
digestive ability of the small intestine is impaired
due to the absence of mature cells and their rich
"'..
CD
.c
100

0 80
source of digestive enzymes. Ill
.c
< 60
ell
Several things have been shown to influence the
'i 40
lifespan of absorptive cells. Research suggests that iii
CD
one of the factors responsible for the post-weaning Cl
0 20

lag in the young pig is a reduction in the length of

*- 0
the villi. This results in a greater proportion of Duodenum Ileum To1•1 Tract
immature intestinal cells with reduced digestive
- O,yMa!ter
capacity. Diet composition and feeding behaviour - En11gy
may also affect the I ifespan of the cells. For exam- - Nlltogan

ple, even a few days off feed wiU lower the rate of
cell turnover and impair the intestine's ability to Figure 2-3. Nutrient Digestion Along the Gastrointes-
tinal Tract of the Pig.
produce new cells.

What does all this mean in the day-to-day feeding

of pigs? A very relevant example is the post- The Large Intestine
weaning Jag mentioned above. The stress of wean-
The large intestine plays an important role in the
ing with an associated drop in feed intake, appears
processes of digestion and absorption. Figure 2-2
to have a negative effect on the structure of the villi
shows how the digested portion of food increases as
and thus, the function of the smaU intestine. Re-
it passes along the intestinal tract. By the time the
moving milk form the diet impairs clot formation
diges ta leaves the first part of the small intestine
and increases the flow of material from the stomach
called the duodenum, much of it remains to be
into the small intestine. The small intestine is
absorbed. Even as the food passes throught the last
unable to handle the material presented to it result- segment of the small intestine called the ileum,
ing in digestive upset. A further drop in feed intake
digestion and absorption still occur.
compounds the problem. Poor sanitation which
leads to increased stress from disease makes the The major role of the large intestine, which
situation even worse. Various feeding regimes
consists of the cecum and colon, is to absorb water
designed to minimize this problem wilJ be dis- and certain minerals called electrolytes. Bacteria in
cussed in Chapter 5.
the large intestine break down undigested food and
help to extract more nutrients, especially energy,
Another feature of the small intestine and the
from the feed ingredients. Complex carbohydrates,
stomach which is relevant to practical nutrition is supplied by fibre (roughage) in the diet, are con-
their overall capacity. Size plays an important role
verted by the bacteria into volatile fatty acids.
in determining the amount of food a pig can eat. It These volatile fatty acids can be absorbed and used
has been estimated that the capacity of the small as an energy source by the pig. The ability to utilize
intestine represents a major Limiting factor in young,
more fibrous ingredients increases in older animals.
growing pigs and that among individual animals, Sows for example, can utilize alfalfa hay more
the length of the intestine is correlated with Lean efficiently than weanlings.
tissue growth. As a result, young pigs are fed a very
concentrated diet that maximizes the quantity of The B-vitamins, as well as vitamin K, are pro-
digestible nutrients per unit of feed and thus, the
duced by these same bacteria. It is not clear,
amount of nutrients consumed per day by the
though, to what extent the vitamins can be absorbed
animal.

12
by the large intestine. lf the vitamins are excreted impair this activity. Simply stated, for best per-
in the feces and re-eaten, they will then contribute formance, the pig should be fed a diet that is suited
to the vitamin nutrition of the pig. Some people to its digestive abilities. Since these abilities change
believe that pigs housed on fuJly-slatted floors with age, the better quality and more expensive
which have Jess exposure to manure, have a higher ingredients should be used with the younger pig
requirement for dietary vitamins. There is very than with the adult sow or boar.
little scientific evidence to support this. The pru-
dent approach is to ensure that the diet is properly
supplemented with preformed vitamins to meet the
requirements of the pig. In this way, the pig is not
Additional Reading and References
Lloyd, L.E., B.E. McDonald and E.W. Crampton.
dependent on microbial fermentation to supply even
1978. Fundamentals of Nutrition. W.H. Freeman
a portion of its vitamin requirements.
and Co., San Francisco. 466 pp.
Some of the information in Figure 2-2 must be
interpreted with great care. It suggests that nitrogen, Low, A.G. 1989. Research into the digestive
physiology of pigs. In. (E.J. van Weerden and J.
and thus protein, is absorbed by the large intestine.
It is true that nitrogen is absorbed, but unfortu- Huisman, eds.) Nutrition and Digestive Physiology
in Monogastric Farm Animals. pp. 1 - 15, Pudoc,
nately, not as amino acids. Thus, if an essential
Wageningen.
amino acid is not absorb from a feed by the end of
the small intestine, it will not be absorbed intact.
The large intestine does not have the ability to Moran, E.T., Jr. 1982. Comparative Nutrition of
Fowl and Swine: The Gastrointestinal System,
absorb essential amino acids but rather absorbs
University of Guelph, Guelph.
nitrogen as a simpler compound called ammonia.
Nutritionists who are measuring the proportion of
lysine or other amino acids digested from a given McDonald, P., R.A. Edwards and J.F.D.
Greenhalgh. 1973. Animal Nutrition. Oliver &
feedstuff will collect digesta as it leaves the small
Boyd, Edinburgh.
intestine rather than collect the feces. This is done
quite painlessly by surgically placing a collecting
tube in the intestinal tract of the pig. If nutritionists Pond, W.G. and K.A. Korpet. 1978. The Biology
of the Pig. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
use feces to determine amino acid digestibility, their
371 pp.
results will be incorrect. The bacteria in the large
intestine break down lysine and other amino acids
and are also able to manufacture amino acids from Whittemore, C.T. 1987. Elements of Pig Science.
non-protein nitrogen. Longman Handbooks in Agriculture, Harlow.
181 pp.

Summary Whittemore, C.T. 1993. The Science and Practise

It appears that about 20% of the intestinal tissue of Pig Production. Longman Group, U.K. Ltd.,
turns over (is replaced with new tissue) every day! Harlow. 661 pp.
In the pancreas, up to 75% of the tissue is replaced
daily. This compares with muscle which turns over
at a rate of 2 to 3% per day. It has been estimated
that 25% of the protein turnover in the total body
occurs in the gastro-intestinal tract.

Studying the physiology of the stomach, intes-

tines and related tissues in the pig provides ex-
tremely useful information on how the pig digests
and absorbs feed, and how different conditions

13
14
3. NUTRIENTS
Although diets are mixed using ingredients, The essential nutrients can be divided into
what really matters to a pig are the nutrients categories of minerals, amino acids, vitamins, fatty
contained in those ingredients. The relative acids, energy, and water (Table 3-1 ). If a diet is to
proportions of barley, wheat, soybean meal, and be properly balanced, the nutritionist must know the
other feedstuffs in a diet are determined on the basis pig's requirement for each nutrient and the amount
of the nutrients they provide to a pig. When a supplied by each ingredient.
nutritionist formulates a diet for pigs, no less than
41 essential nutrients are considered. Table 3-1. Essential Nutrients in the Diet of a Pig.

In this chapter, the utilization of nutrients by Amino Acids Minerals Vitamins Other
pigs and means to estimate the available nutrient
levels in pig feed ingredients are discussed. For Arginine Macro Vitamin A Energy
information on nutrient allowances in diets for the Histidine Calcium Vitamin D Linoleic
various classes of pigs, the reader is referred to Isoleucine Chloride Vitamin E Acid
chapters 6 - 9. Water, which can also be classified Leucine Magnesium Vitamin 812 (Omega-6
as a nutrient, is addressed in chapter 12. Lysine Phosphorus Biotin fatty acids)
Methionine Potassium Choline Water
Phenylalanine Sodium Folic Acid
What is a Nutrient?
Threonine Sulphur Menadione
Knowing the difference between a nutrient and
Tryptophan Niacin
an ingredient, or feedstuff, is critical when
Valine Micro Pantothenic Acid
formulating a diet. A nutrient is a chemical
Cystine* Cobalt Pyridoxine
substance that is supplied by the diet and which pigs
Tyrosine" Copper Riboflavin
need to stay alive. Nutrients perform specific
Iodine Thiamine
functions in the body and their absence or
Iron
deficiency will result in reduced productivity, health
Manganese
problems and, possibly, death.
Selenium
Zinc
An ingredient or feedstuff is the material used to
supply nutrients. For example, barley and com are
* These amino acids are considered semi-essential
ingredients which contain amino acids, energy, and nutrients because they can be derived from methionine
other nutrients. They can supply a pig with some of and phenylalanine, respectively. Other nutrients, such as
the nutrients it needs. A balanced diet mixes vitamin C, linolenic acid, fluorine, chromium, nickel, lead
ingredients, such as com or barley, that supply the silicon, tin, and vanadium, may be essentiaJ in a pig's diet,
however, deficiencies are extremely unlikely and/or
nutrients in proper proportions. The pig has no
requirements for these nutrients have not been clearly
specific requirement for individual ingredients - it established.
does not need barley or com, specifically, in its diet,
for it can obtain the necessary nutrients from other Nutrient Availability
ingredients, such as canola or soybean (or in some
Availability refers to the pig's ability to digest,
countries, even green bananas!). A pig may prefer
absorb, and utilize nutrients from a given
to eat one ingredient over another, but ingredients
ingredient. Very few nutrients are 100% available.
have no unique role in a pig's diet. Selecting the
A nutrient may be present in an ingredient but not
type of feedstuffs to supply nutrients is much less
available to the pig for both mechanical (e.g.,
critical than making certain the necessary nutrients
processing methods) and physiological (e.g.,
are supplied from the feedstuffs chosen.
digestive functions, age, state of health) reasons.
Defining the availability for each nutrient in each
ingredient is a difficult task because availability

15
varies from ingredient to ingredient and is
influenced by many factors. :c
g_
.
5

3
How docs the nutritionist work around this
problem? In many cases, sufficient information is
••
a: 2
available to permit at least an educated guess. Diets CII
a: 1
will often include more than one basal grain and
more than one protein supplement. Thus, the o..L.�---�------.....-..1,--.--r--.-....,....-r....,............,
o 2 4A s s 10
nutritionist 'hedges his position' across a number of
Nutrient Level In the Diet
ingredients, such that underestimating one might be
compensated by overestimating another. This * As the requirement (point A) is approached, the rate of
approach is not a totally desirable one, but until improvement per unit of nutrient decreases.
more precise data becomes available, it is probably
Figure 3-1. Pig Response to Level of Nutrient in the
the most practical one.
Diet.

Nutrient Requirements
What is meant by the word 'requirement' from a Thus, requirement defines the level needed to
nutritionist's perspective? Traditionally, a achieve maximum performance but not necessarily
requirement has been defined as the amount of a maximum profit. Each situation must be evaluated
given nutrient a pig requires to maximize to determine the best (most profitable) feeding
performance. Producers need to understand the strategy.
criteria used to determine requirements because
how the requirements are determined can influence Although we would all like to have neat, simple
the way producers use nutritional information. tables defining an absolute value, they are not
realistically possible. Some compromise must
One of the frustrations in defining a requirement occur. The compromise does not diminish the value
is that maximum performance may occur at or importance of nutrient requirement tables, it
different nutrient levels depending on the response merely emphasizes the importance of understanding
criteria being considered. For example, maximum their origin. Three excellent publications that
growth rate may require more or less of an amino provide useful requirement guidelines are the
acid than maximum feed efficiency. The amount of National Research Council's Nutrient Requirements
a given nutrient required to maximize the immune ofSwine (1988), the Agricultural Research
response may differ from the amount required for Council's The Nutrient Requirements ofPigs
maximum feed intake. If carcass merit is used to (1981), and the Australian Agricultural Council's
evaluate nutrient requirements, conclusions may Feeding Standards for Australian Livestock - Pigs
differ from those reached using growth rate. (1987).

Typically, in the case of essential amino acids

Energy
and many minerals, the requirement is determined
According to the definition given earlier, energy
by feeding a range of levels of the nutrient and
is not truly a nutrient. Energy is a characteristic of
determining the lowest concentration that
the organic nutrients (carbohydrates, fats, amino
maximizes growth rate, feed efficiency, or some
acids) that are normally present in the pig's diet.
other response criteria. The key word here is
The energy released by burning a substance in a fire
'maximize'. Often, the pig's response to increasing
is the same as the energy obtained by the body
levels of a nutrient becomes progressively smaller
when it metabolizes energy in a cell. The amazing
as the requirement level is approached (Figure 3-1 );
point is that, unlike an open fire which releases all
consequently, the cost of the last I 0% improvement
its heat, the body is able to 'capture' the energy that
is much higher than the first 10%.
is supplied by the diet and convert at least part of it

16
into forms the cell can use for various purposes. energy is called net energy (NE). NE is the best
Energy, due to the amount required, is generally the estimate of the amount of useful energy that is
most expensive 'nutrient' in the pig's diet. supplied by feed ingredients.
Consequently, nutritionists focus considerable
attention on energy in feed formulation and feeding Metabolizable Energy - Heat Increment= Net
management in order to minimize feed cost without Energy
compromising performance.

Energy Components
The total quantity of energy contained in a Gross Energy
feedstuff can be partitioned into different I
components based on how the pig will use the I
Fecal energy
I
Digestible energy
energy (Figure 3-2). If an ingredient, such as barley
or wheat, is burned completely, the amount of I
energy released is called gross energy (GE). The
gross energy content can be determined by the Urinary energy Metabolizable energy
bomb calorimeter. GE is thus the total amount of
energy contained in the grain; if the pig could digest
and utilize 100% of the energy, that is how much
I
Heat increment Net energy
would be available. The pig, however, digests or
absorbs only a portion of the gross energy. The
Maintenance
I
Production
energy absorbed by the intestinal tract and actually
available to the pig is called the digestible energy
(DE). The DE content of any feedstuff can be
Figure 3-2. Distribution of Dietary Energy.
determined by measuring the quantity of food
(energy) consumed and subtracting the energy lost
in the feces (calculated by weighing the feces and
analysing their composition). Some scientists have attempted to use this
information on heat increment to practical
advantage by designing diets around heat
Gross Energy - Fecal Energy = Digestible Energy
increments. The pig is a warm-blooded animal and
_Some of the digestible energy is lost in the pig's must maintain a constant internal body temperature
unne or released as gas from its gastro-intestinal
irrespective of the temperature of its surroundings.
tract. Much of the energy lost in the urine results Normal metabolism generates heat that is used in
from the excretion of unneeded nitrogen body temperature regulation. If a pig is chilled, it
compounds, such as urea. The amount of digestible must eat more feed to keep warm or else it will lose
weight or gain it at a slower rate. The heat
energy remaining in the pig after these losses is
called metabolizable energy (ME). increment is used to provide some of this required
heat, so heat increment in a diet is desirable. The
Digestible Energy - (urine energy loss+ gas energy pig will need less heat to maintain a constant body
loss)= Metabolizable Energy temperature in hot weather and will actually lower
its feed intake to reduce the production of metabolic
A portion of metabolizable energy is lost when body heat if it is in danger of becoming heat
the pig uses the nutrients in the feed as heat, i.e. heat stressed; in this case, heat increment in the diet is
losses during eating, digestion and actual nutrient detrimental. Obviously, in these two instances, pigs
metabolism. This portion is called the heat will require diets with different heat increments.
increment. Once the heat increment is used up out The quantity of heat increment varies depending on
of ME, the energy actually available to the pig for the nature of the diet.
maintenance and growth is left. This amount of

17
 The solution proposed by some scientists is to There are, however, some important differences in
feed a diet high in heat increment (rich in fibre) DE content, both expressed in absolute values as
when the pig is likely to be chilled. When the pig is well as in fractions of GE content. In fact, barley
likely to be heat stressed, a diet low in heat contains more GE but Jess DE than com. This
increment (rich in fat) is recommended. Under clearly indicates that it is more accurate to
Canadian conditions, this feeding approach means formulate pig diets based on a DE basis rather that
feeding a high-fibre diet to dry sows in chilled on a GE basis.
conditions, such as in outside housing in winter or
in a cool gestation barn (especially barns equipped The proportion of digested energy lost in the urine
with individual stalls where sows cannot huddle to is fairly constant for all grains and all protein
keep warm). A high fibre diet is never fed to sources, but differs between these classes of
weanling pigs, lactating sows, or growing pigs ingredients. This difference is due in part to the
because growth rate would suffer. In the heat of urinary energy lost during excretion of nitrogenous
summer, lactating sows and growing pigs should waste products. Because of the differences between
receive a diet rich in fat to help maintain energy protein sources and grains, there are theoretical
intake. Of course, these suggestions must be advantages to using ME values in preference to DE
considered in the context of cost and economic values to formulate feed. However. note that many
benefit. of the published ME values have merely been
derived mathematically from DE. Direct assays
Although net energy is the best estimate of how (analyses) of ME are difficult since measuring the
much useful energy is supplied by a diet, it is rarely amount of energy excreted in the urine poses a
used as a system for formulating swine diets in number of logistical problems. Whether DE or ME
North America because of the difficulty in routinely is used, be certain that both requirement and
and accurately determining the heat increment of nutrient values are expressed in the same system.
feeding when different ingredients are fed to pigs. The values in Table 3-2 demonstrate that the
NE systems are used more commonly in European differences in NE content between feedstuffs tend
countries, where a larger variety of ingredients are to be larger than the differences in DE content. For
used to formulate swine diets. example, in a DE system. corn contains 12% more
energy than barley. In a NE system, this difference
Table 3-2 shows the GE, DE, ME, and NE increases to 15%. For ingredients with extreme
content in selected pig feed ingredients. Most of compositions such as alfalfa and wheat shorts (high
the ingredients listed are very similar in GE content. in fibre) or soybean oil (high in fat), these differ-

Table 3-2. Proportions of Gross Energy (GE), Digestible Energy (DE), Metabolizable Energy (ME) and Net
Energy (NE) in a Sample of Ingredients.

GE DE ME NE DE:GE ME:DE NE:ME

Alfalfa Meal 3830 1880 1705 540 .49 .91 .32
Barley 4395 3120 3040 1980 .71 .97 .65
Corn 3945 3490 3380 2270 .88 .97 .67
Wheal 3965 3360 3200 2215 .85 .95 .69
Wheat Shorts 4060 3025 2835 1795 .75 .94 .63
SBM 47% 4260 3680 3385 1760 .86 .92 .52
Soybean Oil 9395 7560 7280 5500 .80 .96 .76

Derived from: Ewan, 1989; Energy metabolism of farm animals. EAAP publication No .. 43. Pudoc Publishers,
Wagcningcn, The Netherlands.

18
ences are even more apparent. This again illustrates hemicellulose, and lignin, which are essentially
that, in theory, it is more accurate to formulate diets indigestible by swine. ADF consists only of
using an NE rather than DE or ME system. cellulose and lignin. ADF and NDF were
developed to evaluate forages for ruminant species.
Energy is measured in units of either calories (cal) They have also been found valuable by swine
or joules (J). The term used in this book is the nutritionists but tend to underestimate the total fibre
kilocaloric, equal to 1000 calories. The joule is of cereaJ grains.
more common in Europe and is becoming more
popular in Canada, but is not yet universally
Table 3-3. Fibre Content of Ingredients Used in Swine
accepted. One calorie equals 4.184 joules.
Diets.

Energy Sources Ingredient Content(%)

Dietary energy is derived from three sources:
Dietary Crude
carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids. The term Fibre NDF ADF Fibre
carbohydrate includes simple sugars and starches,
such as table sugar or the starches found in flour, Barley 19 15 5 4
which are all highJy digestible. Carbohydrates also Corn 9 8 2 2
include more complex compounds, such as fibre, Peas 16 10 7 5
which is difficult to digest, and thus a poor energy Soybean meal 24 15 9 8
source. Wheat 11 10 3 2

Defining the term fibre has been a source of Adapted from: Graham 1988. Anim. Plant Sci. 1 :76-80.
controversy for decades. For the purposes of this
book, fibre is defined as the portion of carbohydrate
in a diet that cannot be digested by the enzymes There are large differences in the values obtained
produced by a pig. Pigs, like ruminants, rely on by these measurements, although they all attempt to
bacteria that are present in the digestive tract to utilize define the same component of feed ingredients -
dietary fibre. The pig does not have a requirement indigestible carbohydrate. Most Canadian feed
for fibre per se, although it provides a texture in diets testing laboratories report crude fibre, although acid
that helps digestive processes. Fibre is used to evaluate detergent fibre and neutral detergent fibre
ingredient quaJity because it is associated with reduced measurements are gaining popularity.
DE content and impaired utilization of other important
nutrients. Therefore. from a nutrient perspective, fibre The ether extract (fat) content of a feedstuff or
has a generally negative impact on animal feed quality. diet is important because fat is rich in energy. All
other factors being equal, the higher the fat content
Measuring fibre in feed ingredients is an area of in a diet, the more digestible energy it will contain.
active research. Table 3-3 defines the fibre content of Determining fat content provides some insight into
some common ingredients. The complex nature of how much energy is present. Fat content is
fibre is illustrated by the number of fibre values estimated by determining the portion of the sample
defined. Dietary fibre is a Swedish tenn that includes that is soluble in petroleum ether. This procedure is
lignin (a highly indigestible carbohydrate found in a standard one, but misses some important
such feedstuffs as straw) plus all complex sugars not compounds. such as energy-rich phospholipids. In
found in starch. barley, for example, these phospholipids represent
as much as 25% of the total fat in barley grain and
The detergent system, developed by P.J. van Soest contribute to its total energy.
in the United States, differentiates between two
kinds of fibre: acid detergent fibre (ADF) and Ether extract will also include such components
neutral detergent fibre (NDF). NDF includes as waxes and pigments, which are of little
material in the plant cell wall, notably cellulose, nutritional value. For this reason, the digestibility

19
of the ether extract varies among grains as they vary Estimating Energy Contents in Feeds and
in the relative proportion of phospholipids and Feed Ingredients
waxes (Table 3-4 ). Evaluating the content of energy and other
nutrients in feed ingredients is an important step in
What is the solution? Some nutritionists use formulating diets for swine. Without knowing the
di ITcrent solvents in place of petroleum ether to amounts of nutrients supplied by individual
extract the fat of feed grains thus developing a more ingredients, one cannot, with any degree of
complete analysis. Common alternative solvents certainty, put together diets that will satisfy the pig's
include diethyl ether, and a 2: 1 mixture of needs. Unfortunately, there is a considerable
chloroform and methanol. Different solvents arc amount of variation in available energy contents
used to answer different questions. As in most between different samples of one feedstuff. For
analyses, there is no complete test for all answers. example, recent research at the Prairie Swine Centre
demonstrated that DE content varied by as much as
Table 3-4. Digestibility of Ether Extract of l 0% between various samples of substandard
Common Feedstuffs.
wheat, with the poorest sample similar to that in
regular barley. This demonstrates the use of
Percent
average book values is not sufficient to estimate
Feeds tu ff Digestibility
nutrients in specific samples of feed ingredients.
Alfalfa meal 54
Barley 86 However, it is simply too expensive and time-
Com 80 consuming to evaluate the nutritional value of
Soybean meal 80 feedstuffs in feeding trials. There is thus a need for
Meat meal 93 rapid, inexpensive, and practical tests for use in
Wheat 52 day-to-day diet formulation. Laboratory (chemical)
Wheat bran 58 evaluation can be of great assistance in meeting this
need. World-wide research has attempted to
Adapted from: Animal FeedstuffTable. 1991. Centraal develop chemical and alternative tests that give the
Veevoederbureau, Runderweg 6, 8219 PK Lelystad, The true nutrient composition of ingredients and mixed
Netherlands. diets, and accurately reflect the true feeding value.

An example of the progress made in this area is

Amino acids supply energy only when they are the use of near infra-red analyses (NTRA) to
not used for protein synthesis. Animals prefer to evaluate feed samples. Nutrient levels are estimated
use amino acids to produce body protein. Amino based on the feed sample's absorption of specific
acids supplied in excess of the animals' wavelengths of infra-red light. However, in order to
requirements for the synthesis of body protein or properly calibrate NIRA equipment, large numbers
other nitrogenous compounds are degraded and of samples which enclose the entire range of
used as an energy source. Since protein is a very samples to be tested and with known nutrient
expensive energy source, excess amino acids should contents and availabilities arc required. An
not be added to a diet intentionally to help meet the alternative means to estimate available energy
pig's energy requirements. Much cheaper energy content in ingredients, as well as in complete feeds,
sources, such as carbohydrates, are preferred is to chemically determine the content of various
wherever applicable in a diet. In addition, some of nutrients that supply energy (fat, protein, various
the energy derived from amino acid degradation is fractions of carbohydrates such as starch sugars and
required for the excretion (through urine) of specific fibres) as well as GE, and to use this
nitrogenous compounds that are derived from information to predict its available energy content.
amino acids. This requirement reduces the amount For example, the following equation, developed by
of available energy that can be derived from French researchers. can be used to estimate the DE
degraded ammo acids. content in complete pig diets.

20
DE (Kcal/kg of dry matter)*= 4168 - (9. lx Ash)+ Table 3-5. Effect of Bushel Weight on Nutrient
( 1.9 x Crude Protein)+ (3.9 x Ether Extract) - (3.6 Content of Cereal Grains.
x NDF)**
Bushel Crude Crude Ether
*The contents of the chemical constituents in the diet are Weight Protein Fibre Extract
expressed in grams per kg of dry matter. kg (lb) -%-
**NDF - Neutral Detergent Fibre
23 (5 I) 9.2 8.5 2.4
22 (49) 10.4 7.6 1.8
In Chapter 4, various equations will be presented 20 (45) 10.6 8.9 2.5
that can be used to predict DE content in specific 19(42) 11.0 9.6 2.5
samples of main feed ingredients.

A common misconception is that bushel weight Table 3-6 offers guidelines for minimum bushel
is a good indicator of a cereal grain's nutrient weights of cereal grains destined for use in swine
quality, and DE content in particular. Premiums are diets.
sometimes paid for grains that exceed normal
bushel weights, e.g., 23 kg (50 lb) barley or 26 kg
(58 lb) com. Unfortunately, like many of the . Table 3-6. Minimum Recommended Bushel Weights
factors used in the grading of grains, bushel weight for Grains Used in Swine Rations.
is not a good indicator of feed value. Test weight
can be affected by many factors, such as the shape Grain Bushel Weights (lb)
and surface dimensions of individual kernels, which Standard Minimum
do not necessarily reflect nutrient content.
Barley 48 43
Com 56 50
Research results show very clearly that energy
Wheat 60 55
concentration of grains does not fall in proportion
with bushel weight. The energy content of typical Guidelines for minimum bushel weights of grains used in
50 lb of barley is no different than that of 48 lb or swine diets. [f grains below these standards are used,
even 46 lb of barley. In a recent study at Prairie adjustments in energy content should be made.
Swine Centre, there was no relationship between
DE content and bushel weight in wheat samples that
Energy Requirements
varied in density between 53 and 63 lb/bushel. In
A pig requires energy for almost all its body
the case of very low bushel weights, energy values
processes. Amino acids cannot be converted to
do appear to fall; therefore, very low bushel weight
muscle proteins and feed cannot be digested or
grains should be used only in diets where energy
wastes eliminated without energy. Body
concentration is not critical (gestating sows or
temperature cannot be maintained , gestating sows
growing pigs over 60 kg body weight) and even
cannot produce a fetus, nor can nursing sows
then , the concentration of other nutrients needs to
produce milk without energy. Clearly, energy is
be adjusted to reflect changing energy levels.
fundamental to all life.
The rise in crude fibre coinciding with falling
A pig's requirement for energy will be determined
bushel weight is often put forward as an argument
by a number of factors. The pig's size is important
favouring the use of bushel weight as an indicator
because energy needed for maintenance is directly
of grain quality. However, the rise in crude fibre,
related to body size. It 'costs' more in terms of
which is low in energy, appears to be offset by a
energy to maintain a 250 kg sow than a 180 kg sow.
similar rise in fat, which is high in energy (Table 3-
The pig's productive state is also an important
5). Interestingly, bushel weight has been used as an
factor. A lactating sow requires more energy than a
indicator of flour yield, but even this relationship is
gestating sow since she is producing large quantities
suspect.
of milk. A pig that is gaining weight requires more

21
energy than one that is not growing. As described on growth, assuming normal ingredients are used.
previously, the environment in which a pig is Because of limitations in gut capacity relative to
housed is also critical. In cold temperatures or wet, energy needs, diets with a high concentration of
drafty conditions, energy required to maintain body energy should be fed to younger pigs and lactating
temperature rises. Jf pigs can huddle with each sows. These are called high nutrient density diets.
other, their energy requirements in cold weather are Lower energy grains, such as oats, are too low in
lower than if they arc penned individually. energy to support maximum growth rate.

The amount of energy required in feed is Refer to the specific chapters on feeding various
determined by considering both quantity offeed classes of pigs for further information on energy
consumed per day and amount of energy required requirements. Any general requirement must
per day. This principle is important. For example, consider many variables, such as environmental
a man working at a job that involves considerable temperature, desired performance, body size, and
physical exertion has a high energy requirement per some score of genetic capacity.
day. In theory, this requirement could be met by
eating an enormous quantity of lettuce or other Amino Acids
bulky, low energy, foods. In practice, this approach Amino acids are the building blocks of protein,
will not work because the man simply cannot meaning that all proteins are made up of individual
physically consume enough lettuce to meet his amino acids linked together like beads in a
energy needs. If he is given a diet of meat and necklace. In nature, there are about 22 amino acids
potatoes, i.e., high energy foods, he can easily that can link together to form proteins. Pigs can
consume enough food to meet his daily energy produce some of them from other substances; but
needs. The message here is that gut capacity plays they cannot synthesize 10 amino acids so they must
an important role in formulating diets. be provided by the diet. These 10 amino acids are
called the 'essential amino acids' (Table 3-1). If
The same principle applies to pigs. If the they are not present in the diet, or are present in
concentration of energy in the diet is too low, the insufficient quantities relative to need, the animal
pig may be unable to consume sufficient amounts to will be unable to grow properly.
meet its energy needs. A gestating sow is fed less
than her appetite demands to prevent excess weight In addition to the 10 essential amino acids, there
gain. Her stomach capacity is more than sufficient are two so-called semi-essential amino acids,
to meet her energy needs with most practical diets. cystine and tyrosine, that can be synthesized only
Conversely, the lactating sow has a very high energy from essential amino acids, methionine and
requirement to support milk production and phenylalanine, respectively. The term 'total sulphur
maintain her body condition in preparation for the amino acids' (T.S.A.A.), refers to the sum of
subsequent breeding period. If she is fed a low methionine plus cystine. Pigs require T.S.A.A. in
energy diet, she will be unable to consume addition to the requirements for methionine. This
sufficient energy per day, will lose body weight, and requirement indicates the importance of monitoring
produce less than her maximum potential of milk. both methionine and cystine levels in swine feeds.
At least 50-55% of the total T.S.A.A. requirements
Pigs up to about a 60 kg body weight ( 130 lb) must be supplied by methionine. In the same
being fed traditional ingredients may be in danger manner, phenylalanine must supply approximately
of growth retardation because their gut capacity is 55% of the animals' requirements for phenylalanine
insufficient to accommodate the energy required for plus tyrosine. The sum of phenylalanine and
them to grow quickly. In pigs with extremely high tyrosine is also referred to as "total aromatic amino
(lean) growth potential, such as boars, energy intake acids". Phenylalanine and total aromatic amino
may limit growth up to higher body weights. acids are rarely deficient in practical diets.
However, in most finishing pigs of 60 kg or heavier Consequently, under practical conditions, tyrosine is
body weight, gut capacity no longer places a limit much less important than cystine.

22
 When the pig eats protein as part of its diet. the Estimating Protein and Amino Acid
intestinal tract breaks down protein into individual Contents in Feeds and Feed Ingredients
amino acids. These amino acids are then The crude protein content is an estimate of the
transported into the blood and carried to various amount of protein present in a feed ingredient or
tissues where they are used for a variety of mixed diet. Since amino acid analysis is very
purposes. The most obvious function is to form expensive and time-consuming, crude protein has
muscle protein. However, a host of other proteins been adopted as a more practical indicator of feed
in cells are just as important since they support a value. Direct analysis for amino acids will become
wide range of essential body functions. Enzymes, a much more common procedure in the future.
such as those that help to digest food in the gut, or
those that help ensure that overall metabolism in Crude protein is usually measured using the
tissues flows smoothly, are proteins. There are also Kjeldahl method. According to this very old, but
carrier proteins that transport nutrients from one simple and accurate method, feed is digested in acid
side of the cell wall to the other. Haemoglobin in and the quantity of total nitrogen in the sample is
the blood is a protein; it transports oxygen from the determined. The total nitrogen value is then multi-
lungs to the tissues to support cell metabolism. The plied by the 'Kjeldahl' factor of 6.25 to generate the
blood also contains many other proteins, such as crude protein value.
those which transport certain vitamins or minerals.
Milk contains proteins to nourish newborn piglets. The crude protein content of feedstuffs must be
Immunoglobulins circulating in the blood protect interpreted with great care for three main reasons:
animals against specific forms of disease. The true Kjeldahl factor varies from ingredient to
ingredient; not all of the nitrogen in a feed sample is
Although protein synthesis is important, associated with true protein; and total protein is a
individual amino acids also perform other very rough estimate of the amino acids present.
functions. For example, tryptophan is converted
into serotonin, a chemical called a neuro- The first point The true Kjeldahl factor varies
transmitter, that is involved in the transmission of from ingredient to ingredient. The Kjeldahl factor
signals by the nervous system. It is this function of 6.25 assumes that the protein in the sample
that has prompted some people to recommend contains 16.0% nitrogen. This assumption is not
tryptophan supplements as a calming influence in necessarily true. As mentioned previously, protein
the diet. Tryptophan can also be converted to the consists of individual amino acids. The proportion
vitamin niacin. thereby reducing, but not of nitrogen in each amino acid varies from 7.7 to
eliminating, the need for niacin in the diet. 32.2 (Table 3- 7) so the actual amount of nitrogen
present in a protein will depend on the relative
proportions of each amino acid in the protein. As
the proportion of amino acids change, so will the
average proportion of nitrogen in the final protein.
Com protein contains I 6.0% nitrogen while the
protein in wheat or barley contains about 17.2%
nitrogen. Therefore, the correct factor for wheat
and barley is 5.83. Using 6.25 for these two cereals
will overestimate protein content by about 7%.

However, the standard Kjeldahl factor is neces-

sary because the proper nitrogen correction value is
not always known. For example, if a pork producer
submits a mixed feed for analysis, what value
should be used to adjust nitrogen to crude protein?
A universally accepted standard is required and
6.25 has become that accepted standard.

23
Table 3-7. Nitrogen Content of Amino Acids. The second point: Not all of the nitrogen in a
feed sample is associated with true protein. Some
Amino Acid % Nitrogen of the nitrogen in feed ingredients is in the form of
.Methionine 9.4 non-protein nitrogen. There are compounds that
Cystine 11.6 contain nitrogen but are not protein. Including them
Lysine 19.2 in the crude protein calculation will overestimate
Tryptophan 13.7 the quality of the ingredient. The information in
Phenylalanine 8.5 Table 3-8 summarizes these two points. It provides
Leu cine 10.7 the 'corrected' Kjeldah1 factor, two crude protein
lsoleucine 10.7 values (one obtained from the standard Kjeldahl
Threonine 11.8 factor, one from the corrected factor) and the
Valine 12.0 corrected crude protein value adjusted for non-
Histidine 27.1 protein nitrogen.
Arginine 32.2
Glycine 18.7 The third point: Total protein is a very rough
Asparagine 21.2 estimate of the amino acids present. Total protein,
Aspartic Acid 10.5 even adjusted for non-protein nitrogen and using the
Serine 13.3 corrected Kjeldahl factor, is not a perfect indicator
Glutamine 19.2 of amino acid content. For example, in cereal
G lutamic Acid 9.5 grains lysine contributes to approximately 4% of
Pro line 12.2 corrected protein, while in soybean meal this value
Alanine 15.7 exceeds 7.5%. As lysine is generally the first
Tyrosine 7.7 limiting amino acid in pig diets, this means that
protein in soybean meal is close to two times more
valuable than cereal grains in meeting the pig's
amino acid requirements.

Table 3-8. Protein Estimation Adjusted for Corrected Nitrogen Factors and Non-protein Nitrogen Content.

Corrected Crude Protein (CP) Non-protein Corrected

Feedstuff Factor N x 6.25 N x Corrected Nitrogen Protein
Factor (% ofCP)
(%)
Barley 5.83 10.6 9.89 18.2 8.09
Canola Meal 5.53 37.7 33.36
Com 6.25 8.5 8.50 22.2 6.61
Milk, Fresh 6.38 3.3 3.40 11.1 3.01
Oats 5.83 10.8 9.79 25.0 7.34
SBM 5.71 47.5 43.40 18.4 35.41
Wheat 5.83 13.5 12.59 16.7 10.49
Wheat Bran 6.31 15.5 15.65 20.0 12.52

Source: unknown.

24
 We do not suggest eliminating the crude protein Com (N= 153 samples)
measure since it is a simple, rapid, and inexpensive
test which is required to provide an estimate of % Lysine=% CP x 0.0224 + 0.057; r =0.64
% Methionine=% CP x 0.0192+0.015; r = 0.62
protein quality. However, failure to consider the
% T.S.A.A. = % CP x 0.0345 + 0.073; r = 0.56
underlying principles could lead to serious errors in
% Threonine= % CP x 0.0336 + 0.014; r = 0.84
diet formulation. For greatest precision, crude % Tryptophan = % CP x 0.0026 + 0.041; r = 0.41
protein should be used in conjunction with
estimates of amino acid composition. Soybean Meal (N=277 samples)

The pig requires amino acids that make up % Lysine = % CP x 0.0665 + 0.252; r - 0. 70
protein. It is possible to analyse ingredients for % Methionine=% CP x 0.0 I I + 0.127; r = 0.44
their amino acid content but it is an expensive % T.S.A.A. = % CP x 0.0255 + 0.157; r = 0.52
% Threonine=% CP x 0.0344 + 0.203; r = 0.65
procedure that costs as much as $150 per sample.
% Tryptophan = % CP x 0.0144 + 0.041; r = 0.62
How then can diets be formulated on the basis of
amino acids, when such anaJyses are so expensive?
Canola MeaJ (N=57 samples)

Nutritionists have a number of options open to % Lysine=% CP x 0.0231 + 1.133; r =0.29

them. Most use book values for amino acids. % Methionine = % CP x 0.0157 + 0. I 77; r = 0.67
These vaJues will be vaJidated from time to time by % T.S.A.A. = % CP x 0.0419 + 0.140; r = 0.60
amino acid anaJyses to confirm their accuracy. % Threonine=% CP x 0.0377 + 0.250; r = 0.74
Nutritionists also use 'prediction' equations to % Tryptophan = % CP x 0.0 l 05 + 0.51 O; r = 0.51
adjust individual amino acid content based on
Triticale (N=26 samples)
changes in nitrogen content. Prediction equations
are becoming more common and, as further studies % Lysine=% CP x 0.0209 + 0.140; r = 0.88
are completed, will improve in accuracy. At this % Methionine = % CP x 0.0147 + 0.024; r = 0.90
time, however, they must be used with caution. % T.S.A.A. = % CP x 0.0332 + 0.069; r = 0.93
% Threonine=% CP x 0.0264 + 0.047; r = 0.95

The following regression equations can be used

to estimate the amino acid content of common These equations can thus be used to adjust
grains and protein sources. estimated amino acid levels based on the analysed
protein content in the various ingredients. The
(Courtesy: Degussa Corporation) crude protein content of ingredients may vary with
The ingredients tested to obtain these equations cropping conditions, such as heavy fertilization or a
were not necessarily all Canadian. dry growing season and methods of processing.
The equations indicate that the limiting amino acid
concentration does not increase proportionally with
Barley (Canadian. N=59 samples) the rise in crude protein. This is because the
proportions of the cereal proteins, albumens,
% Lysine=% CP x 0.0269 + 0.097; r = 0.91
% Methionine=% CP x 0.0154 + 0.027: r = 0.95 globulins, prolamines and gluteJins, vary with
% T.S.A.A. = % CP x 0.0304 + 0.118: r = 0.92 protein content. For example, the albumens and
% Threonine - % CP x 0.0318 + 0.029; r = 0.96 globulins arc well balanced proteins, rich in both
% Tryptophan = % CP x 0.0076 + 0.051: r = 0. 76 lysine and tryptophan. Prolamine protein is a very
poor source of lysine and tryptophan (Table 3-9).
Wheat (N=l48 samples)
As crude protein content rises, the prolamine protein
% Lysine=% CP x 0.0194 + 0.094; r = 0.82
tends to increase at a faster rate than albumen and
% Methionine=% CP x 0.0163 + 0.009; r = 0.87
globulin forms (Figure 3-3 ). Consequently, the
% T.S.A.A. = % CP x 0.0343 + 0.042; r • 0.90
% Threonine=% CP x 0.0264 + 0.026; r = 0.94 essential amino acid content of higher protein grain
% Tryptophan = % CP x 0.0087 + 0.037; r = 0.79 reflects more the amino acid profile of the prolaminc

25
protein and less the profile of nutritionally superior Table 3-1 O. Effect of Increasing Total Nitrogen (Crude
albumens and globulins. Thus. lysine decreases as a Protein) on the Lysine Content of Wheat and Oats.
proportion of the total. Oats are an exception to this
Crude Protein Proportion of Lysine in Total Protein
rule, since the prolamine protein proportion in oats is
in Grain (Percent of Total Amino Acids)
low. The effect of di fTcring nitrogen contents of wheat (%)
and oats on lysine content is shown in Table 3-10. Wheat Oats

9.4 3.3 4.4

12.5 3.1 4.2
e
!0 15.6 2.8 4.1
0:: 18.8 2.6 4.0
]j 21.9
eO 2.4 3.8

��· AJbumlnaandGlob<II�
Adapted from Eppendorfer, 1978. J. Sci. Food Agric.
29:995-100 I .

Protein Content

Adapted from Hosenay, R.C. 1986. Principles of Cereal (i.e. diets are formulated based on total rather than
Science and Technology. American Association of Cereal available amino acid levels) then animal
Chemists, Inc.
performance will likely be reduced if soybean meal
Figure 3-3. Relationship of Protein Content to is replaced by canola meal. However, research at
Protein Type in Cereal Grains. various institutions, including the Prairie Swine
Centre, has demonstrated that when diets are
formulated based on available amino acid levels in
Amino Acid Availabilities in Feed canola meal and soybean meal. animal performance
Ingredients can be maintained at high levels even if large
In addition to the total amino acid content in feed quantities of canola meal are included in the diet.
ingredients, the availability of these amino acids
should also be considered in practical feed Differences in availabilities between feedstuffs
formulation. Over the last decade, a considerable can be attributed to various factors. These factors
amount of research has been conducted that include fibre levels, levels of anti-nutritional factors
demonstrates large differences in amino acid that interfere with nutrient digestion and utilization,
availabilities between various feedstuffs. For protein quality, and heat damage. For example, raw
example, the availability of lysine in canola meal is soybeans contain anti-nutritional factors called
lower than that in soybean meal. If these trypsin inhibitors, which reduce the trypsins' effec-
differences are overlooked in a feed formulation tiveness (trypsins are digestive enzymes produced

Table 3-9. Amino Acid Profile of Various Protein Fractions in Corn (g/IOOg of protein).

Amino Acid Albumins and Prolamines Glutelins

Globulins ZeinA Zein B

Arginine 7.35 2.16 3.46 4.49

lsoleucine 4.25 3.53 2.23 3.97
Lysine 4.18 0.46 0.57 4.38
Phenylalanine 3.57 6.11 2.56 5.31
Leucine 6.50 17.49 10.23 12.09
Methionine 1.72 0.94 1.63 2.86

Adapted from: Robuui, J.L., et al., 1974.

26
by pigs). When soybeans are processed (oil extrac- protein level in the diet is raised. Because separat-
tion or roasting), these trypsin inhibitors will be ing endogenous secretions from those of dietary
inactivated. origin is difficult, estimating true amino acid
digestibilities in feedstuffs for swine is not yet
Amino acid availabilities are routinely estimated possible.
from apparent ileal digestibilities, i.e., the disap-
pearance (absorption) of amino acids from the There is, however, a concern about apparent
digestive tract prior to the end of the small intestine amino acid digestibilities in pig feed ingredients
(terminal ileum). Heal digestibilities are a better related to these endogenous secretions. More
reflection of amino acid availabilities than specifically, the apparent amino acid digestibilities
digestibilities measured over the entire digestive in a mixture of ingredients many not be the same as
tract because essential amino acids that enter the that calculated from the inclusion level of the
large intestine, or cecum. may be altered by resident various ingredients in the diet and their apparent
bacteria. The bacteria may break down some of digestible amino acid contents. This may cause
these amino acids, convert them to other amino errors in feed formulation. This concern can be
acids, or even manufacture new amino acids from attributed to the effects of dietary amino acid levels
ammonia, thus contributing to an inaccurate digest- ( or inclusion levels of the protein source in the test
ibility measurement. Essential amino acids that are diet) on observed apparent amino acid digestibilities
digested by bacteria present in the pig's large (Figure 3-4a). For example, the apparent amino
intestine and cecum are not available to the animal. acid digestibilities in cereal grains, and com in
Therefore, to measure the net amounts of amino particular. are generally lower than in protein
acids extracted from the diet, digesta is collected sources such as soybean meal. This is because
before it enters the large intestine. Measuring amino acid digestibilities in cereal grains are deter-
amino acids excreted in the feces wil I not reflect mined at lower levels of amino acids in the test diet.
unabsorbed amino acids, but rather unabsorbed This corresponds to low apparent amino acid
amino acids after possible alteration by the bacteria. digestibilities (Figure 3 - 4a).
Many nutritionists now formulate diets using ilea!
digestible amino acids rather than total amino acids Apparent amino acid degestibilities in protein
in a feedstuff. sources, such as soybean meal and canola meal, are
determined at higher amino acid levels in the test
Table 3-11 summarizes the estimated apparent diet, corresponding to higher apparent amino acid
ileal digestibility of amino acids from common feed digestibilities (Figure 3-4a). If corrections are made
ingredients. The word 'apparent' refers to the fact for the minimum endogenous gut amino acid losses,
that the values are not adjusted for what are called then the corrected "true" amino acid digestibilities
endogenous (internally produced) secretions. are generally independent of the dietary amino acid
level (Figure 3 - 4a). Minimum gut amino acid
Amino acids consumed in the diet are not the losses can be derived from feeding protein free
only amino acids entering the small intestine. diets or from regression to zero protein intake when
Endogenous secretions, which include sloughed off various diets are fed with varying protein levels
intestinal cells, digestive enzymes, and possibly (Figure 3-4b ). However, it should be stressed that
hormones, are added by the stomach, the salivary the actual endogenous gut amino acid losses are
glands, and the small intestine. This process was higher than the minimum losses and they arc
described in chapter 2. If these endogenous secre- affected by various dietary and animal factors. This
tions were constant, apparent digestibilities could be implies that these corrected "true" digestibilities arc
easily corrected to true digestibilities. However, merely a means to improve the precision of diet
that is not the case, and many factors appear to formulation; they are not an accurate reflection of
influence the quantity of endogenous secretions in the actual true digestibility of amino acids in
the gut. An important observation is that endog- feedstuffs.
enous gut protein losses appear to increase as the

27
Table 3-11. Average Apparent AvailabiUty of Amino Acids (%) in Common Ingredients.

Ingredient lsoleucine Lysine Methionine Threonine Tryptophan Valine Cystine

Alfalfa Meal 55 47 62 47 54 52 22

Barley 74 68 79 64 68 71 72

Blood Meal 66 84 78 81 80 85 74

Canola Meal 72 74 78 68 64 78 77

Corn 78 65 86 68 64 78 76

Fish Meal 85 86 87 80 76 83 65
(high quality)
Meat & Bone 7l 70 77 66 55 72 54
Meal

Oat Groats 83 79 83 75 80 83 76

Peas 78 83 77 69 67 71 60

SBM (44%) 82 84 85 76 80 79 74

SBM (47%) 83 85 85 78 80 81 78

Sunflower 78 74 87 72 77 75 73
Meal

Triticale 80 73 83 64 70 78 82

Wheat(HRS) 83 72 84 71 79 79 81

Whey 88 81 88 82 82 87 90

Derived from: Centraal Veevoeder Bureau ( 1994 Table of Feeding Values of Animal Feed Ingredients); Heartland
Lysine ( 1994 Swine and Poultry Digestibility Tables); BioKyowa ( 199 I Digestible Amino Acids and Digestible Amino
Acids for Swine, BioKyowa Technical Review 2); Rhone Poulenc (1990, first version, Nutrition Guide); Degussa
(Ileal Digestible Amino Acids in feedstuffs for Pigs).

28
 95 . . -i 0.4

- --- ------·
............. -1 ...... � ...............

�
� 90 c
c, 0.3
� 85 ,,.. ., '- �
/o :§
:0 / "True" 0.2 1 - "true" dig.
;
Ill 80 / �
Apparent
.,, I
Cl) G)
c, > 0.1
75 0
0 CJ
Cl) Minimum endogenous methionine losses
TO a::: 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Dietary Methionine (% OM) Dietary Methionine (% in OM)

Figure 3-4a. Figure 3-4b.

Figure 3-4. Relationship between Amino Acid Level in Diet and Observed Apparent and Calculated1 "True"
Ilea! Amino Acid Digestibilities (Figure 3-4a), and the Relationship between Amino Acid Level in Diet and
Observed Recovery at Distal Ileum (Total Endogenous and Non-digested Dietary Amino Acids)(Figure 3-4b).

'According to a review of the literature, it can be estimated that the minimum endogenous gut amino acid losses
(AAend; g/kg dry matter intake) are 0.38 - lysine, 0.10 - methionine, 0.3 l - methionine plus cystine, 0.51 - threonine,
0.18 - tryptophan, and 0.24 - isoleucine. The "true" digestibility (TD,%) can be calculated from observed apparent
digestibilities (AD,%) and the amino acid level in the test diet (AAd, g/kg dry matter) as follows: TD= 100 x (1-
[AAd-{AAd x AD/100} -AAend)/AAd). Note that the slope in the right hand graph represents the true digestibility.

Derived from Fan, M. R. 1994. Methodological considerations for the determination of amino acid digestibility in
pigs. PhD. Thesis. University of Alberta.

If diets are formulated based on 'true' rather than One of the unfortunate features of reduced
apparent ileal digestible amino acid contents in feed availability of amino acids due to heating is that
ingredients, then adjustments may have to be made lysine is the amino acid most affected. Lysine can
to the requirements as well. Requirements ex- interact with sugars in a chemical reaction called
pressed as apparent digestibilities (g/kg of diet) can 'carmelization'. This reaction is stimulated by heat
be converted to those expressed as 'true' in the presence of moisture, the exact conditions
digestibilities, simply by adding the minimum gut present in the drying process. Carmelization, as its
amino acid losses (g/kg of diet; g/kg of dry matter x name suggests, is associated with a colour change in
dry matter content of the diet/I 00). the grain or protein. Thus, darkened grains or
protein supplements tend to be down-graded for
Unfortunately (apparent, or true, ileal) livestock due to concerns about carrnelization and
digestibilities do not always provide a good esti- associated changes in lysine availability. At present,
mate of amino acid availability. The amino acids in there is no assay available that will allow us to
some ingredients are digestible but unavailable routinely evaluate this chemical (un)availability.
because they are absorbed in a form which renders
them useless to the animal. These amino acids are Amino Acid Requirements
excreted, mostly in the urine. This occurrence is a Clearly, dietary protein is very critical to the
concern especially for heat treated ingredients of pig. None of the body processes described above
animal origin - milk products, blood meal, meat could occur without the necessary proteins being
meal, fish meal- but also applies to some ingredi- present. Consequently, inadequate amino acid
ents of plant origin. intake from the diet resulting in impaired protein

29
synthesis has a profound effect on a pig's health and The explanation above brings up the concept
productivity. That amino acids present in the diet of the 'first limiting' amino acid. In Figure 3-5,
are balanced according to the pig's need is very lysine would be the first limiting amino acid in the
important. If all other amino acids are present in deficient diet because the amount present is lower,
quantities well above requirement, but lysine is relative to requirement, than any other amino acid.
missing or inadequate, the pig will still be unable to Methionine would be considered second limiting.
grow to its full potential because it must have all There are no third limiting amino acids in this
amino acids present in adequate quantities. Each example. Lysine is the amino acid discussed most
individual protein is created by a specific sequence often because in practical diets for swine, it is the
of amino acids; the lack of any single amino acid one most likely to be first limiting. Thus,
can prevent formation of the total protein. nutritionists pay particular attention to lysine.
Remember, however, that while adding extra lysine
The importance of a proper balance of amino to a deficient diet will be beneficial, you must also
acids is illustrated in Figure 3-5. Tn the adequate consider the supply of other limiting amino acids if
diet, all amino acids arc present at 100% of the diet is to be fully balanced.
requirement. Thus, when the body requires amino
acids for protein synthesis, each will be present in The balance in which amino acids are required by
sufficient quantity. In the inadequate diet, both pigs can be determined in a number of ways. Until
lysine and methionine are present at levels well recently, the most common approach was to study
below requirement. If lysine is present at 50% of individual amino acids and determine the require-
the requirement, it will place this upper limit on the ment of each one in terms of maximum growth rate
rate of protein synthesis. Not only will body or carcass quality. A second approach, gaining in
functions be impaired, but other amino acids popularity, is to relate the requirement for all amino
supplied in adequate quantity will be wasted. acids to one reference amino acid, often lysine.
This approach emphasizes the concept of amino
Deficient Diet
acid balance and integrates the requirement for all
r: r r r ,e::; r: r: r: c.
c
100
UI 10 essential and two semi-essential amino acids.
z
"E For example, the requirement for lysine is defined
e �
·;;
O" ,e::; w
z
z ..
L:; /:: in absolute terms (e.g., 1.3% in a starter diet). The
...."
z o6
w z c w
0:: UI
< "' requirement for the other amino acids is then
.."'
50 z < w z
w !: z x >
z
z
0 UI .J u
c<> z z 0:, w z < 0.
.sj established relative to lysine .
.. z z 0 0

I"
.J
0 -x UI 0 .... w
e i, ;::
UI
.J 0:, ...UI
)-
z
w .,
z w
a:
a. !: >
z
"'x
)- .J
0..
a:
<
0
� w
.J l
x
0. ., ...x a:...
> <
>
UI
:t
a. Table 3-12 provides an estimate for the optimum
0
amino acid balance, also referred to as the ideal
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
dietary protein. Lysine is set at l 00 and all other
amino acids are defined relative to I 00. For exam-
Deficient 01e1 ple, the amount of tryptophan in a diet should be
100 r.r. /""'.: r ,e::; r r r ,e::; about 19% of lysine, while threonine should be
cc

I
UI
65% of lysine. Thus. in a diet containing 0.85%
-�g-
6
c
w ,e::; lysine. there should be at least 0.16% tryptophan
,e::;
"' ..,w
z
z and 0.55% threonine. Remember that the balance
UI UI z L:;
., < !
..
� 60 z < w
!: i:
0 UI UI
z z .,< !: :t >
o z in which amino acids arc required by pigs will vary
3
0.
c !: 0
0
:,
w
z 0 z
...0.
0 w l!!
e" z .,
w )- UI 0 z somewhat with body weight, (lean) growth rate,
...UIi �
I
e ;:: 0 z !: UI
a: ::;
a". :, w
level of milk production, and diet composition. For
"':c .,"' ...2
)-
a: 0 w :c a: i=
.... <>
:t
!!
)-
< .J l 0. ....
0 example, as pigs grow heavier relatively more
llSSENTIAL AMlNO ACIDS protein is required for body maintenance functions.
Because proteins required for body maintenance
Figure 3-5. Diagram Illustrating What is Meant by functions contain large quantities of threonine and
the Term Amino Acid Balance as it Relates to Evalu-
T.S.A.A. relative to lysine, requirements for
ating Swine Diets.

30
threonine and T.S.A.A., expressed as a proportion However, minerals have other important functions
of lysine, will increase as pigs grow heavier. In a to fulfill if the pig is to perform well. Many
similar fashion, requirements for threonine and enzymes will not function unless certain minerals
T.S.A.A., relative to lysine, will reduce as lean are present. Muscles could not contract and nerves
growth rates in pigs continue to increase. The could not send signals in the absence of minerals.
concept of ideal protein, the optimum balance in
which amino acids are required by pigs, has proven Minerals can be assayed directly in feedstuffs
very useful in practical swine diet formulation. This with great accuracy and precision. Samples are first
concept a11ows for a rapid estimation of require- ashed using very high temperatures (550°C) or
ments for essential and semi-essential amino acids strong acids to remove all but the mineral content.
once the requirements for one amino acid have been This residual material is then dissolved in weak acid
established. Determining the optimum amino acid and assayed by various methods.
balance for different groups of pigs under varying
conditions remains an important area in swine Minerals can be divided into two types:
nutrition research. Refer to the specific chapters on macrominerals and microminerals (Table 3-13).
feeding various classes of swine for further infor- They are differentiated solely by the relative
mation on amino acid requirements and optimum amounts present in the diet. Macrominerals are
dietary amino acid balances. present in greater concentration and are therefore
measured in terms of percent or grams per kilogram
(1 g/kg equals 0.1%). Microminerals are present in
Table 3-12. Suggested Optimum Amino Acid much smaller quantities and are measured in terms
Balance in Protein {Ideal Protein) for Swine. of parts per million or milligrams per kilogram ( 1
ppm equals I mg/kg). Thus, the concentration of
Amino acid Suggested balance rnicrominerals in the diet is about one-tenth to one-
Lysine 100 ten thousandth that of the macrominerals. To put
Threonine 60-70 ppm and percent in perspective: 1 ppm is I second
Methionine 30 out of 11 .5 days; 1 percent is approximately one
Methionine plus cystine second out of 1.5 minutes.
(T.S.A.A.) 56-64
Tryptophan 18-20 The quantity of each mineral present in a pig's
Isoleucine 60 body reflects, in a general way, the amount required
Leu cine 100 in the diet. Table 3-13 shows the approximate
Phenylalanine 60 concentration of minerals in the animal body. Note
Phenylalanine+ tyrosine 100 that calcium and phosphorus are present in by far
Valine 70 the highest concentration, while minerals such as
Histidine 30 selenium and chromium can be found only in trace
Arginine 45 amounts. Calcium and phosphorus are involved in
the skeleton and are thus present in large quantities,
while selenium supports the activity of certain
enzymes, a role which requires only trace amounts.
Minerals Importance should not be equated with quantity; a
Minerals are an important constituent of the pig's deficiency of a micromineral can be just as serious
diet. As a group, they perform far more functions as that of a macrornineral.
in the body than they are normally given credit for.
We tend to associate minerals, such as calcium and
phosphorus, with the hard structures of the body
because of their involvement with bones and teeth.

31
Table 3-13. Approximate Mineral Composition of the Although limestone is not expensive, supple-
Animal Body. menting large quantities of calcium 'costs' a consid-
erable amount in terms of the total diet because
Macrominerals Microrninerals limestone dilutes all other nutrients. Although
Element % Element ppm calcium is added to the diet at least expense by
using limestone, limestone contains no energy or
Calcium l.50 Iron 20-80 protein, so adding it in place of barley or com or
Phosphorus l.00 Zinc 10-50 any other basal grain will reduce the diet's energy
Potassium 0.20 Copper 1-5 and amino acid content unless other adjustments are
Sodium 0. 16 Manganese 0.20-0.50 made. To provide a rough estimate of the true cost
Chlorine 0.11 Iodine 0.3-0.6 of additional calcium in a diet, multiply the cost of
Sulphur 0.15 Molybdenum 1-4 limestone required to meet the new levels by
Selenium 1.7 approximately 2 or 3. This equation accounts for
Chromium 0.08 the cost of overcoming nutrient dilution by lime-
stone as well as the cost of adding the calcium
Adapted from: McDonald, et al. 1973.
itself.

Take care to avoid too much dietary calcium

Macro minerals
because it can lead to depressed feed intake. This
Calcium
situation appears a greater problem in starter diets
Most of the body's calcium is present in bones.
and lactation rations than at any other time because
Bone ash contains about 36% calcium and 17%
in both cases, feed intake is a major concern, and
phosphorus. Calcium deficiencies lead to leg
these diets tend to be formulated to contain high
weakness, lameness, and in extreme cases, bone
levels of calcium to meet the pig's nutrient
fractures. Bone is a strong and dynamic tissue. It is
requirements. Although the exact limit for calciwn
dynamic in that calcium and phosphorus in the bone
has not been defined, levels in excess of 1.25%
are constantly being exchanged for calcium and
should be avoided. This level poses no hardship,
phosphorus in the blood. Since bone is rigid and
since no diet needs to contain more than about
strong, many people think bones are not alive.
1.20% calcium, and most diets are quite adequate at
That, clearly, is not true!
0.90% or lower.
The fact that so much of the body calcium is
Phosphorus
present in bone often leads people to ignore its
Phosphorus, along with calcium, is a major bone
other very important functions. For example,
component. More phosphorus, however, is present
calcium is required for blood to clot and for muscle
outside the bones than is the case with calcium.
and nerve function. Calcium helps regulate the
While about 99% of body calcium is present in
acid-base status of blood and is involved in regulat-
bones and teeth, only about 80-85% of the phos-
ing cell division and hormone secretion. Because of
phorus is present in these tissues. The metabolism
its important role in muscle contraction, calcium
of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids all require
deficiency can lead to cramping and even tctany.
phosphorus. Phosphorus performs numerous other
functions, including being a major part of the
Basal ingredients in most diets are poor sources
'energy currency' in the body. This chapter has
of calcium. For example, cereal grains contain less
already discussed how the body is able to break
than 0.05% calcium and vegetable protein
down food materials and convert it into energy
supplements also contain only small quantities.
forms. Certain compounds in the body wbich
Meat meal is an excellent source of both calcium
contain phosphorus (ATP, creatine phosphate) trap
and phosphorus but due to its variability, must be
this energy and transport it to the site ofuse in the
formulated into the diet with caution. Fortunately,
cell. In the same way that money allows us to earn
an inexpensive source of calcium, limestone (38%
cash in one location at one time and spend it at a
calcium), is available for diets.
different location at a later time, phosphorus allows

32
the body to generate energy in one location for later calcium costs about forty cents per tonne while
use in a different part of the cell. Although none of 0.1 % additional phosphorus costs two dollars. As
this activity requires large amounts, phosphorus is with calcium, part of this cost is associated with the
nonetheless important to keep the body functioning cost of the phosphorus itself and part is overcoming
properly. the diluting effect of the added phosphorus source.
Commonly used sources of supplemental phosphate
A major concern with respect to dietary phospho- are shown in Table 3-15.
nis levels is the proportion the pig actually utilizes.
A part of the phosphorus supplied by cereaJ grains
and vegetable proteins is bound to phytate and is Table 3-15. Feed Grade Phosphate Sources.
much less available than in other forms. Table 3-14
shows the amount of total phosphorus present in Source Phosphorus Calcium Sodium
common ingredients and an estimate of phosphorus (%)
availability.
Bone meal 12.0 24.0
Defluorinated
Table 3-14. Total Phosphorus Content and Phospho- phosphate 18.0 31.0 4.0
rus Availability of Some Common Ingredients. Diammonium
phosphate 20.0 trace
Ingredient Total Phosphorus Di calcium
Phosphorus (%) Bio-availability(%) phosphate 18.0 21.0
Monocalcium
Corn,dry 0.25 15
phosphate 22.0 16.0
Corn,
high moisture 0.25 49
Barley Note: Actual nutrient composition may vary depending
0.29 31
on the supplier. Nutrient composition should be con-
Wheat 0.34 50
firmed by chemical analysis.
Oats 0.31 30
SBM, 47% 0.60 25
Canolameal 1.07 21 Given the low availability of phosphorus in most
Peas I.OJ 47 swine feed ingredients, the cost of phosphorus, and
Wheat the contribution of phosphorus excreted with swine
middlings 0.95 45 manure to environmental pollution in areas with
Wheat bran 1.10 35 extensive swine operations, there is much interest in
Meat and
enhancing the efficiency with which dietary phos-
bone meal 4.75 68
phorus is utilized by pigs. A means to accomplish
Derived from NRC, 1988 and table of feeding values of this is to add enzymes, called phytases, to the pig's
Animal Feed Ingredients (Centraal Veevoeder Bureau) diet. Various studies have shown that these en-
The Netherlands. zymes enhance the availability of phytate phospho-
rus in pig feed ingredients. This reduces the need
Whereas phytate is an undesired component of for inorganic phosphorus in pig diets. Concerns
swine diets, it plays a very important role for with the use of these phytases include cost and
growing plants that need it to store phosphorus for product stability. Phytases are generally unstable at
later use. Late application offertilizer may increase higher temperatures which is a concern when feeds
total phosphorus in the seed but much of the addi- are pelleted. It should be noted that some ingredi-
tional mineral is in the form of phytate and less ents such as wheat and triticale contain some
available to the pig when it eats the plant. endogenous phytases.

Phosphorus is a much more expensive ingredient The ratio of calcium to phosphorus, and more
than calcium, so maximizing utilization should be a accurately, available phosphorus, in the diet should
priority. Presently, the addition of 0.1 % additional also be considered. Dietary calcium to phosphorus

33
levels of 3: I and 1.25: I for available and total 0.05% sodium (compared with a requirement of
phosphorus, respectively, are thought to optimize 0.10%). Vegetable-based protein ingredients are
calcium and phosphorus utilization. The impor- much richer in sodium, containing 0.30 - 0.50%. A
tance of the ratio appears to be greater if calcium is good, economical source of sodium is common salt
present at or slightly above requirement. In practi- (39% sodium). Feed companies sell four types of
cal diets the ratio of calcium to available phospho- salt defined according to colour. White salt con-
rus in the diet should be maintained at 2.7 to 3.4. tains only NaCl, red salt contains iodine, blue salt
This corresponds with calcium to total phosphorus contains iodine and cobalt, and brown salt contains
rations of approximately 1.1 to 1.5. If the diet trace minerals. For most swine diets, salt will be
contains plenty of calcium and phosphorus, the ratio added as part of the premix or supplement. If the
becomes much less important. A deficiency in premix contains other sources of iodine or trace
vitamin D also impairs the utilization of calcium in minerals, only pure (i.e., white) salt should be
the diet. added to the diet.

Sodium As mentioned above, most swine diets contain

Sodium, together with potassium and chloride, is 0.30 to 0.50% added salt to ensure the sodium
required by the body to maintain proper water requirement is met. If you wish to add sodium
balance and to help generate the electrical charges without chloride, sodium bicarbonate is a reason-
needed by muscles and nerve tissue to function able choice. Sodium bicarbonate contains about
normally. Sodium is particularly important in the 27% sodium and is available in feed grade forms.
body's many transport processes. Absorption of Meat meal, fish meal, and milk products often
amino acids, sugars. many minerals, and water from contain considerable quantities of sodium but since
the gut could not occur without sodium. they are highly variable, be extremely careful in
depending on these ingredients to supply the total
Sodium is often considered to be 'salt' since sodium requirement.
table salt is actually sodium chloride and contains
about 39% sodium. This explanation may be a Drinking water from deep wells sometimes
convenient one but is not physiologically or even contains considerable quantities of sodium plus
nutritionally appropriate. Sodium and chloride are other salts. In this case, sodium is often removed
quite distinct chemicals and should be considered as from the diet to help alleviate scouring associated
distinct entities. They are required independently in with poor quality drinking water. This practice may
a pig's diet. or may not help pigs adapt to bad water. Take great
care to avoid a sodium or chloride deficiency if
The most obvious symptom of sodium deficiency removing dietary salt. If you suspect water quality
is a depressed appetite. Excess sodium can result in problems, request a detailed water analysis that
diarrhea. Since many diseases also cause diarrhea, includes both sodium and chloride. By estimating
observing only this symptom is not a very effective water intake (assume 2 kg of water are consumed
way to diagnose salt excesses in the diet! Although per kg of feed), you can determine the daily intake
pigs may become loose if excess salt is present in of both sodium and chloride. If the pig's require-
the feed, they can tolerate very high levels without ment for both sodium and chloride is not met by
loss of performance if they have access to plenty of that in the water (it rarely is), at least some salt must
clean water. If access to water is restricted, pigs be added to the feed. Consult a qualified nutrition-
receiving excess salt in their diet can die. Since ist to calculate the minimum amount of salt re-
automatic waterers can become plugged and there is quired.
no beneficial effect of extra salt in a diet, restrict
added salt to no more than 0.5% of the diet. Remember that water quality can change over
time. lffeed salt is reduced, ongoing analysis of the
Basal ingredients are poor sources of sodium. For water is required to ensure that sodium and chloride
example, cereal grains generally contain less than intake is maintained. Interestingly, if removing salt

34
from feed has reduced the scouring associated with hydrochloride, a source of the amino acid lysine.
poor-quality water, a chloride deficiency (which Both chloride sources could bias the salt value if
results in reduced feed intake, thus reduced scour- chloride is used to estimate salt content. Thus, if a
ing), is likely to have developed. A pig's perform- diet is found to contain excessive 'salt', be sure to
ance will suffer more as a consequence of the consider the method of analysis before worrying
chloride deficiency than it would have due to the about a possible formulation or mixing error.
water quality problem. Consult a nutritionist if you suspect a problem.

Salt analysis of a diet is determined by measuring Chloride

either sodium or chloride and adjusting it to reflect Chloride, like sodium and potassium, plays a
total salt. Table 3-16 provides information for major role in water and acid-base balance. If ow-
conversion of sodium, chloride, and salt values. ever, it also performs a number of independent
functions, including the formation of acid to sup-
port digestion in the pig's stomach.
Table 3-16. Calculating 'Salt' Values from Sodium or
Chloride Assays in Swine Diets
Chloride is often supplied in the diet as part of
table salt, which is sodium chloride. The nutrition-
Salt Sodium Chloride
ist considers sodium and chloride as independent
(%)
components of a diet. A diet can be quite adequate
0.1 0.04 0.06 in sodium and be deficient in chloride because they
0.2 0.08 0.12 are supplied in different proportions by the basal
0.3 0.12 0.18 ingredients. Standard practice now includes 0.30 to
0.4 0.16 0.24 0.50% salt in the swine diet formula. This practice
0.5 0.20 0.31 will provide 0.18 to 0.30% chloride, sufficient to
0.6 0.23 0.37 meet the pig's requirement of about 0.15%.
0.7 0.27 0.43
0.8 0.31 0.49 A pig can handle large quantities of excess ch1o-
0.9 0.35 0.55 ride in the diet, provided it has a consistent supply
1.0 0.39 0.61 of fresh drinking water available. A pig's kidneys
are very efficient in excreting excess sodium and
chloride.
To determine a diet's 'salt' content, locate the
appropriate sodiwn or chloride value from the Chloride can be added to swine diets independent
chemical analyses and identify the salt content on of sodium by removing the salt and replacing
the same line. For example. if an analysis revealed calcium carbonate (limestone) with calcium chlo-
a sodium content of 0.20%, tbe diet contains 0.5% ride. Calcium carbonate contains about 38%
salt. The table can also be used to determine the calcium; calcium chloride, in the anhydrous form,
amount of sodium and chloride present if the contains about 36% calcium and 64% chloride.
amount of salt is known. This approach makes one Hydrated forms, that is those forms in which water
important assumption - that sodium and chloride is chemically bound to the mineral, contain less
are being supplied largely by salt. ln most diets, calcium and chloride. Chloride can also be added
this assumption is true. as potassium chloride (47% chloride) or ammonium
chloride (66% chloride).
It is important to note, however, that other dietary
components which supply chloride or sodium alone Some ground water contains excessive levels of
may make this table invalid. For example, some sodium, which causes scouring and poor pig per-
diets contain considerable amounts of choline formance. In an attempt to minimize the effect of
chloride, a source of the vitamin choline. Some excess sodium in the water, salt, containing sodium
diets, notably pig starters, will contain lysine chloride, is removed from the feed. Although this

35
action may provide some relief, a chloride defi- (38.0% potassium) and potassium chloride (50.5%
ciency may result since water rarely contains much potassium) are logical choices.
chloride. Therefore, even partial removal of dietary
salt requires some care; consult a qualified nutri- Sulphur
tionist since a deficiency in chloride will depress Most of the sulphur present in a pig's body is
feed intake and slow growth rate. found in the amino acids, methionine and cystine.
Practical diets are never deficient in sulphur per se
Magnesium and supplementing a diet with pure sulphur is not
About two-thirds of the total magnesium in the required. However, the sulphur amino acids need to
body is found in bone. Magnesium is important in be added via the protein supplement to meet the
stimulating the activity of many enzymes that pig's requirements. (see Amino Acids)
catalyse chemical reactions in the body. It is also
required for normal nerve and muscle function, and Micro minerals
for fat and protein utilization. The microminerals required in a pig's diet are
discussed in the following sections. Some
Like potassium, common feed ingredients supply microminerals are present in sufficient quantity in
sufficient magnesium to meet the pig's normal basal ingredients and are not normally
requirements. For example, a cereal grain-based supplemented. Others are routinely supplemented
diet will contain about 0.1 % magnesium, more than to prevent deficiency symptoms. Table 3-17
twice the pig's requirement. If magnesium must be summarizes the information on the microminerals
supplemented, magnesium oxide (51-59% including those which are normally supplemented in
magnesium) can be used. practical diets, maximum tolerable limits for the
pig, and common supplemental sources.
Potassium
Potassium is an important mineral. It helps to Cobalt
maintain both water and acid-base balance, supports Although there is some evidence that cobalt may
the transport of nutrients across cell membranes, be involved in several bodily functions, cobalt's
and is involved in maintaining heart rate. major role is as a constituent of vitamin B12• A pig's
requirement for cobalt is very low; if vitamin 812 is
Potassium tends to be overlooked in nutrition properly supplemented, there is no need to add
because natural ingredients supply more than additional cobalt to swine diets.
enough of it to meet a pig's requirement. Common
protein supplements, such as soybean or canola Copper
meals, are particularly good sources of potassium. Copper is essential for formation of red blood
For this reason, combined with the fact that cereal cells. A copper deficiency may lead to anemia, a
grains often supply all the potassium the pig type very different from that caused by an iron or
requires, a potassium deficiency is not usually a vitamin B12 deficiency. Copper plays an important
concern in practical diets. role in certain enzyme systems, most importantly
those involved in energy metabolism. Finally,
Excess potassium may depress the absorption of copper is required for normal hair pigmentation.
many nutrients from the intestinal tract but this
situation appears to require dietary levels in the Although a copper deficiency is very rare in
range of2.0% (practical diets contain less than 1% swine, copper is always supplemented in a pig's
potassium) combined with a wide diet. Normally, only 6-12 ppm is required. Usually
potassium:sodium ratio. this amount is supplied by copper oxide (75%
copper) or copper sulphate (25% copper), the latter
Potassium rarely needs to be supplemented to being the more available source of copper. Metallic
healthy swine, but if it docs, potassium bicarbonate copper is poorly absorbed so is not used in diets.

36
Table 3-17. Maximum Tolerable Limits and Supplemental Sources of the Microminerals.

Mineral Supplemented Suggested Upper Source

Limit, mg/kg'f Name Micromincral Content3

Copper Yes 250 (125)4 Copper sulphate 25%

Copper oxide 75%

Cobalt No 10

Iodine Yes 400 Calcium iodate 63.5%

Potassium iodide 76.0%
E.D.D.I. 79.5%

Iron Yes 3000 Ferrous sulphate 20.0-32.0%

Ferrous carbonate 36.0-40.0%
Ferrous fumarate 32.0%

Manganese Yes 400 Manganous oxide 55.0-65.0%

Manganous sulphate 27.0-28.0%

Selenium Yes 2 (0.3)4 Sodium selenate 40.0%

Sodium selenite 45.0%

Zinc Yes 1000 Zinc oxide 70.0-80.0%

Zinc sulphate 36.0%

IAs recommended by National Research Council 1980.

2Upper limits based on nutritional toxicity. These limits may differ from those contained in the Feeds Regulation 1983.
3Exact concentration may vary depending on the source. Actual nutrient composition should be determined by

analysis.
"Legal upper limit according to the Canadian feeds Act (see chapter I I).

Copper sulphate, also called 'bluestone' because Adding copper sulphate to a diet at growth
of its blue colour, was a popular disinfectant in the promoting levels will produce black sticky feces in
days before more powerful and effective agents pigs. Also, in regions of high livestock density, the
were discovered. For example, copper sulphate was use of copper as a growth promotant has sparked
used in foot baths to treat lame animals. criticism due to the potential accumulation of
copper in the soil. Although swine can tolerate
Copper is now added to swine diets in high levels copper levels in excess of 250 ppm, sheep have
to act as an inexpensive growth promotant. It is a been found to be highly susceptible to copper
more effective growth promotant in diets for starter toxicity. Total dietary copper levels for sheep
and grower pigs than for finishing pigs. Adding up should not exceed 25 ppm. Consequently, swine
to 125 ppm copper (from copper sulphate) to feed diets containing copper at growth promotant levels
is legally permitted in Canada. This amount is well must not be fed to sheep.
above the amount required for nutritional purposes
but costs less than one dollar per tonne.

37
Chromium known goitrogenic compounds in rapeseed meal.
Until recently, chromium was not considered an Canola meal, with very low levels of glucosinolates,
essential nutrient for swine. Recently, however, can be used in swine diets (including those of
considerable interest has been generated in the breeding animals) without fear of impairing thyroid
effect of chromium and chromium-containing feed function.
additives on the performance of growing-finishing
pigs and sows. Chromium, via its involvement with Primary iodine deficiency is prevented by includ-
the so-called glucose tolerance factor. may be ing iodine in the mineral premix. Various forms of
required for the utilization of large amounts of iodine can be used including potassium iodide
sugars. There are also some indications that chro- (68.5% iodine), calcium iodate (63.5% iodine), or
mium may improve the animal's immune status and EDDI (ethylene diamine dihydro-iodide; 79.5%
increase the effectiveness of insulin. Insulin, iodine). Adding iodized salt (0.007% iodine) at the
produced by the pig, is an important hormone that rate of 2 kg per tonne of feed provides sufficient
is required for energy and amino acid utilization. iodine to meet the pig's requirement. Feeds of
marine origin, such as fish meals, are also rich
Several studies have demonstrated that including sources of iodine.
inorganic chromium in practical swine diets does
not affect animal performance. Other studies have Iron
shown that adding certain chromium-containing Iron, a component of hemoglobin in the blood, is
compounds, such as chromium picolinate, to required to help the blood transport oxygen from
finishing pig diets improves animal performance, the lungs to the body tissues. An iron deficiency
especially the lean yield in the carcass and can be very serious because the oxygen-carrying
reproductive performance in sows. Further research capacity of the blood is impaired. lron is also a
is required to determine the optimum level of constituent of many important enzymes throughout
chromium and the form in which it should be the body. Symptoms of deficiency include poor
included in pig diets and the conditions under which vigour, lethargy. and a pale, white skin colour.
it is most effective.
Iron is always supplemented in pig diets, although
Iodine pigs would probably do quite well without it. A
Iodine's main role in the body is as part of the pig's requirement for iron is not very high and its
hormone, thyroxine. Thyroxine, produced by the body has the ability to retain iron very well, espe-
thyroid gland, is involved in regulating a pig's cially if dietary sources are scarce. Furthermore, as
overall metabolic rate. An iodine deficiency, the need for iron rises, so does the ability of the
resulting in impaired thyroid function, will have a pig's gut to extract iron from the diet. If market
serious effect on swine growth and productivity. pigs or sows appear iron deficient, the cause is more
likely a bleeding ulcer, or other illness, than a
Iodine deficiency leads to a condition known as dietary deficiency. However, iron is very inexpen-
goiter, which refers to an enlargement of the thyroid sive and is added to the diet as cheap insurance.
gland. Goiter can be observed as a swelling in the
neck where the thyroid gland is located. Goiter A definite exception to the pig's limited need for
causes reproductive failure or the birth of weak or iron is the neonatal pig. NeonataJ pigs grow very
dead, hairless piglets. rapidly and require a great deal of iron to support
this growth. Sow's milk is a poor source of iron so
Goiter is not caused only by a dietary deficiency supplements are imperative. Injectable iron in a
of iodine. Certain ingredients in the diet impair single dose of approximately 150 mg should be
iodine utilization by the thyroid gland. The highly administered no later than 3 days of age. A second
successful rapeseed breeding program, which injection may be given at approximately 21 days
resulted in the development of canola, was in part (see Chapter 7).
motivated by a need to remove glucosinolates, well-

38
 [fan iron injection causes sudden mortality, the Selenium
little pigs are possibly suffering from a vitamin E The history of selenium as a nutrient is an inter-
and/or selenium deficiency. If this is the case, the esting study. Initially selenium was considered only
solution is to treat the sow herd with either inject- as a toxic substance, responsible for alkali disease
able vitamin E/selenium or increase the quantities of and blind staggers in cattle. More recently nutri-
each element present in the diet. tionists have learned that animals must have sele-
nium in their diet. Selenium helps the body protect
An iron deficiency leads to anemia, which in turn against the breakdown of cell membranes. It works
causes stunted growth and reduced disease resist- with vitamin E in this regard, so the two elements
ance. Some producers have seen almost 'magical' are often discussed together.
recovery from scours in pigs 2 to 4 weeks of age
merely by providing iron that was deficient earlier Because selenium was first identified as a toxic
in the pig's life. Avoid extreme excesses, however substance and more recently has been found to
- some research suggests that too much iron may cause cancer, government agencies are very con-
actually predispose young pigs to diarrhea. servative in allowing selenium supplementation of
livestock feeds. ln Canada, 0.3 ppm can be added
Iron should be injected in the neck rather than the to diets for all classes of swine. Supplemented with
ham muscle. The neck location avoids the possibil- adequate vitamin E, this amount would appear to be
ity of staining expensive cuts (e.g., the ham) and adequate under most circumstances. Nonetheless,
making the product undesirable to the consumer. reports of selenium deficiency persist, especially in
areas where the soil is low in selenium, thus a low
Ferrous sulphate (20 - 32% iron) is the first natural supply in the grain. Adding more than 0.3
choice of iron supplement in a diet. A less desir- ppm of selenium to a diet requires a veterinary
able second choice is ferrous carbonate (36 - 45% prescription.
iron); iron oxide is nothing more than rust and is of
little nutritional value. Iron oxide may appear on Selenium deficiency in pigs result in mulberry
some feed labels because it is used as a colouring heart disease and liver necrosis. But, before adding
agent to ensure a uniform red colour. This practice selenium to a diet in response to a problem with
is most common in mineral supplements or mulberry heart disease, review the situation
premixes. Pigs eating such diets produce red carefully. If the problem is occurring in recently
manure due to iron oxide's poor digestibility. weaned pigs, supplementation of the starter diet
may be of limited value because the piglets will eat
Manganese very little before succumbing to the disease. In this
Manganese acts as an important enzyme activator case. increasing the vitamin E content of the nursing
so is critical for normal utilization of carbohydrate, sow diet or injecting pregnant sows with injectable
fat, and protein in a pig's diet. Lameness is a vitamin E-selenium is the preferred course of
symptom of deficiency because manganese is action. Some additional attention to the diagnosis
involved in bone formation. Manganese deficiency of mulberry heart disease is also advised; infections
can also impair normal reproductive performance. of Strep. Suis Type II have been suggested as a
causing such problems as irregular estrus cycles, plausible alternative diagnosis. Discuss your
late sexual maturity, and weak piglets at birth. situation with a qualified nutritionist and/or veteri-
nary pathologist before beginning any treatment.
Supplements are required because basal dietary
ingredients cannot be relied on to supply sufficient Concerns about selenium toxicity must not be
manganese. Manganese is routinely added to the underestimated because the difference between
mineral premix, usually as manganous oxide (55 - required and toxic levels is so small. While the
65% manganese) or manganese sulphate (27 - 28% requirement is in the range of 0.1 to 0.3 ppm, only
manganese), so a manganese deficiency in swine is 7.0 ppm (25 times the requirement), is toxic.
very rare.

39
 Selenium supplements in the diet are provided by controlling£. coli scours. However, these levels
sodium selenite (45% selenium) or sodium selenate are higher than is allowed in swine feeds in Canada.
(40% selenium). Because selenium is required in In addition, if these high zinc levels arc fed for too
such small amounts, 0.7 gm of sodium selenite per long. e.g., more than two to three weeks, they may
tonne will supply 0.3 ppm. Many feed companies result in zinc toxicosis. Alternative means to
use diluted selenium sources to ensure proper control the negative effects of£. coli scours are
distribution in the mix and to avoid the risk of preferred.
toxicity. In some instances, selenium can be admin-
istered by injection, often as a combination of Vitamins
vitamin E and selenium, to deal quickly with Vitamins are one of the six major nutrient classes
suspected problems. in a diet. The other classes are energy, protein,
minerals, essential fatty acids, and water. A pig
Zinc requires vitamins to support or stimulate the many
Zinc is an important component in a pig's diet. chemical reactions that occur in the body as part of
Zinc is a constituent of many enzymes and acts as a normal metabolism. Although they are present in
co-factor of others. It is also a part of the hormone, small quantities, vitamins perform very important
insulin. functions. As is the case with all nutrients, the
quantity present is not an indicator of importance.
Zinc deficiency in the pig results in poor overall
growth, reduced appetite, and poor hair growth. A Vitamins can be analysed but the cost is high. Also,
specific syndrome in swine, known as parakeratosis, once they are added into a mixed feed, the levels may
is the result of a zinc deficiency. It shows up as skin be too low to be accurately analysed. It is rare to test
lesions which may open and later develop scabs. for vitamins unless a problem arises. Many feed
Parakeratosis is associated with poor growth rate manufacturers test for one or two vitamins, e.g., ribo-
and impaired feed efficiency. flavin and vitamin A, in spot samples to ensure proper
formulation and mixing of premixes.
The utilization of zinc can be impaired by exces-
sive calcium in the diet. Indeed, dietary calcium has Deficiencies of a vitamin or group of vitamins
a profound effect on zinc requirements. At recom- must be avoided to maximize swine performance.
mended calcium intakes, 50 ppm zinc appears to be Unfortunately, the role of vitamins in nutrition has
quite adequate; excessive calcium can more than often been misunderstood; vitamins have in many
double the amount of zinc required to prevent cases been viewed in almost the same way as drugs.
deficiency symptoms. Phytic acid. common in For example, vitamin X will prevent spraddle leg or
cereal grains and protein supplements of plant vitamin Y will improve estrous behaviour. Al-
origin, also reduces the pig's utilization of zinc. though individual vitamins have specific functions
and a deficiency will result in certain symptoms,
Zinc should always be supplemented in a swine this does not mean that adding additional quantities
diet. Consequently, it is included in the mineral of a vitamin or vitamins will improve health or
premix as zinc oxide (70-80% zinc) or zinc sulphate performance. As always, the essence of nutrition
(36% zinc). As zinc supplied in the form of a must be to balance all nutrients according to need
sulphate is more available to the pig than zinc and not to assume that one nutrient possesses
supplied in the form of an oxide. zinc sulphate is magical qualities.
preferred over zinc oxide.
At least some vitamins arc naturally present in the
Recent studies have shown that including ex- diet and need not be supplemented. Others are
tremely high levels of zinc oxide (up to 3000 ppm present, but are either poorly available (niacin) or
of zinc) in d icts for newly weaned piglets increased arc in amounts well below the requirement (vitamin
feed intake and growth rate. It is speculated that at E) so that supplementation is necessary. Some
these pharmacological levels, zinc is effective in vitamms, such as vitamin C (ascorbic acid), are

40
synthesized by the pig. Others, such as biotin, are of the situations that increase vitamin breakdown
produced by the microbes present in the lower gut. and avoid them as much as possible. In general, the
Under some conditions, natural synthesis may be fat soluble vitamins are less stable than the water
impaired, resulting in greater need for supplementa- soluble vitamins. There are exceptions; for exam-
tion. For example, sulpha drugs in the feed or water ple, vitamin C is very unstable in the diet.
may reduce or even eliminate biotin synthesis in the
gut. All vitamins can be produced chemically so Vitamin supplement manufacturers have recog-
that supplementation, when necessary, is not a nized the problem of stability. Vitamins A, D, and
problem other than cost. Overall, vitamin fortifica- E are supplied encased in gelatin that protect them
tion generally represents less than 4% of the total from breakdown, but which still allow for absorp-
feed cost. tion in the gut. These gelatin beads also contain
anti-oxidants which provide further protection for
Identifying vitamin deficiencies is not a simple the vitamins inside.
task because the symptoms are rarely specific. For
example, a niacin deficiency impairs appetite and The presence of trace minerals, such as copper
growth rate, and causes severe diarrhea. Many and iron, in the diet tend to increase the breakdown
other factors can produce the same symptoms. of some vitamins. Poor quality fats may also cause
Consequently, symptoms must be considered in the a problem. The concern regarding trace minerals is
context of other information, such as feed analysis, greater in premixes than complete feeds since in a
herd history, and a thorough review of health status, premix, trace minerals are present in much higher
to ensure an accurate vitamin deficiency diagnosis. relative concentrations and are thus in more intimate
contact with vitamins.
Vitamins are categorized according to solubility
characteristics. Vitamins A, D, E, and Kare called Choline chloride is a particular stress factor for
the fat soluble vitamins. The B vitamins and vitamins. Breakdown can be as much as three to
vitamin Care called the water soluble vitamins. four times higher in premixes containing choline
The fat soluble vitamins are stored in the pig's body chloride than those without it.
so that brief periods of dietary deficiency rarely
cause a problem because the pig can draw on Table 3-18 summarizes information on the stabil-
reserves. The water soluble vitamins, because they ity of individual vitamins. To ensure maximum
are not stored in the body, must be present in the vitamin stability, premixes should be stored in a
diet on a more or less regular basis. cool, dry, dark location and inventories should be
turned over reasonably quickly, particularly in the
In Canada, all diets based on cereal grains must be summer when the temperature and humidity rise.
supplemented with vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12, as
well as riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid. A premix containing only vitamins can be stored
Sow diets should contain added choline, and prob- up to 6 months with minimal deterioration, except
ably folic acid and biotin. Other vitamins, if for folic acid, which deteriorates more rapidly.
supplemented, are probably being included only as Vitamin-trace mineral premixes, sometimes called
a safety factor. micro-premixes, which do not contain calcium,
phosphorus, or salt, can be stored up to 4 months.
Vitamin Stability However, losses of some vitamins under good
Vitamin supplements deteriorate with age; certain storage conditions will exceed 10%. Folic acid and
environmental factors accelerate the rate of deterio- vitamin C, if present, are the least stable vitamins in
ration. Agents that tend to stimulate vitamin degra- such premixes.
dation include moisture, oxygen (air), light, and
heat. pH is another concern but the producer can do Macro-premixes, which contain supplements of
little to regulate it, for pH regulation is the feed all vitamins and minerals (micro and
supplier's responsibility. A producer must be aware macrominerals) should not be stored for more than

41
four months, since losses in excess of I 0% can often added to provide further protection. Perhaps
occur for many vitamins including folic acid, the greatest danger exists in vitamin-mineral
pyridoxine, vitamin 03,vitamin A, thiamine, premixes that contain both vitamin A and trace
menadione (vitamin K), and if present, vitamin C. minerals. For this reason, it is wise not to keep such
premixes longer than 4 months. Because modem
The maximum time for storing complete feeds is vitamin A sources are stable and because most
probably 4 months; losses of I 0% or more will premixes contain far more vitamin A than a pig
occur after that period. Vitamins C and K, and actually requires, a 4 month storage period should
thiamine will be particularly affected. not be excessive provided the premix is kept dry
and is not heated or exposed to light.
Acceptable storage periods can be increased if
extra vitamins are added to the premix. By provid- Vitamin A concentration is expressed in Interna-
ing large overages, shelf-life is extended because tional Units (IU), an arbitrary scale that permits
losses due to storage are offset by higher original comparison among different sources. One IU of
vitamin concentrations. Actual overages can be vitamin A is equivalent to 0.3 ug of retinol (vitamin
calculated based on expected losses due to process- A alcohol), 0.344 ug of retinyl acetate (vitamin A
ing and length of the storage time (Table 3 - 18). acetate) or 0.55 ug retinyl palmitate (vitamin A
palmitate).
Vitamin A
Vitamin A, known chemically as retinol, plays a Fish oils are good natural sources of vitamin A.
major role in vision, bone development, reproduc- Alfalfa meal contains carotenoids which are chemi-
tion, and in the formation of mucous membranes cals that the animal can convert to vitamin A. As a
(i.e., lining of the lungs and intestine). Vitamin A rule, one can assume that for swine, 1 mg of Beta-
deficiency can result in night blindness or un-co- carotene is equivalent to 260 TU of vitamin A.
ordination. In sows, a deficiency may result in the There are some indications that Beta-carotene itself
birth of dead. weak, or malformed piglets. Signs of plays a role in swine reproduction, independent of
vitamin A deficiency include fetuses with small or vitamin A. However, more research is required in
no eyes, a cleft palate, or hydrocephalus. These this area. For example, some studies indicate that
symptoms, however, can be caused by other factors, Beta-carotene appears effective only when adminis-
including some of genetic origin, so a vitamin A tered via injections and not when included in the
deficiency cannot be diagnosed merely on the basis feed. Other studies suggest that vitamin A, when
of malformed piglets. Vitamin A deficiency in the administered in an injectable form, may enhance
sow will not cause abortion. In any event, vitamin reproductive performance in sows just like inject-
A deficiency is rare now that diets are properly able Beta-carotene.
supplemented.
Beta-carotene is widely distributed in certain
Vitamin A is readily destroyed when exposed to foods. Most green materials, such as alfalfa, are
heat, moisture. and light. The process can be relatively rich in Beta-carotene since it is generally
accelerated if the vitamin is in close contact with associated with chlorophyll (the compound which
trace minerals and/or unstable fats. Vitamin A imparts the green colours in plants). There are
activity can best be maintained by storing the feed exceptions, such as carrots and tomatoes, which
in a dry, cool, dark area. contain carotene but not chlorophyll. A compound
called xanthophyll, although part of the carotenoid
Vitamin A in feed is supplied as esters (com- family, has no vitamin A value. It is often used in
pounds), such as vitamin A palmitate or vitamin A poultry rations based on cereal grains to provide the
acetate, which are more stable than other forms. yellow pigment in egg yolks, but xanthophyll has
They are also manufactured in tiny gelatin capsules no value in swine diets.
that reduce deterioration rate and ensure both
stability and uniform distribution. Anti-oxidants are

42
 Hays may lose much of their vitamin A activity if Vitamin D is formed naturally by exposure of the
left in the sun too long to cure, since heat and pig's skin to sunlight. The ultraviolet rays in
sunlight destroy the carotenes. Cereal grains sunlight activate an enzyme responsible for convert-
contain essentially no vitamin A. ing a natural compound (7-dchydrocalciferol) into
vitamin D. For this reason, pigs housed indoors
Vitamin D require preformed vitamin D supplements in their
A pig requires vitamin D for the proper utilization diet.
of calcium and phosphorus, including stimulating
the gut to absorb them. Vitamin D also plays a very Stability concerns, similar to those described for
important role in normal bone metabolism. A vitamin A, also exist for vitamin D, although it is a
vitamin D deficiency is most likely to appear as somewhat more stable compound. Modern
lameness or other signs of disturbed calcium and processing methods, generous diet formulation
phosphorus utilization. Pigs that are deficient may standards, and proper storage practices combine to
have swollen joints, broken bones, or stiffness. overcome potential concerns. ln terms of natural
However, various infectious agents can also cause sources, most fish oils are excellent. Cereal grains
stiffness and swelling so determination of a vitamin contain no vitamin D.
D deficiency cannot be made without detailed
diagnostic tests.

Table 3-18. Stability of Vitamins in Premixes and During Pelleting and Extrusion.

Stability
Very High High Moderate Low Ver:i::Low
Vitamin Choline Riboflavin Thiamine Mono Thiamine Menadione
Chloride Niacin Folic Acid HCI Ascorbic
B12 Pantothenic Pyrodoxine acid
acid, E DJ
Biotin A

(losses/month)
Premixes without
choline and trace 0 <0.5% 0.5% 1% 2%
minerals

Premixes with <0.5% 0.5% 2% 4% 6%

choline

Premixes with
choline and <0.5% 1% 8% 15% 30%
trace minerals

Pelleting 1% 2% 6% 10% 26%

Extrusion 1% 5% 11% 17% 50%

Source: BASF Technical Bulletin.

43
 There are two chemical forms of vitamin D Vitamin E deficiency symptoms include muscle
referred to as vitamin 02, also called ergocalciferol, weakness and liver damage. Reproductive impair-
and vitamin 03, known as cholecalciferol. Vitamin ment is often used as a sign of vitamin E deficiency,
03 is the only form available in commercial supple- but because the sow can store vitamin E for a long
ments since poultry have difficulty utilizing Vitamin time and in considerable quantities, effects on litter
02 and because the cost of manufacturing vitamin size are extremely rare.
D2 is greater than that for vitamin Dr Vitamin D
activity is expressed in International Units, where l Researchers now know that vitamin E acts with
TU is equivalent to 0.025 ug of pure vitamin 03• selenium to protect against some diseases. Thus,
nutritionists take great care to ensure that both
Excess vitamin D must be avoided because it can vitamin E and selenium are properly supplemented
lead to many health problems, such as accumulation in a diet. If one is deficient, the requirement of the
of calcium in the kidney and blood vessels which, other is raised. Conversely, a high dietary level of
in severe cases, will cause death. In some parts of one reduces, but does not eliminate, the need for the
the world, high potency vitamin D preparations are other. A vitamin E deficiency can be prevented by
used as rat poison. supplying a properly balanced diet containing both
vitamin E and selenium supplements.

On occasion, a symptom of vitamin E deficiency,

hypersensitivity to iron injections in young pigs, is
reported. Piglets die soon after receiving an iron
injection due to iron's oxidizing effects. The
solution is to treat the pregnant sow with vitamin El
selenium injections so that she transmits protection
to the fetus directly and to the piglet, after
farrowing, via her milk.

Mulberry heart disease is occasionally diagnosed

in swine and is attributable to a dietary deficiency
of vitamin E and/or selenium. Care must be taken
in diagnosing mulberry heart disease. Infection
with Strep. suis Type II can induce similar
symptoms. If you suspect a problem, consult a
veterinary pathologist familiar with the disease.
Vitamin E
Vitamin E in the diet is inherently unstable,
Vitamin E is actually a general name for a group
especially in the presence of rancidifying
of compounds called tocopherols and tocotrienols.
(improperly stabilized) fats. Vitamin E is also
Alpha-tocopherol is the most active and also the
expensive so that over-formulation, a common
most widespread in nature. A pig requires vitamin
practice with vitamins A and D, is less common.
E for many functions, including normal muscle
Therefore, vitamin E represents a greater concern
activity and reproduction. Vitamin E helps to
with respect to the longevity of vitamin-mineral
prevent the membrane surrounding individual cells
premixes. The four month feed storage rule still
from deteriorating, influences the production of
applies provided care in storage and handling is
various hormones, and defends against infection.
exercised.
Because of its involvement in maintaining cell
membranes, increased vitamin E levels in pig
Vitamin E requirements are expressed in mg,
finisher diets have been related to reduced drip
International Units (IU) or United States
losses and reduced incidence of pale meat in swine
Pharmacopeia (USP) units. It is important to be
and beef carcasses.

44
able to interchange these measurements because Vitamin B12
different sources may be expressed in different Vitamin B12, also known as cyanocobalamine, is
ways. One IU of vitamin Eis equivalent to I USP required in extremely small quantities in the diet. It
unit which in turn equals l mg of dl-a-tocopheryl used to be called the 'animal protein factor' because
acetate, 0.74 mg of d-a-tocopheryl acetate, 0.91 mg before Vitamin B12 was discovered, producers knew
of dl-a-tocopherol, and 0.67 mg of d-a-tocopherol. that animals receiving diets containing ingredients
The acetate form is preferred because it is more solely of plant origin would develop pernicious
stable. anaemia. Now we know that plants are incapable of
producing vitamin B12 so diets based on grains are
Vitamin Eis present in many feedstuffs but can be completely devoid of it. Today, synthetic vitamin
destroyed by curing, artificial drying ( of grains), B12 is readily available so pigs can grow quite well
and storage. The tocopherol content of many feed on diets devoid of animal products. The vitamin is
ingredients are listed in Table 3-19. However, in synthesized by bacteria so that pigs with access to
practical swine diets, sufficient supplemental feces can obtain vitamin B12 from this source.
vitamin E is added to meet requirements so the Vitamin B12 cannot be absorbed from the gut
natural sources provide an additional safety margin. without the aid of the 'intrinsic factor', which is
secreted by the stomach of healthy animals. Ab-
Table 3-19. Alpha-tocopherol Content (mg/kg) of sence of intrinsic factor, even with adequate vitamin
Feed lngredients. B12, will result in pernicious anaemia.

Ingredient Mean Range Vitamin B12 deficiency results in anaemia, slow

Alfalfa meal 49.8 3 - 106 growth, poor co-ordination of the hind legs, and
Barley 7.4 4 - 11 rough hair coat. Longer term deficiency causes
Blood meal 1.0 0-4 nerve degeneration. The impact of a deficiency is
Canola meal 14.5 10 - 19 much greater in young animals than adults. Severe
Com 3.1 0 - 21 cases can result in high mortality among affected
Com germ 22.7 2 - 49 animals. Vitamin B12 deficiency can also alter the
Corn gluten meal 6.7 3 - 12 structure of backfat in pigs leading to the accumula-
Cottonseed meal 17.3 3 - 32 tion of odd chain fatty acids.
Feather meal 7.3 5-8
Linseed meal 4.0 Cobalt is a part of vitamin B12• Cobalt's main
Meat meal 1.2 0-5 function in the body is to work within vitamin B1/s
Oats 7.8 4 - 11 structure. Diets supplemented with vitamin B12,
Peanut meal 2.7 2-4 need no extra cobalt. Synthetic sources, simply
Poultry by-product meal 6.0 0 - 16 called vitamin B12, are available for use in diets.
Rice 2.3 2 - 2.4
Rye 9.0 2 - 14 Vitamin C
Sorghum 5.0 1 - 16 In the animal kingdom, only a few species,
Soybeans 21.0 including man and monkeys, require supplemental
Soybean meal 2.3 0-8 vitamin C (ascorbic acid). All other species, includ-
Sunflowers 10.4 4 - 18 ing pigs, possess an enzyme that converts glucose to
Sunflower meal 5.0 vitamin C. There is some indication that young pigs
Wheat 11.6 5 - 30 may benefit from the addition of vitamin C to their
Wheat bran 16.5 10 - 25 diet, but the available information is not conclusive.
Wheat middlings 20.1 2 - 41
Whey ( dried) 0.3 0- I Biotin
Biotin is involved directly or indirectly in energy
Source: Hoffman La Roche Ltd. 1988 and carbohydrate metabolism, fat synthesis and
breakdown, amino acid metabolism, protein

45
synthesis, nitrogen excretion, and the maintenance Choline deficiency has been imp! icated as a cause
of hair, skin, nerves, and sex glands. A deficiency of spraddle leg in swine although there is very little
results in impaired growth rate, dermatitis, loss of scientific support. Many experiments have evalu-
appetite, and spasticity of the hind legs. ated the effect of choline on spraddle leg and none
have concluded that choline was beneficial. The
Biotin is found in cereal grains and other use of choline to prevent spraddle leg is question-
ingredients commonly fed to swine. The able and should be carefully considered from a
availability of natural biotin in most feedstuffs tends cost:benefit perspective. Some producers spend as
to be poor and variable. The biotin in com is more much as five or six dollars per tonne of sow diet to
available than that in wheat, but there is much less provide generous supplementation of choline.
of it. Thus, the earlier belief that supplemental Using good flooring materials that improve footing
biotin is not required in swine diets has been in the farrowing crates has proven to be a more
reconsidered and common practice now includes effective solution to the problem at less cost. Other
biotin in diets for the breeding herd and growing approaches, such as tracing genetic predisposition in
boars and gilts that may be selected for breeding. the breeding herd and removing parents of piglets
that seem predisposed to spraddle leg, is also
Avidin, a naturally occurring compound in egg effective in some herds.
whites that binds with biotin and makes it
nutritionally unavailable, can be added to swine The pig can synthesize choline from the amino
diets to induce deficiency symptoms. On the basis acid, methionine. Thus, the dietary requirement for
of this research, we now understand that sows supplemental choline will depend on the pig's
deficient in biotin may develop hooflesions that methionine status. Choline is supplied by the salt,
can lead to premature lameness. Various studies choline chloride. It is very hygroscopic (attracts
show that adding biotin to sow diets increases water) so must be carefully stored. Pure choline
reproductive efficiency. Wheat or barley based sow chloride contains 86.78% choline. Commercial
diets are generally supplemented with 150 to 250 supplements. available in dry forrn, contain either
mcg of biotin per kg of diet. Much higher levels are 50% or 60% choline chloride. Liquid choline
used in some cases, but the benefits are far from chloride (70%) is also available.
clear. Fifty to one hundred (50-100) mcg of biotin
may be added to barley or wheat based diets for Folic Acid
growing-finishing pigs. Since biotin is an Folic acid is the name given to the vitamin. while
expensive vitamin, adding an excessive safety the term, folacin, refers to compounds derived from
margin does not make economic sense. When the vitamin. Folic acid is involved in a number of
required, biotin is available in synthetic form. functions, including cell division and growth, and
amino acid and nitrogen metabolism. Folic acid
Choline deficiency results in anemia (different from that
Choline, unlike other vitamins. is required in the caused by iron deficiency), reduced weight gains,
diet in a high concentration and acts more as a and fading hair colour.
structural component of the body rather than in
support of chemical reactions. The body uses Until recently, it was believed that normal dietary
choline to produce chemical messengers called ingredients plus gut synthesis provided sufficient
neurotransmitters which allow nerves to send folic acid for pigs. Therefore, most swine diet
messages throughout the body. Choline also forms premixes did not contain supplemental folic acid.
part of cell membranes, provides a surface active However, recent information suggests that folic acid
agent required by the lungs, is involved in fat and improves reproductive performance in sows.
cholesterol rnctabol ism, and acts as a precursor for
the formation of the amino acid, glycine. Signs of Prolonged administration of sulpha drugs inhibits
choline deficiency include reduced weight gain, growth of the bacteria that synthesize folic acid in
rough hair coat. decreased red blood cell count, and the gut. The need for supplementation may depend
unbalanced and staggering gates. on the use of drugs in a particular herd.

46
Menadione Pantothenic Acid
Menadione, a more common name for vitamin K, Pantothenic acid was formerly known as vitamin
is involved in calcium and vitamin D metabolism. B5• As a component of one specific co-enzyme, co-
The blood requires vitamin K to form clots; a enzyme A, pantothenic acid is important for fat and
deficiency results in prolonged clotting time and in carbohydrate metabolism. Deficiency symptoms
severe cases, haemorrhaging. A compound called include slow growth, diarrhea. dry skin, reduced
dicoumarol, found in spoiled sweet clover, reduces immune response, and a peculiar behaviour known
the blood's prothrombin content and raises the as 'goose stepping' in the hind legs.
requirement for menadione supplementation.
Certain mycotoxins in the diet may have the same The name pantotbenic acid is derived from the
effect. Sulpha drugs can reduce bacterial synthesis Greek word 'pantothen' which means 'from every-
and place greater pressure on dietary sources of where'. As its name suggests, pantothenic acid is
menadione. found in many feed ingredients. Barley, wheat, and
soybean meal are good sources, but biological
Vitamin K is supplemented in diets by a number availability in corn and sorghum is low. Although
of compounds, such as menadione cereal grains are good sources of the vitamin, swine
dimethylpyrimidinol bisulphite (MPB-22.7% diets are generally supplemented with the synthetic
menadione), and menadione sodium bisulfite form called d-calcium pantothenate (88.3% d-
complex (MSBC-33.0 or 16.5% menadione). pantothenic acid). The form called di-calcium
Alfalfa meal is a rich. natural source of menadione. pantothenate provides 44.0% d-pantothenic acid,
since the I-isomer is biologically inactive.
Niacin
Another name for niacin is nicotinamide, which is Pyridoxine
the biologically active form of the vitamin. Niacin Pyridoxine was formerly called vitamin 86.
is a relatively stable compound not adversely Pyridoxine, like other vitamins, plays an important
affected by heat. It is involved in the metabolism of role in enzyme function. Over 50 pyridoxine-
many dietary components including fats, carbohy- dependent enzymes have been identified.
drates, and proteins. Because of niacin's central Pyridoxine is particularly important in amino acid
role in metabolism, nutritionists are careful to avoid metabolism and the formation of neurotransmitters,
a deficiency. Deficiency symptoms include reduced the chemical messengers of the nervous system.
weight gain, dry skin, poor appetite, and diarrhea. Deficiency symptoms include reduced appetite and
growth rate. In severe cases, nervous disorders.
Cereal grains contain considerable quantities of including convulsions, occur.
niacin but its availability in corn, wheat, oats, and
sorghum is poor. Conversely, the niacin in Cereal grains are good dietary sources of
soybeans is highly available. Niacin is readily pyridoxine. Because of the wide distribution of
available in synthetic form at a reasonable cost for pyridoxine in conunon feed ingredients, pyridoxine
supplementation in swine diets. deficiency in swine is very rare and most diets, with
the possible exception of starter diets, are not
Tryptophan in the body can act as a precursor for normally supplemented.
niacin; diets containing excess tryptophan require
less niacin. A diet marginal in tryptophan will place Riboflavin
greater pressure on the need for niacin. However, Riboflavin is a critical co-factor in energy
tryptophan is the second or third limiting amino metabolism and also plays a role in fetus
acid in diets based on corn, so dietary tryptophan is development. Formerly called vitamin B2,
unlikely to provide appreciable amounts of niacin. riboflavin is supplemented in all swine diets
Theoretically, 50.0 mg of tryptophan will provide because cereals are a poor natural source. Whey
1.0 mg of niacin. powder, commonly used in starter diets, is the only

47
ingredient used in swine diets that is a good source The essential fatty acids (EFA) perform a number
of riboflavin. Supplemental riboflavin is available of functions. They become an important part of cell
commercially as a 96% pure powder. membranes. thus help to ensure that cells function
normally. They are also involved in the synthesis of
Riboflavin deficiency results in anestrus in gilts. a group of very important hormones called
cataracts, a stiff gait, and reduced growth rate. It is prostaglandins. These hormones are required for
also teratogenic, meaning a deficiency results in the many body functions, including reproduction.
birth of deformed piglets.
The requirements for essential fatty acids in pig diets
Thiamine are not well established. The recent interest in the
Thiamine was once called vitamin 81• A pig's role of essential fatty acids in human health has revived
requirement for thiamine increases in proportion to the interest in the metabolism and utilization of
its energy intake because thiamine is required to essential fatty acids by pigs as well. There is, for
maintain normal energy metabolism. Symptoms of example, considerable debate on the efficiency with
deficiency include depressed appetite, vomiting, which pigs can convert linolenic acid to other
depressed body temperature, and a slower than polyunsaturated fatty acids that belong to the family
normal heart rate. Deficiency (for research of omega-6 fatty acids and that are required for normal
purposes) can be induced by feeding raw fish, animal metabolism and reproduction. Some studies
which contains the enzyme, thiaminase, that suggest that the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty
destroys thiamine. acids in the diet is as important for the conversion of
these omega-3 fatty acids as the levels of these fatty
Grains are generally good sources of thiamine. acids in the diet itself. An essential fatty acid
Thiamine is present in the germ and hull portion of deficiency is unlikely in normal diets for growing
cereals so wheat germ and bran contain very high swine because the requirement appears to be very low
levels of thiamine. Flour, because of its limited (approximately O. l - 0.3% of the diet) and because
quantity of wheat germ and bran, is a poor source of vegetable fats tend to be good sources. Even the small
thiamine. Diets are not generally supplemented amount of fat present in wheat or barley apparently
with thiamine because most common ingredients supplies more than sufficient EFA to meet
are rich sources of the vitamin. Some nutritionists requirements.
believe supplementation is required, especially in a
young pig's diet, so small amounts (1 mg/kg) may The actual requirements for EFA by sows and boars,
be added to starter diets. Synthetic thiamine is however, are difficult to establish. The synthesis of
usually provided as thiamine hydrochloride (89% some important reproductive hormones depends on
thiamine) or thiamine mononitrate (92% thiamine). EFA: the requirement for the breeding herd is
suspected to be substantially higher than it is for
Essential Fatty Acids growing animals. Because EFA is stored in body fat
As indicated previously, dietary fats are made up reserves, any signs of deficiencies in sows may not
of sub-units called fatty acids. At least one, linoleic occur until the third or fourth parity. Based on a
acid, is essential in a pig's diet. Linoleic acid, a factorial estimation, sows may require 0. 75% linoleic
member of the omega-6 family of fatty acids, is a acid in the diet. If this estimate is indeed correct, a
dietary essential because it performs a specific role barley-soybean meal based diet may be deficient in
and cannot be synthesized from other compounds. linoleic acid. No estimates are available for the
Linolenic acid, a member of the omega-3 family of requirements for linolenic and arachidonic acid in
fatty acids, may also be required in the diet. A swine.
third fatty acid, arachadonic acid, also a member of
the omcga-6 family of fatty acids, can be consid- An EFA deficiency will impair growth rate and feed
ered a semi-essential fatty acid. Pigs require utilization, cause dry, scaly skin, and possibly result
arachadonic acid but can synthesize it from linoleic in hair loss. Reproductive performance also suffers.
acid if supplied in sufficient quantities in the diet. One experiment demonstrated that EFA deficiency

48
resulted in impaired water holding capacity of muscle, N.F.l.A. 1981. Specialty ingredients handbook. Na-
and that heart muscle structure and colour changed. tional Feed Ingredients Association. West Des Ma-
rines, IA.
Vegetable fats are rich sources of EFAs. The rea-
son cereal-based diets present a deficiency risk is be- NRC 1980. Mineral tolerance of domestic animals.
cause barley and wheat contain much less fat than com. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D.C.
The recent practice of adding vegetable oil, or whole
seed canola or soybeans to sow diets should remove NRC 1988. Nutrient requirements of swine. 9th
all concern about a possible deficiency. The fact that Edition. National Academy of Sciences. Washing-
the requirement has not been defined, however, leaves ton, DC.
some room for question.
Noblet, J. and Y. Henry. 1991. Energy evaluation
Water systems in pig diets. Manipulating Pig Production
Water is often called the 'forgotten nutrient' because Ill. Australasian Pig Science Association, Attwood,
it is so often ignored. Yet, water is as important as Victoria, Australia. pp. 87-103
any other dietary component and must be supplied in
sufficient quantities to ensure maximum productivity. Noblet, J. and J.M. Perez. 1993. Prediction of di-
Water is critical to life and good health. For detailed gestibility of nutrients and energy values of pig diets
information on water, refer to chapter 12. from chemical analyses. J. Anim. Sci. 71: 3339-
3398.

Sauer, W.C. and L. Ozimek. 1986. Digestibilities of

Additional Reading and References
amino acids in swine: results and applications. Lives.
A.RC. 1981. Nutrient requirements of pigs. Agri-
Prod. Sci. 15:367-388.
cultural Research Council, Commonwealth Agricul-
tural Bureau, Slough.
Standing Committee on Agriculture (SCA). 1987.
Feeding standards fro Australian livestock. V, Pigs.
Batterham, E.S. 1993. Availability of amino acids in
Editorial and publishing unit, CSIRO, East Mel-
feeds. Manipulating Pig Production IV Australasisan
bourne. Australia.
Pig Sciences Association, Attwood, Victoria, Aus-
tralia. pp 197-203.
Theander, 0. and E.A. Westerlund. 1986. Studies on
dietary fibres. 3 Improved procedures for analysis of
Batterham, E.S. 1989. Prediction of the energy value dietary fiber. J. Agric. Food Chem. 34:330-336.
of diets and raw materials for pigs. Feedstuffs Evalu-
ation. Butterworths, London. pp 267-282.
Van Soest, P.J. 1982. Nutritional ecology of the ru-
minant. 0 & B Books, Inc. Cowallis, OR
Graham, H. 1988. Dietary fibre concentration and
assimilation in swine. Anim. Plant. Sci. I :76-80.
Whittemore, C. T. 1993. The Science and Practise of
Pig Production. Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow,
Miller, R.M., D.E. Ullrey and A.J. Lewis (Ed.) 1991. Essex, England.
Swine Nutrition. Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham,
MA.

Moughan, P.J. 1991. Towards an improved utiliza-

tion of dietary amino acids by the growing pig. Re-
cent Advances in Animal Nutrition, 1991.
Butterworths, Heineman, Oxford. pp. 45-64.

49
50
 4. INGREDIENTS
The science of nutrition, as it applies to diet feeding pigs is limited to using one or two grains
formulation, involves essentially five steps, as (wheat, barley, corn) and one protein source (soy-
outlined in chapter 5: define feeding objectives, bean meal), it would be a worthwhile exercise to
establishment requirements needed to achieve the study diets utilized in other parts of the world,
objectives, select ingredients, formulate diets and where these ingredients represent less than half of
evaluate diets once made. This chapter focuses on the total diet, the remainder consisting of other crop
ingredients and how they might be used in diets. (eg. lupins, peas, canola, tapioca) or animal (blood
meal, meat and bone meal, feather meal) products.
In recent years, swine nutritionists have made
huge advances in defining the pig's nutrient require- Nutrient based diet formulation, or formulation
ments and further developments in this area are on the basis of nutrients irrespective of source, is
almost a certainty. Progress in defining the nutrient not new, but a surprisingly significant emphasis on
specifications of ingredients has been somewhat ingredients remains in our culture. While com and
slower and now provides a serious challenge to soybean meal may represent a standard against
commercial nutritionists. The precision with which which other ingredients may be compared, and
we can define nutrients supplied to the animal therefore give a level of comfort to pork producers
appears to be considerably less than that with which due to experience and tradition, it is essential to
we can define nutrients required by the pig. The recognize that equivalent performance can be
two major challenges relate to nutrient variability achieved with many other ingredients.
and nutrient availability. Consequently, to consist-
ently achieve the level of animal performance Therefore, ingredients should be selected on the
expected on an ongoing basis, and to do so at the basis of composition, cost, availability and palat-
lowest possible cost, nutritionists must address these ability. There is nothing magical about one ingredi-
two issues. Failure to do so will result in either ent versus another, provided resulting diets are
excessive feed costs or variable animal performance properly formulated.
or both!
Composition is the first consideration. ls the
Ingredient Versus Nutrient nutrient composition of an ingredient known with
Pig diets should be formulated primarily from the some reasonable degree of accuracy? If so, the
perspective of nutrients and less so on the basis of ingredient can be used to its maximum level with
ingredients. Over many centuries of domestication, confidence. If not, then nutritionists tend to be
the pig has demonstrated a marvellous ability to more conservative and use less than they otherwise
perform successfully using a diverse array of ingre- might.just to avoid unpleasant surprises!
dients; the pig is an omnivore, meaning it has the
ability to utilize feedstuffs of animal or vegetable
origin. The history of the pig is filled with exam-
ples of this culinary diversity.

lndeed, the future success of pork production

probably rests, in part, on our ability to utilize many
ingredients effectively in pig diets. In localized
areas, or on a regional basis, successful pork pro-
ducers seek out and utilize ingredients that are
discounted for reasons that arc often founded less on
nutritive value than on tradition and personal prefer-
ence. For those readers whose experience with

51
Table 4-1. Consistency of Various Protein Sources Used in Swine Diets.

Number Protein Content

Ingredient of Samples Average Range Standard Deviation
Plant Sources
Barley 25 1 1.1 9.5 - 12.4 0.80
Wheat 26 13.4 11.6 - 15.6 0.92
Corn 20 9.2 8.2 - 11.l 0.85
Oats 9 10.4 8.4 - 12. l 1.25
Soybean meal 32 47.4 46.l - 48.8 0.52
Canola meal 42 34.2 32.7 - 36.3 0.79

Animal Sources
Fish Meal 5 62.7 60.3 - 66.6 2.72
Meat Meal* 29 54.2 49.8 - 58.5 2.04

"This analysis contains data from samples described as both meat meal and animal or feeding tankage.
Example of variation in protein content observed in commercial samples of the ingredients listed. Above example
refers to samples collected and analysed during April and May, J 995.
Supplied by Federated Co-operatives Ltd .. , Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.

Based on nutrient composition, can the ingredient associated with processing of offal is resulting in a
be included in the diet and still meet the needs of more consistent product than was possible in the
the pig? For example, corn can be used in place of past.
wheat, or vice versa, in a starter diet, because they
are both high energy grains. Oats would not be Does the ingredient contain any anti-nutritive or
used to replace either wheat or corn, because they toxic compounds? For example, the old rapeseed
are too low in energy. meal contained glucosinolates that reduced feed
intake and impaired animal health. The new canola
Is the composition consistent? As a rule, proteins meal has essentially eliminated such problems.
derived from vegetable sources, such as soybean
meal or canola meal, are relatively consistent from Based on composition, is the product economical
batch to batch and from supplier to supplier. Con- compared to other available ingredients? Cost
versely, protein supplements manufactured as part should be considered in terms of profit, not price
of the meat processing industry tend to be Jess per tonne. If an ingredient can reduce the overall
consistent. One can obviously use a consistent cost of production, it should be used. If not, a more
product with a greater degree of confidence. Table economical ingredient should be selected.
4-1 illustrates this point. Quality control data
supplied by the Feed Department of Federated Co- Finally, is the ingredient appealing to the pig?
operatives Ltd. shows that products of plant origin This is a difficult question to answer, because pigs
tend to be relatively consistent, as indicated by a have a limited vocabulary! Unfortunately, we tend
smaller standard deviation (a measure of variabil- to think we know what is attractive to the pig. It is
ity). Products of animal origin tend to be less very important that one does not use human values
consistent and have a larger standard deviation. to select ingredients for pig feed. Pigs eat many
This does not mean that they should not be used, things that humans will not, and indeed. there are
but rather that more caution needs to attend their things that humans will eat that pigs find
inclusion in the diet. Advances in the technology unappealing.

52
 The basis for diet formulation is knowledge. This chapter discusses the use of many ingredients
Lack of knowledge means uncertainty and this in swine diets. Where possible, recommendations
translates into errors. The flow diagram in Figure for inclusion in the diet are provided. In providing
4-1 helps determine ingredient usage. these guidelines, certain assumptions have been
made. For example, replacement of current ingredi-
ents with an alternative should not change the
INGREDIENT
overall nutrient composition of the diet. If so, a
Is its nutrient composition, including availability, depression in performance will probably occur.
known?
The following section contains a discussion on the
utilization of common and some not so common
ingredients in swine diets. Detailed feedstuff
composition tables appear in the Appendix. For
Yes No further information on a particular ingredient, useful
� articles are listed at the end of the chapter.
Can the pig's nutrient Determine
requirements be met nutrient Animal Sources
if this ingredient composition The quality of feed ingredients derived from the
meat processing industry has improved consider-
is used?
ably in recent years. Improvements in quality
control have resulted in products that are superior to
that sold even ten years ago. As with any product,
quality varies among suppliers and attention to good
Yes No
purchasing practices, including regular feed testing,
I
Is it economical?
�
Reject
is advised.

A recent concern with many by-product meals

relates to their use in minimum disease herds. Since
offal can be contaminated with salmonella, or other
Yes No pathogens, meat and bone meal, feather meal and
blood meal are often excluded from diets destined
�
Is it readily available? Reject for herds with a high health status. Certainly, the
possibility of contamination exists, although mod-
em rendering plants are designed such that once the
rendered product leaves the cooking vats and is thus
Yes No sterilized, it cannot come in contact with incoming
uncooked material. While the risk of re-contamina-
I tion is always present, products not associated with
Is it palatable to the pig the rendering process may be at equivalent risk.
and safe to use? Reject The onus is on the management of the rendering
plant and truckers, to ensure that contamination
does not occur.

Yes No If there is concern, the matter should be discussed

� with a herd health veterinarian. In seeking zero risk,
Use the ingredient. Reject by-product meals are often avoided by some pro-
ducers. However, they should be aware that other
Figure 4-1. Flow Diagram Showing Choices in protein meals can, and have, become contaminated,
Selection of Ingredients Used in Practical Diets. probably during transport.

53
Blood Meal spray drying process, the lower temperatures and
Blood meal, as its name implies, is a high protein shorter retention times, as compared to flash drying
ingredient manufactured from animal blood col- results in a final product that is superior in terms of
lected from abattoirs. The nutrient composition of amino acid availability. Spray-dried blood meal is
blood meal will vary a great deal among suppliers, considerably more expensive than flash dried
due primarily to two factors: the method of process- product, and is used most commonly in starter diets,
ing and the nature of the source material used in the especially those employed for the young pig. Phase
manufacturing of the product. Book values will not I diets may contain as much as 2% to 3% while
suffice, unless extremely conservative values are Phase III diets may contain up to 5% to 7% spray-
employed. For example, one study of five different dried blood meal.
batches of blood meal revealed that total lysine
varied from 7.7 to 10.6% of the dry matter! Differ- The use of blood meal requires consideration be
ences in digestibility of lysine would further in- paid to sulphur amino acid and branched chain
crease the variability of the product. amino acid levels. There is research demonstrating
that starter diets containing blood meal may be
A variety of processes can be used to convert raw deficient in methionine, while higher levels of
blood (approximately 20% dry matter) to the dry blood meal (approaching 10%) in growout diets
powder useable in animal feeds. Vat drying is may result in problems with Jeucine levels being
essentially a batch process and results in the product excessive or isoleucine levels being inadequate.
of lowest nutritional quality; in North America, vat
drying represents a very small portion of the total Unlike meat and bone meal, blood meal is not a
blood meal available to the livestock industry. Vat- particularly good source of calcium or phosphorus.
dried blood meal is not recommended for use in The energy level in blood meal appears to be highly
swine diets, as the availability of nutrients is low; variable, so individual suppliers should be asked to
for example, the cligestibility oflysine is probably provide DE or ME values for their product.
less than 20%.

The majority of blood meals would be flash dried, Blood Meal

using the ring, roller, drum or belt methods. Ring- DE 3050
dried blood meal is quantitatively the most common Crude Protein 84.0
product available in North America. In this process, Lysine 7.60
coagulated blood particles would be inserted into Digestible Lysine 6.38
rotating rings where high temperatures, in the range Digestible Threonine 3.11
of 550°C, force off the water, leaving a product Digestible Tryptophan 0.92
with as little as 5% total moisture. Flash-dried Calcium 0.50
blood meal is particularly popular in cattle feeds, as Phosphorus 0.21
the rumen degradability characteristics are highly
desirable in support of maximum animal perform-
ance. Ring-dried blood meal can be effectively Blood meal is obviously a good source of iron.
used in swine diets; typical recommendations However, iron supplementation is relatively inex-
include up to 2% in later phase starter diets (pigs pensive and indeed, the need for iron supplements
over 15 kg) and up to 5% in growout and sow diets. in market hog diets has been questioned. Thus,
attributing a value to blood meal for its iron content
Increasing in popularity is spray-dried blood would be questionable.
meal. In this process, blood is treated with an anti-
coagulant to keep it in liquid form. It is pre-heated Blood meal tends to be hydroscopic, meaning that
and then spray-dried in vertical or horizontal cylin- it attracts water. Consequently, feeds containing
ders; retention times of 2 minutes or less and blood meal are more likely to bridge in the feeder,
temperatures of less than 250°C are typical. In the so that feeder management is critical to ensuring
maximum feed intake is achieved.

54
Additional Reading and References greatly increase the processing time needed; how-
Miller, E.R. 1990. Blood meal: Flash dried. in ever, excessive treatment periods, even at lower
Non-traditional feed sources in swine production, temperatures appear lo resull in an inferior final
P.A. Thacker and R.A. Kirkwood, eds. London: product.
Butterworth. pp. 53 - 60.

Parsons, M.J., P.K. Ku and E.R. Miller. 1985. Feather Meal

Lysine availability in flash-dried blood meals for DE 2250
swine. J. Anim. Sci. 60: 1447 - 1453. Crude Protein 85.0
Lysine 1.67
Batterham, E.S., R.F Lowe, R.E. Darnell and E.J. Digestible Lysine 1.09
Major. 1986. Availability of lysine in meat meal, Digestible Threonine 2.54
meat and bone meal and blood meal as determined Digestible Tryptophan 0.29
by the slope-ratio assay with growing pigs, rats and Calcium 0.34
chicks and by chemical techniques. Brit. J. Nutr. Phosphorus 0.93
55:427 - 440.

Like most by-product ingredients of animal

Bone Meal origin, variability of nutritional quality is a major
At one time, bone meal was a common ingredient concern. Even if total amino acid content does not
in animal diets, but more recently it has become too change, availability may differ vastly according to
expensive for routine use. It is an excellent source processing method.
of calcium and phosphorus, containing about 24%
and 12% respectively. However, products of equal Very little research on feather meal has been
mineral value are now available at much less cost. conducted with pigs. However, commercially
available feather meals have supported growth in
chicks equal to that of soybean meal, if essential
Bone Meal amino acids are properly supplemented. For the
Cmde Protein 28.0 chick, methionine, lysine, histidine and tryptophan
Lysine 1.00 were required. Since amino acid requirements of
Digestible Lysine 0.77 the pig differ from those of the chick, different
Digestible Threonine 0.51 amino acids may be needed. However, the clear
Calcium 30.00 message is that feather meal can be used, provided
Phosphorus 12.50 it is appropriately supplemented with deficient
nutrients.

Feather Meal Feather meal can be used successfully in the diet

Feather meal is a by-product of the poultry of pigs if the nutrient composition is accurately
processing industry. Although rich in crude protein, known. As a minimum, it can be used at the rate of
raw chicken feathers are of little nutritional value to 3-4% in grower or sow diets. Its use in starter diets
the pig; the digestibility of the protein is essentially is not recommended unless it is known that the
zero. Commercially available feather meals are product being used is of superior quality. These
often referred to as hydrolysed feather meal, be- levels are conservative and greater quantities can no
cause they are steam treated under pressure to doubt be used, but care in balancing for essential
improve their nutritive value. For maximum amino acids would become more critical.
nutritive value, feathers need to be autoclaved for
30 to 60 minutes al l 42°C to l 53°C ( 40-60 p.s.i.). Additional Reading and References
Higher pressures for shorter periods are also em- Papadopoulos, M.C. 1985. Processed chicken
ployed commercially. Lower final temperatures feathers for poultry and swine: a review. Agric.
Wastes 14:275 - 290.

55
Fish Meal
Fish meals are high in protein (50 to 75%) and Fish Meal: Herring
amino acids. The protein is of good quality ( espe- DE 3725
cially high in methionine) and is generally highly Crude Protein 71.0
digestible. Due to fat content (approximately 10%) Lysine 5.82
the DE content is comparable to or higher than that Digestible Lysine 4.95
in soybean meal. The levels of most minerals, Digestible Threonine 2.41
particularly calcium and phosphorus are similar to Digestible Tryptophan 0.58
or higher than those in other protein sources. Phos- Calcium 2.75
phorus availability in fish meals is high. Phosphorus 1.75

Saltwater species of fish commonly used for fish

meal include menhaden, anchovy, herring, red fish, Fish Meal: Menhaden
tuna, salmon and white fish. DE 3700
Crude Protein 61.2
The quality of fish meal will have important Lysine 4.82
effects on its feeding value. Factors that should be Digestible Lysine 4.10
considered include: the source material (type of Digestible Threonine 1.94
fish, whole fish vs fish offal), storage of the raw Digestible Tryptopban 0.52
material (partial decomposition before processing) Calcium 5.11
and processing (overheating, moulding, excessive Phosphorus 2.92
oil). For example, meal made from viscera will be
lower in mineral content than meal made from
whole fish or heads and frames. Fish Meal: White
DE 3550
Oxidizing oils present in fish meal may cause the Crude Protein 63.8
destruction of vitamins A andE in the diet which Lysine 4.34
could result in a vitamin deficiency. It is therefore Digestible Lysine 3.69
imperative that antioxidants be added during Digestible Threonine 2.11
processing. Fresh fish products also contain high Digestible Tryptophan 0.50
levels of the enzyme thiaminase which acts to Calcium 7.00
destroy the B-vitamin thiamine. If fish meal is Phosphorus 3.50
properly heat-treated this enzyme will be destroyed.
However, in order to ensure that a vitamin defi-
ciency does not occur, it may be worthwhile to
consider supplementation of thiamine when diets Over the last years many studies have been
containing high levels of fish silage are fed. conducted that demonstrate the beneficial effects of
including good quality fish meal (select menhaden
Another concern with the use of fish products is or herring) in weaner and starter pig diets. Possible
the possible presence of high levels of mercury. explanations include diet palatability, good amino
Fish accumulate mercury in their body tissues and acid balance and availability, content of specific
the possibility exists that pigs fed silage could long chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids, an underes-
produce a carcass unacceptable to humans due to timation of the available energy content, and the
mercury consumption. Fish products containing absence of an allergic response by the pig's gut to
more than .5 mg/kg of mercury should not be used fish meal (as observed with soybean meal). Good
in swine rations. quality fish meal is routinely included in diets for
young pigs (at levels up to 10%) to replace the more
expensive milk protein (primarily from dried skim
milk). It is generally too expensive to include fish
meal in the diet for grower-finisher pigs and sows.

56
 When large quantities of fish meal are used in these processing plants can obtain a high quality of
starter pig diets, close attention should be given to protein supplement at a relatively low cost and
the level of lactose (normally supplied by milk thereby increase the efficiency and profitability of
products) and minerals (calcium and phosphorus) in their swine operations.
the diet. A concern with using fish meal in finish-
ing pig diets is its effect on meat quality. Problems The potential feeding value of fish silage is
may arise with a fishy taint in carcasses from pigs determined mainly by the quality of the material
fed fish meals. This can largely be attributed to the being ensiled. Fish silage produced using a high
oil content of fish meal. In the finisher diet, the percentage of whole fish will have a higher nutri-
amount of oil derived from fish products should not tional value than will silage produced using offal.
exceed 1%. In addition, the type of fish used will affect the
quality of the silage produced. For example, silage
Additional Reading and References based on white fish is different from that based on
Gore, A.M., R.W. Seerly and M.J. Azain. 1989. herring and it is important to differentiate between
Menhaden fish meal and dried whey levels in starter these when discussing their nutritional value.
diets. Univ. Georgia Swine Res. Rep. P. 11.
White fish silage has a dry matter content of about
Stoner, G.R., J.L. Nelssen and R.H. Hines. 1988. 20%. On a dry matter basis, it contains approxi-
Replacing dried skim milk with select menhaden mately 70% crude protein, 3% ether extract and
fish meal in a high nutrient dense diet. Kansas State 16% ash. In contrast, herring fish silage has a dry
Univ. Swine Res. Rep. P. 57. matter content of about 35% and on a dry matter
basis, it contains only 43% crude protein and 8%
Stoner, G.R., J.N. Nelssen and R.D. Goodband. ash. However, it has an ether extract content of
1989. Effect of fish meal quality on the growth over42%.
performance of weanling pigs. Kansas State Univ.
Res. Rep. P.70. The energy and mineral content and amino acid
profile of fish silage closely resembles that of fish
Wiseman, J., S. Jaggert, D.J.A. Cole and W. meal made from the same type of raw material (see
Haresign. 1991. The digestion and utilization of section on fish meal). As a consequence, fish silage
amino acids of heat treated fish meal by growing- would appear an excellent source of protein and
finishing pigs. Anim. Prod. 53:215-225. minerals for use as a supplement to cereal grains.
However, some of the concerns that apply to fish
Fish Silage meal ( oxidizing oils, thiamin supplementation.
Fish silage is produced by adding organic acids to contamination with mercury, effect on carcass
whole or parts of fish. The addition of acid acti- quality) apply to fish silage as well (sec fish meal).
vates enzymes present in the raw fish and thus
stimulates the break down of the tissue protein. The Fish silage can be used quite successfully in swine
resulting product has a nutrient content similar to rations. The results of a research trial conducted at
fish meal except that fish meal has a dry matter the University of Georgia using weanling pigs fed
content of about 90% while fish silage has a dry either 0. 3, 6 or 9% fish silage for six weeks are
matter content in the range of 15-30%. presented in Table 4-2. It can be seen that the
performance of weanling pigs fed diets containing
The process of making fish silage offers the 3 or 6% fish silage was not significantly different
potential of utilizing wastes from the fishing indus- from the control group while those fed diets con-
try in areas where the quantity of waste material is taining 9% fish silage gained weight at a slower
insufficient to justify the production of fish meal. rate. The major factor responsible for this reduction
Producers with operations located in the vicinity of in growth rate appeared to be a reduction in intake.

57
Table 4-2. Performance of Weanling Pigs Fed Diets There would appear to be some problems when it
Containing Graded Levels of Fish Silage. comes to feeding fish silage to breeding stock. The
results of one experiment in which fish silage was
Fish Silage(%)
fed to sows during gestation are shown in Table 4-4.
0 3 6 9 Preweaning mortality has been shown to be signifi-
Daily gain (kg) 0.42 0.40 0.43 0.39 cantly higher when diets containing 6% fish silage
Daily feed (kg) 0.87 0.89 0.91 0.80 arc fed to sows during gestation. The reason for
Feed conversion 2.07 2.22 2.12 2.07 this increase in mortality has not been dctennined.

Adapted: Tibbetts et al., 1981, J. Anim. Sci 52:93-100.

Table 4-4. Effect of Feeding Fish Silage on the
Reproductive Performance of Sows.
Growing pigs also perform well on fish silage.
The results of an experiment conducted in Britain in Control 6% Fish Silage
which growing pigs between 25 and 55 kg body
Pigs born alive 11.4 11. l
weight were fed diets containing 0, 5, 10 or 15%
Birth weight (kg) 1.4 1.3
fish silage arc presented in Table 4-3. The inclusion
Pigs weaned 9.7 8.2
of fish silage in the diet slightly reduced feed intake.
Weaning weight (kg) 4.4 4.4
Pigs fed fish silage grew faster than those fed the
Mortality(%) 14.9 26.1
control diet without fish silage. Yet, there was no
difference in growth rate between pigs fed diets Adapted: Tibbetts et al., 1981. J. Anim, Sci. 52:93-100.
containing 5, IO or 15% fish silage. Feed efficiency
was best when the inclusion level of fish silage was
l 0%. The experiment showed no significant effects The major problem using fish silage is finding an
of the inclusion level of fish silage on the various acceptable method of feeding the product. Because
carcass characteristics of pigs slaughtered at 55 kg of the high moisture content of the silage, diets
body weight ( dressing percentage. carcass weight. containing fish silage must be mixed on a daily
backfat measurements, fatty acid profile of the basis or else the cereal portion of the ration may
subcutaneous carcass fat). However it was noted start to spoil. In addition, rations containing high
that the backfat was slightly more yellow in the levels of fish silage tend to bridge iffed in tradi-
carcasses of pigs fed the 15% fish meal diet. tional types of feeders. Therefore, unless an accept-
able method of feeding fish silage is developed, its
use will be limited to small scale producers who
Table 4-3. Performance of Growing Pigs (25 to 55 kg
body weight) Fed Diets Containing Graded Levels of mix and feed by band.
Oily Fish Silage (44% fat in the pure product).
Additional Reading and References
Fish Silage(%) Green, S., J. Wiseman and D.J.A. Cole. 1988.
0 5 10 15 Examination of stability. and its effect on the
nutritive value, of fish silage in diets from growing
Dailygain(kg) .65 .71 .73 .71
pigs. Anim. Feed Sci. Techn. 21 :43-56.
Dailyfccdintake(kg)l.43 1.42 1.41 l.40
Feed Conversion 2.23 2.0 I 1.96 1.99
Tibbetts, G.W., R.W. Seerley, H.C. McCampbell,
P2 Backfat (mm) I 0.0 11.0 10.4 l 0.0
and S.A. Vezey. 1981. An evaluation of an ensiled
Adapted: Green ct al., 1988, Anim. Feed Sci. Techn. waste fish product in swine diets. J. Anim. Sci.
21 :43-56. 52:93-100.

58
Meat and Bone Meal content of meat meal is usually about 8%, since any
Meat and bone meal, or often referred to as meat additional fat in the raw material is removed in the
meal, is a by-product from the animal packing processing tallow.
industry. The crude protein content of meat and
bone meal (50%) is slightly higher than that of The major problem with meat and bone meal is
soybean meal while its amino acid profile is surpris- variability of nutrient composition. For example,
ingly similar to that of soybean meal although one survey of only 17 samples revealed lysine
containing less tryptophan. However, the amino content ranged from 2.38% to 3.86%. Tryptophan
acids in meat and bone meal are generally less varied even more, from 0.20% to 0.69% and
available to the pig (see below). The energy content threonine ranged from 1.81 % to 2. 72%. Amino
of meat meal varies due to differing mineral con- acids were not the only nutrient to vary. Calcium
tent, but overall is less than that of barley or canola content was 0.9% to 15.8%. This lack of uniformity
meal. The calcium and phosphorus content is a makes it a difficult product to use to maximum
bonus since phosphorus is an especially expensive advantage in swine diets.
nutrient. Care must be taken to consider the sodium
and chloride (salt) content of meat meals. The salt The degree of variability will depend on a number
content has been reduced in recent years. but is still of factors. If the meal is produced from a single
sufficiently high to require adjustment of added salt, source of relatively constant composition, then the
especially in the diets of young pigs. meal will reflect this in being consistent. However,
it is made from a variety of ingredients, such as
whole carcasses, offal and blood, and contains beef,
Meat and Bone Meal poultry and swine, the final product will likewise be
DE 2825 less consistent. If this can be considered in the diet
Crude Protein 50.0 formulation, no harm will be done. For example,
Lysine 2.70 hard offal, which includes bones, heads and hooves
Dig. Lysine 1.89 is a less desirable component, because it results in a
Dig. Threonine 1.09 meat meal with a poorer amino acid profile due to a
Dig. Tryptophan 0.17 high collagen content. Soft offal, consisting of gut
Calcium 9.50 material, tends to produce a superior product with a
Phosphorus 4.70 more desirable amino acid profile.

Meat meal has the potential to be an important

For example, in some samples of meat meal the protein source in swine diets, provided certain
bone content is low. This will result in increases in features of the products are recognized. Some meat
protein levels (sometimes as high as 60% protein meal will contain a great deal of connective tissue.
and 3.1% lysine) and reductions in mineral levels Although this is protein, it is not well digested and
(can be as low as 6.5% calcium and 3.5% phospho- its amino acid profile is quite poor. Also, a high
rus). The fat content of meat and bone meal is mineral content in meat meal could cause a distur-
usually about 8%, since any additional fat in the raw bance of the calcium:phosphorus ratio and possibly
material is removed in the processing of tallow. cause a zinc deficiency, if the diet is not properly
formulated. If the formulation takes into account
Raw materials incorporated into meat and bone the calcium and phosphorus content of meat meal,
meal include such things as trim, hides, heads, feet and indeed takes advantage of them to satisfy the
and entrails. Although meat and bone meal are two pig's requirements, then no harm will be done and
different products, the terms are often used inter- performance will be quite satisfactory.
changeably. Whether it contains bones or not has a
considerable influence on the nutritive value of the Processing method can also be an important
final product. For example, as bone content rises, factor. Excessive temperature will reduce nutrient
the crude protein content tends to fall. The fat quality and performance will be depressed. For

59
example, increasing the cooking temperature from Brooks, P. 1991. Meat and Bone meal: the under-
I 25°C to I 50°C has been found to reduce lysine utilized raw material. Feedstuffs, volume 63,
availability from 84% to 38%. number 27, 1991. pp. 13-15, 22.

As mentioned above, the amino acid availability Cromwell, G.L., T.S. Stahly and H.J. Monegue.
of meat meal tends to be lower than comparable 1991. Amino acid supplementation of meat meal in
values for cereal grains and vegetable protein lysine-fortified, corn-based diets for growing-
sources, For example, various studies have con- finishing pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 69:4898-4906.
cluded that lysine is 54-67% available for meat and
bone meal, as compared to 81-87% for soybean Haugen, E.W. and J.E. Pettigrew. 1985. Apparent
meal and 71 % for fish meal. However, some digestibility of amino acids in meat meal as affected
individual meat and bone meal samples have lysine by manufacturing variables. Proc. 46th Minnesota
availabilities equal to that of soybean meal. Nutr. Conf., Minnesota Agric. Expt. Stn., pp. 154-
169.
A potential concern if including meat and bone
meal in pig feeds is its contamination with harmful, Knabe, D.A., D.C. LaRue and E.J. Gregg. 1987.
disease causing organisms such as salmonella. Apparent digestibility of nitrogen and amino acids
However, various recent surveys demonstrate that in protein feedstuffs by growing pigs. J. Anirn. Sci.
the incidence of salmonella contamination in 67:441-458.
properly processed meat and bone meals (proper
temperature, no contamination of processed with Leibholz, J. 1979. Meat meal in the diet of the
unprocessed material) is very low. In fact, some early-weaned pig. III. Meat meal quality and the
surveys demonstrate that feedstuffs of vegetable processing of meat meals. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech.
origin, such as cereal grains and soybean meal can 4:53-61.
be contaminated with salmonella as well. A further
point worth noting is that there are a whole range of Whole Milk
types of salmonellas. Only a very limited number Whole cow's milk is usually not included in swine
of salmonella strains are considered harmful to pigs rations because its value in human diets makes it too
or humans. expensive. However, it is perhaps nature's most
perfect feed and can be used very successfully in
Success in using meat and bone meal will depend swine rations. Milk provides more essential nutri-
on one's ability to define nutrient composition. ents than any other feed ingredient. Whole milk is
High quality meal, purchased from a good supplier very easily digested and is extremely palatable. The
with a sound quality control program, can be used amino acid balance of milk protein is excellent and
at high levels in market hog diets ( 10-15%) as well because of its high protein quality, lower levels of
as those for sows (5-10%). Otherwise. meat and crude protein can be fed when using whole milk
bone meal should be limited to 5-7% of grower and than the levels commonly advised in feeding stand-
gestation diets, 3-5% of lactation diets and 2% or ards.
less in starter diets.
Milk provides energy in its milk fat and milk
Additional Reading and References sugar (lactose). It is an outstanding source of
Batterham, E.S., R.E. Darnell, L.S. Herbert and E.J. calcium and a good source of phosphorus. It is high
Major. 1986. Effect of pressure and temperature in vitamin A, rich in riboflavin and is a good source
on availability of lysine in meat and bone meal as of niacin, thiamine, vitamin B-12 and other B-
determined by slope-ratio assays with growing pigs, complex vitamins. However, it is not perfect. The
rats, chicks, and by chemical assay. Brit. J. Nutr. iron content is extremely low and it is a poor source
55:441-453. of vitamin D. Therefore, it is important that a
vitamin-mineral premix be utilized when whole
milk is being fed.

60
 A nutritional breakdown of whole cow's milk is
Dried Skim Milk
shown below. Basically five pounds of whole milk
Digestible Energy 3850
will supply the same amount of nutrients as one
Crude Protein 33.4
pound of complete feed.
Lysine 2.43
Digestible Threonine I .31
Whole Milk Calcium 1 .20
Digestible Energy 660 Phosphorus l.00
Crude Protein 3.50
Lysine 0.28
Digestible Threonine 0.13 Because of price, skim milk is not a commonly
Calcium 0.12 used ingredient in swine diets. However, skim milk
Phosphorus 0.09 may be diverted to animal feed if excess supplies
develop or if a given shipment fails to meet certain
quality standards. Since these standards may relate
An example of a feeding regime using whole milk to factors of Little nutritional importance, a real
is shown in Table 4-5. Best use of the protein in opportunity exists. However, if the milk powder
whole milk can be made if no other protein supple- has been over-heated during drying, then its nutri-
ment is used in the ration. However, since less dry tional value will be compromised.
feed is to be fed, it is recommended that higher
levels of vitamin-mineral premix be included in the Generally, even skim milk powder sold at distress
diet. prices is economical only in creep and starter diets,
where it can make up to 20 - 30% of the total
formula. Pigs of all ages can be fed skim milk.
Table 4-5. Replacement Scheme for Using Whole Their feces may become loose as they adjust to the
Milk in Swine Diets. lactose in the milk but this is usually a temporary
problem and will disappear in a few days. The
Weight of Meal Milk problem of milk intolerance in pigs tends to be
Pig (kg) (kg) (Litres) overestimated.
18 0.84 1.80
23 0.86 3.20 Additional Reading and References
34 1.28 4.10 Kornegay, E.T., H.R. Thomas and C.Y. Kramer.
45 1.50 5.00 1974. Evaluation of protein levels and milk prod-
68 2.12 5.90 ucts for pig starter diets. J. Anim. Sci. 39: 527-535.
91 2.36 7.00
Owsley W.F., D.E. Orr and L.F. Tribble. 1986.
'Meal should contain 95% cereal grain and 5% vitamin- Effects of nitrogen and energy source on nutrient
mineral premix. Additional protein supplements are not digestibility in the young pig. J. Anim. Sci. 63: 492-
required.
496.

Whey
Dried Skim Milk
When whole milk is treated with the enzyme
Dried Skim Milk is of course skim milk which
rennet, the protein casein is precipitated and takes
has had the water evaporated from it. The only
with it most of the fat and about halfof the calcium
major difference between dried whole milk and
and phosphorus. The remaining liquid is called
dried skim milk is that in skim milk, most of the fat
whey. Sweet whey arises from the production of
and fat soluble vitamins have been removed so that
Swiss- or cheddar-type cheeses and acid whey from
all other components of the diet are increased
cottage cheese production. About 9 kg of sweet
proportionally.
whey or 6 kg of acid whey will be produced per

61
kilogram of cheese. Sweet whey contains slightly In older pigs, concern is often expressed about
more crude protein ( 12 - 14 vs IO - 12% ), more their ability to utilize the lactose in whey. It is
lactose (68 - 72 vs 60 - 65%) and less ash (7.5 - 9.0 known that as the pig ages, and no longer consumes
vs 9.5 - 1 l.5%) than acid whey. As its name im- lactose, the special digestive enzyme called lactase,
plies, it also contains less lactic acid (1.5 - 3.0 vs that breaks down lactose in the gut, will decrease.
5.5 - 7.5%). Whey contains almost all of the This is no surprise. since lactase is used solely to
lactose from milk and significant portions of the degrade lactose, and if it is not present in the diet,
mineral fraction as well. Since casein has been there is little reason for the gut to continue to
removed, the major protein in whey is produce it. Consequently, farmers have become
lactoglobulin, which fortuitously is of good quality. reluctant to utilize whey in the diet of growing or
Lactose is desired in diets of newly weaned pigs, finishing animals, even if a local milk processing
due to its digestibility. However, some commercial plant can supply fresh whey at an economical price.
whey powders have had some of the lactose re-
moved so the content may vary from 35 to 58% of The truth of the matter is that pigs can tolerate
the dry matter. As the amount of lactose increases, lactose quite well. Research in Wisconsin demon-
the protein content decreases from 26 to 16%. strated that the pig can tolerate up to 30 % lactose in
its diet. Since whey is about 70- 77 % lactose, this
In its crude form, whey is a liquid; more than translates into about 40 % whey in the diet on a dry
90% of fresh whey is in fact water. Although liquid matter basis. Indeed. the scientists also learned that
whey can, and is, fed to swine, most has been dried removal of lactose from the diet of the older pig
before inclusion in the diet. On a dry matter basis, will not diminish its ability to digest lactose in the
fresh whey is 70-77% lactose (milk sugar), 17% future. The pig's adaptability, in terms of diet, was
crude protein, 9% ash (minerals), 1.0% calcium and reaffirmed!
0.8% phosphorus. Although the true protein in
whey is of good quality, it must be recognized that The major problem with feeding liquid whey to
up to 25% of the nitrogen in whey is present as non- swine is the high moisture content, and the pig's
protein nitrogen. Therefore, nitrogen assays tend to inability to consume sufficient dry matter to grow
overestimate the true protein content. rapidly. Thus. care must be taken to ensure that
sufficient dry matter from other sources is provided
Dried whey is generally used in the diet of early
weaned pigs, as a source of highly digestible lactose
and protein. However, excessive utilization of Photo 4-1.
whey can lead to diarrhea; the exact amount will
depend on other factors in the diet. Generally,
starter diets will contain no more than 15 - 20 %
whey, if for no other reason than cost. Concerns
about scouring often lead nutritionists to use skim
milk powder rather than exceed 20 % whey in the
diet. Again, cost becomes a limiting factor in such
diets, since skim milk powder is also very expen-
sive.

Typical diets for the early weaned pig contain IO -

20 % whey, while diets for pigs 5 weeks of age and
older will contain perhaps 5 - 10 % whey. Al-
though the presence of whey in such diets is desir-
able, nutrient composition must be considered to
ensure maximal performance. The addition of
whey alone to a diet cannot be considered sufficient Wet-Dry Feeder.
to maximize growth rate and feed efficiency.

62
to pigs to support normal growth. If liquid whey is Plant Sources
being fed to pigs, the dry feed can be adjusted to Feeds derived from plants tend to be relatively
contain less protein and more mineral:vitamin uniform in composition within species. This helps
premix. Since whey is rich m protein. less supple- avoid the variability problems associated with feeds
mental protein would be required in the dry feed. derived from animal sources. I lowever, ingredients
The premix must be increased since the pigs would derived from plant sources have other problems
cat fewer kilograms of dry feed per day. but their which ma) limit their inclusion in swine diets. For
daily requirement would remain the same. The example. unprocessed oats arc too low in energy to
exact adjustment would depend on the amount of be utilized as a major constituent in most swine
whey being eaten. Since the final ration, including diets. Barley, although higher in energy than oats. is
proportions of whey. grain and premix will vary of limited value to nursing sows and baby piglets if
depending on pig size and amount of whey con- maximum performance is to be recognized. Some
sumed, a qualified nutritionist should be involved in plant products contain anti-nutritional factors that
setting up feeding programs on individual farms. impair digestion. reduce appetite, or may compro-
Liquid feeding systems, in which the dry feed and mise the health of the pig.
water are mixed prior to feeding, offer considerable
potential for liquid whey feeding. Also, wet-dry Alfalfa
feeders have been used for the same purpose. There are problems associated with alfalfa
(Medicago sativa) which limit its usefulness as a
Additional Reading and References feedstuff for pigs. The protein and energy are
Ekstrom, K.E., N.J. Benevenga and R.H. Grurnmer. poorly digested and it contains toxic factors such as
1975. Effects of various dietary levels of dried saponins and tannins which reduce growth rates of
whey on the performance of growing pigs. 1. Nutr. animals fed diets containing alfalfa. However.
105: 846-850. despite the negative factors present, there is still
interest in the use of alfalfa as a component of
Forsum, E. 1975. Whey proteins for food and feed swine diets and research continues to attempt to
supplement. In Protein Nutritional Quality of Foods overcome these problems. If this work is success-
and feeds (M. Friedman, ed.). pp. 433-470. Marcel ful, the use of alfalfa in swine diets may increase.
Dekker. Inc .. New York.

Kornegay. E.T., H.R. Thomas and C.Y. Kramer. Alfalfa Meal

1974. Evaluation of protein levels and milk prod- Digestible Energy 1850
ucts for pig starter diets. J. Anim. Sci. 39: 527-535. Crude Protein 17 .0
Lysine 0.76
Owsley W.F., D.E. Orr and L.F. Tribble. 1986. Digestible Lysine 0.36
Effects of nitrogen and energy source on nutrient Digestible Threonine 0.34
digestibility in the young pig. J. Anim. Sci. 63:492- Digestible Tryptophan 0.10
496. Calcium 1.33
Phosphorus 0.23
Schingoethe, D.J. 1976. Whey utilization in
animal feeding: A summary and evaluation. J.
Dairy Sci. 59: 556-570. The nutritional quality of alfalfa varies with stage
of maturity, soil fertility. variety, physical handling
and other factors. The most significant factor
affecting the nutritional value of alfalfa is the stage
of growth at which it is cut. As the forage becomes
more mature, it contains less protein and more fibre.
Because of this variation in nutrient content, pro-
ducers arc advised to submit samples for laboratory
analysis before including alfalfa in any diet.

63
 The primary factor limiting the use of alfalfa in Table 4-6. Growth, Feed Intake and Carcass Charac-
swine diets is its low digestible energy content. The teristics of Pigs (54 to 100 kg) Fed Alfalfa.
crude fibre content of alfalfa is extremely high
compared with grains and oilseeds. Since the pig � DietaQ:'. Alfalf�
has a simple stomach of relatively small capacity, it Criteria 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0
is less able to utilize crude fibre than are other types
of farm livestock. Therefore, the digestible energy Daily Gain (kg/day) 0.86 0.73 0.63 0.41
content of alfalfa is approximately half of that Daily Intake (kg/day) 3.0 3.0 3.2 2.7
found in common cereal grains. Feed/Gain 3.6 4.1 5.0 6.7
Dressing (%) 77.9 76.2 75.4 75.2
Alfalfa ranges from 12 - 22% crude protein (N x Backfat Thickness (cm) 3.9 3.5 3.2 2.9
6.25). Unfortunately, the protein in alfalfa is not
very digestible. The high crude fibre content of Powley et al., 1981, J. Anim. Sci. 53: 308-316.
alfalfa prevents the digestive enzymes from gaining
access to the soluble cellular proteins. As a result,
the protein in alfalfa is only about 50% digestible. Poor palatability is one factor accounting for the
Alfalfa contains a good balance of amino acids and reduction in performance when high levels of
a reasonable level of lysine. However, because of alfalfa are included in the diet of the growing pig.
the high fibre level, the availability of the lysine in Saponins are a bitter tasting compound present in
alfalfa is likely to be low. alfalfa. Recently, cultivars of alfalfa varying in
saponin content have been developed. It would
Alfalfa is characteristically high in calcium. appear that cultivars containing lower levels of
However, it has only a moderate phosphorus con- saponins are more palatable and support higher
tent. When grown on phosphorus-deficient soils, it levels of performance than do the traditional alfalfa
may be very low in phosphorus. Therefore, rations varieties. Future research may allow for higher
containing high levels of alfalfa require supplemen- levels of alfalfa to be incorporated into swine diets.
tal phosphorus to meet the pig's requirement and to However, at the present time, it is not possible to
narrow the wide calcium:phosphorus ratio present justify the use of high levels of alfalfa meal.
in this forage. Alfalfa is a good source of most
vitamins and is an excellent source of vitamins A, E The subject of whether or not it is beneficial to
and K. However, the advent of relatively cheap include alfalfa in diets fed to sows is controversial.
sources of these nutrients added via the premix has While some studies have supported its use, the
resulted in a reduction in the need for alfalfa in the benefits can often be attributed to the vitamin E and
diet as a source of vitamins. selenium supplied by the alfalfa meal. Since
synthetic sources of both vitamin E and selenium
Alfalfa should not be used in diets fed to wean- are available, there does not appear to be any
ling pigs. Its high crude fibre content and low necessity for the inclusion of alfalfa in gestation
digestible energy level are likely to limit growth and diets. If it must be used, it would seem wise to limit
reduce the efficiency of feed utilization when fed to the levels of alfalfa fed during gestation to a maxi-
pigs of this weight range. Higher energy feedstuffs mum of25 - 30% of the diet.
should be used as the foundation for a high quality
starter diet. Alfalfa meal should not be fed to sows during
lactation. Feeding alfalfa meal during lactation will
It is recommended that no more than 5% alfalfa reduce the energy intake of sows resulting in re-
be included in the diet of grower pigs. The data in duced milk production. However, some producers
Table 4-6 illustrate the adverse effects of alfalfa include bulky ingredients such as alfalfa meal in the
meal when included in the diet of market hogs. The diets of sows during prefarrowing and early lacta-
reduction in gain would appear to be the result of tion to prevent constipation. ff this is the case,
insufficient dietary energy to meet requirements for higher levels of wheat or fat are needed to maintain
maximum growth. a high energy content.

64
 In summary, alfalfa meal should not be included Barley
in diets fed to starter and grower pigs and lactating Swine producers and feed manufacturers who arc
sows because of its high crude fibre content and low oriented towards com are sometimes unaware of the
digestible energy level. In rations fed to the gestat- wide use of barley (Hordeum vulgare) as a swine
ing sow, a maximum of 25 - 30% of the diet is feed and are often sceptical about its use. However,
suggested. barley is an excellent feed for swine and millions of
pigs are raised annually on barley-based diets.
Additional Reading and References
Baker, D.H., B.G. Harmon and A.H. Jensen. 1974. Unfortunately, barley is not just barley, There is a
Value of alfalfa meal and wheat bran in diets for tremendous amount of variability in the types of
swine during prefarrowing and lactation. J. Anim. barley available for use in swine production. Barley
Sci. 39:325-329. can be either two-rowed or six-rowed, hulled or
hulless, awned or awnless. In addition, variation
Powley, J.S., P.R. Cheeke, D.C. England, I.P. exists among the lysine and starch content of
Davidson and WH. Kennick. 1981. Performance barleys. Even barley of the same genetic back-
of growing finishing swine fed high levels of alfalfa ground can vary greatly since growing and harvest-
meal: effect of alfalfa level, dietary additives and ing conditions can have profound effects on the
antibiotics. J. Anim. Sci. 53:308-316. nutrient composition of barley.

Thacker, P.A., 1990. Alfalfa meal. Pages 1-12 In For example, the results represented in Table 4- 7
P.A. Thacker and R.N. Kirkwood eds. Non-tradi- indicate that differences in growth rates and feed
tional Feed Sources for Use in Swine Production. efficiency between growing-finishing pigs fed
Butterworths Publishers, Stoneham, MA. samples of different barley varieties can be as much
as 609%. The observed differences in animal
Wallace, H.D., D.D. Thieu and G.E. Combs. 1975. performance can largely be attributed to differences
Alfalfa meal as a special bulky ingredient in the sow
diet. Feedstuffs (Feb 3). pp. 24.

Table 4-7. Composition of Barley Varieties and Performance of Growing-finishing pigs (approximately 20 to
95 kg body weight) Fed Various Barley Varieties*

Barley Variety
Boyer" Camelot" Clarkb Harrington" Hesk" Steptoe"
Chemical composition**
Dry matter, % 91.6 91.4 91.3 91.2 91.8 91.9
Crude Protein, % 9.4 13.2 10.2 11.0 9.1 9.9
Lysine,% .36 .44 .38 .42 .35 .36
Animal performance
Feed intake, kg/d 2.32 2.25 2.35 2.16 2.30 2.29
Growth rate, kg/d .78 .78 .80 .78 .79 .75
Feed: Gain 2.99 2.98 2.90 2.79 2.92 3.05

* The barley samples were supplemented with soybean meal and lysine to maintain similar lysine levels in all grower
(.75% lysine) and finisher (.60% lysine) diets and with vitamins and minerals. The inclusion levels of the barley
samples were 83.2 and 88.9% in the grower and finisher diet, respectively.
** As fed basis, analyses of the barley samples.
• Six-row winter barley varieties.
b Two-row spring varieties.
< Six-row spring variety.

Adapted from Michal et al., 1993. Washington State University Information Day Proc. Vol.8:69-74.

65
in unavailable energy content between the barley Because of its lower energy content, barley finds
samples that were evaluated. Small differences in only limited use in diets fed to starter pigs. How-
palatability (voluntary feed intake) were also ever, when the cost of other cereals is very high it
observed. ln this study, Harrington barley (a two- may be possible to include some barley in the diet
row spring barley variety) supported the best feed of the weanling pig. Only good quality barley
efficiency while Steptoe (a six-row spring barley should be used. Barley can be fed very successfully
variety) results in the poorest growth rate and feed to growing pigs and in fact most pigs in Western
efficiency. As only one sample of each barley Canada are raised on barley. To maximize growth
variety was evaluated, the differences in observed rate, high energy cereals such as corn or wheat are
levels of animal performance may have been due to often used in combination with barley. Growth
factors other than variety. For an estimation of the rates in finishing pigs fed barley-based diets are
feeding value of barley, producers are thus encour- generally similar to these fed corn or wheat-based
aged to have their barley tested before feeding it to diets. This is because finishing pigs are generally
their pigs. able to compensate for reductions in diet DE
content with increases in daily feed intake in such a
Barley is intermediate to wheat and oats as an manner that the daily energy intake is dependent on
energy source for pigs. Its relatively high crude diet DE content.
fibre content (5.1 %) is one of the major reasons for
the comparably low energy value. The digestible Barley can constitute the sole cereal grain in diets
energy (DE) content in individual barley samples fed to sows during gestation. However, because of
may be predicts from the dry matter and crude fibre its lower energy content, it may be beneficial to
content: include between 25-75% wheat in the diet of sows
during lactation.
DE (Kcal/kg of dry matter)= 4228 - 140 x Crude
fibre content(% in dry matter)." The performance of pigs fed barley-based diets
has been shown to be markedly improved as a result
The protein content of barley is intermediate to
of pelleting. The reason for the improvement in
that of wheat and com and similar to the level
performance is a subject of much debate. Some
contained in oats. Relative to requirements, barley
researchers feel that the improvement is due to a
protein is generally low in lysine, isoleucine,
reduction in wastage, while others suggest that the
threonine, tryptophan and the sulfur containing
improvement is due to an increase in feed consump-
amino acids. The lysine content of barley is ap- tion or to an increase in nutrient digestibility.
proximately equal to that of wheat. The amino acid
content of barley can be predicted using regression
Barley that is frozen or sprouted sometimes
equations based on crude protein. These equations
becomes available to the pork industry, and ques-
can be found in chapter 3.
tions arise regarding its feeding value. Recent
studies carried out at the University of Alberta
indicate that sprouting or frost damage will not
Barley necessarily impair pig performance (Table 4-8). In
Digestible Energy 3100 this report, bushel weight fell as low as 42 lb, but
Crude Protein 10.6 all pigs performed equally, as compared to a control
Lysine 0.39 diet based on normal barley.
Digestible Lysine 0.27
Digestible Threonine 0.23
Digestible Tryptophan 0.10
Calcium 0.07
Phosphorus 0.35

66
Table 4-8. Utilization of Frozen or Sprouted Barley Boyles, S.L., K.B. Koch. 1992. Feeding barley to
(Bonanza) by Growing Pigs'· swine. ln: Feeding barley to cattle, swine and
poultry. North Dakota State University Extension
Control Sprout Sprout Services. North Dakota Sate University of Agricul-
Frozen Frozen Frozen tural and Applied Science, Fargo, North Dakota.
Grain Analysis
Michal, J.J., M.S. Han and J.A. Froscth. 1993.
Damage(%) 0.1 18.7 6.9 Nutrient composition and feeding value of Boyer,
75 >75 >>75 Camelot, Clark, Harrington, Hesk and Steptoe
C. Protein (%) 12.1 13.3 11.0 Barley for growing-finishing pigs. Washington
11.4 11.7 12.2 State University Information Day Proceedings, Vol.
C. Fibre(%) 6.5 7.3 7.3 8 pp. 69-74.
7.4 7.9 9.0
Bushel Wt (lb) 51 48 45
47 42 43 Barley: High Moisture
Pig Performance
Barley is traditionally harvested after it has been
field dried to a moisture content of 14-15%. This
Ave. Daily Gain (kg) 0.71 0.72 0.70
drying is necessary in order to prevent deterioration
0.71 0.70 0.69
of the grain during storage. Spoiled grain is useless
Ave. Daily Feed (kg) 2.27 2.24 2.23
as an animal feed since molds growing on the grain
2.18 2.22 2.29
may produce mycotoxins which cause poor growth
Feed Conversion 1.59 1.61 1.56
and reproductive problems.
1.56 1.56 1.58
Grain drying systems have been developed which
Adapted from Plett, and Aheme, 1987. Proc. Western
Nutrition Conf. pp. 128-131. allow crops to be harvested at higher than normal
I Barley represented 80% of the diet in all cases. Initial moisture levels and then dried for storage. This
pig weight averaged 20.8 kg; final weight was not artificial drying requires a lot of energy. As energy
specified. costs increase, it may become less attractive to
harvest grain in this manner. Therefore, producers
are looking for alternative harvesting methods. One
Additional References and References method that has generated considerable interest is
Batterham, E.S. 1990. Prediction of the dietary that of harvesting high moisture grain.
energy value of diets and raw materials for pigs. In:
(Wiseman, J. and DJ.A. Cole, Ed.) Feedstuff High moisture grains are preserved in a manner
evaluation. Butterworths, London, England, pp. similar to silage. In the absence of oxygen, acid
267-282. producing bacteria proliferate and produce acids by
fermenting barley sugars and carbohydrates. The
Blair, R., B. Rakshit. J.M. Bell, V.J. Racz and K.A. acids produced stop further bacterial action. The
Rosaasen. 1990. Dietary energy level for growing- ideal moisture content to ensile wet grain for swine
finishing pigs fed ad libitum. 1. Growth response. appears to be in the 22-28% range. A moisture
Arch. Anim. Nutr. 9:793-804. content greater than 28% leads to greater fermenta-
tion, resulting in more acid production which tends
Blair, R., B. Rakshit, J.M. Bell. VJ. Racz and K.A. to be less palatable to the pig. On the other hand,
Rosaasen. 1990. Dietary energy level for growing- the fermentation of grain containing less than 22%
finishing pigs ad libitum. 2. Carcass effects and moisture is relatively slow and the amount of acid
economical model of the responses. Arch. Anim. produced may not be sufficient to kill those organ-
Nutri. 9:805-813. isms that cause spoilage.

67
 A four-year research project conducted at Mon- Rates of acid application vary with the moisture
tana State University showed that high-moisture content of the grain and the intended length of
barley could be harvested an average of 12 days storage. The higher the moisture content of the
sooner than dry barley. By harvesting early, the risk grain, the greater the amount of acid needed for
of losses due to high winds, rain, snow or frost is proper preservation. Grain treated with an organic
minimized. Harvesting grain at a higher moisture acid should have a moisture content of22% or less
content also results in higher yields compared to when harvested. A higher moisture level would
traditional harvesting methods. Field losses are make the chemical treatment expensive to use.
reduced because high-moisture barley does not
shatter like dry barley does. In the Montana State The major disadvantage of acid-treated grain is
University tests, high moisture barley yielded the corrosive effect the acids have on most types of
16. 7% more grain compared with similar fields metal in handling and storage equipment. The
which were harvested as dry grain. In addition, corrosion is usually most severe on surfaces in
high moisture grain helped to control weeds, espe- contact with the grain or vapour for the first weeks
cially wild oats since reduced shattering resulted in following grain treatment. It may also react with
fewer weed seeds left in the field to germinate. concrete, especially if the concrete is newly cured
and unweathered.
Although high moisture barley can be stored as
silage, several problems arise when it comes time to In terms of chemical analysis, there is little
feed the product. Since the grain contains moisture, difference between high moisture barley and regular
spoilage is always possible. Therefore, high mois- barley on a dry matter basis (Table 4-9). High
ture grain must be fed soon after being taken from moisture barley may be slightly higher in crude
storage. Untreated high moisture barley will heat fibre than regular barley since it loses less hull
within hours of removal from the silo because of during threshing. It may also be slightly higher in
microbial activity. Because of this, high moisture protein content owing to the lighter and smaller
barley diets must be mixed on a daily basis and in kernels saved by harvesting high moisture barley
amounts readily consumed over a short period of which are slightly higher in protein but lower in
time. Once a silo is opened, it is necessary to carbohydrate.
remove approximately 7.5 cm per day from the
exposed surface of the silo to control spoilage. If
this does not match the daily feed requirements of Table 4-9. Chemical Analysis of High Moisture and
the pigs, some feed may be wasted. Dry Barley.

Composition High Moisture Dry

A second alternative, treating grain with organic
(%, in dry matter)
acids, has kindled further interest in the use of high
moisture grains. The application of acid preserves Protein 12.6 12.3
the grain by inhibiting mold growth. The acid Ether Extract 2.2 1.9
reduces the pH of the grain below the mold require- Ash 3.0 2.7
ment and also kills the grain germ. Propionic, Crude Fibre 6.4 4.9
acetic and formic acids are most common. Nitrogen Free Extract 70.7 71.1

Adapted from Krall, 1972, Montana State Agric. Exper,

The main advantage of preserving grain with
Station Bull. 625, pp 1-45.
organic acid is the fact that the grain does not have to
be stored in the absence of air. Therefore, existing
storage structures can be utilized. In addition, the
There is evidence that carotene and vitamin E
complete ground ration will not spoil in self feeders
activity are reduced in acid treated grains. How-
and therefore, daily mixing is not required.
ever, phosphorus is more available in high moisture
grain compared with dry grain regardless of the
preservation method.

68
 High moisture barley may be used effectively as a Several reports have indicated that high moisture
feed grain. In formulating diets with high moisture barley may be more palatable than dry barley. This
grain, adjustments must be made for excess water. improvement in palatability may be due to the fact
To convert wet grain to dry grain equivalent, divide that high moisture grain is easier to roll and the
the dry matter content of the dry grain by the dry rolling results in a flaky product which contains
matter content of the wet grain to establish an very little in the way of fines or dust. This lack of
adjustment factor. This factor will tell how much dust and fines in the ground product may be a factor
more high moisture barley must be fed to supply in improving palatability. However, in most in-
amounts of nutrients as dry barley on a dry matter stances, when differences in dry matter are consid-
basis (Table 4-10). ered, consumption is about equal for high moisture
and dry barley. Since high-moisture grain has the
same feeding value as field dried grain when
Table 4-10. Amount of High Moisture Grain Neces- compared on an equal dry matter basis, the decision
sary to Supply the Same Amount of Dry Matter as
Regular Barley (90% OM). to use high-moisture grain should be made on the
basis of cost, storage and handling and not on
% Moisture High Moisture Barley (kg) clifferences in nutritional value.

15 1.06 Additional Reading and References

20 1.12 Weltzien, E.M. and F.X. Aheme. 1987. The effects
25 1.20 of anaerobic storage and processing of high mois-
30 1.28 ture barley on its ileal digestibility by, and perform-
35 1.38 ance of, growing swine. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 67:829-
40 1.50 840.
45 1.64
Gibson, D.M., J.J. Kenelly and F.X. Aheme. 1987.
The performance and tbiamin status of pigs fed
On a dry matter basis, there is no difference in the sulphur dioxide treated high moisture barley. Can.
performance of pigs fed high moisture or dry J. Anim. Sci. 67:841-854.
barley. Average daily gain and feed conversion
efficiency do not cliffer between pigs fed dry versus Barley: Hulless
high moisture barley (Table 4-11 ).
The performance of pigs fed barley-based diets is
generally inferior to that of pigs fed cliets based on
Table 4-11. Performance and Carcass Characteristics wheat or com. The major factors responsible for
of Pigs Fed Acid-treated High Moisture Barley the lower nutritional value of barley are its rela-
(74.5% CM) or Regular Barley (85.8% OM). tively high crude fibre content and resulting low
energy level. However, since a large proportion of
Regular Acid-treated the crude fibre content of barley is contained in the
hull fraction, it is possible that the removal of the
Average Daily Feed (kg) 2.18 2.09
bull from barley could substantially improve its
Average Daily Gain (kg) 0.69 0.69
nutritive value.
Feed Conversion 3.15 3.02
Dressing Percentage 79.00 78.80
The huU of barley consists of two glumes, the
Carcass Backfat ( cm) 3.35 3.55
lemma and the palca, which completely enclose the
Carcass grade 103.00 100.00
seed. ln traditional, hulled varieties of barley, the
Adapted from Bowland and Corbet, 1973, Univ. Alberta- glurnes are fused together and are attached to the
52nd Ann. Feeders Day Report, pp 3-6. seed by a cementing substance produced by the
caryopsis. This causes the hull to remain attached
to the seed during harvest. Recently, cultivars of
barley have been developed in which the fusion of

69
the glurnes does not occur, allowing the hull to be fibre, may in fact be higher in hulless barley as
removed during the threshing process in a manner compared to hulled barley. The beta glucan content
similar to that which occurs with wheat and many of barley is one of the factors that contributes to the
other cereals. These so called hulless varieties of reduced feeding value of barley as compared to
barley would appear to have considerable potential wheat and com, especially in starter pigs.
for use in swine rations.
For example, the results summarized in Table 4-
ln general, hulless barley contains a higher protein 12 suggest that performance of starter pigs fed
level and a lower crude fibre content than hulled hulless barley is similar to that in pigs fed regular
barley. All other nutrients are generally present at a barley: pigs fed the hulless barley eat slightly less
slightly higher level in hulless versus hulled barley. and used feed slightly more efficiently that the pigs
This is to be expected when the diluting effect of fed the regular barley.
the hull is removed.
Table 4-12. Performance of Starter Pigs Fed Condor
Hulless or Samson Hulled Barley.
Barley: HuUess
DE 3250 Hulled Hulless
Crude Protein Barley Barley
13.7
Lysine 0.54 Feed intake, kg/d 0.90 0.85
Calcium 0.24 Growth rate, kg/d 0.59 0.58
Phosphorus 0.37 Feed: Gain 1.57 1.47

Thacker et al., I 987. University of Saskatchewan, Dept.

of Anim. and Py. Sci. Research Reports, pp. 168-172.
Care must be taken when formulating diets using
hulless barley to balance for the amino acid lysine
rather than crude protein, since diet formulation on Table 4-13. Performance of Growing-finishing Pigs
the basis of the latter may result in an amino acid Fed Diets Based on Hulled or Hulless Barley.
deficiency. However, formulation on an amino acid
basis may require higher than normal crude protein Hulled Hulless
levels in the final diet in order to ensure that the
diets are balanced for lysine. Feed intake, kg/d 2.46 2.32
Growth rate, kg/d .75 .74
Unfortunately, the development ofhulless Feed: Gain 3.30 3.13
cultivars of barley has not resulted in consistent Carcass dressing percentage 80.6 79.8
improvements in pig performance. Although Backfat, cm 3.5 3.5
several researchers have indicated that the perform- Carcass index* 103.7 103.6
ance of pigs fed hulless barley is superior to that of
pigs fed hulled barley, other have observed little or
* Canadian carcass grading system
Adjusted from Thacker et al., 1988, Anim. Feed Sci.
no improvement in performance. This may be Techn. 19: 191-196.
attributed to the actual samples of grains that were
evaluated, or the way in which experimental diets
were formulated, i.e. control of the proper lysine to The result of one experiment in which the hullcss
energy ratio. In most samples of hulless barley, barley cultivar Scout was compared to the hulled
some hulls are still present. This is due to an cultivar Harrington for growing pigs are presented
incomplete removal of the seed hulls during the in Table 4-13. It can be seen that the average daily
threshing process. The extent of de-hulling should gain and feed intake of pigs fed the hulless barley
thus be monitored via a visual inspection or fibre diet was not significantly different from that of pigs
analyses in the cereal grain sample. Another argu- fed hulled barley. However, the feed conversion
ment is that the content of beta glucan, a soluble efficiency of pigs given hulless barley was

70
significantly better than that of pigs given hulled Beet pulp has proven to be a popular ingredient in
barley. This improvement in feed efficiency. in sow diets. It is often added to prevent constipation
combination with the lower levels of soybean meal problems. Five to seven percent beet pulp in sow
required in order to meet the pigs requirements for diets tends to solve all but the most challenging
essential amino acids, may provide sufficient cases of constipation.
incentive to encourage the incorporation of hulless
barley in swine diets, particularly when feed costs It should be noted that the addition of beet pulp to
are high. There is no data available on the feeding swine diets tends to reduce the digestibility of
value of hulless barley for breeding swine. energy and nitrogen. This is unlikely to be a practi-
However, given the benefits of increasing nutrient cal problem, as only small quantities arc generally
density in nursing sow rations, serious consideration used commercially.
should be given to the use of hulless barley in the
lactation diet. Additional Reading and References
Graham, H., K. Hesselman and P. Aman. 1986.
Additional Reading and References The influence of wheat bran and sugar-beet pulp on
Aherne, F.X. 1990. Barley: Hulless. 1n: Non- the digestibility of dietary components in a cereal-
traditional Feed Sources for Use in Swine Produc- based diet. J. Nutr. 116:242 - 251.
tion. Butterworths Publishers, Stoneham, MA,
USA. (Thacker, P.A. and R.N. Kirkwood, Ed.). Stebbens, H.R. 1991. The digestion and utilisation
of food fibre by growing pigs. Ph.D. Thesis,
Thacker. P.A., J.M. Bell, H.L. Classen. G.L. University of Edinburgh, UK.
Campbell, and B.G. Rossnagel. 1988. The nutri-
tive value of hulless barley for swine. Anim. Feed Buckwheat
Sci. Tech. 19:191-196. At the present time, buckwheat (Fagopyrum
sagittatum) is most commonly grown as a grain for
Beet Pulp human consumption with small amounts used in
Beet pulp (Beta Vulgaris) is becoming a less pancake mixes, breakfast cereals and in certain
common ingredient in swine diets in Canada due to breads and ethnic dishes. Buckwheat bas not been
changes in the sugar beet crop. Reduced availabil- widely utilized as a livestock feed although it now
ity and consequent increases in the price have appears that it has considerable potential for use as
forced nutritionists to seek alternative ingredients. an ingredient in swine diets.

Beet pulp achieved its greatest popularity as a

highly palatable soluble fibre source in the diet of Buckwheat
sows. It contains about 20% crude fibre, 24% acid DE 3010
detergent fibre and 35% neutral detergent fibre. Crude Protein 11.2
However, the crude fibre portion tends to be more Calcium 0.08
digestible by swine than that of straw or oats. Phosphorus 0.32
Consequently, the digestible energy content of beet
pulp is about 86% of barley and 84% of wheat.
Crude protein content is only about 10-12%. The protein quality of buckwheat is reported to be
among the highest in the plant kingdom. The
Beet Pulp concentration of several of the essential amino acids
DE 3000 is higher in buckwheat than any of the commonly
Crude Protein 9.9 uti I ized cereal grains. Of particular importance are
Lysine 0.60 the levels of lysine and threonine which are the first
Calcium 0.70 and second limiting amino acids in most cereal
Phosphorus 0.37 grains. Buckwheat contains significantly higher
levels of both of these amino acids. Relative to the

71
requirements of the growing pig, buckwheat protein containing a higher level of buckwheat tended to
contains adequate levels of almost all of the essen- have leaner carcasses in comparison with pigs fed
tial amino acids. Only isoleucine and methionine barley. Therefore, when prices dictate, buckwheat
are not present at a level greatly in excess of re- can replace barley in rations fed to growing pigs.
quirement. Unfortunately, buckwheat supplies a
relatively low level of digestible energy (3000 kcal/
kg). The prime factors accounting for its low Table 4-14. Performance of Growing Pigs (20-60 kg)
energy content are a high crude fibre content Fed Diets Containing Various Levels of Buckwheat in
( 12.0%) and a low level of fat (2. l %). This low Combination With Barley.
digestible energy content is the prime factor limiting
the usefulness of buckwheat in swine diets. Percent of Cereal as Buckwheat
0 25 50 75 100
Another factor limiting the nutritional value of
buckwheat is the presence of a photosensitizing Daily Gain (kg) 0.70 0.70 0.72 0.66 0.70
agent known as fagopyrin. Pigs fed high levels of Daily Feed (kg) 1.95 2.12 2.27 1.94 2.01
buckwheat develop peculiar eruptions and intense Feed/Gain 2.79 3.02 3.16 2.93 2.91
itching of the skin when exposed to sunlight. This Backfat (mm) 30.90 31.10 29.00 27.30 27.50
condition is known as fagopyrism or buckwheat
poisoning. Only white or light-coloured areas of Anderson and Bowland, 1984. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 64:
the skin are affected and only if they are exposed to 985-995.
direct sun I ight. If animals are kept indoors, away
from sunlight, they remain normaJ. Therefore, There is very little research conducted on the
under modern systems of confinement, fagopyrism feeding value of buckwheat for the breeding herd.
is unlikely to be a problem for pigs fed buckwheat. Based on its nutrient content, it is likely that buck-
wheat could be used in gestation diets. However,
Buckwheat also contains several other anti- buckwheat should not be used if the gestating sows
nutritional factors that may limit pig performance. are housed outdoors. In addition, because of its low
There is a trypsin inhibitor in buckwheat which may energy content, buckwheat should not be fed to
decrease the digestibility of buckwheat protein. In sows during lactation.
addition, condensed tannins are aJso present in
buckwheat but at a level considerably lower than Additional Reading and References
those found in sorghum or fababeans. Despite its Anderson, D. M. and J.P. Bowland, 1984. Evalua-
high quality protein, buckwheat should not be used tion of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) in diets
in diets fed to starter pigs. Its high crude fibre for growing pigs. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 64:985-995.
content and low digestible energy level are likely to
limit growth and reduce the efficiency of feed Farrell, D.J. 1978. A nutritional evaluation of
utilization when fed to pigs of this weight range. buckwheat tFagopyrum Esculentum). Anim. Feed
Other alternatives arc available and producers Sci. Technol. 3:95-108.
would be wise to choose a higher energy feedstuff
as the foundation for their starter diets. Thacker, P.A., D.M. Anderson and J.P. Bowland
1984. Buckwheat as a potential feed ingredient for
The results of a feeding trial in which buckwheat use in pig diets. Pig News and Information. 5:77-
was used to replace 0, 25, 50, 75 or 100% of the 81.
cereal portion of barley-based grower diets is shown
in Table 4-14. Substitution of buckwheat for barley Thacker, P.A .• 1990. Buckwheat. Pages 61-68 In
had no significant effect on feed intake, daily gain P.A. Thacker and R.N. Kirkwood eds, Non-tradi-
or feed efficiency. In addition, pigs fed diets tionaJ Feed Sources for Use in Swine Production.
Buttcrworths Publishers, Stoneham, MA.

72
Canola Meal since soybean meal contains 15% to 20% more
Canola is a crop derived from rapeseed, but digestible energy.
developed by Canadian researchers to contain low
levels of erucic acid ( < 2% of the oil) and Research on lowering the fibre content of the
glueosinolates (<30 um/gin the meal). Previously, meal could help to overcome the relatively low
these two constituents of rapeseed meal had im- energy concentration. Some breeding programs arc
paired its use in swine diets. The improved quality selecting for reduced hull, as another way to
of canola has elevated the crop to huge levels in increase DE.
Canada, surpassing al I other export crops except
wheat; canola in its various forms - seed, oil and Research at the Prairie Swine Centre has revealed
meal - is now the second largest agricultural export that if diets are formulated on an equal nutrient
from Canada. basis, canola meal will support performance
equivalent to that of soybean meal (Table 4-15).
There are two types of canola currently grown:
Legend and AC Excel are commonly grown varie-
Table 4-15. Performance of Female and Castrated
ties of Argentine canola (Brassica napus), while Male Pigs Fed Diets Containing Equal Levels of
Reward and Parkland are varieties of Polish canola Digestible Nutrients {based on either soybean meal,
(Brassica rapa). Argentine cultivars of canola are or a combination of canola and soybean meals).
generally later maturing but higher yielding than
Polish varieties. Canola Meal Soybean Meal
% Canola Meal 12.0 0.0
Canola meal is produced from the seed, following
% Soybean Meal 8.3 16.1
a series of processes designed to maximize the oil
Initial wt., kg 24.0 23.8
yield; unlike the soybean industry, canola is still
Final wt., kg 103.8 104.4
driven by oil production as opposed to the meal.
During processing, the seed is first warmed to
Ave. daily gain, kg 0.84 0.86
prevent shattering, cleaned and then passed through
Ave. daily feed, kg 2.38 2.49
roller mills to produce a flake. The flakes are then
Feed conversion" 2.84 2.94
conditioned using heat and moisture to prepare
them for oil extraction, which occurs through a
Carcass index 107.1 107.1
series of pre-pressing, mechanical extrusion and
Lean yield, % 49.6 49.4
finally hexane extraction. The solvent is then
P2 backfat, mm 17.3 17.3
removed from the meal using high temperature and
steam which also serve to ensure that myrosinase, • Canola meal different from soybean meal, P < 0.05
an enzyme involved in glucosinolate metabolism, is Source: de Lange, J.F. Patience and 0. Gillis. l 993. ls
denatured and thus rendered inactive. The meal added biotin required in barley-based diets for growing -
emerges free of solvent, with a moisture content of finishing pigs? Prairie Swine Centre Annual Report. pp.
8 - 10% and an oil content of less than l.5%. 35 - 38.
Gums, a phospholipid by-product of oil extraction,
may be added back to the meal at this point.
Canola Meal
The greatest limitation to greater canola usage is DE 3100
not palatability, although this unfortunately remains Crude Protein 37.7
a topic of discussion. Countless experiments have Lysine 2.16
demonstrated the ability of the pig to consume Digestible Lysine 1.60
canola-based diets with little or no resistance - Digestible Threonine 1.12
provided the diets are properly balanced and pre- Digestible Tryptophan 0.29
sented to the pig. A relatively low energy level, Calcium 0.63
similar to that of barley, is a much greater problem, Phosphorus 1.0 I

73
 Canola meal is complementary to other feedstuffs Canola Seed: Full Fat
used in swine diets and in particular, represents a Considerable interest has been shown recently in
good "fit" with peas and other pulse crops. The the possibility of incorporating whole canola seed
relatively higher sulphur amino acid content of into swine diets. Dry growing conditions, early
canola helps to offset the low TSAA content of frosts and other weather conditions may result in the
peas, while the high energy in peas counters the production of off-grade canola seed which is
lower DE value of canola meal. Because conditions unsuitable for crushing or export. This seed can be
that favour the growing of canola are also desirable salvaged as a feed ingredient.
for peas, the two crops represent an excellent
complementary pair from the perspective of both Unprocessed canola seed contains approximately
swine nutrition and crop selection. 40% oil and 20% crude protein. Therefore, it can
be regarded as a high energy, relatively high protein
Several research trials conducted at various supplement. The level of other nutrients are similar
institutions across Canada have shown that canola to those found in canola meal modified only by the
meal can be used as part or all of the supplementary dilution effect of the oil.
protein in diets fed to breeding stock. Research
trials conducted at the University of Alberta showed
no reduction in litter size, birth weight or weaning Canola Seed: FuU Fat
weight when canola meal was fed to sows for two DE 4750
successive parities. Therefore it would appear that Crude Protein 20.7
canola meal can be used as the sole source of Lysine 1.20
supplementary protein in diets fed to breeding Calcium 0.39
stock. If high energy lactation diets are desired, Phosphorus 0.64
extra fat will be needed to compensate for canola's
low energy content. However, care should be taken
to ensure that sows are gradually adapted to diets The addition of fat to swine diets has been shown
containing canola meal and not replace all of the to increase growth rates and improve feed conver-
soybean meal in the diet abruptly by canola meal. sion efficiency for growing pigs. In addition. the
reproductive performance of sows has been shown
In summary, canola meal is a high quality product to improve as a result of fat supplementation.
and when properly utilized and priced competi- Unfortunately, there are many mechanical problems
tively, can reduce feed costs. Using typical feed associated with adding fats and oils to swine diets,
grain and protein supplement prices, canola meal is especially on farms using mix mills. However,
competitive with soybean meal if it can be pur- many of these problems can be overcome through
chased at about 65- 75% of the cost of soybean meal the use of whole canola seed as a fat source. Since
(47% protein) on a unit weight basis. When avail- canola seeds are very small, a fine screen is re-
able at this price, even conservative nutritionists quired. The experience of some farmers indicates
should feel comfortable allowing canola meal to that a 1/8" screen in good condition will result in a
provide 25% of the supplementary protein in starter reasonably good grind; some whole seeds may pass
diets ( 18+ kg), 50% in grower and lactation diets through, but they represent a small portion of the
and 100% of the supplementary protein in finishing total.
and gestation diets.
There is little information available on the
Further Reading and References nutritional value of whole canola seed for starter
Hickling, D. 1993. Canola meal: Feed industry pigs. However, it would appear that the
guide. Canola Council of Canada, Winnipeg. MB. performance of starter pigs may be enhanced as a
26 pp. result of including whole canola seed in starter
diets. The results of one feeding trial conducted at
the University of Alberta are presented in Table

74
4-16. This data indicates that the inclusion of 15% inclusion, the palatability of the diet appeared to
canola seed resulted in improved growth and decrease and as a consequence, performance
increased efficiency. However, at higher levels of declined.

Table 4-16. Performance of Starter Pigs Fed Diets Containing Whole Canola Seed.

Control 15% Canela 30% Canola

Average Daily Gain (g) 498 512 415

Average Daily Feed (g) 638 649 615
Feed Conversion 1.28 1.26 1.48

Adapted from Shaw and Aherne, 1987, Univ. Alberta 66th Ann. Feeders Day Report. pp. 7-9.

The results of a feeding trial in which whole canola meal as the protein supplement could lead to
canola seed was included at 0, 3, 6. 9, 12 or 15% of glucosinolate hydrolysis. This may result in a
the diet of growing pigs are shown in Table 4-17. reduction in performance. Therefore, it is recom-
In general, growth rates were improved at all levels mended that whole canola seed not exceed l 0% of
of inclusion but the optimum inclusion level ap- the total diet if canola meal is present.
peared to be about 6% of the diet. However, it may
be possible to include whole canola seed at levels of There does not appear to be any published infor-
up to 15% of the diet without any adverse effects mation on the effects of feeding whole canola seed
on pig performance. to breeding stock. Therefore, until more informa-
tion is available regarding the effects of feeding
It is important to note that the above experiment whole canola seed on reproductive performance,
utilized soybean meal as its source of additional diets fed to pregnant or lactating sows should not
dietary protein. Addition of a myrosinase source contain whole canola seed.
such as whole canola seed to a diet containing

Table 4-17. Performance and Carcass Composition of Pigs Fed Diets Containing Whole Canola Seed.

Dietary Level of Canola Seed(%)

0 3 6 9 12 15
Average Daily Gain (kg) 0.67 0.72 0.73 0.70 0.70 0.70
Average Daily Feed (kg) 2.09 2.17 2.10 2.19 2.03 2.04
Feed Conversion 3.11 3.01 2.87 3.12 2.90 2.91
Dressing Percentage 76.5 77.l 77. l 78.2 76.7 77.0
Carcass Grade 101.8 101.0 102.7 99.5 101.8 99.7
Backfat (cm) 3.2 3.2 2.9 3.4 3.0 3.3

Adapted from Castell and Falk, 1980. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 60:795-797.

75
Corn
Corn (Zea mays) sometimes referred to as maize Corn
and related products have been popular ingredients DE 3550
in swine diets for many years. Corn first became a Crude Protein 8.5
popular swine ingredient in Ontario when new Lysine 0.26
cultivars made it agronomically more feasible about Dig. Lysine 0.17
30 years ago. The high yields achieved in areas Dig. Threonine 0.21
capable of growing com quickly translated into Dig. Tryptophan 0.04
more pounds of pork per acre than barley and the Calcium 0.02
switch to corn was thus inevitable. However, its Phosphorus 0.25
early introduction was met with a certain degree of
scepticism, due to concerns about carcass grades.
Proper diet formulation, and in particular maintain- The protein content in corn is low and of poor
ing proper amino acid to energy ratios, soon over- quality. Lysine and tryptophan are the first and
came such resistance. Pig diets based on com, second limiting amino acids, respectively, for
soybean meal and premix have become widely swine. The reason for the poor quality of the
accepted and have become standards against which protein is that zein, the main storage form of
many alternative diets are compared. This does not protein in the kernel, is a poor source of many
imply that corn (and soybean meal) based diets essential amino acids.
should always be the diet of choice. In many parts
of the world, equivalent of better performance is The amino acid content of com can be predicted
achieved in pigs fed diets that contain feedstuffs using regression equations based on crude protein.
other than corn as compared to pigs fed corn based These equations can be found in chapter 3.
diets. For example, starch in corn is not as well
digested by young, newly weaned piglets as the Varieties of com that are higher in protein and
starch in oats or barley. However, com is fed as the more specifically in lysine have been bred. The
main feed ingredient in diets for millions of pigs lysine content in these varieties is approximately
and will continue to be a major feed ingredient in 30% higher than in conventional corn. The original
the future. high lysine varieties, and in particular Opaque 2,
were not widely accepted because of poor agro-
Because of its high energy content, pigs perform nomic characteristics. such as yield and disease
well on diets based on com. Carcass quality is not resistance. However, more recently newer varieties
impaired, as evidenced by the fact that average have been developed that have better yielding
carcass indexes in Ontario or Quebec, where com is characteristics. Commercial hybrids of these new
the predominant grain, are no poorer than those in varieties will become available over the next few
regions where corn is not used. The carcass fat years. In addition new varieties of corn with ex-
from pigs fed on corn will be different than the fat tremely high fat contents (up to 10%) may become
of pigs fed wheat or barley; it will be slightly softer available in the future. The DE content of these
and perhaps yellower in colour. The softer consist- varieties may be as much as 10% higher than those
ency reflects the content and quality of fat in com. in conventional com.
Corn contains approximately 3.5% fat which is
substantially higher than that in barley and wheat Perhaps the greatest concern surrounding the use
that contain approximately 1.7% fat. The fat that is of corn in swine diets is its susceptibility to molds,
present in com tends to be highly unsaturated and especially when wet weather arrives during critical
soft ( oily) as well; the colour is due to the presence growing stages. The actual mold does not appear to
of a pigment called cryptoxanthin. In some parts of be the problem; the fungi may consume some
the world, this colour is considered undesirable and nutrients in the kernel, but the effect on feed quality
white varieties of corn are preferred. is questionable. Corn so moldy that the kernels
could hardly be separated, has been fed to pigs with

76
no adverse affects on performance. However, when On a dry matter basis, there is little difference in
the mold produces a mycotoxin, such as vomitoxin the nutritive value of high moisture or dry corn.
or searalenone, the effects on swine can be very Phosphorus is more available from high moisture
serious. Reproductive performance of sows appears corn. As vitamin E tends to degrade faster in high
to be most susceptible, so that some pork producers moisture corn than in dry com, higher fortification
have switched to barley-based diets for the breeding with vitamin E may be required in high moisture
herd. This is not necessarily a practical solution, corn based diets. Otherwise, the decision of which
since barley can also be infected, and lactation diets storage method to use will depend on the relative
based solely on barley as the basal grain may costs and convenience of the two systems. For
contain insufficient energy to support maximum more information on high moisture cereal grains see
milk production. "high moisture barley" earlier in this chapter.

If a suspected outbreak of mycotoxicosis occurs, As with other cereal grains, variation in the
there is reason to believe that an increase in the feeding value of different samples of corn, due to
nutrient (energy, protein and vitamin) content of the differences in variety, growing, harvesting, and
diet will be beneficial. Minimize other stressors in drying conditions can be expected. It is, however,
the environment also since the pig is less capable of surprising how little research has been conducted to
dealing with them. A broad spectrum antibiotic at determine variation in feeding value of different
therapeutic levels is recommended for the same samples of (sub-standard) corn. Based on research
reason. The best course of action is to remove the with chickens, which are more sensitive to changes
suspect feed until a proper analysis has been carried in feeding value than pigs, it can be concluded that
out to determine if mycotoxicosis is the cause of the com bushel weight is a poor indicator of feeding
problem. A variety of feed additives are currently value of individual com samples. This is supported
being evaluated as potential treatments for by the observations made on starter pigs (Table 4-
mycotoxicosis. A more thorough discussion on 18). These results suggest that some samples of
mycotoxins appears in chapter 11. immature dried com with an extremely low bushel
weight can support levels of performance similar to
Com normally must be artificially dried to pre- that in pigs fed regular com. Unlike in barley and
vent deterioration during storage or stored as a wet wheat. fibre levels in com are generally low and do
grain, either treated with a preservative or held in an not vary much between samples. Fibre is thus also
oxygen limiting structure. Drying of com must be a poor predictor of feeding value of corn samples.
carefully controlled to prevent loss of nutritive The best predictor of feeding value may be the
value. Research has shown that drying com at starch content. In high fat com varieties, the fat
temperatures of up to 110°C to a final moisture content should be considered as well. In regular
content of 12-15% will have no effect on pig com. the starch content is approximately 60%,
performance. Exceeding l 50°C drying temperature while it may be as low as 50% in some samples of
will reduce acceptability to the pig. com. Based on the French and Dutch net energy

Table 4-18. Nutritional Value of Immature Corn (different bulk density) for Starter Pigs Fed Corn-Soybean
Meal Based Diets.

Bulk density (lbs/bu) Gain (kg/day) Feed intake (kg/day) Feed efficiency
Control 1 * 57.4 .55 1.32 2.40
Control 2** 58.7 .57 1.42 2.49
Variety A# 50.6 .59 l.38 2.34
Variety B# 43.7 .60 1.41 2.35
Variety C# 43.6 .48 1.24 2.58
Variety D# 45.7 .51 1.23 2.41

* 1991Ontario harvest; ** 1992 Indiana harvest; #immature dried com harvested between Dec 4, 1994 and Jan. 12,
1993. Adapted from Patterson et al., 1993, J. Anim. Sci. 71 (supplement I): 157 (abstract).

77
systems it could be derived that the DE content will Corn gluten feed consists primarily of the corn
be reduced by 20 Kcal/kg per percent reduction in hull mixed with some com germ. Due to its high
starch content. This relationship should be con- fibre and low energy content, poor amino acid
firmed in well controlled studies. As mentioned balance and digestibility it is more favoured in
earlier, the amino acid content of different corn cattle rations than in swine rations. lt contains
samples may be predicted from the amino acid approximately 23% protein, 64% lysine and 3000
content. Kcal DE per kg. If included in swine diets the
inclusion level should be less than 5% in starter and
Additional Reading and References nursing sow diets and 20% in growing finishing pig
Patterson, R .. J.K. Tuitoek and L.G. Young. 1993. diets. Com gluten feed has been successfully used
Nutritional value of immature corn of different bulk at high inclusion levels in dry sow diets.
density for young pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 17 (supple-
ment 1 ): 157 (abstract).
Corn Gluten Meal
Burgoon, K.G., J.A. Hansen, D.A. Knabe and A.J. DE 4150
Bockholt. 1992. Nutritional value of quality Crude Protein 60.0
protein maize for starter and finisher swine. J. Lysine l.03
Anim. Sci. 70:811-817. Calcium 0.06
Phosphorus 0.38
Adams, K.L. and A.H. Jensen. 1987. High-fat
maize for pigs and sows. Anim. Feed Sci. Techn.
17:201-212. Corn gluten meal is actually two products, con-
taining either 41 or 60% crude protein. The former
Corn By-Products is generally a mixture of the 60% material and corn
While the major portion of the com crop is gluten feed. Thus, the 41 % meal is lower in energy
destined for use in livestock feeds, some is destined as well as protein compared to the 60% meal.
for further processing. Three industries use corn as Compared to corn, 60% protein com gluten meal is
raw material: the wet millers who produce starch richer in energy and crude protein. However, like
and oil for human use, the dry millers who produce the parent material, the balance of amino acids is
grits, meal and flour, and the fermentation industry. poor with lysine and tryptophan being most limit-
In all cases, between 25 and 35% of the com used mg.
this way will be returned in processed form to the
livestock industry as feed ingredients. Corn gluten meal can be used in the diet of
market hogs or sows at levels of20-30% of the diet
Com gluten feed and meal are by-products of the without affecting palatability or performance,
wet milling industry. During wet milling, the raw assuming proper adjustments for nutrient composi-
corn is soaked or steeped to soften the kernel and tion are made. Indeed, higher levels are possible
facilitate separation of gluten, protein and germ. with careful ration formulation. Com gluten feed
Steep water may be collected and sold as animal will be used to a much lesser extent it at all, due to
feed. It is rich in protein and B-vitamins. The its lower energy content.
steeped corn is then de-germinated (removes the
germ which may be sold as com germ meal); all Com distillers dried grains are derived from the
that is remaining at this point is the starch, gluten fermentation industry, the most prominent of which
and hulls. The hulls are removed and the residual is the alcohol industry. Actually two by-products
centrifuged to separate starch from gluten. The are made available to the livestock industry: com
corn starch is destined for the human food trade distillers dried grains with solubles and com distill-
while the gluten is used as animal feed. For every ers dried grains. Over the last years the production
I 00 kg of com milled, there will be 62-68 kg of has changed from primarily distillers (dried) grain
starch, 3 kg of oil and the remainder will be corn to distillers (dried) grain mixed with solubles. Both
gluten meal. corn gluten feed and corn germ meal.

78
of these products contain approximately 27% crude The energy content of distillers dried grains with
protein. Although both can be used effectively by solubles is approximately equal to that of corn.
the swine industry, the majority is destined for use Like the parent material, the amino acid profile of
in cattle rations because the type of protein is the protein is not well suited to the pig and thus
particularly attractive to high producing animals needs to be used in concert with a good quality
especially dairy cattle. An additional concern with protein supplement. Although calcium and phos-
using distillers grains, as in many by-products, is phorus levels are higher than corn, the differences
the variability in the product. For example, in a are of only marginal economic benefit.
recent survey of only eight samples of distillers
dried grains with solubles, the lysine content varied Additional Reading and References
between .43 and 90% Odour and colour seem to be Cromwell, G.L., K.L. Herkelman and T.S. Stahly.
important in determining the feeding value; light 1992. Physical, chemical and nutritional characteris-
coloured samples that are free of burnt or smoky tics of distillers dried grains with solubles for chicks
odour, are more likely to have good nutritional and pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 71 :679-686.
properties. Tnclusion levels of distillers dried grain
with solubles of up to 5% in starter diets, 20% in Holden, P.J. 1991. Corn gluten feed. In (Thacker,
grower-finisher diets and 40% in dry sow diets P.A. and R.N. Kirkwood, Ed.): Non-traditional
appear to have little effect on animal performance feed sources for use in swine production.
when diets are properly formulated and when good Butterworths Publishers, 80 Montvale Avenue,
quality products are used. Stoneham, MA 02180, U.S.A., pp. 131-138.

Newland, H. W. and D.C. Mahan. 199 l. Distillers

Com Distillers Grain
by-products. In (Thacker, P.A. and R.N. Kirkwood,
DE 3450
Ed.): Non-traditional feed sources for use in swine
Crude Protein 27.6
production. Butterworths Publishers, 80 Montvale
Lysine 0.79
Avenue, Stoneham, MA 02180, U.S.A., pp. 161-
Calcium 0.12
173.
Phosphorus 0.65

Table 4-19. Effect of Bushel Weight on Rate and Efficiency of Growth and on Digestibility of Energy in Corn.

Relative Change1
Corn Bushel Weight Rate of Gain Feed Efficiency Digestible Energy
Alberta
60 (100) 100 100 100
56 (93) 103 99 101
55 (92) 96 99 99
54 (90) 100 99 99
54 (90) 97 99 97
Manitoba
59 (100) 100 100 100
58 (98) 96 IOI 101
58 (98) 99 99 99
57 (97) 99 100 9
53 (90) 98 99 100
I
Comparisons were carried out by arbitrarily setting the values for the highest bushel weight at I 00 and calculating
each parameter as a percentage of the highest bushel weight sample. Thus, in an Alberta sample, the 56 lb corn had a
bushel weight that was 93% of the highest sample, but birds grew 103% as fast as the birds on the heaviest corn, they
converted the feed at 99% that of birds on the heaviest corn, and had a DE value of IO I% that of the heaviest corn.
Adapted from Campbell, 1981, Proc. Western Nutr. Conf. pp 238-242.

79
Dried Bakery Product but like most legume seeds, it is deficient in
Dried bakery product, as its name suggests, is methionine. A high level of cystine partly over-
reclaimed waste from bakeries. Because it has been comes the methionine deficiency and therefore,
cooked during the manufacturing of the original supplementation of diets containing fababeans with
baked goods, this product is an excellent ingredient synthetic methionine has not proven to be benefi-
for swine, especially for young pigs whose diges- cial. The balance of other amino acids appears fine.
tive abilities are not yet fully developed. The
cooking degrades the starches and renders them Fababeans have a digestible energy content
more available to the pig resulting in fewer prob- between that of soybean meal and barley. The fat
lems with digestive upset. content of fababeans is low ( 1.5% ), which partially
accounts for its lower digestible energy. Fababean
However, because dried bakery product represents oil contains a high content of unsaturated fatty acids
waste materials, it often lacks uniformity; its con- which can lead to the early development of rancid-
tents reflect the materials manufactured at the time ity after the seed has been ground. Therefore,
and place of collection. This lack of uniformity has processed fababeans should not be stored more than
compromised interest by the swine industry. Also, a week before use. The relatively high crude fibre
since many bakery products are rich in salt, the by- content of fababeans (8%) can also account for its
products also contain a lot of salt. Excess salt is not lower digestible energy content.
desirable in the diet of young pigs. Many bakery
products are also sweet, so dried bakery products Fababeans are a relatively poor source of calcium
tend to be highly palatable. and are low in iron and manganese. In fact, extra
supplementation of manganese is required if a diet
contains a large proportion of fababeans. The
Dried Bakery Product vitamin content of the fababean is lower than that
DE 3975 found in soybean meal or canola meal and there-
Crude Protein I 0.0 fore, diets containing a high level of fababeans may
Calcium O .15 require a specially formulated premix in order to
Phosphorus 0.25 supply a balanced ration.

Fababeans contain a relatively high level of

If it can be purchased at a good price and its trypsin inhibitor although the level of trypsin
nutrient composition can be characterized with inhibitor in fababeans is lower than the level found
reasonable accuracy, dried bakery product offers in raw soybeans. The presence of this trypsin
considerable opportunity in swine rations. Levels inhibitor may cause a reduction in the digestibility
of up to 30-40% of the diet would not be consid- of protein in diets containing fababeans. However,
ered excessive, providing salt does not become too the level of trypsin inhibitor can be reduced by
high and assuming the material has been properly autoclaving (steam heating under pressure)
analysed with respect to nutrient composition. fababeans at 120°c for 30 minutes.
Because of cost, dried bakery product is best used
in starter diets.

Fababeans
Fababeans
DE 3150
Fababeans (Viciafaba) arc an annual belonging to
Crude Protein 26.7
the legume family and are related to the garden
Lysine 1.62
broad bean. Initially most of the crop was grown
Calcium 0.12
for silage, but in recent years more than 75% of the
Phosphorus 0.49
crop has been grown for grain. The average crude
protein content of fababeans is approximately 24 -
30%. Fababean protein is relatively high in lysine

80
 Another undesirable factor is hemagglutinin The effects of including fababeans in breeding
which has been found to be present in fababeans at stock diets has received little attention. However,
a level of 2900 to 4200 rabbit RBC units per gram. Danish workers have reported a significant reduc-
The corresponding values for soybeans, wheat and tion in litter size both at birth and weaning when
barley are 650, 50 and 5 units. Autoclaving at fababeans are included at high levels in gestation
l 20°C has also been shown to reduce the activity of diets (Table 4-22). Milk protein content and yield
the hemagglutinins in fababeans. have also been reported to be reduced when
fababeans are included at high levels in lactation
Fababeans contain between 0.3 and 0.5% tannin. diets. Caution should also be exercised when
The presence of these tannins may lead to a reduc- feeding fababeans to pregnant sows as fababeans
tion in feed intake when high levels of fababeans generate stomach gases and may cause constipation.
are fed to swine. In addition, the digestibility of For these reasons, fababeans should not be used at
protein and energy may be reduced as a result of the levels greater than 15% in diets for breeding stock.
presence of these tannins.
Table 4-21. Performance of Grower Pigs (16-45 kg)
As a result of the anti-nutritional factors present in Fed Diets Containing Fababeans.
fababeans, it is recommended that fababeans not be
used to supply 100% of the supplementary protein Fababean Level(%)
required to provide a balanced diet for swine. 0 10 15 20 25 30
Although there has not been a great deaJ of research
conducted to determine the value of including Daily Gain (kg) 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.61 0.58
fababeans in starter pig diets, the few reports Feed Intake (kg) 1.87 1.94 1.89 1.90 I.98 1.95
available suggest that fababeans should not be Feed/Gain 2.75 2.92 2.89 2.94 3.25 3.40
included at a level in excess of 15% of the diet
(Table 4-20). At higher inclusion levels, there _Aheme et al., 1977, Can. J. Anim. Sci. 57: 321-328.
appears to be problems with palatability and as a
consequence of the lower feed intake, growth rates Table 4-22. Effect ofFababeans on Reproductive
are impaired. Performance.

Table 4-20. Performance of Starter Pigs (10-25 kg) Fababeans (%)

Fed Graded Levels of Fababeans.
0 17 34
Level ofFababean (%)
Pigs Born Alive 12.0 10.5 9.7
0 10 15 20 25 Birth Weight (kg) 1.4 1.4 1.4
Pigs Weaned (8 weeks) 9.2 8.3 8.1
Daily Gain (kg) 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.48 0.51
Weaning Weight (kg) 19.1 19.0 19.6
Daily Feed (kg) 1.27 1.24 1.20 1.11 1.17 Milk Yield (kg/day) 6.3 5.5 5.2
Feed Conversion 2.31 2.31 2.22 2.31 2.30
Dry Matter (%) 19.0 18.9 18.6
Protein(%) 7.1 7.0 6.5
Aheme et al. 1977, Can. J. Anim. Sci. 57: 321-328.
Fat(%) 5.5 5.6 5.7
The adverse effects of including high levels of Nielsen and Kruse, 1973, Livest. Prod. Sci. I: 179-185.
fababeans in the diet of the growing pig are clearly
demonstrated by the results of a feeding trial con- In summary, fababeans have much to offer as a
ducted at the University of Alberta (Table 4-21). protein supplement and a considerable reduction in
As the level of fababeans in the diet increased, daily feed costs may be achieved by their inclusion in the
gain and feed conversion efficiency decreased. The diet. However, inclusion at too high a level will
decrease in performance was particularly evident at impair animal performance. It is recommended that
levels of inclusion greater than 20% of the diet. fababeans not be included at levels greater than
15% in starter diets, 20% in grower diets and 15%
in diets fed to breeding stock.

81
Additional Reading and References The fat content of field peas ( 1.2%) is low and
Aherne, F.X., A.J. Lewis and R.T. Hardin. 1977. crude fibre levels in the field pea (5.8%) are ap-
An evaluation of fababeans as a protein supplement proximately the same as those found in barley.
for swine. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 57:321-328.
Field peas contain higher levels of both calcium
Jansrnan, A.J.M., Huisman, J. and van der Poel, and phosphorus than the common cereal grains.
A.F.B., 1993. lleal and faecal digestibility in piglets However, field peas are very deficient in vitamin E
offield beans tVicia faba L.) varying in tannin and selenium and care should be taken to ensure
content. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech. 42: 83-96. that the diet is supplemented with these two nutri-
ents when field peas are included at high levels in
Nielsen, I-1.E. and P.E. Kruse. 1974. Effects of swine diets.
dietary horse beans ( Vicia faba) on colostrum and
milk composition and milk yield in sows. Livest.
Prod. Sci. 1: 179-185. Field Peas
DE 3400
Thacker, P.A., 1990. Fababeans. P.A. Thacker and Crude Protein 23.4
R.N. Kirkwood eds. Non-traditional Feed Sources Lysine 1.50
for Use in Swine Production. Butterworths Publish- Digestible Lysine 1.25
ers, Stoneham, MA. pp. 175-184. Digestible Threonine 0.62
Digestible Tryptophan 0.16
Van der Poe), A.F.B., Gravendeel, S., vam Kleef Calcium 0.09
D.J., Jansman, A.J.M. and Kemp, B., 1992. Tan- Phosphorus O .50
nin-containing faba beans tVicia faba L.): Effects
of methods of processing on ileal digestibility of
protein and starch for growing pigs. Anim. Feed Peas, like other pulse crops, contain some anti-
Sci. Technol. 36: 205-214. nutritional factors which will affect pig perform-
ance if present at high enough levels. The presence
Field Peas of a trypsin inhibitor is likely the most important.
Field peas (Pis um sativum. arvense) are primarily The trypsin inhibitor content of spring seeded
grown for human consumption and used mainly in varieties of field peas is generally between 2.3 and
soup. Peas, or splits can be used quite effectively as 5.5 TIA (trypsin inhibiting activity) units/mg DM
a livestock feed when available at a sufficiently low (dry matter) while winter varieties generally average
price. In swine diets, field peas are most often between 8.9 and 15.9 TIA units/mg DM. Field peas
utilized to replace a portion of the protein supple- are also reported to contain 80 units of
ment but may also replace part of the cereal grain in hemagglutinating activity and between 3.8 and 7.0
the diet. mg/kg of cyanogenetic glycosides. Although these
anti-nutritional factors can be inactivated by heat,
At 22 - 29% crude protein, field peas are interme- they are usually not present at high enough levels to
diate in protein content between cereal grains and reduce performance and therefore, are not generally
conventional protein sources. They are a good considered when formulating diets for swine.
source of lysine and appear to be adequate in all
other essential amino acids with the exception of There has not been a great deal of research con-
methionine and tryptophan, ducted to determine the value of including field
peas in starter pig diets. However, the few reports
The digestible energy content of field peas (ap- available suggest that field peas can be included in
proximately 3372 kcal/kg) is higher than most starter diets up to a level of 15% of the diet without
commonly used feedstuffs. A high concentration of affecting performance. At higher levels of inclu-
easily digested starch is one of the major factors sion, feed conversion starts to decline. Inadequate
accounting for this high digestible energy content. tryptophan levels are suggested to be the cause of

82
the reduction in performance. Therefore, careful Table 4-24. Performance of Growing-Finishing Pigs
(25-90 kg) Fed a Mixture of Peas and Canola Meal.
balancing of the diet for amino acids may permit
even higher levels of inclusion. SBM C1 P2 l/3P 2/3 P
2/3C 1/3 C
There is much more data available on the effect of
including field peas in the diet of growing pigs. Daily Gain (kg) 0.82 0.84 0.8 l 0.85 0.88
The results of a feeding trial conducted at the Daily Feed (kg) 2.32 2.44 2.38 2.53 2.62
Agriculture Canada Research Station in Brandon in Feed Efficiency 2.83 2.89 2.93 2.94 2.98
which the performance of pigs fed a control diet P2 Fat Depth
containing 12.3% soybean meal as the protein (mm) 11.7 11.9 12.2 11.7 12.5
supplement was compared with that of pigs fed
diets containing peas at 11, 22 or 33% of the diet
Canola Meal
are shown in Table 4-23. Pigs fed diets containing 2Field Peas
field peas gained as well as those fed the control Castell and Cliplef, 1993. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 73: I 29-
diet at all levels of inclusion. No significant 139.
changes were observed in carcass quality as a result
of feeding peas. Therefore, it would appear that There is limited information on the effect of
field peas can be used as the sole source of supple- feeding field peas to breeding stock. In one trial,
mentary protein in the diet of growing pigs without field peas were included at levels as high as 15% in
adversely affecting rate of gain or feed efficiency. gestation diets and 25% in lactation diets without
affecting prolificacy or the number and weight of
weaned piglets. However, other trials have reported
Table 4-23. Performance of Pigs (27-95 kg) Fed Peas
as a Replacement for Soybean Meal. reductions in litter size when a level of I 0% of field
peas was included in diets fed during gestation and
Level of Pea Substitution(%) lactation. Therefore, until further work is con-
ducted, it may be wise to limit field peas to no more
0 11 22 33 than I 0% of diets fed to breeding stock.
Daily Gain (kg) 0.88 0.89 0.83 0.86
Daily Intake (kg) 2.65 2.58 2.59 2.55 In summary, field peas have much to offer as a
Feed Efficiency 3.01 2.90 3.12 2.96 protein supplement and a considerable reduction in
Back.fat (mm) 16. l 15.5 15.7 15.2 feed costs may be achieved by including them in
swine diets. However, for best results it is recom-
Castell et al.. 1988. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 68: 577-579. mended that field peas not be used at levels higher
than 15% for starter pigs and l 0% for breeding
There has been a considerable amount of interest stock. For growing pigs, it would appear that field
recently in the use of protein supplements made up peas can be used to completely replace the soybean
of a blend of field peas and canola meal. Cano la meal in the diet.
meal is a good source of sulphur containing amino
acids while peas arc a superior source of lysine. As Additional Reading and References
a consequence, these two ingredients are particu- Abrahamsson, M., Graham, 11., Dandanell, D. and
larly compatible. Experimental evidence indicates Aman, P., 1993. Ilea! and faecal digestibility of
that the performance of pigs fed a blend of these light or dark coloured peas (Pis11111 sativumi in
two protein sources is superior to that of pigs fed growing pigs. Anim. Feed. Sci. Technol. 42: 15-24.
either ingredient alone (Table 4-24).
Bell. J.M. and A.G. Wilson. 1970. An evaluation
of field peas as a protein and energy source for
swine rations. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 50: 15-23.

83
Castell, A.G. 1987. Field peas: an alternative analysis may over-estimate the true feeding
protein source for swine. Feedstuffs (Sept 7). pp. value. Handling the product tends to be a major
16-17. frustration because it is bulky and not easily
conveyed by conventional grain handling equip-
Castell, A.G., 1990. Field peas. Pages 185-197 In ment. Lack of uniformity is also a concern.
P.A. Thacker and R.N. Kirkwood eds. Non-tradi-
tional Feed Sources for Use in Swine Production. Table 4-25. Comparison of the Composition of Grain
Butterworths Publishers, Stoneham, MA. Dust and Parent Grains.

Castell, A.G. and Cliplef, R.L., 1993. Evaluation Wheat Corn Soybean
of pea screenings and canola meal as a supplemen- Nutrient Grain Dust Grain Dust Grain Dust
tary protein source in barley-based diets fed to Moisture(%) 8.3 8.2 9.5 10.4 6.3 7.4
growing-finishing pigs. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 73: 129- CP (%) 12.7 11.3 10.4 7.9 37.7 12.4
139. Ash(%) l.7 21.2 l.3 4.9 4.9 20.0

Castell, A.G., Neden, L.R. and Mount, K., 1988. Adapted from Hubbard et al., 1982, Cereal Chem. 59:20-
Potential of field pea (Pisurn sativum) screenings as 22.
feed for market pigs. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 68: 577-
579. Contamination can also be a problem. Molds
may become associated with the dust from elevators
Fan, M.Z., Sauer, WC. and Jaikaran, S., 1994. and other inadvertent contamination from various
Amino acid and energy digestibility in peas (Pisurn chemicals and solvents used in the grain equipment
sativum) from white-flowered spring cultivars for must be monitored. This may pose a health threat
growing pigs. J. Sci. Food Agric. 64: 249-256. not only to pigs eating it, but also to persons work-
ing in the barn and thus exposed to the dust.
Grosjean, F. and F. Gate!. 1986. Peas for pigs. Pig
News and 1nformation. 7:443-448. Except for these very important concerns, grain
dust would appear to offer opportunities for feed
Ogle, R.B. and Hakansson. 1988. Nordic research savings if the feed mill or farmer is willing to invest
with peas for pigs. Pig News and Information. some time and money in developing the expertise
9:149-155. required to formulate and manufacture appropriate
diets.
Grain Dust
Grain dust is normally considered a nuisance Grain Screenings
if not an outright health and safety hazard in Grain screenings are not normally considered for
grain handling facilities. Yet, studies in the use in swine diets. The product is highly variable
United States suggest it is potentially a very and thus difficult to characterize sufficiently for
good ingredient, reflecting in nutrient composi- precise diet formulation. Since screenings are often
tion, the parent material. The possible excep- available at a very reasonable price, they should not
tions are fibre and ash which tend to be some- be ignored. However, they should be used with
what elevated relative to the parent grain. Grain caution.
dust contains slightly more lysine than the
parent material. For example, wheat dust con- There are a number of classes of screenings
tains 24% more lysine than the wheat it came available, generally from brokers or directly from
from. A summary of one study (Table 4-25) terminal elevators. Wheat screenings (No. 1 wheat
illustrates the di ffcrence between dust and screenings, wheat feed screenings) are the best
parent grains. One note of caution is the obser- quality of screenings available. They are obtained
vation that considerable non-protein nitrogen from the cleaning of wheat, and as such will often
may be present in the dust so that crude protein contain considerable quantities of broken or small

84
wheat kernels. These are obviously quite satisfac- unless adjustment in other ingredients is made.
tory for inclusion in swine diets. They will also Their use would not normally be recommended in
contain weed seeds such as wild buckwheat, wild the diets of lactating sows, weanlings or growing
oats, cow cockle, lady's thumb, mustard and others. pigs.
Table 4-26 compares the chemical composition of
five samples of wheat screenings compared to a Table 4-26. Chemical Composition of Five Samples of
sample of typical whole wheat. Feed Wheat Screenings Compared to Wheat.

Considering the origin of the product, wheat Wheat Wheat Screenings

screenings appear to be relatively consistent from Typical Analysis Avg. S.D.1
sample to sample and contain an excellent nutrient Crude protein 12.20 13.60 0.90
profile. Crude protein and ether extract levels are Ether extract 1.60 5.30 1.70
higher than wheat, while fibre on average is only Crude Fibre 2.60 3.40 0.70
slightly higher than wheat. Thus, one would suspect Ash 1.40 2.20 0.20
that such a material would have a digestible energy Calcium 0.04 0.11 0.03
content of at least that of wheat and probably 5% Phosphorus 0.31 0.37 0.02
higher. The gross amino acid composition is also Lysine 0.33 0.41 0.03
encouraging, with lysine, threonine and total sul- Threonine 0.28 0.36 0.02
phur amino acids (methionine plus cystine) above Total Sulphur
that of wheat. Since no estimate of availability was Amino Acids 0.35 0.42 0.02
given, one must be cautious in assigning available
amino acid levels any higher than those found in
wheat. Thus, if the product is palatable, it could be
used in the diet of growing pigs and adult swine at Grain Screenings
up to 40% of the total diet. No. l Wheat
DE 3250
Grain screenings tend to be of somewhat lower Crude Protein 12.9
feeding value than wheat screenings. No. 1 grain Lysine 0.37
screenings are of approximately the same feeding Calcium 0.04
value as barley. Canola screenings, consisting of Phosphorus 0.32
only about 10% whole canola with the remainder
chaff, dust and weed seeds, is inferior to barley.
Digestibility studies suggest cano1a screenings have Grain Screenings
about 60% of the feeding value of barley. Mixed No. L Feed Wheat
feed oats are in essence wild oats (86% of total) and DE 3100
are of only slightly better value than rapeseed Crude Protein 11.2
screenings. Refuse screenings are about equal to Lysine 0.39
mixed feed oats. Calcium 0.07
Phosphorus 0.29
In summary, the better quality screenings (No. I
wheat screenings and No. I feed screenings) can be
used in swine diets, provided palatability concerns
related to noxious weed seeds can be addressed.
No. I wheat screenings are approximately equiva-
lent to wheat and No. L feed screenings are approxi-
mately equal to barley in terms of energy and
perhaps slightly better in terms of amino acids. The
use of other screenings in swine diets will lead to
reduced performance due to lower energy content

85
Lentils Lentils are a very acceptable feedstuff for swine.
Lentils (Lens culinarisy are a pulse crop suited to Even if slightly frost damaged and infested with
cool temperate regions, exhibiting only moderate aschocyta, incorporation into diets at 30% will
resistance to drought or high temperature. The cause no problems provided they are properly
major varieties grown in western Canada are Laird formulated with respect to energy and essential
and Esten. Lentils are grown for sale to the human amino acid content (particularly methionine). On
food market but on occasion, become available at a the basis limited research, it appears that aschocyta-
competitive price to pork producers due to market infestation of lentils has little if any adverse effect
conditions or as a result of frost damage, seed on pig performance or health.
damage or aschocyta blight. Discoloration during
storage is also a concern, since it results in reduced
grades. Tannins, concentrated in the seed coat, Table 4-27. Effects of Feeding Cull Lentils on Digest-
oxidize as the seed ages in storage causing the seed ibility and Pig Performance (23-100 kg).
coats to darken. It is advised that lentils be stored at
Content of Lentils(%)
a moisture content no higher than 16% to prevent
0 10 20 30
deterioration during storage. If drying is required,
temperatures should not exceed 43°C.
Apparent Digestibility (%)
The chemical composition of lentils is influenced Dry Matter 79 79 78 79
by the cultivar seeded and the growing conditions Energy 80 80 78 79
prior to harvesting. The crude protein content of Nitrogen 78 78 75 76
lentils (25.7%) is intermediate to cereals and
soybeans. Like all pulse crops, lentils are a rela- Performance (23 to 100 kg)
tively poor source of sulphur amino acids but are
rich in lysine. Care must be taken in swine rations, Daily Gain (kg) 0.82 0.83 0.86 0.86
especially those for the young pig, to ensure that Daily Intake (kg) 2.53 2.48 2.56 2.58
sulphur containing amino acids are not deficient. Feed Efficiency 3.09 2.99 2.98 3.00
About 7% of lentil protein is non-protein nitrogen
and the percent nitrogen in protein is 5.72%. Raw Bell and Keith, 1986 Can. J. Anim. Sci. 66: 529-536.
lentils contain trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors,
although it appears that these are of a sufficiently
low concentration to offer no difficulties when fed Additional Reading and References
to swine at up to 30% of the total diet. The lipid Bell, J.M. and M.O. Keith. 1986. Nutritional and
content is not high, but is rich in linoleic acid, an monetary evaluation of damaged lentils for growing
essential fatty acid in the diet of the pig. This may pigs and effects of antibiotic supplements. Can. J.
be particularly important in areas where coarse Anim. Sci. 66:529-536.
grains such as wheat and barley are fed. since they
contain much Jess Jinoleic acid than diets based on Castell, A.G. 1990. Lentils. Pages 205-212 /n
corn. P.A. Thacker and R.N. Kirkwood eds. Non-tradi-
tional Feed Sources for Use in Swine Production.
Butterworth Pub., Stoneham, MA.
Lentils
DE 3065 Castell, A.G. and Cliplef, R.L., 1990. Methionine
Crude Protein 24.6 supplementation of barley diets containing lentils
Lysine 1.63 (Lens culinaris) or soybean meal: Live performance
Calcium 0.08 and carcass responses by gilts fed ad libitum. Can.
Phosphorus 0.33 J. Anim. Sci. 70: 329-332.

86
Molasses lysine, threonine and the sulfur containing amino
Molasses is a by-product of the manufacturing of acids. However, in contrast to most cereal grains,
sugar from either sugar cane or sugar beets. Thus, selection for an increase in protein content will not
molasses is often referred to as beet molasses or decrease protein quality. In this regard, oats are
cane molasses. Beet molasses is higher in crude unique among cereal grains since the lysine level of
protein (7-11 % versus 3-4%) than cane molasses. grain is not inversely related to its protein content.
Beet molasses contain slightly more (4%) energy
than cane molasses but the latter tends to contain Oats contain approximately l 0% less digestible
more calcium (0.8-1.0% versus 0.1 %). energy than barley and about 20% less energy than
wheat and com. The main reason for the reduction
in energy content is the fact that oats contain almost
Molasses - Beet 11 % crude fibre. This fibre is not digestible by the
DE 2475 pig and its presence also impairs the digestibility of
Crude Protein 7.1 other nutrients contained in the grain.
Calcium 0.10
Phosphorus 0.02 Oats contain almost twice as much fat as barley
and wheat. This fat is distributed throughout the
endosperm, germ and aleurone layer of the oat
Molasses is becoming a much more difficult kernel with very little fat present in the pericarp
product to obtain in adequate quantities at a com- (outer layer). Oats also contain a very active lipase
petitive price and thus is not generally used in swine (fat splitting enzyme) which is present almost
rations. There are exceptions, however. Some- entirely in the pericarp of the oat kernel. Fortu-
times, molasses will be used at a rate of 3-5% of the nately, the enzyme does not normally come in
diet for sows to help prevent constipation and contact with the fat since this could lead to the
enhance feed intake. Other ways of reducing development of rancidity. However, when the oat
constipation are available, so using molasses will kernel is broken or ground, the lipase in the pericarp
depend on the personal preference of the farmer and is brought into contact with the oat fat and free fatty
his nutritionist. acids are released. As a consequence, ground oats
are far more likely to spoil than are other cereal
Typically, molasses contains about 22-25% grains and care should be taken not to process them
moisture. Energy content is about 12-15% less than too far in advance of when they are required.
that of oats; therefore, use of molasses in swine
diets will reduce energy and crude protein content
unless other adjustments to the formula are made.

Oats Oats
Oats (Avena sativa) are not widely utilized as an DE 2800
energy source for use in swine production. The Crude Protein 10.8
main reason for their lack of use is the fact that they Lysine 0.40
contain a very high hull content which lowers their Digestible Lysine 0.26
digestibility and limits their nutritive value for Digestible Threonine 0.19
swine. However, when economics dictate, they may Digestible Tryptophan 0.08
find a place in diets fed to pigs during the various Calcium 0.10
stages of the production cycle. Phosphorus 0.35

Oats contain approximately 11.5% crude protein

(N x 6.25) and this protein is of reasonably high
quality, having a better balance of amino acids than
any of the other grains. They are still deficient in

87
 Since oats are low in energy, they are not recom- The adverse effects of including oats in diets fed
mended as a good source of carbohydrate in starter to growing pigs are clearly demonstrated by the
diets. For example, when oats replace corn at levels results of the experiment presented in Table 4-28b.
between O and 50% (Table 4-28a) in diets fed to It can be seen that as the level of oats in the diet
pigs from 5 - l 8 kg, both growth rate and feed increases, average daily gains decrease and the
conversion suffer. This reduction in performance amount of feed required per pound of gain in-
may reflect the pigs' inability to consume sufficient creases. Clearly, if any reasonable level of perform-
oat diet to meet their energy requirements for ance is desired, oats should not be included in
optimal growth. The gains are therefore slower and grower diets.
less efficient.

Table 4-28a. Effect of Substituting Oats for Com on the Performance of Weaner Pigs.

Level of Oats (%)

0 10 20 30 40 50

Daily Gain (kg) 0.35 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.30 0.30

Daily Feed (kg) 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.61 0.64
Feed Conversion 1.94 l.89 2.03 2.10 2.03 2.13

Watts and Moser, 1981, Nebraska Swine Report. pp 5-6.

Table 4-28b. Effect of Substituting Oats for Corn on pigs against ulcers. The protective effect of the oats
Grower Pig Performance. is believed to be due to an alcohol-soluble fraction
contained in the hulls.
Level of Oats (%) 0 29 60 95
Daily Gain (kg) 0.80 0.70 0.63 0.57 Additional Reading and References
Daily Intake (kg) 2.93 2.95 2.77 2.71 Anderson, D.M., J.M. Bell and G.l. Christison.
Feed Conversion 3.67 4.20 4.44 4.77 1978. Evaluation of a high-protein cultivar of oats
(hinoats) as a feed for swine. Can. J. Anim. Sci.
Jenson et al., 1959, J. Anim. Sci. 18: 701-709. 58:87-96.

Jenson, A.H., D.E. Becker and S.W. Terrill. 1959.

Oats may be successfully used in diets fed to Oats as a replacement for com in complete mixed
gestating sows. During gestation. it is recom- rations for growing-finishing swine. J. Anim. Sci.
mended that the energy intake of sows be restricted. 18:701-709.
Therefore, the lower energy content of oats is a
desirable feature. However, it is recommended that Wahlstrom, R.C., L.J. Reiner and G.W. Libal.
oats constitute no more than 50% of diets fed to 1977. Oats, dehulled oats and hulless barley as
sows during gestation. During lactation, oats ingredients in pig starter diets. J. Anim. Sci.
should not be fed at all. 45:948-952.

Feeding oats may also be of value if a swine Watts, G. and B.D. Moser. 1981. Oats for early-
operation is experiencing problems with gastric weaned pigs. Nebraska Swine Report. pp. 5-6.
ulcers. Several experiments have suggested that
oats may have some value in protecting growing

88
Oats: Naked Table 4-29. Comparison of Naked Oats and Other
Since the high fibre content of oats is the major Cereal Grains as an Energy Source for Weane.- Pigs
factor detracting from its use as a livestock feed, a (25 - 56 days).
considerable amount of effort has been extended to
Naked Oat Wheat Corn
try and reduce the crude fibre content of oats. Plant
Oats Flakes
breeders in several countries have recently devel-
oped varieties of naked oats and these new cul ti vars Daily Gain (g) 381 434 472 433
would appear to have considerable potential for use Daily Intake (g) 575 625 651 601
in swine production. The most popular naked oat Feed Conversion 1.51 1.44 1.38 1.39
currently available in Canada is the cultivar Tibor.
Fowler, 1985, Pig Farming Suppl. pp 45-52.
Hulless oats are not really bulless. They do have
a hull but it is much more loosely attached than with
conventional oats and is blown away in the field Naked oats can be used with a high degree of
during combining. Therefore, the crude fibre success in diets fed to growing pigs. The results of
content of hulless oats (2.7%) is much lower than one experiment in which naked oats were used to
conventional oats (10.7%). As a consequence, the replace 0, 30, 65 or 97% of the com and soybean
digestible energy content of hulless oats is much meal in diets fed to pigs from 32 - 98 kg are shown
higher than that of conventional oats. In addition, in Table 4-30. It can be seen that growth rates were
the oil content is also higher in hulless oats (7 .5% similar at all rates of inclusion while there was a
versus 4.7%) than conventional oats. Due to the tendency for feed efficiency to be improved as the
increase in oil, it is wise to supplement diets con- level of naked oat in the diet increased. Dressing
taining naked oats with higher levels of vitamin E to percentage was slightly improved in the naked oat
avoid problems with rancidity. diets but the carcasses tended to be fatter as the
level of naked oat in the diet increased.
The crude protein content of hulless oats is also
higher than conventional oats. Hulless oats have a Table 4-30. Performance of Market Hogs Fed Naked
good balance of amino acids with lysine and Oats (32 - 79 kg).
methionine being the only amino acids not present
in adequate amounts to meet the requirements. 0 30 65 97
Vitamins and minerals are generally present at a
slightly higher level than in conventional oats as a Daily Gain (kg) 0.82 0.84 0.83 0.84
result ofremoving the diluting effect of the hull. Daily Intake (kg) 2.61 2.59 2.40 2.36
Feed Conversion 3.18 3.09 2.89 2.81
Despite the improvement in the nutritional com- Dressing Percent 77.40 76.90 78.50 78.40
position of hulless oats, it would appear that they Backfat (mm) 32.60 32.60 32.20 33.40
still cannot be utilized as the sole cereal source in Carcass Grade 104 104 103 104
diets fed to weaner pigs. The results of an experi-
ment in which naked oats were compared with com Morris and Burrows, 1986, Can. J. Anim. Sci. 66:
and wheat for pigs from 25 - 56 days of age are 833-836.
shown in Table 4-29. All diets were adjusted with
dried skim milk and fish meal so they provided
26% protein, 1.4% lysine and 17 MJ DE/kg. How- Several experiments conducted with naked oats
ever, both daily gain and feed efficiency were and growing pigs have almost completely removed
poorer for pigs fed the diets containing hulless oats. the supplementary protein from the diet without
The poorer performance for the weaner pigs fed significantly affecting performance. This implies
naked oats has been attributed to the presence of a that the amino acid profile of naked oats is adequate
high level of beta-glucan, a gummy polysaccharide to meet the requirements of the growing pig. There-
which interferes with digestion. fore, the potential exists for a substantial reduction

89
in feed costs should naked oats be used at high Oat Groats
levels in swine diets. Oat groats are obtained by mechanically dehulling
oats. The removal of the highly fibrous hull from the
Naked oats have been grown successfully in oat seed greatly improves the nutritive value of the
Canada. However, in some years, the hulls were resulting product. Oat groats are considered to be
not as effectively removed by combining as hoped. one of the most palatable and easily digested
Yields have also been disappointing at times. If the feedstuffs available for use in swine production.
agronomic problems can be resolved though, naked
oats should have an excellent future in swine diets. The crude protein content of oat groats is higher
than that of unhulled oats as a result of removing
Additional Reading and References the diluting effect of the hull. The digestible energy
Christison, G.1. and J.M. Bell. 1980. Evaluation of content of oat groats is also 35 - 40% higher. The
terra, a new cultivar of naked oats (avena nuda) protein quality of oat groats is considered to be
when fed to young pigs and chicks. Can. J. Anim. fairly high with lysine and threonine being the only
Sci. 60: 465-471. amino acids not present in sufficient amounts to
meet the requirements of the growing pig.
Fowler, V 1985. Naked oats, exciting new feed
for pigs. Pig Fanning supplement. November
1985. pp. 45-52. Oat Groats
DE 3725
Friend, D. W., A. Fortin. L.M. Poste, G. Butler, J.K. Crude Protein 16.0
Kramer and VD. Burrows. 1988. Feeding and Lysine 0.50
metabolism trials and assessment of carcass and Calcium 0.10
meat quality for growing-finishing pigs fed naked Phosphorus 0.40
oats. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 68:511-521.

Friend, D.W., A. Fortin, L.M. Poste, G. Butler, J.K. The major factors determining the use of oat
Kramer and V.D. Burrows. 1989. Naked oats groats in swine rations are cost and availability. It
(Avena nuda) with and without lysine supplementa- takes almost 160 kg of oats to produce 100 kg of
tion, for boars and barrows: Growth. carcass and oat groats. When the initial purchase price of oats
meat quality, energy and nitrogen metabolism. Can. is combined with the cost of dehulling, the selling
J. Anim. Sci. 69: 765-778. price demanded by oat groat manufacturers is
higher than can be justified on the basis of their
Morris, J.R., 1990. Oats: Naked. Pages 275-284 nutrient content. Therefore, oat groats are generally
In P.A. Thacker and R.N. Kirkwood eds. used only in the higher priced diets such as creep
Non-traditional Feed Sources for Use in Swine feeds and starter diets. This will depend on local
Production. Butterworth Publishers, Stoneham, conditions and the pricing policy of suppliers.
MA.
Potatoes and Potato Products
Morris, J.R. and V.D. Burrows. 1986. Naked oats Potatoes (Solanum tuberosumy are grown prima-
in grower-finisher diets. Can. J. Anim. Sci. rily for human consumption. However, surplus
66:833-836. potatoes, potatoes unfit for human consumption,
and potato by-products (from the production of
Myer, R.O., R.D. Barnett and W.R. Walker. 1985. potato starch, french fries or potato chips) are
Evaluation of hulless oats in diets for young swine. available for use as swine feed ingredients.
Nutr. Rept. lnt. 32: 1273-1277.
Fresh potatoes contain only about 20-22% dry
matter. Because potatoes are almost all starch, they

90
are very high in energy but very low in crude this is believed to be partly responsible for the poor
protein. More than half of the nitrogen present is in digestibility and palatability of raw potatoes.
the form of non-protein nitrogen and therefore is Cooking improves digestibility and removes factors
not protein at all. Essentially then, potatoes are a that inhibit digestive enzymes. However, the water
source of energy. used for cooking should be discarded and not fed to
pigs because it contains the water-soluble solanin.
Cooked potatoes are an excellent energy source,
Potatoes containing more energy than corn or wheat. The
DE 3350 digestibility of gross energy in the pig is 96%
Crude Protein 7.7 compared to 85%-88% for wheat and corn.
Lysine 0.40
Calcium l.20 Some researchers have developed feeding regimes
Phosphorus 0.85 for swine, allowing free choice access to cooked
potatoes and Limit-feeding a 19% protein concen-
trate at the rate of about 1.14 kg per pig per day.
A major drawback with feeding fresh potatoes is
the low dry matter content (18 to 25%); when large Raw potatoes can only be fed to dry sows, where
quantities are fed to pigs, bulkiness will limit 6 kg of potato can replace 1 kg of barley with
nutrient intake. In addition, raw potatoes contain additional protein supplementation. Raw potatoes
anti-nutritional factors (chymotrypsin inhibitors and have been fed to finishing pigs, but when 25% of
solanine; the latter in green potatoes in particular) dietary dry matter was supplied by potatoes, signifi-
that make them unpalatable to pigs. Cooking or cant reductions in performance were observed.
steaming potatoes effectively inactivates these anti- Cooked potatoes are accepted by all classes of
nutritional factors and at the same time enhances the swine. However, due to the water content and its
digestibility of starch. high bulk it is not recommended for starter pigs.
Recommended maximum inclusion levels ( dry
The crude protein content of potatoes are low. matter basis) are 30% for growing pigs. Recom-
More than half of the nitrogen present is in the form mended maximum inclusion levels (dry matter
of non-protein nitrogen and therefore is not protein basis) are 30% for growing pigs., 50% for finishing
at all. However, the actual protein that is present in pigs and 25% and 50% for nursing and dry sows
potatoes is of an extremely high quality. Purified respectively.
potato protein is widely used in the human food
industry; its high price prohibits its use in diets for The two main potato by-products that could be
(starter) pigs. used as swine feed ingredients are potato steam peel
and potato chips. Potato steam peel is a by-product
On a dry matter basis the feeding value of cooked of potato processing where the peel is removed after
potatoes is similar to that of cereal grains. The processing. It contains typically 15% dry matter,
digestible energy is 3370Kcal/kg while the crude and 3400 Kcal/kg, 16% protein, and .05% lysine on
protein content is I 0.9%. a dry matter basis. This product can be included at
up to 20% (dry matter basis) in grower-finisher pig
Potatoes are very low in magnesium. Since diets. Substandard potato chips will be high in
magnesium is not usually supplemented in standard energy (typically 30% fat as they are cooked in oil;
swine diets, special attention should be paid to this DE content of 5250 kcal/kg) and low in protein
mineral to ensure it is not deficient (ie. Supplemen- (typically 6.5% protein). It is a highly palatable
tation of the diet may be required). ingredient that can be included at levels up to 15%
in starter diets and 25% in diets for grower pigs, dry
Potatoes can be used effectively in the diet of and nursing sows. Because of the high fat content
pigs, although there are notable limitations. Raw and fat quality (oily) it is recommended that the
potatoes contain solanin, especially in the sprouts; inclusion level in the finisher diet be restricted to
10% or less.

91
Additional Reading and References vitamins would also appear to be similar to those
Edwards, S.A. and R.M. Livingstone. 1991. Potato found in other cereals.
and potato by-products. In (Thacker, P.A. and R.N.
Kirkwood, Ed.): Non-traditional feed sources for Rye is susceptible to contamination and infection
use in swine production. Butterworths Publishers, from several undesirable fungi, the most important
80 Montvale Avenue, Stoneham, MA. of which is ergot. Ergot may contain IO or more
toxic alkaloids including ergotamine, ergotoxine
Van Lunen, T.A., D.M. Anderson, A.M. St-Laurant, and ergonovine (see Ch. 11 ). Although ergot has
J.W.G. Nickelson and P.R. Dean. 1989. The been shown to reduce the performance of pigs fed
feeding value of potato steam peel for growing- rye, it is important to realize that ergot is a fungus
finishing pigs. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 69:225-234. contaminating rye and not a factor inherent to the
rye itself. New varieties of rye have recently been
Rye developed which are much more resistant to ergot
From an agronomic point of view, rye (Secale infestation. Examples of these ergot resistant
cereale) is an attractive crop for Western Canada. It varieties are Puma, Musketeer, Cougar and Kodiak.
produces higher yields of grain than other cereals When these varieties are fed, ergot is far less likely
particularly on poor quality, sandy soils, and assists to be a problem than with the more traditional
in better management of the soil by minimizing soil cultivars of rye.
erosion. Rye is traditionally sown in the fa!J mak-
ing more effective use of water during spring runoff Recent research has indicated that rye also con-
and allowing for a more equitable distribution of a tains high levels of soluble pentosans and these
farmer's workload due to its early harvest. pentosans may pose a greater problem than the
presence of ergot. Pentosans are normal constitu-
Unfortunately, the market for rye has been limited ents of the cell wall and are related to hemicellulose
due to several toxic factors which can reduce its but are more soluble. They result in a highly
nutritional value. If the detrimental effects of these viscous intestinal fluid that interferes with digestion.
anti-nutritional factors could be overcome, it would
make available to the swine industry an alternative Another compound found in rye which was
feed resource from a previously little used product. believed to reduce pig performance is a fat-soluble,
growth inhibiting substance called 5-n-alkyl
The energy level of rye is intermediate to that of resorcinol. However, the most recent work on rye
wheat or barley, while the crude protein (N x 6.25) tends to discount the importance of alkyl resorcinol
content is similar to barley and oats but lower than as a factor contributing to the poor performance of
wheat. It supplies a reasonable balance of amino pigs fed rye.
acids and contains roughly the same amount of
lysine as barley or wheat. Relative to the require- Most recommendations concerning the nutritional
ments of the growing pig (20 - 50 kg), only lysine, value of rye are based on the older varieties of rye
threonine and the sulfur containing amino acids are which were often contaminated with ergot. These
not present in sufficient quantity to meet require- recommendations may no longer be valid since
ments. However, these total values must be inter- ergot is present at much lower levels in the newer
preted with caution since the availability of the varieties of rye. As a consequence, the potential to
amino acids in rye are approximately 5 - I 0% lower use rye in swine diets may be greater than was
than those in barley and wheat. previously realized.

Rye supplies approximately the same amount of Rye is relatively unpalatable. Feed intakes of pigs
calcium (0.06%) and phosphorus (0.32%) as other fed rye-based diets are generally 10% lower than
cereals. A specialized premix should not be neces- those of pigs fed a barley-based diet. The specific
sary if rye is used as the major energy source in a factor causing the reduced intake has not been
swine ration. The content of other minerals and identified although a simple increase in the dusti-

92
ness of the ration has been implicated. Since There is very little information concerning the
weaner pigs are often reluctant to eat solid feed, a feeding value of ergot-free rye in diets fed to
feedstuff of questionable palatability should not be breeding stock. Until further research is conducted,
included in a starter diet. Therefore, it is suggested it may be wise to limit the inclusion of rye to no
that rye not be used in diets fed to starter pigs. more than 25% of the diet during gestation and to
avoid feeding rye to sows during lactation.
Rye would appear to have much more potential
for use in diets fed to growing pigs. The results of The nutritive value of rye for swine can be im-
one experiment in which grower pigs were fed proved by processing. Since dustiness is a problem
either a barley or a rye-based diet are shown in when rye is fed, producers are advised to utilize a
Table 4-31. Pigs fed diets in which ergot-free rye coarser grind(< 4 - Smm screen) when processing
was utilized as the sole energy source in the diet rye for use in swine rations. Supplementation with
gained approximately 5% slower than did pigs fed a low levels of (0.5 to 2.0%) fat or vegetable oil may
barley based diet. However, it took significantly also help to reduce the dustiness. In addition, the
less feed to put on a pound of gain using the rye- nutritional value of rye for pigs has been shown to
based diet. This improvement in feed efficiency be substantially improved by pelleting.
may provide sufficient incentive to encourage the
incorporation of rye into swine diets, particularly Additional Reading and References
when the cost of other cereal grains is high. Bazylo, R.B., 1990. Rye. Pages 363-372 In P.A.
Thacker and R.N. Kirkwood, eds. Non-traditional
The reduction in performance which occurs as a Feed Sources for Use in Swine Production.
result offeeding ergot-free rye has been attributed Butterworths Publishers, Stoneham, MA.
to the presence of soluble pentosans. Supplementa-
tion of diets containing rye with an enzyme capable Thacker, P.A., G.L. Campbell and J. Grootwassink.
of breaking down these pentosans has been shown 1991. The effect of enzyme supplementation on the
to produce a modest improvement in pig perform- nutritive value of rye-based diets for swine. Can. J.
ance. As a consequence, there is not much differ- Anim. Sci. 71: 489-496.
ence in the performance of pigs fed enzyme-
supplemented, rye-based diets and those fed barley. Thacker, P.A., Campbell, G.L. and J. Grootwassink,
Therefore, it would appear that when prices warrant, 1992. Effect of salinomycin and enzyme supple-
enzyme- supplemented rye can be used as 100% of mentation on nutrient digestibility and the perform-
the cereal portion of a swine diet without a signifi- ance of pigs fed barley- or rye-based diets. Can. J.
cant reduction in pig performance. Anirn. Sci. 72: 117-125.

Table 4-31. Effect of Enzyme Supplementation on the Soybeans: Full Fat

Performance of Growing Pigs (20-98 kg) Fed Rye.
The soybean, a legume, is one of the oldest
cultivated crops known to mankind. But only over
Control Rye Rye
the last 50 years has the potential of soybeans as a
& Enzyme
source of oil and protein in human and animal diets
Average Daily Gain (kg) 0.79 0.76 0.78 been fully recognized. It is estimated that soybeans
Average Daily Feed (kg) 2.19 2.02 2.05 account now for close to 80% of the supplemental
Feed Conversion 2.74 2.64 2.64 protein used in cereal grain based diets for non-
ruminants in North America. Although full-fat
Thacker ct al., 1991. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 71: 489-496. soybeans and soybean meal are the main products
of interest to swine producers, recent developments
in further processing of soybean products have
resulted in the production of protein concentrates
(containing approximately 70% crude protein on a
dry matter basis) and isolates (containing approxi-

93
matcly 70% crude protein on a dry matter basis)
and isolates (containing approximately 90% crude
protein on a dry matter basis). These products have
favourable nutritional characteristics. I lowever
given the high cost of these products, they should
only be considered for use in milk replacer or in
highly complex (pre-) starter diets.

Although commercial soybean meal manufactured

from raw soybeans by cooking and removal of the
oil represents by far the major product used in
swine diets, full fat beans are also used. With 18%
fat they provide more energy and are therefore
particularly desirable in the manufacture of starter
of lactation diets. For farmers mixing their own
diets, full fat beans offer a vehicle for adding fat to
high energy diets without investing in expensive fat
handling equipment. The use of full-fat soybeans
means that growers can feed the product on site Heating raw soybeans helps to improve their nutritive
rather than selling the beans and buying back the value by destroying anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin
meal. inhibitor.

Soybeans: Full-fat Fortunately, most of these ANF's can be

DE 4200 inactivated, and animal performance can be
Crude Protein 37.2 improved when beans are heated prior to feeding.
Lysine 2.25 However, soybeans can be overheated as well.
Calcium 0.25 Excessive heat destroys various amino acids (in
Phosphorus 0.59 particular lysine) and can thus also reduce the
feeding value of full-fat beans. Means to heat beans
Raw soybeans contain various anti-nutritional include roasting, extruding, jet sploding (exposing
factors (ANF). The major ANF's are a group of beans to heated air) and micronizing (using radiant
proteins called trypsin inhibitors, which interfere heat). Heating methods that can be considered on
with trypsin, a digestive enzyme produced by pigs. the farm are roasting and extruding. During
Other ANF's in soybeans include hemagglutinis roasting, beans should be heated between 3 and 5
(lectins), saponins and lipoxidase. Due to the minutes and the target temperature should be
presence of these ANF's it is not recommended to approximately 120°C. When extruding, the target
feed raw beans to most classes of pigs. It depresses exist temperature should be approximately 130°C.
growth and feed efficiency in growing pigs (starters, It should be noted that these alternative heat
growers and finishers). ln nursing sows it reduces treatments are not equally effective and that the
feed intake and as a result increases body weight effectiveness of heat treatment is determined by
losses and reduces litter growth rates. Only dry many variables including: duration, temperature,
sows are able to perform well when fed raw beans. pressure during heating, rate of cooling,
Recently some varieties of soybeans have been composition of the bean (moisture and oil) and
developed that contain lower levels of some of the particle size. As a result, there can be considerable
ANF's and that are superior in feeding value com- variation in the feeding value of heat treated
pared to conventional beans. However, even when soybeans. For example, the data in Table 4-32
these new varieties arc fed raw to starter and grower indicate that the DE content of roasted beans may
pigs, animal performance is reduced. be as much as 12% lower than that in extruded full-
fat soybeans.

94
Table 4-32. The Effect of Heat Treatment on the particular when roasted full fat beans were used,
Digestible Energy Content of Soybeans. starter pig performance was in fact reduced when
heated full fat beans where fed. This may be the
Heat treatment DE content (MJ/kg dry matter) result of incomplete inactivation of ANF's, or an
Extruding 5020 insufficient rupturing of the cells in the seed during
Jet sploding 4780 roasting. It should be noted that, given the immatu-
Micronizing 4680 rity of the digestive system, starter pigs will be
Roasting 4420 more sensitive than any other class of swine to
insufficient processing of full-fat soybeans. When
Derived from Marty et al., Can. J. Anim. Sci. 73:411- extruded beans are used to replace soybean meal in
419. starter pig diets, pig performance is generally
improved. Extruded beans can effectively replace
all of the soybean meal in starter pig diets.
A laboratory assay that can be used to routinely
check the adequacy of heat treatment of full fat In growing-finishing pig diets heated full fat
soybeans in the urease test. In this test the activity soybeans can supply all of the supplemental protein
of urease, an enzyme that breaks down urea and that in cereal grain based diets. Feeding roasted full fat
is present in raw soybeans, is monitored. This soybeans will result in slight improvement in
enzyme is a protein and is, just like the trypsin growth rate and feed efficiency as compared to
inhibitors, inactivated when heat treated. The feeding soybean meal, but not to the same extent as
urease activity, measured in change in pH (acidity) the feeding of cereal grain, soybean meal and
in a standard solution should not exceed .20 units. supplemental fat (Table 4-33). Apparently roasted
Unfortunately there is not yet an accepted procedure beans are not equivalent to a mixture of soybean
that can be used to determine whether beans have meal and soybean oil, even for growing-finishing
been over-heated. The most reliable method is still pigs. A concern with using full fat soybeans as the
an objective evaluation of colour and odour. The sole source of supplemental protein in finishing
heat treated product should be light in colour diets is its effect on the content and quality of the
(devoid of dark, burned particles) and small "nutty" fat in the carcass. In particular, in pigs with
rather than burned. unimproved lean growth potential, and increase in
daily energy intake due to increases in dietary
If full-fat beans are to be used, one must consider energy density, may increase carcass fatness and
the extra energy supplied in the diet. Remember thus reduce lean yield. Carcass fat is certainly
that full-fat beans contain about 12% more energy softened when full fat soybeans are fed. This has
than high protein (dehulled) soybean meal. Failure been associated with a paler colour of the meat and
to maintain the proper ratio of essential amino in several instances, to a reduced acceptability by
acids, in particular lysine, to energy will result in the consumer of pork. The results of some studies
reduced growth rates, feed efficiency and in the case indicate that the inclusion level of full fat beans
of finishing pigs in reduced carcass lean yields. should not exceed 10% in com-based finishing pig
diets in order to maintain pork quality. As barley
The inclusion of heated full fat soybeans in starter and wheat contain less fat than corn, this would be
pig diets has not resulted in consistent improve- equivalent to approximately 20% in barley or wheat
ments in performance in comparison to soybean based diets.
meal based starter diets. In some studies, and in

95
Table 4-33. Performance of Growing-finishing Pigs false perceptions about its quality. The presence of
Fed Roasted Beans as the Sole Supplemental Protein anti-nutritional compounds covered in the previous
Source in Com-based Diets
section focused attention on the soybean's limita-
tions rather than its potential. However, research
SBM Roasted SBM into the proper handling and utilization of soybeans
Soybeans and oil* soon overcame the early problems. As a result,
soybean meal has been a staple in swine diets since
Daily gain (kg) .89 .89 .92 the 1940's.
Daily intake (kg) 2.81 2.76 2.64
Feed conversion 3.16 3.10 2.86 Soybean meal gained acceptance in part because it
complemented corn so well in the diet of the pig. It
* The amount of oil and soybean meal added to the diet is high in energy and is a rich source of the amino
resulted in similar total protein and fat contents to that in
�cids such as lysine and tryptophan that are lacking
the roasted soybean meal based diet; derived from
in co1:1. The calcium content may vary among
Cromwell et al., 1990. J. Anim. Sci. 68 (suppl. 1 ): 112.
suppliers from as low as 0.25% to over 1.00%, due
to the use of limestone in some cases to enhance its
The advantage of including heat-treated full-fat flowability. This poses no particular problem
beans in sow diets appears quite similar to advan- provided appropriate adjustments are made to the
tages of alternative high energy sow diets ( chapter overall formula to ensure that calcium.phosphorus
6). Due to their maturity, sows are better able to ratios in the final diet are maintained in the accept-
utilize nutrients from full fat soybeans, even if they able range. Also, as limestone use rises, the con-
are not heat treated properly. centration of other nutrients such as amino acids
and energy will fall.
Additional Reading and References
Soybean meal is produced from raw soybeans by
Marty, B.J. and E.R. Chavez. Effects of heat
removing the oil and grinding the remaining flakes.
processing on digestible energy and other nutrient
Different processes may be involved. The most
digestibilities of full-fat soybeans fed to weaner,
commonly used are pre-press solvent where oil is
grower and finisher pigs. Can. J. Anim. Sci.
literally squeezed from the seed before solvents are
73:411-419.
added to remove the remaining fat, or solvent
extraction alone.
Herkelman, K.L. and G.L. Cromwell. 1991.
Utilization of full-fat soybeans by swine reviewed.
Two types of soybean meal are currently avail-
Feedstuffs. 62(52): 15-17, 22.
able: high protein or dehulJed and the lower pro-
tein, non-dehulled products. Dehulled meal con-
De Schutter, A.C. and J.R. Morris. 1991.
tains less hull and as a consequence, is richer in
Soybeans: full-fat. ln: Non-traditional Feed
protein, amino acids and energy than the meal
Sources for Use in Swine Production. Butterworths
containing the hull. Because of their widely differ-
Publishers, Stoneham, MA, U.S.A. (Thacker, P.A.
ing nutrient composition, it is important to define
and R.N. Kirkwood, Ed.), pp 439-45 l.
which meal one is talking about. For example, the
protein content of the dehulled meal is about 47%
Soybean Meal while that of the standard meal is 44.0%. Energy
Since soybean meal is now used so extensively in
levels are approximately 5% higher and lysine
swine diets, it is difficult to imagine that its early
about 10-15% higher in the dehulled product.
introduction was fraught with problems due not
only to legitimate anti-nutritional factors but also

96
 the young piglet's digestive system. However, for
Soybean Meal: 44%CP all other classes of swine a consistent and known
DE 3500 quality of soybean meal can support good levels of
Crude Protein 44.3 animal performance if used as the sole source of
Lysine 2.86 supplemental protein. In fact, choosing the amount
Digestible Lysine 2.40 of soybean meal to use will depend mainly on price
Digestible Threonine l.29 and availability.
Digestible Tryptophan 0.46
Calcium 0.29 Sunflower Meal
Phosphorus 0.61 Sunflowers (Helianthus annuusy arc grown in
southern Manitoba, Saskatchewan and in the north-
ern Plains States of the U.S., in part for the oilseed
Soybean meals: 48%CP market and, to a lesser extent, the confectionary
DE 3675 market. The two are distinct in terms of the varie-
Crude Protein 47.5 ties of sunflowers grown. Confectionary sunflower
Lysine 3.18 seeds will not be used for oil production.
Digestible Lysine 2.70
Digestible Threonine 1.44 Sunflower meal has not gained the same degree of
Digestible Tryptophan 0.50 prominence in swine diets as other protein meals,
Calcium 0.29 reflecting not so much nutritional problems, but
Phosphorus 0.60 rather the availability of seed for crushing. It
appears to be readily accepted by pigs. From a
nutritional perspective, dehulled sunflower meal
represents a good product with considerable poten-
The amino acid content of soybean meal can be tial in swine diets.
predicted using regression equations based on crude
protein. These equations can be found in chapter 3.
Sunflower Meal: DebuUed
A variety of tests are available to evaluate the DE 3115
quality of soybean meal. Moisture, protein and Crude Protein 40.5
calcium analyses are recommended to ensure that Lysine 1.39
guaranteed minimum (protein content) and maxi- Digestible Lysine 1.03
mum levels (hull and limestone content) are met Digestible Threonine 0.97
and to estimate amino acid content. The urease test Digestible Tryptophan 0.35
may be used to ensure that the anti-nutritional
factors in the soybean meal are sufficiently inacti-
vated (see previous section on full-fat soybeans). Three types of sunflower meal are available.
Residual hexane content may also be tested. An DehuJled sunflower meal contains about 38% crude
objective evaluation of colour will provide a reason-protein; for swine, it is far superior to the standard
able indication of product quality as well. A darker meal which generally contains less than 30% crude
quality suggest that the protein quality is reduced protein and is very high in crude fibre. A third
and that further laboratory tests may be required product, partially dehulled sunflower meal, is
(amino acid analyses; protein solubility in potas- intermediate between the two. Jt contains about
sium hydroxide). 32% crude protein. The fibre content varies dra-
matically between the three meal from about 14%
Soybean meal is often used as the sole source of in the dehulled meal to 25 - 30% in the standard
supplemental protein in swine diets. In the diet of meal. Consequently, the energy content of the
newly weaned pigs, dried milk products such as various sunflower meals varies widely. Even
whey or skim milk are preferred due to the nature of dehulled sunflower meal has more than twice as

97
much fibre as dchulled soybean meal, so that it Additional Reading and References
contains slightly less digestible energy than barley. Baird, D.M. 1982. Kinds and levels of sunflower
The standard meal contains less energy even than meal with and without lysine supplementation
wheat bran and much less than oats. Any discus- for finishing pigs. Proc. Georgia Nutr. Conf. pp.
sion of sunflower meal must differentiate between 74-79.
the three types.
Dinusson, WE., 1990. Sunflower meal. Pages
The amino acid profile of dehulled sunflower 465-472 In P.A. Thacker and R.H. Kirkwood, eds.
meal is poor in comparison to soybean meal, largely Nontraditional Feed Sources for Use in Swine
because lysine is much lower and threonine, another Production. Butterworths Publishers, Stoneham,
important amino acid in barley and wheat based MA.
diets, is somewhat lower. Of additional concern is
the fact that the avai labi I ity of lysine from sun- Jorgensen, H., W.C. Sauer and P.A. Thacker. 1984.
flower meal is about 15% less than that from Amino acid availabilities in soybean meal, sun-
soybean meal; threonine is also slightly less avail- flower meal, fish meal and meat and bone meal fed
able. The replacement of soybean meal with to growing pigs. J. of Anim. Sci. 58:926-934.
sunflower meal in barley-based diets will require
adjustment for both available lysine and threonine
content. Sunflower Seeds
Interest in the sunflower as a crop has increased
Fortunately it is the dehulled meal that is pro- tremendously in recent years. This interest is based
duced in Manitoba and it often becomes available at on the fact that the oil contained in the sunflower
a competitive price. It is produced by the pre-press, seed supplies a very high level of polyunsaturated
solvent process. It can be used to completely fatty acids. Therefore, sunflower oil is highly
replace soybean meal in swine diets, especially sought after as a vegetable oil for human consump-
those for gestating sows and the late growing stage tion. However, not all sunflower seeds are suitable
(above 65 kg) where energy concentration is not so for the production of oil or for use as confectionery
critical. In early growing diets and lactation diets, a seeds. As a consequence, whole sunflower seeds
drop in energy content will reduce productivity so are sometimes available for use as a livestock feed.
that care is required in replacing even part of the
soybean meal with sunflower meal. In medium to Sunflower seeds can be considered as high in energy
high energy diets, such as starter and lactation and medium in protein content. They contain on
formulations, added fat and an increase in total average of about 40% oil. 20% crude protein and 29%
dietary protein or synthetic amino acids to adjust for crude fibre. The high crude fibre level arises because
lower available lysine and threonine levels, is of the thick hull on the sunflower seed. Unfortunately,
advised. there is little information concerning the levels of
other nutrients in the entire sunflower seed.
Standard and partially-dehulled sunflower meal
must be used with even greater caution; because of The results of one experiment in which sunflower
the very low energy concentration and high crude seeds were fed to weanling pigs from four to eight
fibre content, even partial ly-dehulled sunflower weeks of age are presented in Table 4-34. In this
meal should not be used to supply more than half of experiment, inclusion of 6.5 or 13% sunflower
the required supplemental protein in market hog seeds improved the average daily gain of the weaner
diets. Neither meal should be used in lactation or pigs while the addition of 26% sunflower seeds
starter diets because the energy content is too low. depressed performance. The reduction in growth
rate was associated with a reduced feed intake
suggesting that the high crude fibre content of the
sunflower seed limits its usefulness in starter diets.
In addition, supplementation with synthetic lysine

98
did not appear to be beneficial. A maximum of Sunflower seeds have been fed successfully to
I 0% sunflower seeds is therefore recommended in sows during the last week of gestation and during
starter diets. early lactation. The most dramatic effect observed
as a result of feeding sunflower seeds was a linear
Table 4-34. Effect of Feeding Sunflower Seeds on the increase in the percentage of milk fat. However,
Performance of Weaner Pigs. piglet weaning weight and percentage survival were
unaffected by dietary treatment. Some palatability
Sunflower Seeds(%) problems were observed at inclusion levels greater
0 6.5 13.0 26.0 26.0 than 25% and therefore it would seem wise to limit
Added Lysine + the level of sunflower seed to less than 25% of the
AD G (kg) 0.61 0.63 0.63 0.55 0.56 diet.
Daily Feed (kg) l.15 l.l6 1.18 1.03 1.04
Feed Conversion 1.88 l.84 l.87 1.87 1.86 In summary, the high crude fibre content of the
sunflower seed limits its usefulness in starter diets
Adams et al., 1982, Univ. Ill. Agric. Exper. Station and a maximum of I 0% sunflower seed is therefore
Report. pp. 1-4. recommended. As the level of sunflower seed in
the diet of the growing pig increases, carcasses
become fatter, carcass firmness decreases and bacon
From an experiment in which sunflower seeds
sliceability becomes more difficult. Therefore, it
were fed to growing pigs (Table 4-35), it can be
would appear that market hogs should not be fed
seen that there was a linear increase in growth rate
diets containing more than l 0% sunflower seed.
as the level of sunflower seeds in the diet increased.
Finally, palatability problems have been observed at
However, as the level of sunflower seed in the diet
levels of greater than 25% in diets fed to breeding
increased, carcasses become fatter, firmness de-
stock.
creased and bacon sliceability became much more
difficult. It appears that market hogs should not be
Additional Reading and References
fed diets containing above 10% sunflower seeds
Adams, K.L. and A.H. Jensen. 1985. Effect of
because of deleterious effects on carcass quality and
dietary protein and fat levels on the utilization of
that results are improved by feeding unprocessed
the fat in sunflower seeds by the young pig. Anim.
seeds since heating reduces digestibility.
Feed Sci. Technol. 13:159-170.

Table 4-35. Performance of Growing Pigs Fed Adams, K.L., C.C. Lin and A.H. Jensen. 1982.
Graded Levels of Sunflower Seeds. Sunflower seeds in diets for young pigs. University
of Illinois Agriculture Experimental Station Report.
Sunflower Seeds (%)
pp. 1-4.
0 2.5 5 10
Average Daily Gain (kg)0.71 0.74 0.76 0.80 Hartman, A.O., R.C. Wahlstrom and G.W. Libal.
Average Daily Feed (kg) 2.36 2.46 2.53 2.60 1983. Sunflower seeds in growing-finishing swine
Feed Conversion 3.32 3.34 3.28 3.30 diets. South Dakota State 27th Annual Swine Day.
Carcass Firmness' 3.70 3.30 3.00 2.50 pp. 8-13.
Bacon Sliceability2 l. l O l.40 1.65 2.40
IodineNumber3 55.77 58.17 64.18 71.04 Wahlstrom, R.C. 1985. Sunflowers in pig nutri-
tion. Pig News and information. 6: 151-154.
I Rangeof I to 5 with I the softest and 5 the firmest.
2
Range of I to 5 with I being the best and 5 the worst. Wahlstrom, R.C., 1990. Sunflower seeds. Pages
'Hartman et al., 1983, S. Dakota State 27th Ann. Swine 473-480 In P.A. Thacker and R.N. Kirkwood, eds.
Day. pp.8-13.
Nontraditional Feed Sources for Use in Swine
Production. Buuerworths Publishers, Stoneham,
MA.

99
Tri ti ca le New varieties of triticale have recently been
Triticalc iTritlcale hexaploide) is a relatively new, developed which are much more resistant to ergot
synthetic, small grain crop produced by crossing infestation than were the older cultivars of triticale,
durum wheat with rye. The goal of plant breeders Examples of ergot resistant varieties are Welsh and
in developing triticale was to combine the high Carmen. When these varieties are fed and the ergot
crude protein and digestible energy content of wheat concentration of the diet is kept below 0.1 %, it is
with the high yields and protein quality of rye. Its unlikely that any ergot-related problems will de-
name is derived by combining Triticum, the botani- velop for growing pigs fed triticale.
cal name for wheat, with Seca/e, the botanical name
for rye. Several other anti-nutritional factors have been
isolated in triticale. Perhaps the most important is
Triticale has not been a major crop in Canada and the presence of a high level oftypsin inhibitor
therefore, large quantities of triticale have not been which has been shown to tie up the enzyme trypsin
fed to livestock. However, from time to time, and reduce the digestibility of dietary protein.
significant quantities of triticale become available There is a great deal of variation in the level of
and can be successfully utilized as an energy source trypsin inhibitor among varieties of triticale (Table
in swine diets. 4-36) and therefore producers should strive to
obtain cultivars with a low trypsin inhibitor levels.
One of the most attractive features of triticale is
its relatively high digestible energy content. For
Table 4-36. Trypsin Inhibition Levels in Spring
pigs, the digestible energy content has been esti-
Triticale1•
mated to be approximately equal to wheat and com.
A relatively low crude fibre content (2.4%) is one
Variety% Trypsin Inhibition
of the factors accounting for this high energy level.
Carman 64.05 ± 7.18
The crude protein content of triticale has been Welsh 79.59 ± 8.71
reported to vary considerably, depending on the Tri well 72.00 ± 3.72
cultivar and growing conditions, with protein *75L021 70.30 ± 0.86
contents ranging from 11.8 - 22.5% being reported. *79P439 65.60 ± 1.97
The average is about 16%. Triticale has a better
balance of amino acids for pigs than most other I
Acceptable level of inhibition for hogs equals 60%
cereals, although this may be quite variable depend- inhibition or less.
ing upon variety. Most amino acids tend to be Adapted from Metzger, I 982. Unpublished Data.
Corvallis, Oregon.
present at a level intermediate to that of durum
wheat and rye. As is typical of most cereal grain
proteins, triticale is low in cystine, methionine, Soluble pentosans have also been identified in
threonine and lysine. Lysine is the first limiting triticale. It is postulated that pentosans form com-
amino acid in triticale while threonine is reported to plex bonds with the albumen fraction of the cereal
be the second limiting amino acid. The protein and thus decrease the digestibility of the
availabilities of amino acids in triticale exceed those diet. It is also suggested that pentosans increase diet
of barley by approximately 5 - I 0%. bulkiness as a result of their water binding capacity
in the gastrointestinal tract and thus depress feed
Like rye, triticale tends to be susceptible to ergot intake.
infestation (see chapter 11 ). Also, as is the case
with rye, it is important to remember that ergot is a Other factors which have been identified in
fungus contaminating the grain and not a factor triticale include alkyl-resorcinols and tannins.
inherent to the grain itself. However, the levels of these factors are generally
low and therefore, their presence is usually of little
consequence in formulating diets for swine.

100
 In evaluating triticale as an energy source for There is very little information concerning the
swine, it is important to differentiate between feeding value of triticalc in diets fed to breeding
problems associated with ergot and problems stock. Until more research is conducted to deter-
associated with the grain itself. As stated earlier, mine the nutritive value of triticale for breeding
triticale with an ergot level above 0.1 % should not stock, a limit of 25% of the total diet is suggested.
be fed to growing swine. Ergot-infested triticale
should not be fed to the breeding herd. Therefore, Additional Reading and References
the remaining discussion shall relate to ergot-free Adeola, 0., Young, L.G. and McMillan, r., 1987.
triticale. OAC Wintri tritieale in diets of growing swine.
Can. J. Anim. Sci. 67: 187-199.
Some scientists have reported that triticale is rela-
tively unpalatable for starter pigs. Others observed no Jilek, A.F. and R.D. Barnett. 1981. Triticale and
problems. Since starter pigs are often reluctant to eat wheat as energy sources in swine grower and
solid feed feedstuffs of questionable palatability finisher rations. University of Florida 26th Annual
triticale should be used with caution. Should it be Swine Field Day Research Report. pp. 32-34.
used, then it is recommended that initially it not be
included at more than 25% of the total diet. King, R.H., 1980. The nutritive value of triticale
for growing pigs. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod.
Triticale can be successfully utilized as an energy 13:381-384.
source for growing swine. Most of the early work
with triticale indicated that it was relatively unpalat- Lun, A.K., Smulders, J.A.H., Adeola, 0. and L.G.
able and as a consequence, most nutritionists have Young, 1988. Digestibility and acceptability of
I imited it to about 50% of the cereal portion of the OAC Wintri triticale by growing pigs. Can. J.
diet. However, more recent work with ergot-free Anim. Sci. 68: 503- 510.
triticale indicates that triticale is comparable in
feeding value to both wheat and corn (Table 4-37). Miller, E.R. and J.P. Erickson. 1980. Triticale as
Therefore. it may be possible to include triticale at an ingredient for pig diets. Pig News and Informa-
higher levels than was previously recommended. tion. 1 :207-210.
Producers who wish to feed it are advised to start
with about 25% triticale in the diet and gradually Radecki, S.V and Miller, E.R., 1990. Triticale.
increase the level. The performance of the pigs Pages 493-499 In P.A. Thacker and R.N. Kirkwood
should be monitored closely to ensure that no eds. Nontraditional Feed Sources for Use in Swine
problems arise. Some producers who have fed Production. Butterworths Publishers, Stoneham,
triticale have reported problems with excessive MA.
dust. This problem can be addressed by using a
coarser screen size when grinding or by incorporat-
ing 2 - 5% fat into the ration. Pelleting the ration Wheat
would also be beneficial. Wheat tTriticum aestiuum) is grown primarily for
the human food market and is used in livestock
Table 4-37. Performance of Grower Pigs Fed Diets diets only when market conditions or quality dis-
Containing TriticaJe, Wheat or Corn (18-98 kg).
counts make it economical to do so. However, feed
grade wheat, destined specifically for the animal
Triticale Wheat Com
feed market, is also grown in various parts of
Average Daily Gain (kg) 0.90 0.90 0.84 Canada. From an animal feed perspective, there is
Average Feed Intake (kg) 2. 78 2.80 2.57 no difference between red or white wheat varieties,
Feed Conversion 3.09 3.11 3.06 nor between those seeded in the spring or fall.
There are slight differences between hard and soft
Jilek and Barnett, 1981, Univ. Florida 26th Ann. Swine wheat; the former tend to have more protein, a
Field Day Res. Report. pp. 32-34. higher content of essential amino acids, although a

101
slightly inferior profile, and less energy. However, Wheat contains approximately I 0% more digest-
both soft and hard wheat support equal perform- ible energy (DE) than barley and only slightly less
ance in growing pigs (Table 4-38) and in starter energy than corn. However, and as discussed in
diets (Table 4-39). Studies of new varieties of feed Chapter 3, there can be considerable variation in the
wheat, such as the Prairie Spring Wheat variety DE content of various wheat samples. This is
Biggar or dwarf wheat have not revealed any especially the case when wheat is harvested prema-
serious problems, suggesting they can be used in turely and/or under poor conditions. For example, a
swine diets according to nutrient composition recent study at the Prairie Swine Centre indicates
without concern. Differences in feeding value that differences in DE content between wheat
between different samples of wheat are more samples can be as high as 300 Kcal/kg or I 0% of
attributed to variation in growing and harvesting the mean DE content. This would result in differ-
conditions that to differences between the various ences of feed efficiency of I 0%. A means to
varieties of wheat. In general, when amino acids predict the DE content of individual wheat samples
are properly balanced with energy, wheat makes an is based on chemical analyses (in particular dry
excellent feed ingredient for swine feed. Dustiness matter, fibre and protein) and using mathematical
may be a problem, especially for producers more equations such as the following:
familiar with barley diets. Coarser grinding or the
addition of 0.5 to 2.0% fat to the diet will prove DE (Kcal/kg of dry matter) = 3584 + 38.3 x Protein
helpful. content(% in dry matter) - 16.0 NDF content(% in
dry matter).

Bushel weight is a poor predictor of the feeding

Table 4-38. Comparison of Hard and Soft Wheat in
the Diet of Pigs from 61-121 kg. value of individual wheat samples. The results of
studies conducted at Prairie Swine Centre indicate
Wheat that there were basically no differences in DE
Item Hard Soft content between samples that had bushel weights of
53 and 62 lbs. Only when the bushel weight was
Avg Gain per Day (kg) 0.81 0.84 below approximately 53 lb, was a significant
Avg Feed per Day (kg) 2.96 3.10 reduction in DE content noted. Actual animal
Feed Conversion 3.67 3.69 performance studies suggest that the feeding value
of wheat with bushel weights less than 56 should
Adapted from Hinens, 1982, Kansas St. Univ. Swine Day.
pp. 104-107. not be discounted at all, and wheat with bushel
weights lower than that can be fed to pigs over 65
kg with appropriate adjustments of formulas.
Table 4-39. Replacement of Hard Red Spring Wheat
with Soft Wheat in Pig Starter Diets. The amino acid content of wheat is substantially
higher than that in com and similar to that in barley.
Percent soft wheat In comparison to com, wheat contains approxi-
0 20 40 60 mately 50% more lysine and triple the amount of
tryptophan. This reduces the need for supplemental
Initial wt, kg 7. I 7.4 7.2 7.2 protein in wheat-based diets as compared to com-
Ave. daily gain, kg 0.46 0.47 0.51 0.48 based diets. In some samples of wheat the protein
Ave. daily feed kg 0.67 0.68 0.71 0.68 content can be as high as 16%, especially when
Feed conversion 1.45 1.45 1.39 1.41 growing conditions are dry. It should however, be
Adapted from Magowan and Aherne, 1987, Proc. stressed that the quality of protein (amino acid
Western Nutr. Conf. pp 125-127. balance) in wheat is poor. For example, the lysine
content expressed as a percentage of crude protein
(N X 6.25) present in wheat is approximately 2.9%
which is less than half of that in soybean meal. Tn

102
addition there are important differences in the The choice of cereal grain in properly formulated
protein quality between wheat, barley and corn. In pig diets should purely be driven by economical
spite of the differences in protein content between considerations. In diets for starter, grower and
wheal and barley there are basically no differences finisher pigs wheat can be used as the sole cereal
in the lysine content. Failure to recognize these grain. Tn many practical nursing sow rations, the
differences in protein quality, by formulating diets inclusion levels of wheat can be as high as 50%.
based on crude protein (N x 6.25) rather than amino There is no need for high energy ingredients such as
acid levels, will result in sub-optimal pig perform- wheat in dry sow rations. However, provided that
ance. A final point is that the amino acid to energy attention is paid to feed processing and feeding
ratio should be considered as well. In particular, management, the inclusion level of wheal can also
when wheat replaces barley in pig diets. be 50% in the dry sow diet.

The actual amino acid content in individual wheat When wheat is used as a pig feed ingredient close
samples is largely affected by the protein content in attention should be paid to feed processing and in
individual wheat samples and can be predicted particular to the fineness of grinding.
based on the mathematical equations presented in
chapter 3. These equations indicate that an increase Wheat should not be ground too finely since it
in protein does not result in a proportional increase becomes very floury and palatability may suffer.
in many of the essential amino acids such as lysine. Finely ground wheat does not flow as well in self-
The changing protein content reflects largely the feeders and the incidence of stomach ulcers may
change in the amount of gluten present; gluten is also increase with a fine grind. For growing swine,
rich in non-essential amino acids and is a poor most studies have demonstrated that rolled wheat
source of essential amino acids such as lysine. will perform as well as coarsely ground wheat in the
diets of market hogs. Results of one representative
The contents of minerals and vitamins in wheat study revealed that rolling was better than grinding,
are not sufficiently different from those in com and and that pelleting was the best of all treatments.
barley to warrant major changes in diet formulation. This particular study revealed that both hard and
soft wheat responded in the same manner to
The feeding value of wheat as compared to that in processing treatment. It may be difficult to obtain
corn and barley. is directly the result of differences and maintain a uniform feed mixture with rolled
in digestible energy and amino acid contents be- wheat, so a medium grind (approximately 4.5 mm
tween these cereal grains. The results of many to 6.4 mm screen) is recommended. If stomach
studies indicate that performance of pigs fed wheat ulcers become a problem the addition of 5-10%
based diets is similar to that of pigs fed corn based whole oats in pelleted rations, or coarsely ground
diets, provided that the proper dietary amino acid to oats in mash rations generally solves the problem.
energy ratios are maintained. When comparing
wheat to barley-based diets, feed efficiency is Off grade wheat often becomes available lo the
generally close to 10% better in the wheat-based animal feed market and questions arise about its
diets. Differences in growth rates between pigs fed suitability for swine. Studies conducted at the
barley and wheat based diets will depend on the Prairie Swine Centre indicate that the DE content,
body weight of pigs. In starter pigs it is generally of frost damaged wheat is similar to that in normal
I 0% higher on wheat based diets and the difference wheat. This would suggest that the actual feeding
tends to become smaller as pigs grow heavier. As value of frost damaged wheat is similar to that of
finishing pigs are able to compensate for changes in regular wheat as well. The results of a France study
dietary energy density, by adjusting voluntary feed (Table 4-40) indicate that the feeding value of wheat
intake, difference in growth rate in finishing pigs that was partially sprouted was the same, or even
fed either barley or wheat based diets are small and slightly better, than that of regular soft wheal.
can often not be detected.

103
Table 4-40. Performance of Starter Pigs Fed Either they may also be called wheatings, thirds or coarse
Sprouted or Regular Soft Wheat. middlings.

Control' Sproutcd2 Sprouted' The greatest problem associated with the use of
these milling by-products in animal feed is the lack
Daily intake (kg) .87 .90 .87
of uniformity due to mixing of fractions. Some
Daily gain (kg) .45 0.50 .51
bran is always included in wheat shorts, but increas-
Feed Conversion 1.94 1.81 1.71
ing the extent will decrease energy content and alter
I
Soft wheat (I idcl) the amino acid profile. Bulk density has been
2 Soft wheat (Fidel), based on visual inspection - 15% proposed as a gauge of nutritional value, since it
sprouted would change as the proportion of various fractions
1 Hard wheat (Cando). based on visual inspection - 20%
changes.
sprouted
Adapted from Gate! and Bourdon, 1989. Pig news and
Information 10 (vol 2): 159-160. Additional Reading and References
Gatel, F. And 0. Bourdon. 1989. Effects of pre-
harvest sprouting on the feeding value of wheat for
Scabby wheal, having been infected with the pigs. Pig News and Information. 10 (vol 2): 159-
mold Fusarium graminearium, has been shown in 160.
feeding trials to reduce growth rate in swine. In
starter pigs, l ppm of vomitoxin in Fusarium- de Lange, C.F.M., 0. Gillis, L. Whittington and J.
contaminated hard wheat was sufficient to impair Patience. 1993. Feeding value of various wheat
growth rate in the first week on the trial. There was samples for pigs. 1993 Annual Research report.
some compensation as the time on test progressed, Prairie Swine Centre Inc., pp 27-30.
but even after three weeks, vomitoxin at 2.4 ppm
reduced rate and efficiency of gain. Removal of the Magowan, WI. 1991. Wheat: soft and dwarf. In
contaminated grain from the diet did not result in (Thacker. P.A. and R.N. Kirkwood, Ed.): Non-
compensatory gain, indicating that losses due to traditional feed sources for use in swine production.
moldy wheat will permanently increase the number Butterworths Publishers, 80 Montvale Avenue,
of days to market. Stoneham, MA 02180. U.S.A., pp 501-508.

Wheat is processed into flour for human con- Wheat Bran

sumption and generates by-products which can be Wheat bran consists mainly of the outer husk of
successfully used in swine diets. The wheat kernel the wheat kernel. Because of its high fibre content,
consists of 85% endosperm, 13% bran and 2% bran is low in digestible energy and is inferior even
germ. The objective of flour milling is to separate to oats in this regard (Table 4-41 ). Because of its
the endosperm from the bran and germ in as effi- relatively low energy content, wheat bran is not an
cient a manner as possible. On average, by-prod- ingredient of choice in swine diets.
ucts represent only about 28% of the total grain
milled, indicating that the process is quite efficient.
Typically, lhc by-products include wheat shorts, Wheat Bran
wheat middlings. red dog and wheat bran, with bran DE 2475
accounting for about 50% of the total. Although Crude Protein 15.5
Canada exports much of its wheat and mills a Lysine 0.59
relatively small portion domestically, flour milling Digestible Lysine 0.32
by-products arc still available to the livestock Digestible Threonine 0.25
industry. The naming of these materials is confus- Digestible Tryptophan 0.16
ing because of little consistency world wide. For Calcium 0.12
example, Canadian wheat shorts arc roughly equiva- Phosphorus 1.16
lent to American middlings. In some countries,

104
 Where constipation is a concern, especially in problem, so that either the proportion of shorts
sows around the time of farrowing, bran at 5-15% should be reduced or fat added to the diet to settle
of the total diet can be most helpful. Nutritionists the dust.
must ensure that when adding fibre to the diet and
thus reducing constipation, the sow's need for
energy is not compromised. Lactation may be a Table 4-41. Typical Specifications for Wheat and its
By-products
time when constipation is most likely, but it is also
the time when energy demands are very high.
Ingredient Crude Protein Fat Fibre
Consequently, bran should be matched with oil or
Minimum(%) Maximum(%)
some other concentrated energy source in the diet to
ensure that the sow's energy intake is satisfactory. Wheat2 13.6 1.7 2.7
Bran' 14.0 3.5 12.5
Wheat Shorts Shorts' 15.0 4.0 8.0
Wheat shorts consist of fine bran and parts of the Middlings' 15.5 2.5 4.5
endosperm from the original wheat kernel. Because Germ' 25.0 9.0 2.5
of the endosperm fraction, wheat shorts contain less
crude fibre and more energy than bran. In terms of
I
Millfeed Manual, Millers' National Federation.
2
Appendix I.
energy content, wheat shorts are approximately
equivalent to barley and contain somewhat higher
levels of crude protein, lysine and threonine. (See
Table 4-41.) Wild Oat Groats
Despite intensive efforts at chemical and cultural
control, wild oats (Avenafatua) continue to con-
Wheat Shorts taminate a large proportion of the grain produced in
DE 3140 Western Canada. Approximately 40% of the
Crude 17.5 dockage assessed on locally produced cereal grains
Lysine 0.70 and as much as 1 % of the total harvest of grain is
Digestible Lysine 0.50 comprised of wild oats. Due to their black-col-
Digestible Threonine 0.32 oured hull, wild oats must be removed before the
Digestible Tryptophan 0.18 grain can be exported or processed for human
Calcium 0.10 consumption. Over 200,000 tonnes of wild oat
Phosphorus 0.85 seeds are separated annually at commercial seed
cleaning plants across Canada.

Wheat shorts are potentially a very good ingredi- Wild oats have traditionally been marketed as
ent for swine diets; pellet mill operators like them Mixed Feed Oats and have been utilized almost
because they tend to improve pellet durability. exclusively in diets fed to ruminants. The presence
Potential concerns in using wheat shorts in pig feeds of a highly fibrous hull limits their usefulness in
include the variability of the product and the high diets formulated for monogastrics. However, a
fibre level. Recommended maximum inclusion technique for dehulling wild oats has been devel-
levels of wheat short are l 0% for starter pigs and oped recently and the dehulled kernels, commonly
approximately 40% for grower-finisher pigs and called groats, may have considerable potential to
sows. However, when diets are properly balanced replace domestic oat groats in diets fed to poultry
for energy and amino acid contents and when a and swine.
good consistent quality of wheat shorts is used,
animal performance can be maintained at inclusion Wild oat groats contain significantly higher levels
levels higher than the recommended maximums. If of crude protein in comparison with domestic oat
the diet is not pelleted, dustiness could become a groats ( 19.9 versus 15.5%). Despite large differ-
ences in protein content between the wild and

105
Table 4-42. Performance of Starter Pigs (7 - 25 kg) Fed Various Oat Products 1.

Wheat Oat Feed Wild Oat Wild Oat

Groat Oats Groat Flake
Average Daily Gain (kg) 0.39 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.35
Average Daily Feed (kg) 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.61 0.60
Feed Conversion 1.64 1.62 1.70 1.64 1.70

Thacker and Sosulski, 1994. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 46: 229-237.
I
Diets based on 25% oat product added at the expense of wheat.

domestic oat groats, there would appear to be little control diet was based on wheat and soybean meal
difference in amino acid composition between while the remaining diets contained 25% domestic
common and wild oat protein. With the exception oat groats, wild oat groats, toasted oat flakes or
of lysine and threonine, all of the essential amino toasted wild oat flakes added at the expense of
acids are present in sufficient quantity to meet the wheat. All diets were formulated to contain ap-
requirements of the starter pig (IO - 20 kg). proximately 20% crude protein and synthetic lysine
was added so that all diets supplied approximately
Wild oats contain a higher level of ether extract 0.9% lysine.
than domestic oat groats (7.8 versus 6.3%). Chemi-
cal analysis has shown that almost 90% of the lipid The growth rate of pigs fed diets containing either
in wild oats is in the form of triglycerides. These wild oat groats or wild oat flakes was similar to that
triglycerides are highly unsaturated with the oleic, obtained with domestic oat groats and flakes.
linoleic and linolenic acid levels being 46, 35 and Toasting and rolling of oat groats or wild oat groats
2%, respectively, of the total fatty acids. The did not appear to improve their nutritional value.
polyunsaturated fatty acids are desirable nutrition- The results of this experiment indicate that one may
ally, but they are also subject to oxidative instability include up to 25% wild oat groats in starter diets
during storage especially after seed grinding. without any adverse effects on performance. Based
on the high cost of wild oat groats, there would
There is an active lipase in the pericarp of the appear to be little potential for including them in
wild oat. The lipase is not in contact with the lipids grower diets or in diets fed to breeding stock.
in the intact kernel but crushing or milling the seed
will result in hydrolysis of the triglycerides into free Additional Reading and References
fatty acids, even at relatively low seed moisture Sosulski, F.W. and K. Sosulski. 1985. Processing
levels. The free fatty acids are much more suscepti- and composition of wild oat groats (Avena fatua
ble to oxidation into rancid, bitter breakdown L.). J. Food Eng. 4:189-203.
products than the intact triglyceride. Therefore, it is
essential to steam the groats thoroughly to destroy Sosulski, F.W.. K. Sosulski and J.P. Olson. 1985.
the lipases in the bran before proceeding to process Nutritive value of wild oat groats and flakes. Can.
the groat into feed products. Once the enzyme has Inst. Food Sci. Technol. 18:220-225.
been inactivated, the dry milled products can be
stored for several months without a significant Thacker, P.A. and F.W. Sosulski. I 994. Use of
breakdown of lipids, especially if cool temperatures wild oat groats in starter rations for swine. Anim.
are maintained. Feed Sci. Technol. 46: 229-237.

The performance of starter pigs fed diets contain- Thacker, P.A., 1990. Wild oat groats. Pages 509-
ing wild and domestic oat groats and flakes is 515 In P.A. Thacker and R.N. Kirkwood, eds.
presented in Table 4-42. In this experiment, the Nontraditional Feed Sources for Use in Swine
Production. Butterworths Pub., Stoneham, MA.

106
Fats and Oils single units, they are called free fatty acids. Some
Fats and oi Is are a very concentrated source of fats contain only two fatty acids linked together
energy, often containing 2.5-3.0 times the energy of with the third position occupied by another com-
cereal grains. They also tend to be more expensive pound such as a phosphorus compound.
per calorie than cereal grains and thus are used only
where higher energy levels are required., such as The chemical and nutritional characteristics of all
those for weanling pigs, lactating sows of fast fats are dictated by the individual fatty acids. Some
growing market hogs. They are also used to supply are 'loose structures and thus are soft at room
essential fatty acids, to suppress dust, facilitate temperature. Vegetable oils are liquid at room
pelleting and reduce wear in feed manufacturing temperature because they contain many of these
equipment. Jn fact, as the swine industry has 'loose' or unsaturated fatty acids. Other fatty acids
developed, and expectations for increasingly higher are very firm and are hard at room temperature.
standards of performance rise, fat usage in pig diets They are called saturated fatty acids. Tallow
has increased. contains a high proportion of saturated fatty acids;
for this reason, tallow must be heated to liquefy it
Whenever fat is added to swine diets, careful so that it can be mixed properly into the diet. Oil is
adjustment of other nutrients, especially amino generally the term used to describe fats that exist as
acids, is required to ensure the diet remains bal- a liquid at room temperature. Tallow and lard arc
anced with respect to nutrient to energy ratio's and solid at room temperature and thus are not oils.
in particular amino acid to energy ratio's. If, Fatty acids are described not only as saturated or
through the addition of fat to the diet, the energy unsaturated, but also short- or long-chained. This
content is raised without proper adjustments of the refers to the physical length of the fatty acid mol-
dietary amino acid levels, then animal performance ecule. The significance of these terms, from a
will be sub-optimal. In market hogs carcass index, nutritional perspective, is explained below.
growth rates and feed efficiency will be reduced and
nursing sows will not increase their milk produc- In some respects, fatty acids are to fat what amino
tion. As fat is added to the diet. daily feed intake is acids are to protein. However, there are some major
generally slightly reduced, but the pig will consume differences. Only two fatty acids are essential in the
more energy per day, up to a maximum that will be diet (linoleic, a member of the w-6 family of
determined by the diet and by such factors as polyunsaturated fatty acids and linolenic, a member
genetics and environmental temperature. of the w-e family of polyunsaturated fatty acids),
whereas there are ten essential amino acids. Also,
Like many branches of nutrition, fats have a proteins contain only amino acids while fats contain
specific set of terminology that helps to describe fatty acids plus other compounds, like glycerol,
their nutritive value. Most fats are present in a sugar and phosphorus.
compound called a triglyceride (see Figure 4-2). Tt
is made up of three fat chains called fatty acids, that The requirements for essential amino acids in pigs
are linked together at one end like tines on a fork. are not well established. For example, there is still
If the fatty acids are not linked together but exist as considerable debate on the efficiency with which

...

triglyceride glycerol + 3 free fatty acids

Figure 4-2. Triglyceride.

107
pigs can convert linolenic acid pigs to other polyun- High grade vegetable fats are not commonly used
saturated fatty acids that belong to the family of w- in swine diets due to cost. On the prairies, crude
3 fatty acids, and that are essential for normal canola oil is sometimes used by individual farmers
animal metabolism. Some studies suggest that the who mix their own feed because it is easy to handle
ratio of w-6 to w-3 fatty acids in the diet is as in a simple mill. Tallow and lard as well as by-
important for the conversion of these w-3 fatty product fats are commonly used in swine diets,
acids (see "essential fatty acids" in chapter 3). although vegetable fats may be preferred due to
higher energy and essential fatty acid content.
The term fat is very general, referring to a group
of ingredients including animal fats, vegetable oils A variety of chemical tests can be carried out on
and related compounds. Feed fats can be divided fats to determine their nutritional quality. Melting
into six general categories: animal fat, poultry fat, point refers to the temperature at which the material
blended feed grade animal fats, blended animal and changes from a solid to a liquid. Vegetable fats
vegetable fats, feed grade vegetable fats and with a high proportion of 'loose' or unsaturated
soapstocks. Animal fat refers to rendered fats from fatty acids have a low melting point, meaning they
beef or pork by-products. It includes packing house are liquid at room temperature. Fats of animal
offal and supermarket trinunings. Because beef fat origin such as lard and tallow, have a lower propor-
(tallow) tends to be constant regardless of the diets tion of unsaturated fatty acids, and thus a higher
fed to cattle, it tends to be more consistent in terms melting point. Consequently, they are solid at room
of fatty acid profile that pork fat (lard) which temperature and must be heated before being added
depends on the diets fed to pigs. to the feed mix.

Poultry grease is the rendered fat from poultry Undesirable impurities in fats can be measured.
offal. Blended animal fats may include mixtures of These include moisture (water, should be less than
pork lard, beef tallow, poultry grease and possibly l %), insolubles (skin, hair, bone; should be less
restaurant grease. Blended animal and vegetable than .5%) and unsaponifiable matter (should be less
fats may include proportions of the above men- than l %). As undesirable impurities rises, energy
tioned animal fats plus fats of plant origin. Vegeta- content is reduced. Free fatty acid content is not a
ble oils are derived from the refining of vegetable good criteria of quality. Once triglycerides enter the
fats such as soybean oil, canola oil or corn oil. gut, they are converted to free fatty acids. How-
Soapstocks, also called foots, contain products not ever, it the fat source normally has a low free fatty
wanted in oils destined for the human food trade acid concentration and it suddenly rises, it is a sign
including free fatty acids. that deterioration has occurred.

Good quality tallow or poultry grease may con- One inexpensive test conducted by some commer-
tain no more than 15% free fatty acids, while cial laboratories is the iodine value analysis. It
soapstocks contain approximately 50% free fatty determines the proportion of unsaturated and
acids. They can be used in the manufacture of soap saturated fatty acids and thus helps to determine
or as a fat supplement in animal diets. Soapstocks uniformity of fat supply. A change in iodine
are separated from the higher grade of oils by the number would reflect a change in the composition
addition of an alkali which causes them to settle out, of the fat and thus indicate a need to discuss product
allowing the still liquid oils to be removed. The source with the supplier. Table 4-43 illustrates how
precipitate is then re-suspended by adding an acid; changing fatty acids in the fat can alter iodine value.
for this reason, they are sometimes called acidulated A hypothetical fat containing 50% oleic acid and
fatty acids. In concentrated form, they are quite 50% linolenic acid would have an iodine value of
corrosive, and must be used with care in the feed 1.8 while another fat, with equal portions of
manufacturing process. Once they are diluted in the palrnitoleic, oleic and linoleic acids would have an
feed, they have proven to have excellent feeding iodine number of 1.22.
value. ln terms of fatty acid composition, they are
quite similar to the parent vegetable oil.

108
Table 4-43. Estimating Iodine Value from Fatty Acid fat ingredients so errors must be avoided. A
Composition of a Fat. number of factors can influence the digestibility of
feed fats and thus their contribution to the energy
Fatty Acid Multiply by: content of the diet. Long chain saturated fatty acids
C 14: I Myristoleic 1.10 are not well accepted by the intestinal tract and are
C 16: I Palmitoleic 1.00 poorly digested unless mixed with unsaturated fatty
Cl8:I Oleic 0.90 acids which make them more compatible with the
Cl8:2 Linoleic 1.80 digestive processes. Thus the ratio of
Cl 8:3 Linolenic 2.70 unsaturated:saturated fatty acids will help to indi-
cate the digestibility of a fat source.

Other factors that are considered include colour The iodine number, which estimates the ratio of
and odour, A relatively recent concern surrounding unsaturated:saturated fatty acids, is therefore very
feed grade fats is safety, or more specifically, useful to the nutritionist. Fat digestibility appears to
freedom from compounds that make the product a be maximized when the unsaturated:saturated ratio
health hazard. Well-publicized examples of such is 2.0 or above. Digestibility falls rapidly below
compounds as PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyl: 2.0 and at 1.0, digestibility is reduced by about
poisonous environmental pollutants which tend to 20%. Short-chain fatty acids, whether or not they
accumulate in animal tissues) contaminating feed are unsaturated are well accepted by the gut and are
grade fats has focused new attention on this subject. therefore well absorbed. Fibre in the diet reduces
Quality-conscious feed companies know that there the digestion of fat due to an increase in rate of
is no such thing as a cheap source of fat and avoid passage. It has been estimated that for every l %
special "deals" that might come along. If farmers crude fibre in the diet, fat digestion is reduced by
are buying fat ingredients, they would be well 1.3 to 1.5%. In Table 4-44 the digestible energy
advised to follow the same thinking. contents of selected fats and oils are summarized. It
should be noted that in net energy systems the
All fat supplements, irrespective of quality or available energy content of fats and oils, relative to
source, must contain an antioxidant to prevent that in other ingredients is much higher than in
rancidity. Common antioxidants include propyl digestible energy systems (chapter 3). This is
gallate, BHT (butylate hydroxytoluene), GHA because dietary fat can be incorporated directly in
(butylate hydroxyanisole) and ethoxyquin. Failure body fat (even in very lean pigs a substantial
to use properly stabilized fats will reduce palatabil- amount of essential body fat needs to be deposited)
ity and could compromise the pig's status with or in milk fat and at low heat increments of feeding.
respect to vitamin E and selenium Since rancid fat The relative feeding value of fats is thus more
in the diet leads to damage of cell membranes. this accurately represented in net energy than in digest-
situation must be avoided. If a poor grade of fat is ible energy systems.
suspected, additional vitamin E and selenium
should be added to the diet. The rancidity of fats It is difficult to suggest minimum and maximum
can be evaluated by determining the peroxide value. inclusion levels of fat in pig feeds. With the excep-
This value should not exceed 5.0 milli-equivalent tion of newly weaned piglets, pigs are able to utilize
per kg. Raw oil in seeds, such as canola or added fat at inclusion levels that exceed I 0%.
soybeans, contain natural antioxidants such as However, at inclusion levels that are higher than 6-
vitamin E. However, these may deteriorate during 8% it becomes difficult to process and handle feed
fat extraction procedures and artificial antioxidants (bridging in bins and feeders). Given the (high)
are required. cost per unit of energy. the economics of using fat
should be considered as well.
It is important to use a correct energy value for
fats used in swine diets. In some cases, I 0-15% of
the total energy in the diet may be supplied by such

109
Table 4-44. Digestible Energy Content of Selected Fat Sources.

Energy

Fat Saturated Fat% Unsaturated Fat% Digestible Metabolizable

Kcal/kg
Vegetable Origin
Canola Oil 6 94 8800 7300
Soybean Oil 16 84 8800 7275
Soapstocks1 7850 7150
Animal Origin
Grease (Poultry) 29 71 8625 8200
Lark (Pork) 43 57 7850 7550
Tallow (Beet) 51 49 8200 7900
Apendix, Table I .
I
Depends on the origin of the soapstock.

The results of studies where the effect of added A potential concern with the inclusion of large
fat in diets for starter pigs has been evaluated have quantities of fat in the finishing diet is the direct
been inconsistent. In many studies no or little relationship between the quality of dietary fat and
change in growth rate or feed efficiency has been carcass fat. As more unsaturated fat is included in
observed during the first two weeks fo!Jowing the diet for finishing pigs, carcass fat will become
weaning. This may be attributed to the reduced softer, more prone to oxidation (to become rancid).
digestibility and the piglets inability to metabolise This will affect colour. shelf life and consumer
some types of fats, in particular highly saturated, acceptance of fresh pork products. Some recom-
long chain fatty acids. Fat utilization will be im- mendations are to maintain the total oil content
proved when medium chain fatty acids (such as below 5% in finishing diets. In practical terms this
these in coconut oil) or when unsaturated fats (oils means that in a com-based diet the inclusion level
are used). of full fat soybeans should not exceed 10% ( or less
than 2% added oil), and that in a barley based diet
Fat can be included at high levels in diets for pigs the inclusion level of full fat canola seed should not
that are older than 6 weeks. In diets for starter and exceed 7.5% (or less than 3% added oil).
grower pigs the inclusion of fat will increase both
the energy content of the diet and the daily energy The inclusion of fat in nursing sow diets has been
intake. The value of added fat is thus determined proven to be beneficial in many studies. In a recent
by improvements in both feed efficiency (basically comprehensive review of the available literature
proportional to increases in dietary energy density if conducted by researchers at the University of
diets are properly balanced for nutrient to energy Minnesota, fat in the saw's diet increased litter
ratios) and in growth rate (basically proportional to weaning weights in 18 out of 24 studies, and
dietary energy density as well). As finishing pigs lactation weight loss in the sow was reduced in 11
are better able to adjust for changes in dietary out of 15 studies (Table 4-45). In some studies the
energy density (by adjusting daily feed intake), the response to fat in the sows diet was small.
value of added fat in finishing diet should be based
on improvements in feed efficiency only.

110
Table 4-45. Summary of Responses to Supplemental Fat in Sow Diets.

Responses Total No. of

ltem Positive Negative Response Comparisons
Piglet survival (%)* 14 6 2.7% 369
Lactation feed intake
(kg/d) 3 16 -.2 kg/d 833
ME intake (Mcal/d) 19 0 I .24Mcal/d 834
Litter weaning weight (kg) 18 6 1.65 kg 1150
Lactation weight change in sows (kg) ll 4 1.5 kg 697

* When treatment mean survival is less that 80% and when more than I 000 g of fat was fed to the sow prior to
farrowing; derived from Pettigrew and Moser, 1991.

The addition of fat to the late gestation diet may Table 4-46. Fat Content - Common Feed Ingredients.
not increase birth weight but will reduce the energy
stores in the piglet at birth. The addition of fat had Ingredient Percent fat'
a positive effect on piglet survivability in 14 out of Cereal Grains
20 experiments (Table 4-45). This was especially Barley 2
the case when birth weights were low and pre- Corn 4
weaning mortalities were high (more than 20%). Oats 5
The effects are more due to fat per see rather than to Wheat 2
the increase in the daily energy intake prior to Fat-rich
farrowing. An additional benefit of fat in the Canola seed 40
gestation diet is that the fat content of colostrum is Soybean seen 18
increased. In order to get these benefits, sows Meat and bone meal 9
should consume approximately 1 kg of fat in the
week prior to farrowing. In a direct comparison, I
As defined by ether extraction.
medium-chain fatty acids in the gestation diet
appeared more effective than long-chain fatty acids
from soybean oil in reducing pre-weaning mortality. Fat can be added to swine diets indirectly, avoid-
ing the need to install expensive fat handling equip-
As in growing-finishing pigs, it is extremely ment. High fat ingredients such as whole seed
important to maintain a proper balance between canola or soybeans have been used by many pro-
amino acid and energy intake in nursing sows. A ducers. Table 4-46 indicates the quantity of fat
deficiency in protein during lactation maybe more contained in such ingredients, as compared to
detrimental to sow reproductive performance than a commonly used cereal grains. To add 2% fat to a
deficiency in energy. diet, canola seed containing 40% oil should be
added to the diet at the rate of 50 kg/t (5%). The
Due to a more efficient utilization of energy same quantity of fat would require I 10 kg/t of
derived from digested fat as compared to that from soybeans ( 11 %). If such high fat, and therefore
cereal grains and protein sources, and due to the high energy feeds are used. adjustments to the
associated reduction in body heat production, the amino acid content of the diet may be required. For
inclusion of fat in swine diets tends to reduce the example, if 2% fat is added to the diet, crude
effect of heat stress on feed intake and animal protein should also increase by about 0.5%.
performance.

111
 The amount of added fat required to adequately Powles, J., J. Wiseman, D.J.A. Cole and B. Hardy.
suppress dust has not been determined. A mini- 1994. Effect of chemical structure of fats on their
mum of 0.5% has been recommended, although apparent digestible energy value when given to
some producers are adding as much as 2% fat. young pigs. Anim. Prod. 58:411-417.
Many commercial feed manufacturers have special-
ized fat handling equipment that allows them to add Cera, K.R., D.C. Mahan and G.A. Reinhart. 1990.
fat to the outside of the pellet. This has proven to Evaluation of various extracted vegetable oils,
be effective in reducing visible dust in the barn. roasted soybeans, medium chain triglyceride and an
animal vegetable fat blend for postweaning swine.
Additional Reading and References J. Anim. Sci. 68:2756-2765.
Pettigrew, J.E. and R.L. Moser. 1991. Fat in swine
nutrition. In: (Miller, E.R., D.E. Ullrey and A.J. Mineral Ingredients
Lewis, Ed.). Swine Nutrition. Butterworth - Minerals are added to the diet when the basal
Heineman, 80 Montvale Avenue, Stoneham, MA ingredients fail to meet the requirement of the pig.
02180, pp 133-144. Thus, it is rare to supplement potassium or magne-
sium since basal ingredients supply more than
Powles, J., J. Wiseman, DJ.A. Cole and B. Hardy. sufficient amounts of these nutrients. However,
1993. Effect of chemical structure of fats on their calcium, phosphorus, sodium and chloride are
apparent digestible energy value when given to routinely added to practical diets. Common mineral
growing/finishing pigs. Anim. Prod. 57:137-146. supplements are illustrated in Table 4-47a and Table
4-47b.

Table 4-47. Typical Analysis(%) of Common Mineral Ingredients Used in Swine Diets.

Table 4-47a.

Macro minerals
ingredient Calcium Phosphorus Sodium Chloride Potassium Magnesium
-percent-
Dicalcium phosphate 17.0 21.0 0.6
Monosodium phosphate 26.0 19.0
Disodium phosphate 22.0 32.0
Mono-dicalcium phosphate 15-23 18-27
Deflourinated phosphate 31.0 18.0 5.0
Limestone 38.0 0.2
Salt 39.3 60.4
Sodium Bicarbonate 27.4
Potassium bicarbonate 39.0
Potassium chloride 0.1 1.0 47.0 50.0 0.1
Magnesium oxide 1-6 51-59
Ammonium chloride 65.0
Potassium magnesium sulfate 18.0 11.0

112
Table 4-47b.

Microminerals
Ingredient Iron Zinc Copper Manganese Iodine Selenium
-percent-
Calcium iodate 62
E.D.D.I. 80
Copper carbonate 55
Copper oxide 75
Copper sulphate H20 25
Ferrous carbonate 36-45
Ferrous oxide 57
Ferrous sulphate H20 20-22
Manganese carbonate- 45
Manganous oxide 55-65
Manganese sulphate 27-28
Potassium iodide 68
Sodium selenate 40
Sodium selenite 45
Zinc Oxide 70-80
Zinc sulphate 36

Note: Actu� nutrient composition m�y �· depending on the supplier. Nutrient composition should be confirmed by chemical
analysis. Different sources may vary ID mineral availability, especially for copper and iron. Refer to text for details.

Probiotics Lactobacilli and the vitamin B-complex producing

Probiotics are a relatively new concept in the bacteria can be beneficial to the host. By encourag-
regulation of intestinal bacteria. They have been ing the proliferation of these bacteria in the intesti-
widely touted as an alternative to the use of antibi- nal tract, it can be possible to improve animal
otics in swine rations. They are supposed to have performance.
the opposite effect to antibiotics on the intestinal
microorganisms in the digestive tract. Whereas The ideal situation would be to always have
antibiotics control the microbial population in the specific numbers of beneficial bacteria present in
intestine by inhibiting or destroying microorgan- the intestinal tract. However, physiological and
isms, probiotics actually introduce live bacteria into environmental stress can create an imbalance in the
the intestinal tract. intestinal flora of the tract allowing pathogenic
bacteria to multiply. When this occurs, disease and
Both beneficial and potentially harmful bacteria poor performance may result. Probiotics increase
can normally be found in the digestive tract of the numbers of desirable microflora in the gut
swine. Examples of harmful bacteria are Salmo- thereby swinging the balance towards a more
nella, Esherichia coli, Clostridium perfingens and favourable microflora.
Campylobacter sputorum. Not only can these
bacteria produce specific diseases known to be The mode of action of probiotics has not been
detrimental to the host but through competition for clearly defined. It has been suggested that
essential nutrients, they can also decrease animal probiotics increase the synthesis of lactic acid in the
performance. In contrast to the effects of these gastrointestinal tract of the pig. This increased
disease causing microorganisms, bacteria such as production of lactic acid is postulated to lower the

113
pH in the intestine, thereby preventing the prolifera- The value of adding probiotics to diets fed to
tion of harmful bacteria such as E. coli. The growing pigs would appear to be questionable
decrease in the number of E.coli bacteria may also based on experimental data such as that shown in
reduce the amount of toxic amines and ammonia Table 4-49. Some researchers have speculated that
produced in the gastrointestinal tract. In addition, probiotics may actually have some negative effects
there are reports which suggest that probiotics may on pig performance during the growing phase by
produce an antibiotic-like substance and also competing for nutrients with indigenous organisms
stimulate the early development of the immune of the digestive tract, decreasing carbohydrate
system of the pig. utilization and increasing the intestinal transit rate of
digesta. Therefore. although the theoretical concept
Despite a considerable amount of study, the of probiotics appears promising, the documented
research conducted to determine the value of evidence of their therapeutic value suggests that the
probiotics in swine diets has been inconclusive. search must continue for a workable alternative to
The results of one experiment conducted to deter- antibiotics.
mine the effects of probiotics in starter diets are
shown in Table 4-48. The results of this experiment Table 4-49. Performance of Growing Pigs (23 -38 kg)
are typical of most of the research conducted with Fed Diets Containing a Probiotic.
starter pigs, with most researchers reporting slight
improvements in daily gain and feed efficiency as a Level of Probiotic (cfu/kg)
result of probiotic inclusion. However, this is not 0 10s ]09 I 010
always the case and several researchers have re- Daily Gain (kg) 0.61 0.61 0.63 0.65
ported the opposite effect. Daily Feed (kg) 1.04 1.02 1.05 1.04
Feed Efficiency 1.69 1.66 1.66 1.60
Table 4-48. Performance of Starter Pigs Fed Diets
Containing a Problotic. Scheuermann. S.E., 1993. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 41:
181-189.
Control Pro biotic
Average Daily Gain (g) 263 270
Average Daily Feed (g) 599 594 Additional Reading and References
Feed Conversion Efficiency 2.28 2.20 Fralick, C. and T.R. Cline. 1983. The efficiency of
a commercial available probiotic. Purdue Univer-
Pollmann et al., 1980. J. Anim. Sci. 51: 577-581. sity Swine Day. pp. 7-10.
Probiotic = Probios (MuLabs Division, Pioneer Hybrid
lntemational). Pollmann, D.S. 1987. Probiotics in pig diets.
Recent Adv. Anirn. Nutr. 13: 193-205.

Some of the reasons for the variability ofresults

Pollman, D.S .. D.M. Danielson and E.R. Peo.
include the fact that the viability of microbial
1980. Effects of microbial feed additives on
cultures may be dependant on storage method,
performance of starter and growing-finishing pigs.
strain differences, dose level, frequency of feeding,
J. Anirn. Sci. 51 :577-581.
species specificity problems as well as drug interac-
tions. The difficulty in maintaining a viable
Scheuermann. S.E., 1993. Effect of the probiotic
lactobacillus culture in swine feeds may also par-
Paciflor (CIP 5832) on energy and protein metabo-
tially explain the inconsistency in research results.
lism in growing pigs. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 41:
lt is well documented that temperature, humidity,
181-189.
change in pH and various antibiotics will decrease
the viability of lactobacillus cultures.
Wren. W.B. 1987. Probiotics: Fact or fiction.
Large Anim. Vet. pp. 28-30.

114
Synthetic Amino Acids Some alternatives to pure synthetic amino acids
Although the most common source of amino are available or will become available in the near
acids in swine diets is complete proteins such as future. Examples are methionine hydroxy analogue
soybean or canola meals. some can be provided by (MHA) and fermentation products that contain high
individual amino acids that are manufactured by concentrations of several essential amino acids.
bacterial culture. The most common example is L- MHA can be used to replace methionine. It is
lysine hydrochloride (HCI). Commercial products available in a dry form (calcium - MILA, 93%
are 98% pure and contain 78.4% lysine in a form MHA) or in liquid form (88% MHA). There is
that is essentially 100% available to the pig. Other some controversy about the amounts of amino acids
amino synthetic amino acids that are available, and that are effectively supplied by these alternative
increasingly at competitive prices. include: L- products. For example, some research with poultry
threonine (98% pure threonine in the product). DL- would suggest that MHA is approximately 75%
methionine (99% pure methionine in the product) effective in supplying methionine as compared to
and L-tryptophan (98% pure tryptophan in the pure synthetic CL-methionine. Only a limited
product). There has been some data that suggest number have been conducted to study the effective-
that synthetic amino acids, such as lysine HCI is ness of these alternative sources of amino acids in
used less efficiently than the lysine from soybean swine diets.
meal when pigs are fed once a day, but there is no
difference at higher feeding frequencies or when Interestingly, as these amino acids become more
pigs are fed ad libitum. economical, they provide another alternative to
balancing swine diets. Rather than only selecting
Synthetic amino acids, and in particular lysine among the various protein meals, the opportunity
HCI are sometimes referred to as a growth will exist to consider the synthetic or free amino
promotant. They are not. They are ingredients acids as another option. However, as diets change to
which supply the nutrient, lysine. and thus have no include greater quantities of free amino acids in
growth promoting properties. Growth may im- place of complete proteins, the need to carefully
prove with the addition of lysine HCl to the diet if formulate and manufacture diets will increase. The
lysine is deficient. In this case, they merely im- room for errors will shrink because the over-
prove the nutrient balance of the diet. Lysine HCI formulation of the past will be replaced by greater
should only be purchased when it is economical. If precision. Eliminating wasteful excesses will be of
lysine from lysine HCI is less expensive than lysine great benefit to the industry, but it carries a signifi-
from other sources. they are worth considering. If cant price tag in terms of quality control.
they are more expensive, the alternative sources
should be chosen. Organic Acids
Organic acids are widely utilized to inhibit mold
When large quantities of synthetic amino acids are activity in stored feedstuffs as well as finished feed.
used it is important to consider the amount of By treating with organic acids, it is possible to
energy supplied by amino acids as well. Just like in harvest and store grains at a higher moisture content
protein sources, such as canola meal and soybean without spoiling. Propionic and acetic acids are the
meal, amino acids do contribute to the digestible most commonly used acids for this purpose.
energy content of ingredients. It can be estimated
that the DE contents of L-lysine HCL, L-threonine, Some of the early research conducted to deter-
DL-methioninc and L-tryptophan are 4970, 4250, mine the nutritional value of acid-treated grains
5750 and 4900 Kcal per kg of product respectively. observed improvements in pig performance which
The energy contents of synthetic amino will have an could not be attributed solely to the anti fungal
effect on their economic value in feed formulation properties of these acids. Therefore, a considerable
systems and on the calculated energy content of amount of research has been conducted to try and
diets that include synthetic amino acids. improve rate of gain and feed efficiency through the
use of organic acids.

115
 Most of the research conducted with organic acids between 0.5 and 3.0% of the total diet has been
has been focused on improving their performance shown to consistently improve feed efficiency while
of starter pigs using fumaric, citric or propionic having little or no effect on growth rate. Typical
acid. Supplementation with organic acids at levels research data is presented in Table 4-50.

Table 4-50. Effect Of Organic Acid Supplementation On Starter Pig Performance.

Control Prop ionic Fumaric Citric

Acid (2%) Acid (2%) Acid (2%)
Diet pH 5.78 4.71 4.18 4.06
Average Daily Gain (g) 254 245 263 258
Average Daily Feed (g) 494 440 480 471
Feed Efficiency 1.94 1.79 1.83 1.82

Adapted from Giesting and Easter, 1985, J. Anim. Sci. 60: 1288-1293.

The mechanism by which the beneficial effects of control pigs. Therefore, if the current consumer
organic acid supplementation are achieved has not demand for reduced carcass backfat continues,
been determined. However, it has been suggested propionic acid supplementation of diets fed to
that the reduction in dietary pH may increase the market hogs may increase in the future.
activity of pepsinogen, a pH-sensitive, protein
digesting enzyme in the stomach. The reduction in
dietary pH may also reduce gastric pH resulting in Feed Flavours
greater bacteriocidal activity in the stomach, thus
The use of flavors in animal feeds has increased
reducing nutrient-robbing bacterial loads in the
considerably in the past decade as more attention is
intestinal tract. Organic acids may also act as
being paid to ingredient and diet palatability. This
chelating agents which increase the absorption of
increase in feed flavour usage has been paralleled
minerals in the intestine of the pig. Finally, it has
by a dramatic increase in the number of commer-
been suggested that the reduction in pH may slow
cially available products ranging from simple spices
gastric emptying, allowing greater time for
and tonics to aroma modifiers, sweeteners, flavour
proteolysis ( digestion of protein) to occur in the
intensifiers and artificial flavors.
stomach.
Unfortunately, feed flavors tend to be incorpo-
As pigs age, their ability to produce their own
rated into swine feeds because of marketing appeal
gastric acid is increased and therefore, there is little
and consumer preference rather than as a result of
benefit in terms of growth rate or feed efficiency
proven effectiveness. At present, very little is
from supplementing the diets of growing pigs with
known about what specific flavors pigs find attrac-
organic acids. However, it may be possible to
tive and too often flavors are chosen for inclusion in
improve carcass traits through organic acid supple-
swine feeds because they are attractive to the human
mentation.
palate rather than that of the pig. Even if a particu-
Jar flavour has been shown to be preferred by swine
Recent evidence has suggested that methylmalony
in free choice or stimulus tests, this preference will
CoA, a breakdown product of prop ionic acid
not necessarily result in improved performance.
metabolism, inhibits some of the enzymes involved
in fat synthesis. As a consequence, pigs fed high
The end result is that although there are claims
levels (3-9%) of propionic acid have been shown to
that such products will stimulate feed intake, very
have significantly lower levels of backfat than
few studies have demonstrated a consistent

116
improvement in feed intake or growth rate as a Additional Reading and References
result of the inclusion of feed flavors in the diet. McLaughlin, C.L., C.A. Baile, L.L. Buckholz and
One researcher compared 129 different feed flavors S.K. Freeman. 1983. Preferred flavours and
to determine which specific flavors were preferred performance of weaniling pigs. J. Anim. Sci.
by pigs. Five of the flavors which were shown to 56: 1287-1293.
be most preferred by pigs were then used in a
feeding trial. None of the flavors significantly
increased the feed intake or growth rate of starter
pigs. Since there is a cost associated with the
inclusion of flavors in the diet, it would be wise to
avoid their use until further research is conducted
and a more consistent response is obtained.

117
118
5. DIET FORMULATION
Diet formulation is the process of matching the
pig's nutrient requirements with the nutrients FIVE STEPS IN SWINE DIET
supplied by available ingredients. in the most FORMULATION
economical manner possible. The process sounds
simple enough, but do not be misled. As explained Define Objectives
below, nutrient requirements vary among animals Establish Requirements
and farms. Over-formulation may seem to be a
logical way to ensure the animal's requirements are Select and Characterize Ingredients
met, but this is costly in both financial and environ- Formulate Diets
mental terms. Similarly, defining the nutrients Evaluate Diets
supplied to the pig by various ingredients stills lacks
the precision that many of us seek and again, being
too conservative in assigning specifications to
various ingredients wastes money and nutrients. Define Objectives
finally, linking the process to net income, while The first step in developing a feeding program is
essential, requires a firm understanding of the to define the objectives; these will include the
relationship between nutrient supply and animal objectives of the overall business, of the pig unit
performance. So, while the process of diet formula- within the overall business and of individual pigs
tion sounds simple enough, it is anything but. within the pig unit. Consequently, the nutritionist
and the pork producer must communicate to ensure
Overall, diet formulation needs to be viewed as a they are both working towards the same
means to an end. The 'end' is efficient production objective(s). Following are some typical objectives.
resulting in a final pork product of high quality. It is clear from the following list that "make the
Following five basic steps breaks ration formulation most money," as noble (and essential) objective as it
down into simpler components that increases the may be, is not sufficiently precise!
likelihood of success. Diet formulation, and the
development of associated feeding programs. is Maximize Net Income per Pig Place
merely one component - albeit an important one - of A pig place is the barn area occupied by a single
the overall pork production system. pig. In a grower barn, a pig place will turn over
approximately three times per year; in a nursery,
turnover will occur every 5 to 6 weeks, or about 10
times per year. By expressing net income on a 'per
pig place' basis, the importance of growth rate, and
thus of barn throughput, is recognized. Expressing
net income on a 'per pig' basis assigns much Jess
I.Objectives emphasis to barn throughput. Therefore, this
objective will be most appropriate where capital
2 .Re�iremerrt's costs are high and capital debt exists. lf barn
3.Iqgredients throughput increases, fixed costs can be spread over
more animals.
4.Formu/ations
In a typical commercial circumstance, the only
instances in which one would not want to maximize
net income per pig place would be when housing
space is not limiting, when market prices do not

119
cover variable costs or when animals are not lower animal performance but convert a commodity
available to keep the barn full at all times. In the that is unsaleable into one which is more easily
vast majority of circumstances, a farm's sold.
profitability will be maximized when farrowing
crates, nursery pens and growout facilities are kept To Minimize the Impact on the Environment
filled to their maximum capacity. In Canada, as elsewhere, the impact of pork
production on the environment is under increasing
Maximize Net Income per Pig Sold scrutiny. For example, the spreading of slurry
Jn some instances, such as when housing space is places a nutrient load on the land. While this may
not limiting or when the supply offeeder pigs is be desirable in most cases, due to fertilizing and soil
limiting, the focus of management will shift from conditioning value, if certain conditions exist, it can
net income per pig place to net income per pig. For lead to a portion of the nutrients entering nearby
example, feeding programs can be designed to lakes and rivers due to runoff. Because diet
move pigs through a barn more quickly. Such diets composition affects slurry composition, individual
will tend to be more costly, but if there are no pork producers may manipulate nutrient loading of
additional pigs to replace those which have moved the soils in a way that is appropriate for their
on to market, the only opportunity to recover the particular circumstances. Of course, following
extra feed cost is through reduced inventory costs, good management practices for slurry handling
such as interest on the operating line of credit. would be assumed to be the most important first
step in all cases.
To Maximize Animal Performance
While most commercial farms will focus on To Produce a Carcass Possessing Certain Traits
maximizing net income, certain types of farms, Production systems that link animal production
notably those involved in genetic selection with the packing industry, through either contract or
programs, will seek to maximize animal ownership, increases the opportunity to develop
performance. This ensures that nutrient intake is pork products possessing certain traits. This might
not confounding selection of animals based on be related to product uniformity, product quality or
genetic merit. Purebred or nucleus breeding units possibly even more specific traits such as fatty acid
will typically fall into this category. profile or "organic" designation. In some of these
instances, diet plays a central roll in achieving the
Under commercial conditions, producers may desired final product.
choose to feed some animals a 'non-limiting' diet to
determine the maximum potential of animals under
their particular conditions. For example. the impact
of housing, genetics and health can only be
determined when nutrient supply is not limiting
animal performance.

To Maximize Profits for the Total Farming Unit

Ln many cases, the pork production unit is associ-
ated with other farming enterprises, such as crop
production. In this case, the relationship of the pig
barn to the other enterprises must be considered.
For example, the pig unit may be used to convert
certain crops into a more saleable or valuable
commodity - pork. In some situations, this could
lower profitability of the pig unit, but maximize the
net income of the total farm. An example could be
the use of lower quality cropping products that

120
To Establish a Production System that Intake will be discussed in more detail under
Emphasizes Animal Well-being chapters dealing with the feeding of specific classes
Animal well-being is difficult to define, let alone of swine.
measure, but it is a subject that is attracting greater
interest both within and outside the pork industry. Nutrient requirements can be established using
Animal well-being is not necessarily impaired by two approaches. The more traditional system is the
maximizing net income; indeed, profitability and empirical method which employs experiments to
welfare should not be considered as mutually measure the pig's response to diets of differing
exclusive. Nutrition is rarely associated with nutrient supply. This method has the advantage of
violations of animal well-being, other than cases of employing actual animal response in the evaluation,
outright neglect leading to malnutrition and/or but often fails to explain why the response was
starvation. However, this may change as we learn observed. This makes it difficult to extrapolate the
more about basic animal behaviour. Scientists and results to production circumstances which may
producers continue to work on providing the pig differ among farms, due to genetics, environment,
with the most positive environment while still or management.
maintaining a satisfactory profit margin.
The second approach, the factorial method,
From this list, it is clear that the nutritionist's attempts to identify the various functions within the
focus will vary among farms. Depending on the animal that require a given nutrient and define the
circumstances, it may be the carcass, the pig, the needs based on each. For example, energy is used
barn, the total agri-business of which pork produc- for maintenance, growth, pregnancy, and lactation.
tion is only one part, or the environment. In actua1 By expressing the requirement for energy on the
practice, nutritionists will consider all of these basis of its use for each process, and incorporating
objectives and vary the emphasis depending on the some relationship between requirement and rate of
individual client and his or her particular situation. production, one can estimate the pig's requirement
for energy for various levels of performance. By
adding factors that address energy needs for
Define Requirements externa1 forces, such as temperature and level of
Once the nutritional objectives have been set, the activity, energy requirements can be predicted -
next step is to define the nutrient intake required to theoretica1ly. The accuracy of such predictions, of
achieve them. Nutrients required by the pig depend course, depends on the precision of the various
on many factors that are internal (i.e. genotype, age, prediction equations.
sex, expected level of productivity) or external (i.e.
thermal and social environment, economic condi- Typically, nutritionists use both approaches, with
tions) to the pig. Consequently, these must be the factorial method increasing in popularity due to
considered in establishing the nutrients required in a the need to define requirements under diverse
given diet. conditions. However, even where the factorial
method is predominant, animal experiments will
In addition, total daily feed intake must be still be employed to confirm the accuracy of the
considered because, in fact, nutrients are required prediction equations.
on a daily intake basis. This applies to both the
breeding herd and market hogs. Unfortunately, Nutrient requirements that are published, for
there is a poor understanding offeed intake. Efforts example, by the National Research Council (NRC)
to predict intake are limited in scope and few or the Agriculture Research Council, are by and
operations measure it directly. Consequently, while large those required to maximize performance.
we recognize that nutrient requirements should be Clearly, if performance somewhat below maximum
expressed on a daily intake basis, in practice they is the most economical, then the nutrient levels
are presented on the basis of dietary concentration. needed may also be somewhat less than those

121
published. Given the information available, one can constant from year to year, or even from farm to
develop at least a rough estimate of the farm. They need to acknowledge the specific
requirements needed for a given circumstance. economic circumstances and respond in an appro-
priate manner. Simply stated, there is no feeding
The graph in Figure 5-1 illustrates the general regime that is best under all circumstances.
approach to defining the pig's requirement for a
nutrient. It shows that as the amount of nutrient
being tested is increased in the diet, the pig
responds in some way, such as by growing faster, or
more efficiently, or by producing bigger litters.
When the diet is very deficient, small additions of
the limiting nutrient give a large improvement in
performance. However, as the requirement is
approached, the response of the pig to each unit of
nutrient becomes less. This is sometimes called the
law of diminishing returns. It is clear from this
figure that the greatest return per dollar spent does
not occur near the peak of the curve. Depending on
the marketplace, it may or may not be economical
to provide full supplementation. Again. the
factorial approach to defining nutrient requirements
is the most adaptable to such changes in expected
levels of productivity.

� The process can be complicated by mitigating

z
0
Q.
------------ circumstances, such as the genetic quality of the
animals, the management style of the farmer, the
en
w financial status of the farm, the environmental
cc
e conditions in the barn, and so on. The more we
i5: learn about the science of nutrition, the better we
will be able to tailor diets to the specific needs of
A
individual farmers. This is one aspect of swine
nutrition which has advanced the most in the past 5
NUTRIENT CONTENT OF THE DIET
years, and further progress is expected. "Situation
dependent feed formulation" the process whereby
Figure 5-1. Determination of a Nutrient Require- feeding programs are optimized for each production
ment, Showing the Pig Response to Increasing system is a major objective if one wants profits to
Nutrient Supply.
be maximized and the industry as a whole posi-
tioned to compete most effectively in the market-
For example, when feed is inexpensive and hog
place for the consumers' dollar.
markets are strong, feeding the highest quality diet
may be the most economical for most farmers.
However, in the opposite situation, when feed is Select and Characterize Ingredients
expensive and markets are weak, a less ambitious Once the objectives of the feeding program have
diet would likely be more profitable. It becomes been established, and the nutrient requirements
readily apparent that feeding regimes should not be defined, the next step is to select the ingredients
available and determine their nutrient content.

122
 Selecting ingredients is not a difficult task, as they the case of energy, where digestible or
are usually the ingredients at hand. However. metabolisable energy are always used in place of
advantages may be gained by seeking out less gross energy; however, for amino acids and
common ingredients that represent good value and minerals, availability is considered less often, a
can be successfully integrated into a swine feeding situation which we believe to be most unfortunate.
program. A review of ingredients in Chapter 4 may Availability cannot be determined directly on
be helpful in this regard. individual samples without using animal tests.
Since this is expensive and far too time consuming,
Determining the nutrients supplied by the ingredi- indirect methods, such as Near Infrared
ents is much more difficult, involving essentially Spectroscopy (NTR), where available, or book
two steps: determining the nutrient composition of values, must be employed.
the ingredient and determining the availability to the
pig of those nutrients. While a more thorough There are other considerations as well. First, it
discussion of this subject appears in Chapter 3, a must be remembered that the grading system for
few of the more pertinent points will be swnma- grain was designed to satisfy the needs of an export
rized below. market and for the milling industry, rather than to
meet the needs of those in the livestock industry.
The best method of determining nutrient Thus, many of the factors that cause downgrading
composition is chemical analysis. The most of grains are of little or no consequence to animal
important analyses required on cereal grains and nutritionists.
protein meals (canola meal, soybean meal) are
crude protein, calcium and phosphorus. If moisture A case in point is bushel weight. Although very
problems are suspected, dry matter analysis should low bushel weight may be reflected in lower energy
also be requested. While chemical assays are content. a wide range is perfectly acceptable to the
relatively easy and inexpensive for common pig. Table 3-5 outlines minimum acceptable bushel
nutrients, they are more expensive and time weights for swine diets. Values below the minimum
consuming for nutrients like amino acids and are still acceptable, but some lowering of estimated
vitamins. Therefore, in the interest of time and energy content would be advised. Refer to chapter
economics, amino acid levels are estimated from 3 for details.
protein content (see chapter 3) or book values are
employed, if available. For the most part. these Visual appraisal, although subjective, should not
approaches are adequate. However, if book values be underestimated. Freedom from weed seeds,
are used, the variability of the ingredient must be especially those that are unpalatable or toxic, is
acknowledged, as individual samples rarely reflect obviously very important. Sprouting, mold or
the average. contamination are other things to watch for.

Crude protein is an indirect measure of protein,

Diet Formulation
based on the amount of nitrogen in a feedstuff.
Once the nutritional objectives have been
Since most of this nitrogen is present as protein, this
established, the requirements identified and the
information is used to estimate actual protein. On
ingredients selected and characterized, the next step
average, most proteins in grain and vegetable
is to put this information together into a formula
protein sources contain about 16 percent nitrogen.
that can be used to make the diet. This can be done
Thus, if one knows the nitrogen content. multiply-
using any one of at least three methods:
ing this value by 6.25 (100 + 16 = 6.25) will esti-
mate protein (refer to pages 71-74 for more detail).
1. Linear programs (computer formulation)
2. Algebraic formulas
Once total nutrient content is established, then the
3. Pierson's Square
availability of those nutrients to the pig must be
considered. This approach is universally applied in

123
1. Linear programs represent the amount of the nutrient in question
The speed and simplicity of computer formulation present in each of the four ingredients.
of diets makes it the most effective and popular
method for anyone involved in the process on a Recently, feed formulation programs have be-
regular basis. Rather than use the more simplistic come much less expensive for producers to pur-
and slower algebraic methods or Pierson's Square, chase. These programs are much smaller than those
the computer can handle many simultaneous equa- used by major feed companies, but they will permit
tions in a fraction of a second. Because of this simultaneous formulation of a diet considering 50
speed and simplicity, the computer allows nutrition- or more nutrients supplied by 50 or more ingredi-
ists to consider more ingredients and more nutrients, ents. This is clearly more than the average pork
and pay far greater attention to cost than would producer requires!
otherwise be the case. However. it is important to
remember that the information generated by a There is some question whether the individual pork
computer can be no better than the information producer really needs such capability. Is it worth the
provided to it initially! money to purchase such programs? The answer lies
not in the cost of the program, but rather in the time
Essentially, the computer takes the nutrients and expertise required to operate it. Errors related to
needed by the pig on the one hand, and the nutrients ingredient composition or nutrient requirements can
supplied by available feedstuffs on the other, and lead to disastrous results. For the most part, diet
combines them to develop a balanced ration at the formulation should be left to professionals with the
least possible cost. Computer ration formulation training and experience required to develop a feeding
programs use a linear equation (thus, linear program that best meets the producer's needs.
programming) such as: Ongoing least cost formulation of diets to ensure that
Requirement= aX I + bX2 + cX3 + dX4 feed costs are truly minimized can be carried out on
the farm with little risk, provided a nutritionist has
where a, b, c and d are the amounts of each of four
been involved in defining the restrictions included in
ingredients in the diet and X 1, X2. X3 and X4
the formulation program.

Table 5-1. TypicaJ Ingredient Output From A Feed Formulation Program.

Formula Price
Ingredients Actual Minimum Maximum Low Actual High

Barley 34.35 1.13 l.30 1.60

Wheat 36.10 40.0 1.43 1.70 1.95
SBM (47%) 11.80 2.52 2.85 3.36
Canola Meal 15.00 15.0 1.80 2.00
Dicalcium phosphate 0.69 4.30 77.69
Limestone l. l 3 0.61 12.15
Salt 0.33 0.55
Mineral Premix 0.30 0.30 5.20
Vitamin Premix 0.30 0.30 15.00

Total 100.00 176.55

124
 Tables 5-1 and 5-2 outline the type of information Wheat appears to be competitively priced, since it is
provided by a computer-based feed formulation very close to its lower price limit and much cheaper
program. In Table 5-1, the ingredient summary than its upper price. Thus, programs of this nature
itemizes the ingredients selected and the amount can be used to determine the value of certain
required in the diet. Limits (maximums and ingredients in various diets used on the farm.
minimums) that were set up in the original feed
specifications are also shown. It can be seen in the Table 5-2 provides a somewhat similar summary
example that canola meal was priced competitively, for nutrients (as opposed to ingredients). Nutrients
because it went to its upper limit. The premixes are that are at their lower limit are forcing the cost of
obviously expensive, because they are at their lower the diet up. For example, digestible energy, lysine,
limits. The output often also tells the formulator sodium, calcium and phosphorus are all at their
how competitive the price for each ingredient is. lower limit, meaning that if any of these could be
For example, soybean meal would have to drop to lowered, the cost of the diet would be reduced.
$252 per tonne in order for more soybean meal to However, since animal performance might suffer,
come into the formula. Likewise, if the price rose reducing the diet cost would not necessarily save
to $336, the computer would select less soybean money in the long run.
meal. There is no lower price limit for canola meal,
since it is already using the maximum amount.

Table 5-2. Typical Nutrient Output from a Feed Formulation Program.

Nutrient Requirements Constraint

Actual Minimum Maximum Unit Cost Increment Decrement
Digestible energy 3200 3200 0.001 111.753 117.608
Protein 19.93
Lysine 0.95 0.95 0.96 5.302 2.908
Methionine 0.34 0.29
T.S.A.A. 0.74 0.57
Tryptophan 0.24 0.18
Threonine 0.73 0.59
Isoleucine 0.81
Sodium 0.15 0.15 0.25 0.008 12.914 0.825
Chloride 0.27 0.15
Calcium 0.75 0.75 0.80 0.008 12.430 4.248
Phosphorus 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.026 5.099 1.455
Available phosphorus 0.36

125
2. Algebraic Formulas Thus, the algebraic equation to solve the problem will be:
ln the absence of computers, sometimes simple
calculations arc required to balance a simple ration .0029X + .027(61.5-X) = 0.56
involving only a few ingredients. In such cases,
The equation will solve as follows:
algebraic methods arc often selected because they
.0029X + 1.6605 - 0.027X = 0.56
arc more accommodating. However, for those not
-.0241X=-l.1005
comfortable with algebra, they may be a bit confus- X =45.7
ing at first. Following is an example:
Therefore, the amount of barley in the diet will be 45.7
EXAMPLE percent and soybean meal will make up 15.8 (i.e. 61.5 -
Problem: Formulate a diet to contain 0.78 percent 45. 7) percent. The final formula will thus look as
available lysine using five ingredients: barley, follows:
wheat, soybean meal, canola meal and premix.
Canola meal is assumed to contain l .45 percent Barley 45.7
Wheat 25.0
available (ileaJ) lysine and is fixed at IO percent of
Soybean meal 15.8
the diet, the premix, containing no lysine, is fixed at
Canola meal 10.0
3.5 percent of the diet and wheat, with 0.31 % Premix 3.5
available lysine, is set at 25 percent of the total diet. TOTAL 100.0
The barley contains 0.29 percent available lysine
and the soybean meal 2.7 percent available lysine. The algebraic method is adaptable to many kinds of
calculations. However, for many of us, algebra is a
So far, the diet looks like this: long forgotten subject; for this reason. the algebraic
method is not very popular.
Barley ?
Wheat 25.0 3. Pierson's Square
Soybean meal ? Pierson's square is an established method that is
Canolameal 10.0 popular due to its simplicity. However, its simplic-
Premix 3.5 ity is also its weakness; it functions well only in
TOTAL 100.0 very simple diets. It is best used in diets containing
only two ingredients. For more complex situations,
Solution: other methods are preferable.

i) With the wheat and canola meal fixed, this diet already
EXAMPLE 1
contains 0.22 percentage (.25 * 0.3 l + .10 * 1.45 = 0.22)
points of available lysine. Thus, the barley and the
soybean meal must provide 0.56% available lysine and do
Problem: Formulate a diet containing 16% crude
so in 61.5 percent of the total mix ( JOO minus 25.0 minus protein, 0.90% calcium and 0.75% phosphorus,
10.0 minus 3.5 -61.5). using barley and a 40% hog supplement.

ii) Let "X" equal the proportion of barley in the diet Solution:
and let "61.5 - X" equal the portion of soybean i) The barley was analysed, and found to contain I 0%
meal in the diet. The amount of available lysine required crude protein, 0.05% calcium and 0.29% phosphorus.
will be 0.56 percent (0.78 minus 0.22). The hog supplement, according to the label, contains
40% crude protein. 4.3% calcium and 2.6% phosphorus.
iii) The amount of available lysine supplied by barley will
be .0029X (Xis the amount of barley and .0029 is the ii) Determine the proportion of barley and supplement
portion of barley that is lysine - that is 0.29%) and the needed to provide 16% crude protein in the final mix,
amount of available lysine supplied by soybean meal will using Pierson's Square.
be .027(61.5-X). Thal is, the amount of available lysine
in soybean meal times the amount of soybean meal in the
diet.

126
Barley 10 24 80% Fortunately, the diet works out, such that the cal-

\/ 16
cium and phosphorus supplied by the supplement
and the barley provides exactly the amounts re-
quired in the final mix. This may not always be the

Supplement 40
/\ 6 20%
case. However, one cannot formulate the diet solely
on the basis of protein and select the amount of
30 supplement so dictated. The feed manufacturer
assumed a certain rate of use when the supplement
Pierson's Square is used as follows. Place the percent was formulated. This add rate will therefore supply
protein adjacent to the ingredient and the desired level in the amino acids, vitamins and minerals required.
the centre of the square. Subtract in the direction of the However, if less or more of the supplement is used,
arrows (i.e. 16 - 10 = 6 and 40 - 16 = 24). Sum these errors in other nutrient levels may result. Thus, the
two values to get 30 (i.e. 24 + 6 = 30). Divide 24 by 30 manufacturer's recommendations for inclusion
to get the percentage barley in the diet and 6 by 30 to get should be followed within 2-3%; if this is not
the same information for the supplement.
acceptable, a special supplement may be required.
This method can, in fact, be used for any nutrient, not
just crude protein. The Pierson square method can be used for some-
what more complicated formulations, as shown by
iii) Now that the proportion of barley and supplement example 2, a diet with three ingredients: barley,
needed to meet the crude protein requirement have been soybean meal and premix.
determined, the next step is to balance for calcium and
phosphorus. This can be accomplished by completing
Table 5-3.
EXAMPLE2

Table 5-3. Diet Composition from Pierson Square Problem: Formulate a diet containing 16 percent
Calculation.
protein, 0.90 percent calcium and 0.75 percent
phosphorus using three ingredients: barley, soybean
Item Barley Supp. Diet meal and premix.

Percent in diet 80 20 100 Solution:

i) The barley has the same analysis as that used above,
Composition, % the soybean meal was analysed and found to contain
calcium 0.05 4.3 46.5% crude protein. 0.25 percent calcium and 0.61
phosphorus 0.29 2.6 percent phosphorus and the premix, according to the
label contains no protein, 26 percent calciwn and 14
percent phosphorus.
Supplied to diet, %
calcium 0.04 0.86 0.90 ii) Set up the Pierson's Square as shown. Since the
phosphorus 0.23 0.52 0.75 premix is added according to the label at the rate of 3
percent of the total mix, then the barley and soybean meal
must be proportioned to supply 16% crude protein in the
total mix, which in effect is diluted 3 percent by the
The calculations go as follows: premix. Thus, the percent crude protein in the
Barley represents 80% of the mix and contains 0.05% barlcy:soybean meal mix must be adjusted upwards by 3
calcium, while the supplement represents 20% of the mix percent. Thus, the 16 percent value in the centre is
and contains 4.3% calcium. The total calcium in the diet adjusted to 16.5 ( 16.0/0. 97 - 16.5).
will therefore be 80 percent of0.05 + 20 percent of 4.3
(.80 x 0.05 + .20 x 4.3 = 0.04 � 0.86 = 0.90). A similar
calculation can be made for phosphorus.

127
Barley 10 30 82.2% three steps in the process: sampling, mixing and/or

�/ 16.5
formulation. It is also possible that an error could
have occurred in the laboratory. For this reason,
samples sent to the lab should be split and a dupli-

Soybean meal 46.5

I\ � 17.8%
cate sample retained for later reference. Some
producers will send duplicate samples to two
laboratories, particularly if a definite answer is
36.5
required and lab error needs to be eliminated.
The proportions for each ingredient relate to the 97% of However, if well-run laboratories are used, lab
the diet that will be barley and soybean meal. They must errors should be minimal.
be adjusted to fit the final diet as follows:
Barley 82.2 x 0.97 = 79.7%
Soybean meal 17.8 x 0.97 = 17.3%

Calculating as above, the formula for the diet will be:

Barley 79.7
Soybean meal 17.3
Premix 3.0
100.0

The calcium content of this diet will be

(.797 x 0.05 + .173 x 0.30 + 0.03 x 26.0) = 0.83 % and
the phosphorus content (.797 x 0.29 + .173 x 0.61 + 0.03
x 14.0) = 0. 76%. These are both close enough to the
expected values.

This approach can be extended, for example, to

situations where both wheat and barley are being
used, by using a composite protein content for the
grains in place of the barley value used above. In
Quality control, that is the actual chemical analysis of
the case of a 50:50 mix of wheat and barley, con- mixed diets, is required to ensure the adequacy of all
taining 13. 5% and 10% protein, respectively, a diets fed to pigs.
value of 11.75% would be used in place of the 10%
value for barley in the above examples.
Collecting samples of diets or ingredients must be
Evaluating Diet Quality done correctly if the analytical results are going to
Once diets have been manufactured, there is only truly reflect the actual composition. Grain should
one way to know if the diet was mixed correctly. A be sampled from a bin using a grain probe, selecting
feed sample must be submitted for chemical analy- no less than 20 subsamples from different locations
sis (crude protein, calcium, phosphorus, salt). The that can be mixed together and submitted as a single
results of the analysis can be compared to the representative sample. If a probe is not available, at
expected values. lf they are within a tolerance least 20 grab samples should be obtained from
range of approximately 5-7% for crude protein (eg: different locations. Care must be taken in sampling
a 16% protein diet should fall within the ranges of below the surface of the standing sample.
15.2 to 16.8%) and 10-15% for minerals such as
calcium, phosphorus and salt, one can be assured of For diets, a minimum of 20 subsamples should be
a job well done. If the results are outside this range colJected from the holding bin or from at least 6
however, there is a problem and the cause must be different feeders in the barn. These should be
determined. lt may have occurred at any of the thoroughly mixed together into a single composite
sample before sending to the lab.

128
 Mixed feed can be sampled from a number of Producers should check the calibration of their
feeders in the barn or as the feed is mixed. The key mill to ensure that no errors have been made and
is to get a truly representative sample of the mate- also the formulas for their diets to ensure that they
rial. Note that if feed is collected from the feeders, are correct. Table 5-5 illustrates how to determine
poor analytical results may be caused by separation the quantity of a nutrient in a diet. The mix size is
during handling and delivery, rather than by mixing first corrected to 100. The nutrients supplied by
or formulation errors. These samples should be each ingredient can then be easily calculated by
thoroughly mixed before submitting them to the lab multiplying the concentration of nutrient in each
to ensure a good representative mix. If separation ingredient by the amount of ingredient in the feed.
is being investigated, then they should not be mixed, The amounts supplied by each ingredient arc added
but sent as individual samples to the lab. together to get the total quantity of nutrient in the
feed.

Table 5-4. Recommended Schedule for Feed Testing on a Farm Manufacturing Three Diets.

Month Sample
Ingredients Feeds
Home Grown Purchased Starter Grower Sow
Jan c c c A
Feb c c A c
Mar c A A c c
Apr c c c A
May c c A c
Jun c A A c c
Jul c c c A
Aug c c A c
Sep A (new crop) A A c c
Oct c c c A
Nov c c A c
Dec c A A c c
C: Collect and retain sample; analyse only if problems are suspected. If there are no problems, retain sample in a
cool, dry, dark location for one year and then discard. In this way, if a problem occurs later, these samples will be
available for use.
A: Collect and analyse. In addition to this, twice a year samples should be selected from three or four different
feeders in each of the three to four sections of the barn. Analyse each sample to determine if separation is occurring.

Table 5-4 provides a recommended schedule for The diet in Table 5-5 is well-balanced with respect
feed sampling and testing on a farm where three to lysine, calcium and phosphorus. Assuming that
diets are being manufactured. The schedule as- unusual ingredients are not used and that the premix
sumes that no problems are detected. If there is a is correctly formulated, if these three nutrients
problem, more intensive testing will be needed (lysine, calcium, phosphorus) are correct, the rest of
until the problem is resolved. the diet will likely be acceptable. It would not be
necessary to check each and every nutrient in the
diet.

129
 If problems in the feed analysis are discovered, it the mill is totally out of calibration and serious
is important to check other sources of error such as errors will result.
sampling or analysis before adjusting the mill. If
mill calibration is the problem recalculate the diet In summary, if one obtains poor results from an
and adjust the mill according to the revised formula. analysis, then the lab, the formula, the mill, the
It is imperative that the mill is not adjusted by 'one delivery system and the method of sampling can all
or two clicks' to compensate for excess protein. If be potential sources of error and should be re-
this practice is common, it will not be long before checked. A flow chart summarizing the above
procedures appears in Figure 5-2.

Table 5-5. Calculation of the Theoretical Nutrient Composition of a Feed.

Ingredient Lysine Calcium Phosphorus

Ingredient Diet Ingredient Diet ingredient Diet
Barley 44.3 0.39 0.173 0.07 0.031 0.29 0.128
Wheat 40.0 0.39 0.156 0.04 0.016 0.34 0.136
Soybean meal 11.0 3. 15 0.347 0.26 0.029 0.60 0.066
Canola meal 1.7 2.02 0.034 0.65 0.011 1.07 0.018
L-lysine HCI 0.2 78.40 0.157
Premix 3.0 26.00 0.780 14.00 0.420

TOTAL 100.0 0.866 0.867 0.769

The diet contains the proportions of ingredients shown expressed as parts per I 00. Example: the lysine supplied by
barley will be 0.443 x 0.39 = 0.173.

HAVE THE DIETS BEEN ANALYSED?

YES ------- NO
I I
ARE THE RESULTS ANALYSE DIETS QUALITY
SATISFACTORY?
I
YES ------- NO
CONTROL
I
REPEAT SAMPLING
I
REPEAT SAMPLING
PROCEDURES
AND ANALYSIS AND ANALYSIS ON THE FARM
NEXT MONTH IMMEDIATELY

r
I
ARE THE RESULTS
SATISF�CTORY? ------,,
'---------
- YES
�----- NO-------,

HAVE THE INGREDIENTS IS THE MILL

BEEN ANALYSED? PROPERLY CALIBRATED?
I I I I
NO YES YES NO
ANALYSE __j
INGREDIENTS
ARE THE DIETS
PROPERLY FORMULATED?
I I
YES NO
I I
REPEAT SAMPLING REFORMULATE DIETS
AND ANALYSIS OF INGREDIENTS
Figure 5-2.

130
Conducting a Feeding Trial 7. Sex is another important factor. ln starter trials,
Producers often need to compare two or more sex can be ignored because there is little difference
feeds in terms of performance and profitability. between barrows and gilts at this age. As they grow
The best way to compare feeds is to conduct a older though, differences in growth rate and carcass
feeding trial in which the growth rate and feed quality emerge.
efficiency of the pigs on various diets can be
compared. The trial must be carried out properly if If the comparison keeps these points in mind, any
the results are to be meaningful. The comparison differences observed in performance will likely be
cannot have biases that might favour one diet over due to diet. Random variation in the performance
another. Provided these precautions are taken, one of pigs does occur. Therefore, consistent differ-
can be reasonably assured that the differences ences between diets arc needed to draw meaningful
observed are due to the diets used in the test and not conclusions. For example, if pigs on diet A grew an
due to an outside influence. The following are average of I 0% faster than pigs on diet B, but three
guidelines that will help ensure an effective out of six individual pens grew fastest on diet A and
comparison: three grew fastest on diet B, the overall I 0% differ-
ence in meaningless and no apparent difference in
l. Split litters among the various diets being tested. the diets exists. If there was an overall difference of
The effect of litter and genetics can be very large. 10% though, and five out of the six individual pens
especially in starter trials. grew faster on diet A, then one can be reasonably
certain that it is a better diet (Table 5-6).
2. Use more than one pen per diet even through it
increases the workload. If only one pen is used, the Ensure diets contain the same medication, espe-
results in favour of one diet or another could very cially when studying starter diets. Performance can
likely be due to chance. For a test to be effective , at be greatly influenced by medication as well as by
least three to four pens per diet are required. make-up of the diet. To compare only the diets,
differences due to medication should be eliminated.
3. Spread the pens on each diet throughout the barn Again, the key to running a proper test is to elimi-
or room. This reduces biases due to pen location. nate or at least minimize all sources of variabil ity
In almost all barns, there are pens that support better other than the factor being evaluated.
performance than others.
Select the pens and the pigs for the feeding trial.
4. Treat all pigs on the diets equally. Factors such Randomly assign pigs to the test pens assuring that
as feeder type, number of pigs per pen, pen size and the average initial weight is constant and that litters
shape, pen flooring material, waterer numbers, type are spread out among pens. If the experiment ends
and location can all have an affect on performance. before the pigs reach 25 kg, do not separate them by
Therefore, the impact of such factors cannot be sex. If older pigs are being used, sex differences
allowed to bias the results of your experiment. start to show up and the number of barrows and
gilts in each pen should be the same. Record the
5. Be sure to compare diets at the same time. total weight of pigs within each pen and randomly
Running one diet at one point in time and the allot diets to the test pens. Add a known amount of
second diet at a later date could result in differences feed to each feeder. As the experiment progresses,
in performance related to season or variable barn continue to add feed as required, keeping records of
environment. how much feed was added to each pen. At the end
of the experiment, weigh all of the pigs and record
6. The average initial weight should be the same the amount of feed left in each feeder. The
for all treatments. Heavier pigs will obviously grow following calculations should be made to help draw
faster but convert feed less efficiently than smaller conclusions:
pigs.

131
 I. final weight of pigs - starting weight of the pigs If differences are small or results are in any way
= total pig gain questionable, repeat the experiment to strengthen
and provide confidence in the results. In all cases,
2. total pig gain + number of pigs remember that bad information is worse than no
= total gain per pig information at all. If the time, money and trouble is
to be invested in an on-farm test, efforts should be
3. total gain per pig+ number of days on test made to carry it out properly.
= average daily gain
Common Calculations and
4. total feed added to feeder - feed left at end of
trial = total feed consumed
Conversions

5. total feed consumed+ number of pigs Converting 'dry matter' values to 'as fed':
= feed consumed per pig
Multiply the dry matter value by percent moisture.
6. feed consumed per pig+ number of days on test
= average daily feed Example 1: Convert dry matter to 'as fed'. A
sample of barley has 11.2% crude protein (CP) on a
7. total feed consumed+ total gain dry matter (DM) basis and contains 10.5%
= feed conversion moisture. Express the percent protein on an as fed
basis.
8. feed cost per tonne+ 1000
= feed cost per kilogram Solution:
If the barley contains I 0.5% moisture, it contains 89.5%
(100-10.5 = 89.5%) dry matter. The amount of protein
9. feed conversion x feed cost per kilogram
on an as fed basis then, is 10.0% (11.2 x 0.895 = 10.0%).
= feed cost per kilogram gain

Example 2:Convert 'as fed' to 'dry matter'. A

sample of barley has 11.0% protein on an as fed
Table 5-6. Examples of Conclusive (Experiment 1)
and Inconclusive (Experiment 2) Test Results, Based basis and contains 10.0% moisture. Express the
on Average Daily Gain {g/pig/day). percent protein on a dry matter basis.

Group Experiment J Experiment 2 Solution:

If the barley contains I 0.0% moisture, it contains 90.0%
Diet A Diet B Diet A Diet B (100-10.5 = 90.0%) dry matter. The amount of protein
on a dry matter basis then is 12.2% (11.0 + 0.90 =
1 441 400 441 100 12.2%).
2 394 380 394 410
3 410 375 410 220
4
Additional Reading and References
411 400 451 401
Agricultural Research Council. 1981. The Nutrient
5 438 401 390 380
6 430 380 440 Requirements of Pigs. Commonwealth Agricultural
523
Average 421 Bureaux, Farnham Royal. 307 pp.
389 421 389

Australian Agricultural Council. 1987. Feeding

Although the average performance on each diet is the Standards for Australian Livestock: Pigs.
same in both experiments, Experiment 2 would not C.S.I.R.0., East Melbourne. 226 pp.
support the conclusion that Diet A is better. Note that in
Experiment 2, Diet A outperformed Diet B only four out
National Research Council. 1988. Nutrient Re-
of six times. In Experiment I, Diet A outperformed Diet
B six out of six times. quirements of Swine, 9th Ed. National Academy
Press, Washington. 93 pp.

132
 6. NUTRITION OF THE BREEDING HERD
Introduction to service interval, a reduction in conception rates
Adequate nutrition of the breeding herd is essen- and a shortened reproductive lifespan. Therefore, it
tial in order to maximize herd productivity and is vital that the diet provided contains sufficient
profit. If one compares the reproductive efficiency quantities of energy, protein, essential fatty acids,
of herds obtaining average productivity with those vitamins and minerals to allow the sow to perform
obtaining higher levels of performance, consider- to its genetic potential.
able room for improvement is evident (Table 6-1 ).
Improvements in genetic quality and housing can Since nutrition is a primary factor influencing
account for some of the variation in reproductive reproductive efficiency, it follows that the
efficiency observed. However, maximum reproduc- establishment ofa successful feeding strategy to
tive efficiency can never be obtained unless the best ensure optimum productivity must be based on a
feeding and management practices are also fol- sound knowledge of the response of the sow to
lowed. specified nutritional inputs. Traditional feeding
strategies often utilized the body reserves of the gilt
Table 6-1. Reproductive Efficiency of Average and and sow to buffer short-term deficits in nutrient
Superior Swine Herds. intake with minimum effect on the fetus or suckling
Typical piglets. However, modern sows, with a lean
Superior
genotype and superior reproductive performance,
Baby Pig Mortality(%) 12 - 18 8 must be managed differently from their counterparts
Weaning to Effective of twenty years ago since they begin their
Mating (Days) 8 - 10 5 reproductive life with fewer body reserves.
Farrowing Rate(%) 78 - 85 90 Therefore, nutritional responses must be considered
Pigs Weaned/Litter 8.5-9.5 10.5 more precisely and a strategy designed to conserve
Litters/Year 2.0-2.3 2.4 body tissue must be employed.
Pigs Weaned/Sow/Year 17 - 22 25.2

Photo 6-1.
Before defining their desired feeding program,
pork producers need to establish goals for their
breeding herd. Typical questions that are relevant
include the genotype, the emphasis on sow
longevity, the type of housing employed (indoor
versus outdoor, group versus individual) and the
nature of the cun-ent sow herd including factors
such as appetite and body condition. Once such
questions are answered, the nature of the feeding
program can be more accurately defined.

Unfortunately, too many producers try to reduce

costs by cutting back on the quality of the diet fed.
This is a grave error as it is well documented that
feeding poor quality diets will adversely affect
reproductive performance. Failure to meet the
nutritional needs of the sow may result in smaller
Jitters, a reduction in piglet birth weight and vigor,
lower milk production, an increase in the weaning Some litters are just too big for one sow to handle.

,/ 133
Feeding and Management of protein supplements during the developmental
Replacement Gilts period to ensure that puberty is not delayed.
However, diets formulated to meet the protein and
Survey data indicate that sow culling rates on
amino acid requirements of slaughter animals will
most commercial swine operations are somewhere
typically provide more than enough protein to allow
between 30 and 50%. As a consequence,
gilts to express their potential in terms of
replacement gilts will constitute a significant
minimizing age at puberty. Therefore, producers
proportion of the breeding females in most swine
should not be unduely concerned about protein
herds and any improvement in their productivity
restriction during this period. A diet formulated to
will have a significant impact on the reproductive
contain 15% crude protein ( 466 g/day)and 0. 7%
performance of the entire herd. Factors influencing
lysine (217 g/day) should be adequate.
gilt productivity include age at successful mating,
ovulation rate at the estrus of mating, first litter size
Diets formulated expecially for replacement gilts
and the ability to be successfully rebred. In far too
should contain higher levels of calcium and
many herds, the gilt is a neglected member of the
phosphorus compared with diets fed to feeder pigs.
breeding herd. However, by the adoption of an
The levels of calcium and phosphorus that result in
appropriate replacement policy and proper gilt
maximum growth rate are not necessarily adequate
management, the overall productivity of any swine
for maximum bone mineralization. Feeding of
enterprise can be markedly improved.
dietary levels of caJcium and phosphorus sufficient
to maximize bone mineralization in gilts during
Feeding Replacement Gilts During the early growth and development have been shown to
Rearing Period improve reproductive longevity in some studies.
Gilts selected to enter the breeding herd will Therefore, dietary calcium and phosphorus
typically have superior growth rates and lower requirements, expressed as a percentage of the diet,
backfat levels than unselected pigs. As a are higher for gilts than for barrows and diets fed to
consequence. it is reasonable to expect their replacement gilts should be formulated to provide a
nutritional requirements to be greater than those of minimum of0.82% calcium (25.4 g/day) and 0.73%
pigs destined for slaughter. In addition, diets phosphorus (22.6 g/day).
formulated to achieve cost-efficient, rapid growth
may not provide sufficient nutrients to prepare the Genetic programs over the past 10-15 years have
gilt for a long and productive breeding life. placed considerable emphasis on selection for
Therefore, where possible, gilts destined to be used leanness in gilts. The effects of these genetic
in the breeding herd should not be fed the same changes, combined with earlier mating, mean that
diets as those fed to market animals. gilts now start their breeding lives with less body
reserves than in the past. This reduction in fat
Nutrition during the rearing period (20-100 kg), reserves could adversely affect the long-term
through its effects on body weight and backfat reproductive performance of genetically improved
levels, can influence the age at which puberty is strains of pigs. Australian workers have observed
attained. Several studies have shown that restrict- that gilts which entered the breeding herd with
ing the feed intake of young growing gilts (50-85% greater fat reserves were retained in the herd longer
of ad libitum intake) will delay the onset of puberty and had a shorter average farrowing interval than
by about IO to 14 days. To ensure that puberty is gilts with less fat reserves. It may therefore be
not delayed, gilts should be fed ad libitum and desireable to encourage potential replacement gilts
receive at least 35 MJ DE/day (8361 kcal/day) to deposit more body fat. Alteration of the lysine/
between selection and mating. energy ratio could achieve this goal.

Severe protein restriction or an amino acid Puberty Induction

imbalance will also significantly delay the age at Age at successful mating is largely dependant on
which a gilt reaches puberty. Therefore, it is the age at which the gilt reaches puberty. The mean
important that producers not cut back on the use of

134
age at puberty for non-stimulated gilts is about 200 With proper stimulation, the mean age of puberty
days of age, with a range of 135 to 250 days. in a herd can be 30 to 40 days earlier than for non-
Canadian data indicate that fewer than I% of gilts, induced gilts. Unfortunately, many producers who
housed and managed under typical commercial have tried boar exposure have been unsuccessful in
rearing conditions, will reach puberty by market inducing early puberty. The reason for their lack of
weight. Therefore, unless special steps are taken to success is probably related to the fact that attain-
induce early puberty. most gilts will have a ment of threshold levels of age and weight arc
prolonged interval between the age at which they prerequisites for successful boar exposure. The
attain market weight and when they are able to be recommended minimum ages and weights for the
successfully bred. The aim of successful commencement of boar exposure are 140 days of
management should be to keep this unproductive age and 70 kg body weight. With modern geno-
time to a minimum. types of swine, age is more likely to be a constraint
than is body weight and therefore it is unlikely that
Although the normal pubertal age of a gilt is gilts fed under commercial conditions will reach
under genetic control, there are various factors that puberty much before 90 kg.
have been shown to delay or advance the age at
which a gilt reaches puberty. Factors known to It is important that if early puberty is induced,
influence the age of puberty include the breed of the gilts not be bred on their first heat as this practice
gilt, the housing conditions under which the gilt is will result in a reduction in litter size. Research has
raised, the lighting regime and the degree of stress shown that an extra one or two pigs per litter can be
experienced by the gilt (mixing and relocation). As obtained by waiting until the second or third heat
a consequence, most producers could take steps to before breeding replacement gilts. With induction
reduce the average age of puberty in their herd. of puberty at 150 days of age, gilts gaining weight
at a rate of 800 g/day should reach the desireablc
The most potent stimulus for inducing early breeding weight of 115-125 kg by their third estrus
puberty in gilts is boar exposure. Fence line contact (192 days). Target backfat levels at mating are 17-
is not adequate as there must be direct physical 20 mm.
contact between the boar and the gilt. The best
response is obtained by taking the gilt to the boar A major concern of many pork producers is that if
pen, not vice versa. This is likely due to the fact gilts are bred at too light a weight and with too little
that boar odors are stronger in the boar pen provid- backfat, the gilts will have a shortened reproductive
ing a greater degree of stimulation for the gilt. lifespan. However, recent research has shown that
However, in order to stimulate puberty, the gilt must this need not be the case. Lean gilts provide a
be placed in the boar pen at least 20-30 minutes a challenge to the producer, but if managed properly,
day, usually for a minimum of IO consecutive days. acceptable performance can be expected from gilts
induced to reach early puberty.

Photo 6-2.
Feeding Replacement Gilts Prior to
Breeding
Ovulation rate is the principle factor limiting litter
size in gilts and there is a great deal of experimental
evidence showing that increasing the level of feed
intake during the rearing period will significantly
increase ovulation rate at puberty. lt is also well
established that short-term, high level feeding
(flushing) during the first estrus cycle increases
[la...... ovulation rate compared with gilts fed restricted
The most potent stimulus for inducing early puberty in amounts of feed. Dutch researchers have suggested
gills is boar exposure. that ovulation rate increases by about two ova in

135
response to increased feed intake during the 14-day Table 6.2. Influence Of Feeding Level Following
period immediately prior to ovulation. As a conse- Mating On Embryo Survival in Gilts.
quence, should feed intake be restricted for any
Low Energy High Energy
reason during the rearing period, special precautions
(22.9 MJ/day) (40.5 MJ/day)
should be taken to ensure that gilts are ad lib fed (at
least 3 kg/day) for the two week period prior to Ovulation Rate 12.3 13.8
mating. Number of Embryos 9.7 10. I
Embryo Survival (%) 78.3 73.2
Flushing has been shown to increase plasma
levels of FSH and increase the pulse frequency of Adapted from den Hartog and van Kempen, 1980, Neth.
J. Agric. Sci. 28: 211-227.
LI-I suggesting that flushing enhances ovulation rate
by stimulating the secretion of gondotrophins. The
increase in gonadotrophin secretion is thought to be
The principle mechanism controlling the
mediated through plasma levels of insulin and
development of embryos and their subsequent
insulin-like growth factor- I (lGF-1). The increase
survival is the secretion of uterine specific proteins.
in ovulation rate likely occurs either as result of
These proteins are stimulated by ovarian steroid
increased follicle recruitment or a reduction in
hormones, particularly progesterone. A rise in
atresia.
progesterone early in pregnancy enhances the
uterine environment and makes it more supportive
Feeding Gilts Following Mating.
of the embyro. Increased gestation feed intakes
It has been determined that approximately 30% of
have been shown to be associated with a decrease in
all potentially viable embryos die during the first 25
plasma progesterone concentration as a result of
days of gestation. High levels of feed intake
increased metabolic clearance of progesterone
following mating have traditionally been associated leading to a subsequent reduction in embryo
with an increase in embryo mortality. As a survival (Table 6-3).
consequence, it is usually recommended that feed
intake be restricted to approximately 2.3 kg/day
following mating. However, more recent evidence Table 6-3. Effect of Feed Level in Early Gestation on
suggests that the practise of feed restriction to Plasma Progesterone Levels and Embryo Survival
reduce embryo mortality may not necessarily result
in an increased litter size. Feed Level Embryo Survival Plasma
Progesterone
Most of the research which has shown an increase Concentration
in embryo mortality, as a result of higher feed (kg/day) (%) (ng/ml)
intakes early in gestation, has involved an increase
in feed intake at or very soon after mating. Such a 1.50 82.8 16.7
practise would increase ovulation rate and this 2.25 78.6 13.8
increase per se may lead to an increased embryo 3.00 71.9 11.8
mortality since higher ovulation rates are commonly
associated with higher embryo loss. The higher Dyck et al., 1980, Can. J. Anim. Sci. 60: 877-884.
ovulation rate followed by a higher embryo loss
produces a similar number of embryos (and pre- Recent data from the University of Alberta
sumably piglets) to that obtained from gilts fed at a suggest that the first 72 hours after mating may be
lower level (Table 6-2). of critical importance in determining the effect of
feeding level on embryo loss. Increasing feed
intake from 1.8 to 2.5 kg/day during the first 72
hours of gestation significantly increased embryo
mortality whereas increasing feed intake after 72
hours did not increase embryo mortality. The

136
increased mortality in the first 72 hours was associ- during this period of rapid mammary growth
ated with a 10 hour delay in the normal rise in impairs development of the mammary gland in gilts
plasma progesterone. As noted earlier, a rise in and should be avoided.
progesterone, early in pregnancy, enhances the
uterine environment and makes it more supportive Summary of Replacement Gilt Feeding
of the embyro. Diets fed to potential replacement gilts should
contain 3100 kcal D.E./kg, I 5% crude protein,
Clearly more research is needed on the effect of 0.7% lysine, 0.82% calcium and 0.73% phosphorus
feed intake in early gestation on gilt productivity. and be fed ad libitum from the time of selection
However, given the current state of our ignorance, (50-60 kg) until needed for breeding. Gilts selected
producers would be wise to continue the practise of for mating should have experienced at least two
restricted feeding early in gestation, particularly heat cycles, weigh 115-125 kg and have 17-20 mm
during the first 72 hours following mating. of backfat. If feed intake is restricted for any
reason during the rearing period, special precautions
High feed intakes late in gestation may also be should be taken to ensure that gilts are ad lib fed (at
detrimental to gilt productivity as they affect the least 3 kg/day) for the two week period prior to
development of the mammary gland. In swine, total mating. For the first 72 hours following mating,
mammary DNA can be used as an estimate of feed intake should be restricted to less than 2.5 kg/
mammary cell number and development. Minimal day.
development of the mammary gland occurs between
mating and day 50 of gestation. The period of
maximal mammary development occurs between
day 70 and 105. During this time, a threefold
increase in mammary tissue occurs as measured by
total mammary DNA. Recent research at Michigan
State University has shown that a high level of
clietary energy during this critical period of mam-
mary development reduced total marnmary
parenchymal DNA (Table 6.4).

Table 6.4. Effect of Energy Intake (day 75 to 105 of

Gestation) on Mammary Development in Gilts.

Adequate Energy High Energy

(5.76 Meal/day) ( I 0.5 Meal/day)

Total DNA (mg) 3.22 2.48

Total RNA (mg) 4.07 3.09 Selecting very lean gilts for the breeding herd provides a
Total Protein (g) .16 0.10 special chaJlenge to the producer. However, if managed
Wt of Paren- properly, lean gilts can become very productive members
chymal Tissue (g) l.12 0.88 of the breeding herd.

Weldon et al., 1991, J. Anim. Sci. 69: l 94-200.

Feeding the Sow During Gestation

This reduction in DNA reflects a reduced mam- Introduction
mary cell number and may reduce the amount of The key to successful sow feeding is built around
milk produced by the sow during lactation available the broad principle of generous feeding during
for nourishment of the offspring. Therefore, it lactation and strict rationing during gestation. There
would appear that feeding a high level of energy is now general agreement that 1.8 to 2.7 kg of feed

137
per day (20 to 33 MJ/day) is satisfactory for preg- that as the level of feed intake during gestation
nant sows housed under reasonable environmental increases, the level of feed intake during lactation
conditions when free of heavy parasite infestation decreases (see Table 6-23). Consequently, sows fed
and individually fed. Increasing the feed intake of high levels offeed during gestation will eat less
sows above this level would appear to be of little during their subsequent lactation and will start to
benefit. deplete their body reserves. Restricting feed intake
during gestation will prevent this loss of body
The effect of increasing feed intake during condition and may help to prolong the sow's repro-
gestation on subsequent litter size is shown in ductive lifespan.
Figure 6-1. It is evident that above a threshold
level, there is a wide range of feed intake over Methods of Restricting Feed Intake of Sows
which there is little effect on the number of piglets During Gestation
born. At higher levels of intake the sow may Various management systems have been used
become overfat and litter size may decrease. successfully to limit the energy intake of sows
11 during gestation. These include:
-Hand feeding using gestation stalls
-Computer controlled feeding stations
-Slow feeding systems
-Self-closing individual stalls
-Skip a day feeding
-Self feeding a high fibre ration
7
10 20 30 40 50 Gestation Stalls
0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0
Individual daily feeding, utilizing gestation stalls,
MJ DE/Day
KG Feed/Day provides the greatest control over the feed intake of
the sow and is the method of choice for most
Figure 6-1. Effects of Feed Intake During Pregnancy
producers. Use of gestation stalls provides the
on Sow Productivity.
greatest control over the feed intake of the sow as
each sow can be fed to condition resulting in a
Increasing feed intake during gestation will also reduction in feed costs. In addition, the elimination
dramatically increase sow weight gain but has very of fighting reduces prenatal losses.
little effect on the birth weight of the newborn pig.
Since these high levels of intake are not improving Unfortunately, the increased cost of gestation
litter size or bi rth weight, considerable saving in stalls makes the system unattractive to many pro-
feed costs can be achieved by restricting the feed ducers and animal welfare groups have directed
intake of sows in gestation. criticism at them as well. Unless an automatic
feeding system is used, the gestation stall system is
A reduction in feed costs is not the only benefit very labor intensive. Furthermore. it has been
from restricting the feed intake of sows during suggested that digestive upset (ulcers, twisted gut) is
gestation. There is some evidence that embryonic worse in sows housed in gestation crates. There-
survival and thus litter size may be increased by fore, alternative methods of restricting feed intake
restricting the level of intake during gestation. In have been sought by some producers.
addition, farrowing difficulties may be reduced and
fewer piglets may be crushed by the sow. Electronic Sow Feeders
The electronic sow feeder has recently been
Many producers believe that providing high levels introduced into Canada, following earlier experi-
of feed during gestation will maintain the sow in ences in Europe. With this technique. 40 sows can
good body condition. However, research has shown be fed using a single feeding station. The amount

138
of feed that a sow gets each day is programmed into Use of an electronic sow feeder does not appear
the computer. When it enters the station, the trans- to have any detrimental effects on sow perform-
ponder the sow carries causes small portions of feed ance. In a British study. conception rate, litter size
to be released. While the sow is eating, it is pro- and the incidence of farrowing problems were
tected from other sows by a special crate which similar for sows fed using an electronic feeder and
ensures that they cannot steal her feed. those housed under more traditional systems of
management (Table 6-5).
In essence, this system allows sows to be group
housed but individually fed. The systems most
attractive features are that it allows the use of Table 6-5. Comparison of Sows Fed with Electronic
Sow Feeders or in Gestation Stalls.
inexpensive, non-specialized buildings to house
sows during gestation and produces a daily report Gestation Electronic
on sow feed consumption. Electronic sow feeders
Stalls Sow Feeders
also find favor with animal welfare enthusiasts
because they are compatible with straw bedding and Number of Herds 485 27
allow the sow the chance to exercise. Litters/Sow/Year 2.3 2.3
Pigs/Sow/Year 21.8 21.9
Sows which are placed on the electronic feeder Feed/Sow/Year (tonnes) 1.19 1.22
establish a regular feeding cycle. The more Sow Replacements(%) 19.3 15.9
dominant sows eat first and the more timid sows Sow Mortality(%) 2.0 1.9
wait until later in the cycle. The computer system
allows the daily ration to be divided between a MLC Pig Yearbook, 1989
number of feedings, but most sows consume all of
their daily allotment in one 12-15 minute feeding.
It must be pointed out that electronic sow feeders
If a sow which has already had its full ration returns
to the station, no further feed is dispensed. are not completely fool-proof. Some sows have
learned that repeated banging of the feeding station
It does not appear difficult to train sows to use the can dislodge a small amount of feed which will not
be accounted for on the computer printout. Regular
electronic feeder. One trial conducted in Britian
indicated that 50% of sows required no training, calibration is also necessary in order to correct for
differences in density between successive batches of
while a further 27% required only one assisted visit
to the feeding station in order to adapt to the feed. In addition, collars and ear tags can be lost
thereby preventing a sow from feeding.
system. The majority of sows seem to learn to use
the electronic feeding system within four days
although there may be a few sows which never Many producers have expressed concerns about
adapt and must be culled. the possibility of sows fighting during mixing and
while queuing at the feed station. However, in most
Photo 6-3. cases, the large area available for avoidance and
escape has meant that aggression has not been a
problem and in fact, sows using the system are
extremely docile. Vulva biting has been one of the
more persistent problems, prompting modifications
in design. If other problems develop, it may be
because the feeder has been incorrectly located. rt
is important that the feeding station be sited to
allow free movement about the entry and exit
points. The feeder should be placed in an activity/
dunging area rather than a lying area as incorrect
Sows housed outdoors require additional feed, especially siting results in sows lying at the station entrance
in cold, damp weather.
��������������

139
and blocking the access of other sows to the feeder. In the systems tested, feed was supplied twice a
At this time, it is suggested that straw bedding and day from a volume dispenser and poured into a
not slatted floors be used in conjunction with container with a small mortar in the bottom. The
electronic feeding. speed at which the mortar turns dictates the amount
of feed dispensed. The dosing speed has been
It is important to emphasize that electronic sow investigated in relation to leftover feed and aggres-
feeders are not a replacement for good manage- sive behavior (Table 6-6). The faster the feed is
ment. Sow condition must still be monitored and dispensed, the less aggression develops and the less
adjustments to daily allotment made. Depending on likely it is that sows will move away from their own
the system employed, heat detection and repeat troughs. Howver, the amount of leftover feed
breeders can become a serious problem. increases. A dispensing speed of JOO to 120 g per
minute is recommended when pelleted feed is fed.
Slow Feeding Systems (Biofix System)
Slow feeding systems are not presently available In general, the slow feeding system works well.
in Canada but have been tested in the Netherlands. The advantages of the system are that the sows can
Slow feeding systems dispense a continuous supply be checked during feeding and that they can learn
of a small amount of feed at a predetermined rate. the system without any assistance. A disadvantage
The feed supply must be fast enough to prevent is that the sows cannot be fed according to their
sows from looking anywhere but their own troughs individual requirements.
for feed. On the other hand, the dispensing speed
must be slow enough that even the most reluctant Self-closing Individual Stalls (Woldrix System)
eater can keep up with the feed dispensed. In this With self-closing individual stalls, it is possible to
way, all animals in a group will finish eating at the have sows housed as a group and yet feed them
same time. This prevents the sows from fightng for temporarily as individuals. The sow pen contains a
leftover feed. This so called biological fixation sufficient number of feeders to allow each sow to
makes it unnecessary to lock up the sows in the eat individually as well as communal lying and
feeding station. A simple 40-45 cm wide partition dunging areas. A slotted floor is situated at the
between the troughs is sufficient to keep the sows back of the pen and the sows have free access to all
contrained (Figure 6.2). of the feeding stalls at all times except during

PEN HOLDS SIX SOWS

[
GRID
SOLID
FLOOR
[ -- - HEATED - =GRID::::

[ TROUGH=

Figure 6.2. Diagram of Slow Feeding System for Sows.

140
feeding (Figure 6.3). When feeding starts, the These systems have been tested in the Netherlands
entrance to each stall is locked automatically when since 1988. During and after feeding, there are very
the sow pushes her head against the trough lid. The few signs of aggression between sows. However,
stalls can also be locked manually by the stockman reproductive data is not yet available to allow a
as it is important that the entrance to each individual comparison of the system with more traditional
pen be locked immediately after a sow enters to methods of sow housing.
prevent other sows from bullying them and driving
them away from the feeder. The feed required for The Hurnick-Morris Housing System
each feeding place is stored in a volume dispenser This system was developed as a result of a
and feed is poured into all the troughs at the same cooperative study between the University of Guelph
time by the dispenser. Once all sows have con- and the Ridgetown College of Agricultural
sumed their feed, the doors can be unlocked and the Technology. In the system tested, five pens are
sows are free to wander back to the dunging area. located across the midsection of the barn (Figure
6.4). Each pen is 1 .6 x 6.6 meters in size and six
sows can be housed in each pen, providing
approximately 2 square meters per sow. Computer-
self closing
controlled entrance and exit gates are located at the
1----1sHal�
t end of each pen. Two water drinkers are located
near the exit gates. Two boar pens with space for a
breeding area are located adjacent to the group sow
walking area
and c:::¢> pens. Along the walls of the barn is a 1.2 m
dunging area alleyway for approaching and departing the feeding
� trough compartments. The slatted areas extend along the
walkways and approximately 1.8 m into the pens at
the drinking/dunging end of the pens. The
remainder of the pen floor is solid and is suitable
for use with bedding.
� water
supply

Figure 6-3. Diagram of Woldrix Feeding System for

Sows.

Table 6-6. The Influence of Dispensing Speed on the Behaviour and Feed Intake of Sows Using the Slow
Feeding System.

Dispensing Speed (g/minute)

<80 81-100 101-120 121-140 141-160 161-180

Changes in Feeding Places 4.2 2.5 0.9 1.6 0.6 0.6

Aggressive Interactions 2.0 1.1 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6
Feed Remainders
-none(%) 96 97 84 81 75 60
-a little(%) 3 2 13 15 14 15
-a lot(%) 3 4 11 25

Hoofs, 1990, Pig Production Trends for the l 990's pp 14-23.

141
 minutes. After this exercise period, the crowd gate
slowly advances, the sows return to their pen and
the entry gate closes. The sequence repeats for each
successive pen of pigs until all sows are fed. Dur-
ing the exercise period, each sow has the opportu-
nity to vist the boars at the front partition of the
boar pen. Interrogating antenna are also located on
the boar pens to recognize sows that are spending
time with the boar. Future development of this
aspect is to use the computer as a tool to assist the
manager in detecting sows in estrus.

cf Preliminary data indicate that sows adjust to this

BREEDING ��
cf :ta:
�<
system relatively quickly. Reproductive perform-
ance has been at least equal to and in some cases
"' • ...,w
<!!? better than sows reared in conventional individual
•
t-
WALKWAY TO z :t (.)
za:
•
(!)W
FEEDING z� a:w gestation stalls.
COMPARTMENTS -t- ��
Oa:
�I:tlu.. �, • t-o
wz
�o,
"' o
•
•
a:< Skip-a-day Feeding Programmes
A small proportion of swine producers do not
confine their breeding herd, but instead run their
OFFICE AREA
sows outside in small groups. When sows are
housed in groups and the total feed given to the
Figure 6.4. Diagram of Hnrnick-Mnrrls System for group is reduced, boss sows will continue to eat to
Gestating Sows. appetite, leaving considerably less feed for the more
timid sows. This results in a large variation in the
body condition of the sow herd. Therefore, interval
The feeding station consists of six individual feeding has been suggested as a method of limit
feeding compartments. Each compartment is fitted feeding sows housed outdoors in groups.
with an interogating antenna near the feeding trough
which functions to identify individual sows. The With interval feeding, sows are permitted access
sows are fitted with passive transducers. Each to a self feeder on a predetermined schedule. A
sow's identification is transferred to the system's common procedure is to allow sows free access to
computer for proper proportioning and delivery of the self-feeder for eight hours during each of three
feed. Sows are fed three times a day, but this can days of the week. Sows have access to water but no
vary depending on the objectives of the manager. feed during the remaining four days of the week.
At feeding time, the computer activates and opens During one eight hour period, a sow may consume
the exit gate to the first pen of sows. and the sows 5-6 kg of feed, but if they only have access to the
quickly move to the individual feeding compart- feeder three days of the week, total weekly feed
ments. Once in the compartments, the exit gate consumption will only be I 5 to 18 kg. When
closes and the sows are identified by the computer divided by seven days, this averages to 2. l or 2.6 kg
and fed according to their respective needs. Upon of feed on a daily basis. ff consumption is too high,
completion of feeding, the sows are released the sow can be limited to less than eight hours
through the front gates of the feeders and the entry access to the feeder per day.
gate to their pen opens.
One major requirement of the skip-a-day system
Some sows will quickly return to their pen for a is that adequate feeder space be provided. One
drink while others will roam, investigate and social- feeder space should be provided for each sow in the
ize either in the pen or the alleyway for I 0-20 group. ln addition, a careful eye should be kept on

142
the condition of the sows to ensure that they are not The size of the sow or gilt is going Lo affect the
being left for either too long or too short a time on level of feed required. The heavier the sow, the
the self-feeder. greater the maintenance requirement and the greater
the amount of feed required. Energy requirements
Sows adjust readily to this system and from all increase by about 5% for each IO kg increase in
research data, there appears to be no reduction in body weight. The condition of the sow is another
reproductive performance as a result of interval factor determining the feeding level required during
feeding. Most research indicates that sows fed on a gestation. A thin sow will have less thermal
skip-a-day program farrow and wean a similar insulation than will a fat sow. Therefore, it will be
number of piglets as sows fed every day. However, less able to adjust to lower environmental
no data on the success of this system is available for temperatures. As a consequence, a thin sow will
herds weaning nine or more pigs per litter. For require a larger increase in feed at a lower
intensive pork production, skip-a-day programs temperature than will a sow in good condition.
would not be recommended due to a lack of control
over individual sows and also to concerns about the The environment in which the sow is housed
welfare of such systems. should also be taken into consideration when feed
allowances are being set. Sows housed at lower
Diet Dilution environmental temperatures require more feed than
A fourth method of restricting energy intake is to sows housed in their comfort zone. The energy in
dilute the diet with a high fibre ingredients so that the excess feed is used to produce heat to enable the
the sows may have constant access to the self-feeder. sow to maintain a constant body temperature. For
Alfalfa hay, alfalfa meal, chopped straw or oat hulls individually housed sows, the lower critical
have been utilized. This system takes less labour temperature (temperature below which feed must be
than the other methods of limit feeding but is the used to produce heat) is about 16- l 8°C. lf the
least acceptable because it costs more to maintain the environmental temperature drops below this level,
sow and it is difficult to prevent sows from getting feed intake should be increased by 3-4% for every
fat, even though the energy content of the feed is I °C below the lower critical temperature. Sows
lower. In addition. there are problems associated housed in wet or drafty conditions wilJ also require
with grinding high fibre feeds and such feeds tend to increased feed.
bridge in the self-feeder. Therefore, the use of high
fibre feeds to limit the energy intake of sows during Sows which are housed and fed in groups com-
gestation is not recommended. pete with each other for the available feed. There
may be considerable inequality in the feed intake of
Factors Affecting the Required Feeding individual sows. Therefore, sows which are fed in
Level During Gestation groups should be given feed allowances which are
Although there are many advantages to restricting about 15% above that of sows fed individually.
intake during gestation, it must be emphasized that This will ensure that those sows which are domi-
the actual feeding level will vary according to nated by others receive feed intakes that are suffi-
individual situations and animals. Factors that cient to prevent reproductive failure.
should be considered when determining individual
feeding levels include the: The health of the herd is also going to affect the
- size of the gilt or sow feeding level required during gestation. The effect
- condition of the sow of a disease burden is difficult to quantify in nutri-
- method of housing tional terms, but represents an important influence
- environment provided on the utilization offeed. For example, sows
- method of feeding infected with worms may actually lose weight
- health of the herd through gestation and produce smaller litters. This
- productivity level emphasizes the importance of monitoring for
- standard of management. worms and deworming when necessary.

143
Feeding Pattern Throughout Pregnancy weight during pregnancy will enter lactation with
It is often suggested that the nutrient requirements low body stores of fat which will adversely affect
of pregnant sows are higher in early pregnancy the ensuing lactation and increase the interval
when the embryos are being implanted and during between weaning and successful mating. An
the last third of pregnancy when the fetuses are example of the components of gestation weight gain
growing very rapidly. As logical as this may appear is given in Table 6-8.
in theory, several large scale experiments have
shown that the performance of sows fed a constant
Table 6-8. Components of Gestational Weight Gain.
level of feed throughout pregnancy is as good as
that achieved by increasing feed intake in early or Piglets ( 11 at 1.3 kg) 13.9 kg
late gestation (Table 6-7). Since a constant level of Membranes 2.5 kg
feeding does not impair reproductive efficiency, its Uterine Fluids 2.0 kg
simplicity should make it the method of choice. Uterus 3.2 kg
Udder 3.4 kg
Sow 20.0 kg
Table 6-7. Effect of Feeding Level During Last 23
Days of Gestation on Reproductive Performance. 45.0 kg

Feed Intake (kg/day)

Up to about the fifth litter, sows should gain ap-
1.8 3.2
proximately a total of 45 - 50 kg during gestation.
Pigs Born Alive 9.9 10.1 This allows for 20 - 25 kg net weight gain by the sow
Birth Weight (kg) 1.4 1.4 and 25 kg for fetal tissues. After the fifth litter, a 25
Pigs Weaned ( day 21) 8.3 8.5 kg total gain (0 kg net weight gain) during gestation is
Weaning Weight (kg) 5.3 5.4 sufficient. Sows which are gaining just over 0.4 kg
Survival Rate(%) 84.8 84.7 per day (0.2 after 5th parity) will obtain the desired
Returns to Estrus (days) 5.7 5.7 weight gain during the gestation period.

Cromwell et al., 1989, J. Anim. Sci. 67: 3-14. Condition scoring uses a combination of visual as-
A cooperative research study involving 8 research sessment of the sow's general appearance and an esti-
stations and I 080 Litters. mation of its body fat reserves to arrive at a number
or score. The chart in Fiqure 6-5 provides illustra-
tions as well as descriptions of the five body condi-
Evaluating Your Feeding Program During tion classifications into which sows are grouped.
Gestation Body fat is estimated by applying firm finger pres-
Since there are so many factors affecting the level sure over the top-rear (H-bones) of the pelvic girdle
of feed to be fed during gestation, producers are (Figure 6-5). The amount of fat is judged by estimat-
advised to evaluate their feeding program to ensure ing the degree of difficulty involved in locating and
that satisfactory levels of intake are being main- palpating these structures. It should take no longer
tained. Two methods are available, one is to weigh than three seconds to feel the H-bones with the fin-
sows to ensure adequate but not excessive weight gertips. If it takes longer than this, the sow should be
gain and the second is to employ condition scoring. rated either a four or a five.
The former is labour intensive, but objective. The
second requires less labour, but is subjective and The first step in assessing the adequacy of your
therefore must be managed well to be successfuJ. feeding program is to obtain an average score for
the dry sows in the entire herd. If the average is less
The gilt or sow should gain weight during preg- than three, then the daily feeding allowance should
nancy to compensate for the weight of the litter and be increased. If the average score is greater than
fetal membranes as well as to allow for a normal three, a decrease is necessary. Table 6-9 indicates
increase in sow body weight. Animals losing how much feed allowances should be altered based
on the average condition score of the herd.

144
Table 6-9. Feed Allowances For Dry Sows According Energy
To Body Condition Score. For the gestating sow, energy is required for
maintenance, growth of maternal tissue and growth
Condition Score Change in Feed of the fetus. The maintenance energy requirement
(kg) is dependant on the size of the sow and has been
estimated to be approximately 110 kcal DE/kg 75 per
1.0 + 0.60
day and represents in excess of 75% of a sow's
1.5 + 0.40
daily energy requirement. To calculate maintenance
2.0 + 0.30
energy requirements, one must know the weight of
2.5 + 0.20
the sow at breeding and the expected weight gain
3.0 0.00
during gestation in order to calculate the average
3.5 - 0.20
weight of the sow during gestation. The traditional
4.0 - 0.30
thumb rule has been to target for 20-25 kg of
4.5 - 0.40
maternal weight gain and 20 kg of reproductive
5.0 - 0.60
tissue per parity at least up until the 5th parity when
mature body size is achieved. Table 6-10 converts
Froese, 1987, Manitoba Agriculture Swine Fact Agdex
actual body weight (BW) to metabolic body weight
No. 440-22-40.
(BW 75) A calculator that has a yx key can also be
used.
Nutrients Required During Gestation
Based on the foregoing discussion, it can be The energy requirement for maternal growth is set
concluded that the provision of a high quality diet is by the desired body weight gain during gestation.
essential for sows during gestation. Such a diet is The energy cost per kg of maternal gain is
necessary in order to provide adequate levels of approximately 5 Meal of DE/kg. Therefore, the
nutrients to allow for fetal growth, growth of the energy cost/day for a sow with a net weight gain of
uterus and mammary glands and body growth as 25 kg in a 114 gestation period is 1.10 Meal of DE
well as replenishment of the sow's body reserves (125 Meal+ 114 days). The daily energy
depleted during the previous lactation. Therefore, requirement for the growth of the conceptus has
producers are encouraged to conduct a feed analysis been estimated at 0.19 Meal of DE resulting in a
to confirm that the diet being fed meets the gestat- total energy cost/day of 1.29 Meal of DE.
ing sow's requirements.

Table 6-10. Metabolic Body Weights of Sows and Maintenance Energy Requirements.

Parity Body Weight Body Weight Average Body Metabolic Body Maintenance Energy
at Start (kg) at Finish (kg) Weight(kg) Weight (kg·75) Required (Meal/day)

Gilt 120 165 142.5 41.2 4.53

I 145 190 167.5 46.6 5.12
2 170 215 192.5 51.6 5.68
3 195 240 217.5 56.6 6.23
4 220 265 242.5 61.4 6.76
5 245 290 267.5 66. l 7.27
6+up 270 290 280 68.4 7.52

145
 - -

I. POOR - Hips and backbone are prominant

2. MODERATE - Hips and backbone are easily felt without applying palm pressure
3. GOOD - Hips and backbone can only be felt with firm palm pressure
4. VERY GOOD - Hips and backbone cannot be felt
5. FAT - Hips and backbone arc heavily covered

Figure 6-5. Guides to Condition Scoring Sows, Including Photographs of Representative Animals.

146
Table 6-11. Energy Requirements of Sows (Estimated) During Gestation.

Average Gestation Body Weight'

142.5 kg 217.5 kg 270 kg
Energy Required (Meal/day)
Maintenance! 4.53 6.23 7.32
Gestation Weight Gain3 1.29 1.29 0.19
Total 5.82 7.52 7.51
Feed Required/day (kg)" 1.84 2.38 2.38
IAssumes breeding weights of 120, 195 and 260 kg with maternal weight gains of 45, 45 and 20 kg.
2Thc sows daily maintenance requirement is 110 kcal of DE/kg BW75
3The requirement for gestation weight gain is 1.10 Meal of DE/day for maternal tissue plus 0.19 of DE/kg for

eonceptus gain.
"Assuming diet contains 3, 150 kcal DE/kg. Allowance should be increased by 300 to 400 kcal for every 5°C below
critical temperature ( I 6°C).

Table 6-11 demonstrates how to calculate the in order to maintain constant conditions. This is
daily energy requirements under three different called the maintenance requirement and this loss has
conditions. The first column calculates the energy been estimated in a number of experiments which
requirements for a gilt bred at 120 kg and gaining have been averaged to produce the numbers in
45 kg during gestation. The 2nd column shows the Table 6-12.
calculation for a 4th parity sow being bred at 195
kg and gaining 45 kg during gestation while the The amino acid requirements for growth of
lastcolumn shows a mature sow bred at 270 kg and maternal tissue can be calculated from the amino
gaining only 20 kg (reproductive tissue only) during acid content of pork. The best available estimates
gestation. However, using the values above, pro- of the protein content of pork suggest a value of
ducers can calculate daily energy requirements for 15.3%. Therefore. a sow gaining 45 kg (25 kg
any sow under any conditions. Dividing these maternal and 20 kg reproductive tissue) during a
energy levels by the energy content of the feed will 115 day gestation will be depositing 59.86 g of
provide an estimate of the daily feed intake required protein per day (6885 g/115 days). By multiplying
to provide this level of energy (i.e., 5.82 Meal+ 3.2 this value by the amino acid content of lean tissue,
Meal/kg diet= 1.8 kg feed/day). one can calculate the required level of a specific
amino acid needed on a daily basis. It has been
Amino Acids estimated that amino acids used for growth and the
Amino acids are needed during pregnancy to products of conception are used at an efficiency of
replace those lost through obligatory sloughing or 63.5% and we can assume that the gestation diet is
metabolism, to develop the pregnant uterus and its about 80% digestible. Under these circumstances,
contents, to develop the mammary gland as well as the value derived from multiplying the amount of
to add protein to the maternal body. The amounts protein deposited daily by the sow by the amino
of the indispensable amino acids needed during acid content of lean tissue must be divided by a
pregnancy can be estimated by summing the factor of .508 (63.5% efficiency x 80% digestion)
amounts needed for maintenance and for maternal to arrive at the daily amino acid pattern required for
protein accretion. growth and reproductive tissue. A mature sow (ie
one no longer gaining maternal tissue) will only
During gestation. there is a continous sloughing of gain 20 kg during gestation and therefore the daily
cells from tissues such as the skin and intestinal protein deposition will be only 26.6 g/day (3060 gl
mucosa. These represent obligatory losses of amino 115 days). For example calculations of the daily
acids from the body and this loss must be replaced amino acid requirements sec Table 6-13.

147
Table 6-12. Daily Amino Acid Requirements for Maintenance of Gestating Sows (g/day).

Sow Weight at Mating (kg) 120 195 260

Sow Weight at farrowing (kg) 165 240 280
Average Metabolic Weight (kg·1s) 41.24 56.63 68.44

Amino Acids
Required for
Maintenance (mg/kg75)1 Amino Acid Required (g/day)

Arginine O
Histidine O
Isoleucine 30 1.23 1.69 2.05
Leucine 20 0.82 1.13 1.37
Lysine 25 1.03 1.41 1.71
Total Sulfur Amino Acids 26 1.07 1.47 1.78
Total Aromatic Amino Acids 46 1.89 2.60 3.14
Threonine 39 1.61 2.20 2.66
Tryptophan 5 0.21 0.28 0.34
Valine 21 0.87 1.19 1.43

'Based on Baker et al ( 1966; J. Nutr. 88: 382-396) and Baker and Allee (1970; J. Nutr, 100: 277-280).

Table 6-13. Daily Amino Acid Reqirements {g/day) for Growth of Gestating Sows (Growth and Products of
Conception).

Amino Acid Content Estimated Gestation Gain of Sow

of Lean Tissue (% )2 20 kg (26.6 g/day) 45 kg (59.86 g/day)1

Arginine 6.71
Histidine 4.29 2.24 5.03
Isoleucine 4.32 2.26 5.07
Leucine 7.38 3.85 8.68
Lysine 7.90 4.13 9.29
Total Sulfur 3.32 1.73 3.89
Total Aromatic 7.48 3.91 9.17
Threonine 4.16 2.16 4.90
Tryptophan 1.01 0.51 1.18
Valine 5.10 2.65 6.00

'Numbers in brackets indicate daily protein deposition (g)

2
Adapted from Speer ( 1990; J. Anim. Sci. 68: 553-56 I)

148
 To calculate the total daily amino acid The above example likely provides more detail
requirements of sows in gestation, one must sum the than would be required by the average producer and
maintenance requirement and the requirement for it would be virtually impossible to provide a diet
growth. Table 6-14 demonstrates how to calculate that provides precisely the amino acid balance
the daily amino acid requirements under three shown in Table 6-14. However, since lysine is the
different conditions. The first column calculates first limiting amino acid, under these conditions, it
the amino acid requirements for a gilt bred at 120 is the amino acid we should be most concerned with
kg and gaining 45 kg during gestation. The 2nd in diet formulation. Using the estimated daily
column shows the calculation for a 4th parity sow lysine requirements shown in Table 6-14 and
being bred at 195 kg and gaining 45 kg during dividing by expected daily feed intakes in Table 6-
gestation while the last column shows a mature sow 11, one arrives at the percentage of lysine required
bred at 270 kg and gaining only 20 kg (reproductive in the diet to meet requirements (i.e. 0.56%, 0.45%
tissue only) during gestation. However, using the and 0.24% for the 120, 195 and 270 kg sow,
values shown above, producers can caJculate daily respectively, compared with 0.43% for NRC).
amino acid requirements for any sow under any
conditions.

Table 6-14. Estimated Total Amino Acid Needs of Pregnant Sows Under Various Conditions (g/day).

Weight at Mating (kg) 120 195 260 Current

Weight Gain During Pregnancy (kg) 45 45 20 NRC
Amount of Amino Acid Required (g/day)
Arginine
Histidine 5.03 5.03 2.24 2.8
Isoleucine 6.30 6.76 4.31 5.7
Leu cine 9.50 9.81 5.22 5.7
Lysine 10.32 10.70 5.84 8.2
Total Sulfur Amino Acids 4.96 5.36 3.51 4.4
Total Aromatic Amino Acids 11.06 11.77 7.05 8.6
Threonine 6.51 7.10 4.82 5.7
Tryptophan 1.39 1.46 0.85 1.7
Valine 6.87 7.19 3.48 6.1
1NRC values are based on a sow with an average gestation weight of 162.5 kg consuming 1.9 kg/day of a diet con-
taining 12% crude protein.

Some flexibility can be obtained by varying the NRC ( 1988) and the Australian Standing
level of feed intake to meet the lysine requirements Committee on Agriculture ( 1987). Reasonable
of sows of different weights. However, larger agreement exists between these two groups in
producers might find it cost effective to formulate at setting nutritional standards. Where differences
least two diets varying in lysine content and feed exist, it is suggested that the Australian Standards
one to sows less than five parities and one to sows be used because these standards tend to be based on
over five parities. ingredisimilar to those most commonly used in
Canada and the predominant breeds in the two
Minerals countries (Large White and Landrace) are also
The most commonly used estimates of mineral similar. Current recommendations are shown in
requirements of gestating sows are those of the Table 6-15.

149
Table 6-15. Mineral Requirements of Gestating Sows Table 6-16. Vitamin Requirements of Gestating Sows
(% or amount/kg of total diet). (Total Supplied in Diet).

NRC1 Australia2 NRC1 Australia2

Calcium(%) 0.75 0.82 Vitamin A (IU) 4,000 2,100

Phosphorus(%) 0.60 0.73 Vitamin D (IU) 200 200
Sodium(%) 0.15 0.12 Vitamin E (IU) 22 10.5
Chloride(%) 0.12 0.14 Vitamin K (mg) 0.50 0.27
Magnesium(%) 0.04 0.04 Biotin (mg) 0.20 0.10
Potassium(%) 0.20 0.23 Choline (g) 1.25 1.50
Copper (mg) 5.00 4.00 Folic Acid (mg) 0.30 0.60
Iodine (mg) 0.14 0.40 Niacin (mg) 10.00 10.00
Iron (mg) 80.0 60.0 Pantothenic Acid (mg) 12.00 12.00
Manganese (mg) 10.0 10.0 Riboflavin (mg) 3.75 2.70
Selenium (mg) 0.15 0.15 Thiamin (mg) 1.00 1.40
Zi11c (mg) 50.0 45.0 Vitamin B6 (mg) I.00 1.40
Vitamin B12 (ug) 15.00 15.0
'National Research Council, 1989. Nutrient Require-
ments of Swine. National Research Council, 1989. Nutrient Require-
1
2
Standing Committee on Agriculture, I 987. Feeding ments of Swine
Standards for Australian Livestock: Pigs. 2
Standing Committee on Agriculture, 1987. Feeding
Standards for Australian Livestock: Pigs.

Vitamins
Vitamins have long been recognized as having an Folic acid has received considerable attention in
essential role to play in reproduction and a consid- the past few years with several experiments show-
erable amount of research has been devoted towards ing a response to supplementation at levels greatly
determining the vitamin requirements of the gestat- in excess of those currently recommended. The
ing sow. Current recommendations are shown in most common finding has been an increase in litter
Table 6-16. size (Table 6.17). As a consequence, folic acid
levels of approximately I mg/kg or about three
Feeding recommendations must continually be times current NRC ( 1988) levels are recommended.
modified as more research is conducted and we
learn more about the nutrient requirements of
Table 6-17. Effects of Felic Acid Supplementation of
animals. 1n the past few years, new evidence has
Diets Fed to Gestating Sows.
come to light which suggests that current recom-
mendations are inadequate for several vitamins and
Control FolicAcid
it is likely that the next set of requirement tables
( 1.00 mg/kg)
will show a recommendation for higher levels of
supplementation for these vitamins. These changes Pigs Born Alive 9.51 10.64
will likely affect folic acid beta-carotene and Birth Weight (kg) 1.48 1.48
vitamin E. Pigs Weaned (day 29) 8.92 9.24
Weaning Weight (kg) 7.68 7.44
Weaning to Estrus
Interval (days) 7.30 6.66

Lindemann and Kornegay, I 989, J. Anim. Sci. 67: 459-

464.

150
 The increase in litter size as a result of folic acid proteins with immunosupprcssive capabilities have
supplementation has been attributed to a decrease in been identified. These proteins play a key role in
embryo mortality. The rate of cell proliferation embryo development and could explain the
during embryonic development is extremely high increased litter size observed with beta-carotene
and the intracellular concentration of RNA, a key injection. Beta-carotene may also increase the
component, is highly correlated with embryo production of progesterone during the initial
survival. The synthesis of the nucleic acids DNA formation of the corpora lutea. which would
and RNA requires purines and pyrimidine bases, the provide a more favorable environment for embryo
production of which in tum requires single carbon survival. Unfortunately, injectable beta-carotene is
units. As folic acid is an indispensable cofactor in not currently cleared for use in Canada.
the metabolic transfer of single carbon units, it is
logical to assume that an adequate supply is essen- Vitamin E has also received considerable research
tial for minimizing embryo losses. attention and again there are suggestions that current
recommendations (22 JU/kg) may not be adequate
Another area of recent research interest has been for high producing sows. A recent Ohio study
in the use of beta-carotene injections around the examined supplementation with 16, 33 or 66 JU
time of mating. Beta-carotene is a natural precursor vitamin E for three parities and observed increased
of vitamin A, but recent evidence suggests that it litter size at birth and weaning as the vitamin E level
may have a unique role in reproduction independant increased (Table 6.19). The data suggest that sows
of its function as a precursor of vitamin A. The housed in less sanitary conditions respond more
most common finding with beta-carotene injection positively to higher vitamin E levels with reduced
is a modest improvement in litter size (Table 6-18). incidence of mastiris than those housed in clean
The increase in litter size is suggested to result from facilities.
a decrease in embryo mortality. Dietary supple-
mentation (as opposed to injections) is unlikely to
Table 6-19. Effect of Vitamin Eon Sow Productivity.
result in an increased litter size because beta-
carotene is not absorbed intact from the digestive Supplemental Vitamin E (fU/kg)
tract of swine.
0 16 33 66
Table 6-18. Effect of Injection of Beta-Carotene on
Reproductive Performance of Multiparous Sows. Pigs Born Alive 9.85 10.87 11.20 10.04
Birth Weight (kg) 1.39 1.31 1.37 1.41
Control Beta-carotene1 Pigs Weaned (28 days) 6.73 7.00 7.88 8.14
Days to Estrus 4.6 4.5 Weaning Weight (kg) 6.51 6.27 6.21 6.49
Farrowing Rate(%) 88.7 88.4 Piglet Survival(%) 68.30 64.30 70.30 81.00
Pigs Born Alive 10.0 10.6
'Basal diet contained 8.4 mg/kg vitamin E. Experiment
Birth Weight (kg) 1.5 1.5 conducted over 3 parities.
2Mahan, J 991, J. Anim. Sci. 69: 2904-2917.
'Sows were given i.m. injection of200 mg of Beta-
carotene on the day of weaning, breeding and day 7 of
gestation.
2Coffey and Britt, 1993, J. Anim. Sci. 71: 1198-1202. Feeding the Sow Around Farrowing
Time
Feeding Levels
The mechanism by which beta-carotene enhances
Opinions as to the level of feed to be provided
embryo survival is not certain. However, it has
immediately prior to and for the first few days after
been shown that beta-carotene can increase the
farrowing arc divided. Excessive restriction can
production of uterine specific proteins which
cause excessive sow excitement due to hunger
support embryo survival. A basic glycoprotein with
resulting in an increase in piglet deaths due to
iron binding capacity and a groups of acidic

151
crushing. There is also concern about feeding too result in a reduction in preweaning mortality.
much. Therefore, a balance has to be kept in Furthermore, the increased energy level in the sow
relation to the feeding level around farrowing. diet may decrease sow weight loss during lactation.
Before the sow farrows, it is probably best to
maintain the same level of feed intake as that The response to fat inclusion is variable and a
normally fed during gestation (2 - 2.5 kg). Follow- beneficial response has not been reported in all
ing farrowing, a gradual increase in feed intake is cases. The amount of fat fed prior to farrowing
recommended, with the objective of getting the sow affects the response obtained. ln general, the
to maximize feed intake as soon as possible into her greater the amount of fat fed, the greater the re-
lactation. sponse. It appears that sows must be fed at least
one kg of fat prior to farrowing in order to obtain
Use of Laxatives Prior to Farrowing any benefit. Therefore, it is usually necessary for
Many producers add wheat bran, beet pulp or fat to be included in the diet at a level of at least
some other bulky feed to the sow's diet before and 10%. In addition, fat must be fed for at least five
for a few days after farrowing. It is a believed that days prior to farrowing to obtain a positive re-
this practice helps prevent constipation, reduces the sponse. This time period is required in order to
incidence of mastitis and may prevent death loss allow the sow time to make the physiological
due to twisted gut. The most recent research on this adjustments necessary to absorb the fat and trans-
subject does not support the need for the addition of port it to the mammary glands.
such bulky feeds as a means of preventing mastitis
or improving sow productivity. However, the Unfortunately, the inclusion of a high level of fat
addition of bulking agents may improve sow in the diet is relatively expensive and may result in a
comfort and produce a softer stool. If sows are very greasy feed. The potential to obtain an eco-
experiencing problems with constipation, producers nomical response is greatest when mortality is high
may wish to consider the addition of 5 to 15% bran and birth weights are low. Most producers will find
or 5 to 7% beet pulp to the prefarrowing diet. it uneconomical to routinely include fat in their sow
Potassium chloride or potassium magnesium sulfate diets unless preweaning mortality is greater than
have been used as laxative agents at the rate of0.5 25% or the incidence of low birth weight piglets is
to 1.5% of the total diet. However, the longterm inordinately high. However, producers should not
effect of such salts on the health of the sow are underestimate the benefits of high fat feeding when
unknown. environmental temperatures rise above 25°C.
Under these circumstances, high levels of dietary fat
Feeding Fat in Late Gestation and Lactation are beneficial in maintaining energy intakes of
A topic of recent research interest has been the lactating sows, increasing sow milk production and
addition of fat to sow diets during late gestation and thereby increasing survival and weaning weights of
lactation in an attempt to improve the survival of piglets.
baby pigs. Baby pig losses are often high during
lactation, with the greatest losses attributed to Most of the early work on fat supplementation of
crushing by the sow. Pigs which are crushed are sow diets involved the use of fats made up pre-
often hypoglycemic due to low glycogen stores. dominantly of long chain (>Cl6:0) fatty acids (i.e.
These low energy stores result in weak piglets tallow or soybean oil). An area of recent research
which may be unable to move out of the way of the interest has involved the study of fats made up
sow and are subsequently crushed. predominately of medium or shorter chain fatty
acids ( <C: 12:0). Coconut oil is one readily avai 1-
It has been hypothesized that the incorporation of able source of medium chain fatty acids. These
fat into diets fed during late gestation and lactation shorter chain fatty acids are known to more easily
will increase both milk yield and milk fat content, digested by swine and have found use as energy
thus increasing the energy supply available to the sources in creep and starter diets. However, it is
nursing pig. This increase in available energy may only recently that they have been studied as an

152
Table 6-20a. Examples of Gestation Diets

Ingredients, % 2 3 4 5 6
Barley 86.0 87.2 78.8
Corn 82.0 72.5 48.5
Peas 10.0
Wheat shorts 40.0
Soybeanineal-47°/o 4.5 7.8 13.0 6.5
Canola rneal 4.5 22.5 6.2
Premix 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Nutrients, minimum %
D.E., kcal/kg 3,000 3,000 3,390 3,300 3,000 3,250
Crude protein l3.0 13.0 13.1 14.8 13.1 14.3
Digestible lysine 0.43 0.43 0.49 0.48 0.43 0.46
Digestible methionine 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.18 0.16 0.17
Digestible TS.A.A. 0.20 0.20 0.23 0.22 0.22 0.22
Digestible threonine 0.27 0.27 0.31 0.30 0.27 0.29
Digestible tryptophan 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.07
Calcium 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
Phosphorus 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Sodium 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Chloride 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

Table 6-20b. Examples of Lactation Diets

Ingredients, % l 2 3 4 5 6
Wheat 50.00 50.00 49.67
Barley 26.30 21.90 25.20
Com 76.00 71.70 70.65
Soybean meal - 47% I 1.70 19.50 15.80 23.30 15.10 24.20
Canolameal 7.50 7.50 3.20
Fat/oil 1.00 1.00 1.30 1.00 2.50 l.00
LysineHCI 0.23 0.10
Threonine 0.10 0.05
Premix 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 4.00 4.00
Nutrients, minimum %
D.E .. kcal/kg 3,250 3,460 3,300 3,415 3,350 3,460
Crude protein 18.6 15.6 19.3 17.2 18.0 17.5
Dig. lysine 0.65 0.65 0.75 0.75 0.85 0.85
Dig. methionine 0.16 0.16 0.19 0.19 0.21 0.21
Dig. T.S.A.A. 0.33 0.33 0.38 0.38 0.43 0.43
Dig. threonine 0.41 0.41 0.47 0.47 0.54 0.54
Dig. Tryptophan 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.13 0.13
Calcium 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
Phosphorus 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Sodium 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Chloride 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

These are sample diets only and are for illustrative purposes only. While every attempt has been made to present
examples that reflect successful commercial formulations, these examples arc not intended for actual use without
assistance from a qualified nutritionist.
All amino acid concentrations are expressed as apparent ileal digestible amino acids.

153
ingredient in sow diets. The results of a recent synthesis of lipid and to spare glucose, they have
study conducted at the University of Georgia are the potential to improve fetal energy stores at birth
shown in Table 6-21. and thereby improve the piglets chances of survival.

Table 6-21. Effect of Type of Fat Fed During Late Feeding the Sow During Lactation
Gestation and Early Lactation on Sow Productivity. Introduction
Lactation is a particularly important stage of the
Control Long Medium reproductive cycle. Its primary purpose is to
Chain Triglycerides
successfully rear a large number of healthy, heavy
piglets. A lactating sow may need to draw on body
Pigs Born Alive 11.33 10.79 11.59
fat reserves to obtain the energy she needs for
Birth Weight (kg) l.27 1.31 1.21
maintenance and milk production. This drain on
Pigs Weaned (day 21) 9.06 8.89 10.12
her body reserves causes a significant loss of body
Weaning Weight (kg) 5.48 5.62 5.51
weight resulting in an extended weaning to remating
Mortality(%) 20.03 17.61 12.68
interval, poor conception rates and premature
Azain, 1993, J.Anim. Sci. 71: 3011-30 J 9.
I culling. Therefore, particular care must be taken to
Fat sources fed at a level of 12% during the last three
2 ensure that sows are properly fed during lactation.
weeks of gestation and the first week of lactation.
The importance of maintaining high feed intakes
during lactation has been clearly demonstrated.
The results of this experiment suggests that The results of a study in which lactating sows were
medium chain triglycerides are superior to long fed between 1.5 and 5.0 kg of feed per day are
chain triglycerides in reducing preweaning mortal- shown in Table 6-22a. Sows receiving low levels of
ity. The difference in performance would appear to feed during lactation lost significantly more weight
be a reflection of the different ways in which these and depleted their backfat reserves to a much
fat types are metabolized. Medium chain greater extent than did sows fed higher levels of
triglycerides are rapidly metabolized to ketone feed. Consequently. sows fed low levels of feed
bodies. Because ketone bodies can readily cross the during lactation had longer weaning to conception
placenta and are used in the developing fetus for the intervals than sows well fed during lactation. In
addition, significantly fewer sows fed low levels of
feed exhibited estrus within eight days of weaning.

Table 6-22a. The Effect of Sow Feed Intake During Lactation on Subsequent Reproductive Performance.

Daily Feed Intake (kg)

1.5 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.3 5.0

Lactation Weight Loss (kg) 44.5 30.8 27.4 19.6 15.8 9.0
Backfat Loss During Lactation (mm) 8.9 7. L 6.4 5.7 4.2 4.0
Weaning to Conception Interval (day) 29.8 32.4 23.6 16.4 15.5 11.4
Number of Eggs Ovulated 12.2 13.3 10.9 l 3.3 11.7 12.0
Sows in Estrus Within 8 Days of 8.3 33.3 50.0 58.3 58.3 83.3
Weaning(%)

King and Dunkin, 1986, Anim. Prod. 17: 65- 75.

154
 The level of feed provided to the sow during Methods of Increasing Feed Intake During
lactation will also affect piglet performance. Re- Lactation
search has shown that there is a direct relationship One method of increasing feed intake during
between the amount of feed the sow consumes lactation is to ensure that the sow is not overfed
during lactation and the amount of milk produced during gestation. Research has shown that there is
by the sow (Table 6-22b). As the level of feed an inverse relationship between the amount of feed
intake increases, higher levels of milk production consumed during gestation and the amount
are achieved. This increased milk production also consumed during lactation (Table 6-23). As the
increases the growth rate of suckling piglets. level of feed intake during gestation increases, the
level of feed intake during lactation decreases.
Therefore, feed intakes during gestation should be
Table 6-22b. Effect of Feed Level on Milk Yield at 21
reduced if excessive, since the higher the feed
Days (kg/day).
intake during pregnancy the lower the appetite will
be during lactation.
Feed Intake (kg/day)
4.5 5.3 6.0 6.8
Table 6-23. Effect of Feed lntake During Pregnancy
Parity 1 5.9 5.4 6.7 6.1 on Feed Intake During Lactation.
Parity 2 5.4 6.0 6.6 6.6
Parity 3 5.5 6.8 7.3 8.0 Pregnancy Feed Intake {kg/day)

O'Grady et al., 1973, Anim. Prod. 17: 65-75. 1.8 2.25 2. 70

Pregnancy Weight Gain (kg) 55.3 70.4 82.7

From the foregoing discussion, it should be Lactation Feed Intake (kg/day) 4.76 4.70 3.98
evident that every effort must be made to maximize Lactation Weight Change (kg) -12.2 -19.6 -24.6
the feed intake of sows during lactation. By
Dounnad, 1991, Livestock Prod. Sci. 27:309-319.
maintaining high levels offeed intake during
lactation it is possible to reduce sow body weight
and backfat loss, increase milk yield, increase piglet The level of dietary protein has also been
growth rate, decrease piglet mortality and improve shown to affect the amount of feed consumed
the sow's subsequent reproductive performance. A during lactation. The effect of feeding diets varying
general rule of thumb is to allow 2 kg of feed per between 12 and 18% crude protein are shown in
day for the sow and an additional 0.5 kg for each Table 6-24. Sows consuming diets containing either
pig in the litter. For example, a sow with 10 nursing 12 or 14% crude protein consumed less feed and
pigs should receive at least 7 kg per day (2 + (0.5 x lost significantly more weight during lactation than
10) = 7). sows consuming diets containing 16 or 18% crude
protein. Piglet weaning weights were also higher
Despite knowledge of the benefits of maximizing when the sow received higher levels of dietary
feed intake, many producers still experience diffi- protein. The consumption of low protein diets
culty getting sows to consume sufficient feed to during lactation can also cause excessive delays in
avoid excessive weight loss. A recent survey from heat and poor conception rates after weaning
the University of Minnesota involving 11,700 sows particularly if fed to first litter sows. Therefore, in
on 30 farms indicated that lactation feed intakes order to maximize feed intake during lactation and
averaged only 5.2 kg/day. Clearly, a more concen- avoid problems with rebreeding, it is recommended
trated effort is needed to increase the average that a minimum of 15% crude protein (0.70%
lactation feed intake of sows. lysine) be provided in the lactation diet. For maxi-
mum milk production, sows may require diets
which contain 0.90% or even 1.0% lysine and a
digestible energy content of at least 3250 kcal/kg.

155
Table 6-24. Effect of Feeding Various Levels of Protein During Lactation on Sow Feed Intake and Body
Condition.

Dietary Protein Level (%)

12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0

Sow Feed Intake (kg/day) 3.5 4.6 5.5 5.8

Sow Weight at Farrowing (kg) 152.2 140.9 143.6 145.9
Sow Weight at Weaning (kg) 126.8 130.0 147.3 152.3
Sow Weight Change (kg) -25.4 -10.9 +3.7 +6.4
Piglet Weaning Weight (kg) 5.5 6.1 6.2 6.8

Mahan and Grifo, 1975. J. Anim. Sci. 41: 1362-1367.

Sows will consume more feed if fed twice rather It has been well demonstrated that sows will
than once daily. Consumption is likely to increase consume more of a wet feed than they will of a dry
further if they are fed even more frequently. ln a one. The results of one experiment are presented in
study conducted by the NRC-89 Committee on Table 6-25 and it can be seen that sows fed a wet
Confinement Management of Swine, sows were feed consumed approximately I 0% more feed than
allowed unlimited access to feed either once or sows fed a dry one. Although it would be impracti-
three times a day. Sows fed three times a day cal for most producers to convert their operations to
consumed a total of I 08.4 kg of feed during lacta- a wet feeding system, the simple act of mounting
tion while those fed only once a day consumed the water nipple in the farrowing crate directly over
101.6 kg of feed. In addition, weight loss during the feed hopper can help to stimulate sow feed
lactation was reduced for the group of sows fed intakes. However, care should be taken to clean the
three times a day (22.5 versus 28.5 kg of body feeder on a regular basis in order to prevent molds
weight lost). from developing on the wet feed.

Use of a small feeder fitted to the front of the

farrowing crate may allow the sows to be fed ad Table 6-25. Effect of Method of Feeding on Sow Feed
libitum. However, it is important that the feeder be Intake and Weight Change During Lactation.
properly designed. Feeders which are improperly
Dry Feed Wet Feed
designed may restrict the ability of sows to con-
sume adequate amounts of feed. ln general, sows
Feed Intake (kg/day) 4.7 5.3
prefer large, open 'bowel type' feeders with no
bars, rods or other gimmicks to restrict access to Energy Intake (MJ DE/day) 62.3 69.3
Lactation Weight Loss (kg) 29.8 23.2
feed.
O'Grady and Lynch, 1978, J. Agric. Res. 17: l-6.
The method of feeding can also affect intake. For
example, use of a pelleted diet has been shown to
increase sow feed intake during lactation. Pelleted A lactating sow can consume as much as seven
rations also tend to reduce the amount of feed gallons of water per day. It is important that the
wastage. Since very few producers have the ability water supply of the sow not be restricted.
to pellet rations on the farm, the advantages of Inadequate amounts of drinking water will certainly
feeding a pelleted diet are only available to produc- cause the sow to reduce feed intake. Many water
ers purchasing a commercially formulated lactation nipple drinkers in farrowing crates do not supply
ration. adequate quantitites of water. Although some
references suggest a minimum flow rate of 2.0 L
per minute, recent data suggest that 0.6 L is

156
sufficient. The only difference between the two The effective environmental temperature of the
flow rates is a large waste of water at the 2.0 L per farrowing room is one of the most critical factors
minute flow rate. Waterer type may affect feed affecting feed intake in lactating sows and many
consumption. University of Minnesota studies producers maintain their farrowing room at too high
revealed that daily feed consumption was about 0.3 a temperature. Table 6-27 shows the results of an
kg less when lactating sows were provided water via experiment in which sows were housed in farrowing
nipples compared with a drinking cup. rooms maintained at 27°C or 2 I °C. Sows main-
tained at the lower temperature consumed more
The use of flavors in animal feeds has increased feed, lost less weight and weaned heavier piglets
considerably in the past decade as more attention is compared with those housed at the higher tempera-
being paid to palatability. Many experiments have tures.
been conducted using feed flavors in the hope of
increasing the feed consumption of sows during In order to stimulate feed intake, attempts should
lactation. The productsused have ranged from be made to cool down the farrowing room. If
simple spices and tonics to aroma modifiers, sweet- building a new barn, producers might consider the
eners, flavor intensifiers and artificial flavors as installation of snout coolers or drip cooling. Snout
well as certain natural feed ingredients. coolers with an airspeed of 0.3 m/sec have been
shown to increase feed intake by 250 g/day while
The results of two experiements in which sow drip coolers, providing 2 litres per sow per hour
diets were supplemented with a flavor enhancer are (running for 3 minutes in a JO minute cycle), have
summarized in Table 6-26. Sows fed diets supple- also been effective in increasing feed intake. How-
mented with a flavor enhancer consumed approxi- ever, it must be remembered that if the temperature
mately 7% more feed and lost 30% less weight of the farrowing room is to be decreased, supple-
during lactation than did sows fed the control diet. mental heat must be provided for the piglets.
In addition, there was a slight reduction in piglet
mortality as well as an increase in piglet weaning An additional consideration regarding lowering
weight as a result of including the feed flavor in the the temperature of the farrowing room is to ensure
sow's diet. Although these results indicate that that the building is properly insulated. The standard
flavor additives can be used to attract sows to their insulation specification for the roof is 0.4W/m2/°C
diet, increase feed intake and reduce sow weight and for walls 0.5W/m2/°C. The maximum ventila-
loss during lactation, producers should be aware tion rate of the farrowing room should also be
that very little is known on what specific flavors checked to ensure adequate airflow. Although this
pigs find attractive. Since flavours tend to be may not necessarily cool the sows, fresh, non-
expensive feed ingredients, considerable caution gaseous air is beneficial in stimulating appetite.
should attend their use in sow diets.
The farrowing floor surface also influences heat
loss and therefore could affect feed intake. Sows
Table 6-26. Performance of Sows Fed Artificial housed on plastic-coated, expanded metal or woven
Flavours During Lactation.
wire floors consumed about 0.5 kg less than sows
Control Flavour housed on highly conductive floor surfaces such as
metal (ie Tri-bar) or concrete.
Pigs Born Alive 9 .9 9.9
Pigs Weane 8.4 8.9 Energy intake can be affected by increasing the
Mortality(%) 14.9 9.9 caloric density of the diet. Use of high density diets
Sow Feed Intake (kg/day) 4.8 5.2 is particularly effective in maintaining energy
Lactation Weight Loss (kg) 15.6 10.9 intakes during hot weather. Incorporating fat or oil
Weaning to Estrus Interval (days) 7.5 8.3 as a partial substitute for carbohydrate energy will
reduce the heat increment of the diet and thus allow
Moser et al. 1986. Minnisota Swinea Research Report. sows to consume more energy in hot weather.
pp 53-56.

157
Reducing the protein level of the diet and using lation for producers to make and most nutritionists
synthetic amino acids to provide the proper balance use a thumb rule of I% of a sow's body weight to
of amino acids can also achieve this purpose. estimate maintenance requirements. Therefore, a
165 kg sow requires 1.65 kg of feed for mainte-
nance. If we assume a energy value of the feed of
Table 6-27. Effect of Environmental Temperature on
Feed Intake and Weight Loss of the Sow and Weight 3200 kcal then this level offeed intake would
Gain of the Litter, supply 5.28 Meal of energy which comes reason-
ably close to the 5.06 Meal of energy we would get
Temperature by using the above equation (See Table 6-1 I).
27°C 21°C
The energy level required for milk production is
Sow Feed Intake (kg/day) 4.6 5.2 estimated to be 2 Meal of DE per kg of milk pro-
Sow Weight Loss (kg) duced. This is calculated by assuming that the gross
I IO Days to Weaning 21.0 14.0 energy of milk is 1.3 Meal DE per kg and that the
Piglet Weight at 28 Days (kg) 6.2 7.0 milk is produced with a 65 percent efficiency of
utilization ( 1.3 Meal+ 0.65 = 2.0 Meal). The milk
Lynch, 1978. production of a sow can be estimated from piglet
weight gain. Since it takes about 4 g of milk to
Recent evidence has suggested that sows exposed produce 1 g of piglet gain, total milk production can
to longer periods of lighting during the day may be calculated by multiplying the daily weight gain
have higher feed intakes. Increased weaning of a litter by four. As an example, a litter of 9
weights and improved rebreeding performance have piglets gaining 240 g/day would suggest a daily
been observed when sows were housed in farrowing milk production of 8.64 kg (9 x .24 x 4). This level
rooms with 16 hours of light per day in comparison of milk production would require an energy intake
with 8 hours of light per day. Automatic timing of 17.28 Meal DE (8.64 kg x 2 Meal/kg milk
devices are currently available which allow produc- produced).
ers to control the duration of lighting in the farrow-
mg room. It is evident from the above discussion that no
single energy level will apply to all sows under all
To properly monitor lactation feed intakes, it is conditions. The following table indicates how
recommended that producers keep track of the daily energy requirements are altered by factors
individual feed intake of sows using a card similar such as sow body weight, litter size and piglet
to that shown below (Fiqure 6-5). Use of such growth rate (Table 6-28).
cards creates an easily interpreted, graphic display
of the pattern of intake of each sow. lt is only Table 6-28 indicates that a 142.5 kg sow nursing
through the use of a proper recording scheme that 12 piglets, gaining 240 g/day will require 8.34 kg of
producers will be able to detect when alterations in a diet containing 3300 kcal of DE in order to meet
feed intake occur and take steps to intervene when its energy requirements. Unfortunately, our modern
reductions occur. genotypes of sows will often not consume this
amount of food. As a consequence, such sows with
a high level of productivity may not consume
Nutrients Required During Lactation
sufficient feed to meet their energy requirements
Energy
and will have to "milk off their backs" in order to
The daily energy requirement of the sow during
meet the energy needs of the nursing litter.
lactation includes a requirement for maintenance
and a requirement for milk production. The mainte-
nance energy requirement of the lactating sow is
assumed to be the same as that for the gestating sow
and is estimated to be I IO kcal of DE per kg of
body weight 15• This is sometimes a difficult calcu-

158
Table 6-28. Estimated Daily Energy Requirements of Lactating Sows.

Sow Body Weight (kg) 142.5 142.5 217.5 217.5 280 280
Number of Suckling Piglets 8 12 8 12 8 12
Daily Gain of Piglets (g/day) 200 240 200 240 200 240

Estimated Milk Yield (kg/day)' 6.4 11.5 6.4 11.5 6.4 11.5
Energy for Maintenance (Mcal/day)2 4.53 4.53 6.23 6.23 7.52 7.52
Energy for Milk Production (Meal/day)? 12.80 23.00 12.80 23.00 12.80 23.00
Daily Energy Requirement (Meal/day) 17.33 27.53 19.03 29.23 20.32 30.52
Daily Required Feed Intake (kg/day)' 5.25 8.34 5.76 8.85 6.15 9.25

1
Milk yield estimated from litter gain/day x 4
2
Sow energy needs for maintenance estimated from BW75 x I IO kcal per kg (see Table 6-10)
3
Energy for milk production estimated from milk yield x 2 MCal/kg milk produced
"Feed intake required based on 3300 kcal DE/kg diet

Using the above example, assume that the sow is Amino Acids
only consuming 6.5 kg of feed per day. In this The amino acid requirements of lactating sows
situation, the sow will have an energy deficit of have been the subject of a considerable amount of
6006 kcal/day ( 1.82 kg x 3300 kcal). It has been research during the past decade and it is now
calculated that for every kg of weight loss by the evident that the current estimates of requirements in
sow, 11,200 kcal of DE equivalent are released. the NRC tables are inadequate to allow high pro-
Therefore, to make up the 6006 kcal/day deficit will ducing sows to perform to their genetic potential.
require a maternal weight loss of 536 g/day or about This is likely a reflection of improvements in sow
15 kg during a 28 day lactation. As a rule, it is milking ability due to increased selection pressure
desireable to keep maternal weight loss during a 28 on this trait by breeding companies.
day lactation to less than 10 kg and as a
consequence, steps would have to be taken to An estimate of the amino acids needs of the
increase lactational energy intake by the sow or lactating sow can be obtained by examining the
reduce the energy demands for lactation through amino acid composition of sow's milk. By using
cross fostering. the daily milk yield of the sow (based on piglet

LACTATION FEED
INTAKE RECORD
SOWID: /Q,J(i PARITY: _!/___ DATE:Farrowed'#s/O�/Q/ Weaned��

l2.
. . .Ll .. . . . . •� ..;-r...• L::.....,. ...._..,, ..., . �. ..::,.1
w.� �I Per day 7.3/r...

.. I . . .
NO: Born Alive FEED INTAKE: To1al

...
I ti
I .. I ;

I
-
.. II I t/1 ti i
l
I I

. I
ti
,I I I I
I I l
,I I I

..... ,
I'll" I I
-
'
..
ti I I

., ., " ,,. ,,,, ,,. ,,. .,. � r s r I l

I 2 J
'"s s
u, 3.l!_'' .!J� ,, , 'l•l4• 't' 't' ,, "P "'
�SS5'. S" (' S" ,_ ,_
M
I-

.. ii I I 1 J "1¥ rs r r r r f
,,
"' I# lo ID II>
/()
,_.._

Figure 6-6. Example of a Card for Monitoring Lactation Feed Intake.

159
weight gain shown above) one can calculate the The most important animo acid for sows in lacta-
amounts of the essential amino acids which are tion is lysine. Dividing the daily lysine requirement
secreted in milk on a daily basis. The efficiency of by the expected feed intake of the sows will show the
utilization of amino acids for milk production has required level of lysine in the diet. For example, a
been estimated at 80% and most lactation diets 142.5 kg sow with a litter gaining 2250 g/day (i.e.,
would have a digestibility coefficient of producing 9 kg of milk per day) will require 55.9 g of
approximately 80%. Therefore, by dividing the lysine per day. If the sow is consuming 7 kg of feed,
amounts of amino acids secreted into milk by 0.64 then the diet will need to provide 0.79% lysine (55.9
(80% efficiency x 80% digestibility), one arrives at g + 7000 g = 0.79%).
the total amount of amino acids required to support
this level of milk production. Examples are shown Obviously, it is not possible to formulate one diet
in Table 6-29. that will meet the lysine requirements for each and
every sow in a herd. In addition, since the objective
The total dietary amino acid needs of the lactating oflactation feeding is to maximize feed intake, vary-
sow can be determined by adding the amino acids ing the level of feed provided is not available as a
required for maintenance (see table 6-11) to those means of varying the lysine intake of individual sows.
need for lactation (Table 6-29). Examples are given Under practical feeding conditions, it is suggested that
for three weights of sows and four daily milk yields producers formulate two rations to be fed during lac-
but can be calculated for any situation using the tation. One to be fed to first and second parity sows
figures provided. (these sows typically cannot consume adequate feed
and therefore this diet would be formulated with higher
lysine levels) and one for the remainder of the herd.

Table 6-29. Estimated Daily Amino Acid Requirements for Milk Production by the Sow (g/day).

Composition
of Milk (%)1 Daily Milk Production (kg/day)2

5 7 9 11
S3 R4 s R s R s R

Arginine 5.1 12.7 19.9 17.8 27.9 22.9 35.8 28.0 43.8
Histidine 2.8 7.0 10.9 9.8 15.3 12.6 19.7 15.4 24.1
Isoleucine 4.5 11.3 17.6 15.7 24.6 20.2 31.6 24.7 38.7
Leucine 8.7 21.7 34.0 30.4 47.6 39.1 61.2 47.8 74.8
Lysine 7.8 19.5 30.5 27.3 42.6 35.1 54.8 42.9 67.0
Sulfur AA 3.3 8.3 12.9 11.5 18.0 14.8 23.2 18.1 28.4
Aromatic 8.3 20.7 32.4 29.0 45.4 37.3 58.4 45.6 71.3
Threonine 4.2 10.5 16.4 14.7 22.9 18.9 29.5 23.1 36. l
Tryptophan 1.2 3.0 4.7 4.2 6.6 5.4 8.4 6.6 10.3
Valine 5.6 14.0 21.9 19.6 30.6 25.2 39.4 30.8 48.1

I
Adapted from Speer ( 1990). Partitioning nitrogen and amino acids for pregnancy and lactation in swine: A review. J.
Anim. Sci. 68: 553-56 l.
2
Daily milk production calculated by multiplying daily weight gain of litter x 4.
3Secreted

"Required
Based on sow producing milk with 5% protein. Assumed absorbed amino acids used at an efficiency of 80% for
milk production and diet had 80% digestibility.

160
Table 6-30. Estimated Total Daily Amino Acid Requirements of Lactating Sows (g/day).

Sow Weight (kg) 142.5 217.5 280

Current
Daily Milk Yield 5 7 9 11 5 7 9 11 5 7 9 11 NRC'
Amino Acid Requirement (g/day)

Arginine 19.9 27.9 35.8 43.8 19.9 27.9 35.8 43.8 19.9 27.9 35.8 43.8 21.2
Histidine 10.9 15.3 19.7 24.1 10.9 15.3 19.7 24.1 10.9 15.3 19.7 24.1 13.2
Isolcucine 18.8 25.8 32.9 39.9 19.3 26.3 33.3 40.4 19.6 26.6 33.7 40.7 20.7
Leu cine 34.8 48.4 61.9 75.6 35.1 48.7 62.3 75.9 35.4 48.9 62.5 76.1 25.4
Lysine 31.5 43.7 55.9 68.0 31.9 44.0 56.3 68.4 32.2 44.4 56.6 68.7 31.8
Sulfur Amino Acids 13.9 19.1 33.7 29.4 14.4 19.5 24.7 29.8 14.7 19.8 24.9 30.I 19.1
Aromatic 34.3 47.3 60.2 73.2 35.0 47.9 60.9 73.9 35.6 48.5 61.5 74.5 37.1
Threonine 18.0 24.6 31.1 37.7 18.6 25.2 31.7 38.3 19.1 25.6 32.2 38.7 22.8
Tryptophan 4.9 6.8 8.6 10.5 4.9 6.8 8.7 10.6 5.0 6.9 8.8 10.6 6.4
Valine 22.7 31.5 40.2 48.99 23.0 31.8 40.6 49.3 23.3 32.0 40.8 49.5 31.8

I
Based on a 165 kg sow consuming 689 g/day crude protein.

Vitamins and Minerals will dry the sow off more rapidly, leading to a shorter
There has been surprisingly little research conducted interval between weaning and rebreeding. However,
on the vitamin and mineral requirements of sows dur- others feel that moderate to high levels of feed will
ing lactation alone. The available data suggests that give the best results.
the lactating sows requirements do not differ appreci-
ably from those of the gestating sow and therefore A Texas study investigated the effects of feed and
the nutrient levels suggested in Tables 6-12 and 6-13 water deprivation prior to weaning, on the number of
are recommended. days to successful service. The results of this trial
indicate that feed and water deprivation at weaning
Feeding the Sow at Weaning prolonged the weaning to service interval (Table 6-
There is a great diversity of opinion as to how sows 31 ). Therefore, it would appear that the most effec-
should be fed and managed from weaning to tive way to dry off a sow is to maintain them on a
rebreeding. Many producers believe that withhold- moderate level of feed and allow milk to accumulate
ing feed and water for 24 to 48 hours after weaning in the udder. The resulting increase in intramammary
pressure will very effectively and rapidly stop milk
secretion and stimulate a rapid return to estrus.

Table 6-31. Effect of Feed and Water Deprevation, Prior to Weaning, on Days to Successful Service After
Weaning.

Hours of Deprivation
Prior to Weaning
Feed 0 48.0 0 48.0
Water 0 0 24.0 24.0
Days to Successful Service 6.0 11.9 9.1 12.8
Number not Showing Estrus Within
21 Days Postweaning 0.0 5.0 3.0 5.0
Orr et al., 1981, Anim. Prod. 15: 259-264.

161
Feeding the Sow Between Weaning reasonable condition to achieve high conception
rates and good litter size.
and Rebreeding
The level of feed intake selected from weaning
During hot weather, conception rates are often
and mating should allow the release of sufficient
reduced. There is some evidence to show that
ova, their successful fertilization and implantation.
feeding vitamin fortified diets to the breeding herd
Many producers find that gilts which have just
may improve conception rates during periods of
weaned their first litter are difTicult to rebreed. This
elevated temperatures. In a recent study, sows were
is generally due to the poor body condition of first
fed higher than recommended levels of vitamin A
litter sows and the stress of competing with older
( I 50% NRC), vitamin B-12, pantothenic acid and
sows after weaning. The best solution is to feed
choline during periods of hot weather. The concep-
sows better during lactation than to try to catch up
tion rate of the vitamin fortified group increased
later on. However, supplying high levels (3.5 - 4.0
from 52.8% to 76.0%.
kg/day) of feed to gilts in poor condition from
weaning to rebreeding will improve conception
rates and reduce the number of days to rebreeding
Feeding Boars
(Table 6-32). After breeding, feed levels should be Introduction
reduced to maintenance levels in order to prevent a The boar is often the forgotten member of the
high incidence of embryo mortality. breeding herd and there has been surprisingly little
research conducted to determine their nutritional
requirements. Most tables of nutrient requirements
Table 6-32. The Effect of Feed Intake During the group boars together with dry sows and assume that
Weaning to Remaining Interval on the Reproductive a diet that meets the requirements of sows during
Performance of Gilts and Sows. gestation will also be satisfactory for the herd sire.
Feed Intake(k;g/day)
Nutrition of Boars During Rearing
1.8 2.7 3.6 (20 -100 kg)
Young boars are usually selected to be herd sires
Weaning/Estrus according to an index which includes such charac-
Interval (days) Gilts 21.6 12.0 9.3 teristics as growth rate. appetite, feed efficiency,
Sows 4.9 4.7 5.0 lean tissue growth rate and carcass quality. As a
Conception Rate (%) Gilts 58 75 100 consequence, young boars need to be fed high-
Sows 100 87 100 energy and nutrient dense diets ad libitum in order
Subsequent Litter Size Gilts 9.4 10.1 11.6 to allow for the accumulation of meaningful per-
Sows 12.6 11.8 12.2 formance data for use in selection programs. Dur-
ing the period from birth to 50 kg body weight, the
Adapted from: Brooks and Cole, 1972, Anim. Prod. 15:
259-264, and Brooks et al., 1975, Anim. Prod. 20: 407-
boars potential for lean tissue growth appears to be
412. beyond the upper limit of appetite. This means that
high energy diets can be fed ad libitum without
excessive fat deposition or decline in feed effi-
Flushing does not work with older sows. The ciency and energy levels of at least 14 MJ DE/kg
purpose of a high level of feeding after weaning is (3344 kca1/kg) diet are recommended. From 50 to
to increase ovulation rates and thereby increase the I 00 kg liveweight, the boars potential for protein
subsequent litter size. However, since ovulation deposition lies within the limits of appetite and
rate is not usually a limiting factor for sows, even if excess energy levels may affect performance.
the ovulation rate is increased, an improvement in Australian data indicate that the maximum rate of
litter size is not usually forthcoming. A daily feed protein deposition occurs with energy levels of 33
intake of approximately 2.7 kg between weaning MJ DE/day (7883 kcal/day). If the potential ad
and remating is generally sufficient to allow sows in libitum feed intake of the boar is known, then the

162
required energy content of the diet can be calculated Table 6-33. Nutrient Requirements of Developing
by dividing this energy level by the potential feed Boars (20-100 kg).
intake.
Weight of Boar
The protein requirement of growing boars is 20-55 55-100 120-
greater than that of barrows or gilts since boars gain Breeding
faster, are more efficient and have less backfat.
Average daily gain and feed efficiency are maxi- Energy (MJ/day) 29 33 25
mized for growing boars at levels of 20% protein Protein(%) 20 18 14
during the growing period (20-55 kg) and 18% Lysine(%) 1.0 0.8 0.65
crude protein during the finishing period (55-100 Tryptophan (%) 0.17 0.14 0.12
kg). In addition, developing boars require 0.15% to Threonine(%) 0.65 0.60 0.50
0.25% more lysine than barrows. Data from the Methionine+ Cystine (%) 0.45 0.35 0.40
University of Kentucky indicate that the lysine Calcium(%) 0.75 0.70 0.65
requirement of 35-60 kg boars is 0.86% while that Phosphorus(%) 0.60 0.55 0.50
of 60-100 kg boars is 0.74%. These levels are Salt(%) 0.25 0.25 0.50
higher than those recommended by the NRC. Zinc (mg/kg) 75 50 75
Iron (mg/kg) 75 50 75
The developing boar may require higher levels of Manganese (mg/kg) 20 20 20
calcium and phosphorus than the levels fed to Copper (mg/kg) 6 5 6
market animals since the tendency to show leg Selenium (mg/kg) 0.15 O.IO 0.10
weakness may be exacerbated by high growth rates Vitamin A (lU/kg) 3000 2000 4000
and by feeding to appetite. Calcium and phospbo- Vitamin D (ill/kg) 300 200 400
ms levels of0.75% and 0.60% respectively are Vitamin E (IU/kg) 18 15 20
recommended during the growing period and drop Vitamin K (mg/kg) l.5 1.0 2.0
to 0.65% and 0.50% by the time the boar is ready Riboflavin (mg/kg) 4.0 3.0 5.0
for breeding. A summary of nutrient requirements Niacin (mg/kg) 30 25 35
for developing boars is presented in Table 6-33. Pantothenic Acid (mg/kg) 15 12 20
Choline (mg/kg) 400 300 500
The experimental evidence suggests that nutrition Vitamin B12 (ug/kg) 15 10 20
during rearing can influence both the age of puberty Biotin (ug/kg) 50 50 100
and the rate of sexual development but these are
Adapted: Wahlstrom, 1991. Swine Nutrition pp 517-
unlikely to be impaired under current feeding
526.
regimes and practices. Under normal breeding
conditions, boars attain puberty between 5 and 8
months of age when they weigh 80-120 kg body Nutrition of the Working Boar
weight. Age is more important than body weight in
The daily energy requirements for working boars
determining the onset of puberty. Although a 30%
can be assessed as the summation of the following
reduction in feed intake has been shown to cause a
components: maintenance, body gain, semen
42 and 30 day delay in puberty for purebred and
production, mating activity and the requirement for
crossbred boars. unless severely undernourished,
extra heal production when kept below their lower
this restriction does not appear to impose any long
critical temperature. Estimates have been derived
lasting, damaging effects upon reproductive capac-
from the factorial principle of nutrient partitioning
ity other than the obvious effects on the growth and
and range from 29 to 41.5 MJ DE/day with an
body size of the animal. In practise, most young
additional 3% for each I °C decrease in temperature
boars are offered feed to appetite during rearing and
below an environmental temperature of20°C.
at this feeding level there is unlikely to be any
negative effects upon sexual development or subse-
quent reproductive capacity.

163
 The energy requirements for maintenance can be The results of these calculations indicate that
calculated in a similar manner to those of the working boars should be fed between 2.6 and 3.0
gestating sow using a value of .4 LS MJ DE per kg kg per day. The exact amount given to the boar will
body weight:". The energy requirements for growth depend on breeding load, climatic conditions, body
are more difficult to calculate because there has weight and condition. Boars should be individually
been very little research conducted to determine the fed, twice a day. This allows for a daily check of
optimum growth rate of working boars. the health and vigor of the boar and an adjustment
Overfeeding is undesireable because overfeeding in the amount of feed provided where necessary.
may reduce I ibido and may increase the risk of leg Fresh water should be provided at all times.
weakness. Ln addition, overfeeding can increase the
size and weight of the boar to the point where the Several studies have indicated the importance of
boar is no longer compatible with the sows in the protein and more specificaUy the amino acids
herd and must be culled. Given their high purchase lysine, methionine and cystine on the number of
price, early culling of boars is clearly detrimental. sperm cells produced. There appears to be a mini-
However, underfeeding may affect reproductive mum level of protein neccessary to ensure maximal
characteristics such as number of sperm cells and sperm production since low protein levels have
the fertilizing capacity of the sperm cells. been shown to reduce the number of sperm cells
ejaculated. A crude protein content of 14% with
One of the few attempts to suggest an optimum lysine and sulfur containing amino acid levels of
growth rate for working boars comes from recent 0.65% and 0.44% are recommended.
research at the University ofWageningen. Dutch
workers recommend a moderate growth rate (400 gJ Calcium and phosphorus are the most important
day) for young boars (150-250 kg) and a reduced minerals to consider in the context of the nutrition
weight gain (200 g/day) in mature boars (250-400 of the working boar as they are crucial not only to
kg). Their research suggests an energy cost for optimal growth rate but also to bone mineralization
growth of 32.8 MJ per kg weight gain. The energy and hence overall soundness of the limbs. It is
requirements for reproduction (semen production generally accepted that higher levels of calcium and
and mating activity) amount to about 18 kJ per kg:" phosphorus are required for optimum bone miner-
which amounts to less than 3% of the maintenance alization as opposed to maximizing growth rate.
cost of the boar. Therefore, this energy cost is Soundness oflimbs is an important index to con-
usually ignored in calculating the daily energy needs sider as foot-related problems are a major contribu-
of the working boar. The energy requirements of tory factor to loss of libido and the inability of the
boars of various body weights are calculated in boar to mount a sow. It has been reported that
Table 6-34. boars which were fed 150% of NRC recommenda-

Table 6-34. Energy Requirements of Working Boars.

Liveweight (kg) 150 200 250 300 350 400

Weight gain (g/day) 500 400 300 200 100 50
Maintenance Energy (MJ/day)1 17.8 22.1 26.1 29.9 33.6 37.1
Energy for Growth (MJ/day)2 16.4 13.1 9.8 6.6 3.3 1.6
Total Energy (MJ/day) 34.2 35.2 35.9 36.5 36.9 38.7
Daily Feed Required (kg/day)! 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 3.0

'Calculated using .415 MJ per kg BW 15

2
Calculatcd using 32.8 MJ per kg weight gain
'Assumes energy content of feed is 13 MJ/kg
Adapted from Kemp, 1989.

164
tions for dietary calcium and phosphorus and fibrous foods. For example lesions of the
thicker-walled metacarpals which had greater esophagus are common in cereal fed animals
strength than boars fed I 00% of recommendations. resulting in a reduced feed intake and poorer repro-
ductive performance. Increasing the fibre content
Zinc has an established role in spermatogenesis of the diet has been shown to reduce the severity of
since zinc deficiencies are implicated in the retarda- such lesions.
tion of the leydig cells. a reduced response to
leutinizing hormone and a reduction in testicular In summary, the energy and protein needs of a
steroidogenesis. A level of I 00 mg/kg is recom- typical boar (i.e., one of 18-24 months and 175-250
mended. Boars show no additional requirements kg liveweight maintained in a thermoneutral envi-
for the other major minerals in relation to sows. ronment) are satisfied by a daily feed allowance of
2.6-3.0 kg of a diet containing around 13 MJ DE/kg
It has also been suggested that the working boar and 140 -160 kg of crude protein. For every 1°C
has no additional requirement for vitamins above that the house temperature drops below 21 °C a boar
those of the breeding sow. However, the role of on a solid unbedded floor should be offered an
biotin in the diet of boars is becoming increasing extra I OOg of food daily. For a boar well bedded
important as a result of its association with foot on straw, this rule would apply below 17°C.
lesions and the attendant implications this bas for
reproductive performance in the boar. Biotin is an
Table 6-35. Composition of Diets for Adult Boars.
essential water soluble sulfur containing vitamin.
Supplementation of the diet with biotin has been 150-200 kg 200-350kg
shown to significantly strengthen the hoof. The
precise mode of action of biotin in the prevention of Dietary Energy, MJ DE/kg 13.0 13.0
foot lesions is still uncertain. It is known that biotin Protein,% 15.0 14.0
increases the compressive strength and hardness of Lysine,% 0.7 0.55
the hoof wall which decreasing the hardness of the T.S.A.A., % 0.47 0.40
heel bulb tissue. A soft heel bulb presumably acts Calcium,% 0.80 0.75
as a cushion, minimizing stresses and absorbing Phosphorus, % 0.70 0.60
strain energy. There is also the suggestion that
vitamins E and C may be of special importance in Adapted from Aherne, F. 1995. Pig Letter 15:16.
the diet of stress susceptible breeds.

A major practical problem in feeding boars is that

the low level of intake may result in hunger, frustra-
tion, abnormal behaviour and generally poor wel-
fare. The use of bulky or fibrous feeds may over-
come these problems and improve health, provided
they supply sufficient nutrients to meet the dietary
needs of the animal. The precise role that fibre may
have in reducing hunger and increasing satiety over
a prolonged period of time may be two fold.
Firstly, the considerable bulking effect that plant
fibre produces increases overall gut fill producing a
feeling of fullness and satiation. Secondly, there is
evidence to suggest that gastric emptying and
intestinal transit times may also be prolonged so
that the duration of this increased fullness will be
extended. There may also be positive health and
welfare advantages associated with the feeding of

165
Additional Reading and References Kemp, B. and den Hartog, L.A., 1989. The influ-
Aherne, F.X., 1991. Feeding the gilt and sow for ence of energy and protein intake on the reproduc-
optimal production. Pages 455-473 ln J.M. Naylor tive performance of the breeding boar: A review.
and S.L. Ralston eds. Large Animal Clinical Anim. Reprod. Sci. 20: 103-115.
Nutrition, Mosby Year Book, St Louis, Missouri.
Kemp, 8., den Hartog, L.A. and Grooten, H.J.G.,
Azain, M.J., 1993. Effects of adding medium-chain 1989. The effect of feeding level on semen quan-
triglycerides to sow diets during late gestation and tity and quality of breeding boars. Anim. Reprod.
early lactation on litter performance. J. Anim. Sci. Sci. 20: 245-254.
71: 3011-3019.
Mahan, D.C., 1990. Mineral nutrition of the sow:
Brooks, P.H. and Cole, D.J., 1972. Studies in sow A review. J. Anim. Sci. 68: 573-582.
reproduction. I. The effect of nutrition between
weaning and remating on the reproductive perform- National Research Council, 1988. Nutrient Require-
ance of primiparous sows. Anim. Prod. 15: 259- ments of Swine. 9th Revised Edition, National Acad-
264. emy Press, Washington, D.C.

Brooks, P.H., Cole, D.J., Rawlinson, P., Croxson, Noblet, J., Dourmad, J. Y. and Etienne, M., 1990.
V.S. and Luscombe, J.R., 1975. Studies in sow Energy utiliztion in pregnant and lactating sows:
reproduction. 3. The effect of nutrition between Modelling of energy requirements. J. Anim. Sci. 68:
weaning and remating on the reproductive perform- 562-572.
ance ofmultiparous sows. Anim. Prod. 20: 407-
412. Pettigrew, J.E., 1993. Amino acid nutrition of ges-
tating and lactating sows. Biokyowa Technical Re-
Close, W.H. and Roberts, F.G., 1993. Nutrition of view, 18 pp.
the working boar. Pages 347-371. In D.J.A. Cole,
W Haresign and P.C. Garnsworthy, eds. Recent Speer, V.C., 1990. Partitioning nitrogen and amino
Developments in Pig Nutrition 2, Nottingham acids for pregnacy and lactation in swine: A review.
Univeristy Press, Sutton Bonington, UK. J. Anim. Sci. 68: 553-561.

den Hartog, L.A., Backus, G.B.C. and Vermeer, Standing Committee on Agriculture, 1987. Feeding
H.M., 1993. Evaluation ofhousing systems for Standards for Australian Livestock: Pigs. CSIRO
sows. J. Anim. Sci. 71: 1339-1344. Printing Centre, Collingwood, Victoria, 226 pp.

Froese, C., 1987. Assessing sow body condition. Takach, M.D., and Dial, G.D., 1992. Managing the
Manitoba Agric, Swine Fact Agdex No. 440-22-40. lactating sow for optimal weaning and rebreeding per-
formance. Pages 559-573. In R.C. Tubbs and A.O.
Hoofs, I.A., 1990. Group housing of pregnant sows Leman eds. The Veterinary Clinics ofNorthAmerica:
in the Netherlands. D. Kellliher, B. Lynch, M. Swine Reproduction. W.B. Saunders Company, Phila-
Martin, F. Tobin and N. Walsh eds. Pig Production delphia.
Trends for the l 990's.Proceedings of the 19th
Annual Syrnp., University College, Dublin, Ireland. Wahlstrom, R.C., 1991. Feeding developing gilts
pp. 14-23. and boars. Pages 517-526 in E.R. Miller, D.E.
Ullrey and A.J. Lewis eds. Swine Nutrition.
Kemp, B., Bakker, C.M., den Hartog, L.A. and Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham Mass.
Yerstcgcn, M. W., 1991. The effect of semen
collection frequency and food intake on semen
production in breeding boars. Anim. Prod. 52: 355-
360.

166
7. FEEDING THE SUCKLING PIG
Young piglets have a great capacity for growth, Photo 7-1.
much greater in fact, than is commonly recognized.
Growth in the suckling piglet is primarily limited by
insufficient intake of milk or of alternative sources
of nutrients. Because practical approaches for
transferring more nutrients from the sow to the
piglet are not yet available. it is the producer's job
to get more nutrients into the piglet so that growth
can be maximized.

Improving a piglet's pre-weaning growth rate

makes a major difference to the rest of its growth It is now recognized that the nursing piglet has much
cycle. There is a strong positive correlation greater potential for growth than was previously
between weaning weight and post-weaning acknowledged. The problem is to supply sufficient
performance (Table 7-1 ). Compared with their nutrients to the piglet to allow greatest genetic potential.
lighter contemporaries, piglets that are weaned at a
body weight of 7 kg or heavier are less susceptible The Importance of Colostrum
to post-weaning diarrhea, will have less post- The first requirement for successful piglet
weaning growth lag and will require a less complex feeding is to ensure that each newborn receives an
diet after weaning. adequate supply of colostrum. Colostrum is the
first milk produced by the sow after parturition; its
Table 7-1. Effect of Weaning \\;"eight at 25-29 Days of
function is to provide nutrients and other essential
Age on Piglet Performance to 78 Days of Age.
substances in a highly concentrated form. In
Weaning 78 day daily addition, colostrum helps to increase disease
gain (g/d) resistance in piglets by providing immunization
weight(kg) weight(kg)
with immunoglobulins (also called antibodies).
6.14 30.40 454 Immunoglobulins are proteins, absorbed by the
7.95 35.60 529 newborn pig's gut, that provide protection against
disease.
Another point in favour of increased pre-
weaning growth rate is decreased pre-weaning The immunoglobulin concentration of sow's
mortality. Pre-weaning mortality is one of the milk declines very rapidly after farrowing. In
major factors reducing swine production efficiency. addition, as a result of a process known as gut
A pre-weaning mortality of 5% is possible, but on closure, piglets rapidly lose their ability to absorb
most commercial farms, 7 to 30% of piglets born immunoglobulins. If piglets do not suckle during
alive do not survive until weaning. The majority of their first 24 hours. they have a greatly reduced
deaths occur within 72 hours of birth, with at least chance of obtaining adequate immune protection
50% occurring in the first 24 hours. Often pre- and may not survive. A point to remember:
weaning mortality is caused by a number of factors, immunoglobulins present in the colostrum are
many of which are related to insufficient energy effective only against diseases to which the sow has
intake (milk consumption) and excessive body heat been exposed. If pregnant sows are brought into a
losses. f n order to minimize energy losses, nursing new barn and fan-ow within 21 days, they may not
piglets should be provided with a warm and draft- protect their offspring against bacteria present in the
free creep area in the farrowing crate or pen. new barn. Scouring in newborn piglets is one
symptom of inadequate sow exposure to disease-
causing organisms.

167
 To ensure all piglets acquire colostrum, Photo 7-2.
producers should take the time to observe litters
shortly after farrowing and assist weak piglets to
suckle by giving them access to the sow's udder.
One way to give access is called "split suckling''.
Shortly after birth, half the piglets are removed
from the sow and are kept in a warm, dry box. The
two halves of the litter are rotated on and off the
sow to give individual piglets maximum
opportunity to suckle and receive colostrum.

Currently, commercial products that contain

imrnunoglobulins and highly digestible energy
sources are available. An oral dose of these prod-
ucts may reduce a newborn piglet's need for its
mother's colostrum.

Another way to ensure piglets receive some Iron injections should be administered in the neck to
colostrum is to keep a supply of cow colostrum in avoid staining the ham at the injection site.
the freezer and give weak and unthrifty piglets an
oral dose (using a small syringe) if they have had
inadequate suckling of their mother's colostrum. Although iron supplementation is crucial to the
suckling piglet's we11-being, excess iron may
The Need for Supplementary Iron increase the incidence of scouring and susceptibility
Based on nutrient content and availability, sows' to bacterial infections. Iron is generally found
milk is generally accepted as the nearly perfect food tightly bound to protein in the suckling pig's body.
for the very young piglet. The only nutrient that is This binding limits how much iron is accessible to
present in sub-optimal levels is iron. Because of bacteria. However, if iron is present at a level
this deficiency, piglets require supplementary iron beyond the capacity of these proteins to bind it,
or they will become anemic and die. pathogenic bacteria may proliferate. Therefore,
take care to ensure that piglets are provided with
The iron deficiency in sow's milk can be over- adequate, but not excessive, iron supplement. Lron
come by the administration of iron dextran either injections occasionally result in the rapid death of
orally or by an intramuscular injection. The amount some piglets. which may indicate a vitamin E and
of iron required to meet their requirements largely selenium deficiency.
depends on the age at which the piglets are to be
weaned. Researchers have calculated that piglets Water Requirements
require approximately 10 mg of iron per day to Piglets require water immediately after birth and
allow growth at their maximum rate. Therefore, if should be offered water from their first day,
piglets are to be weaned at three weeks, a single especially in warm conditions. Providing drinking
injection of 150-200 mg of iron dextran is suffi- water to very young piglets does not reduce their
cient. However, if piglets are to be weaned later, a motivation to suckle; rather, they benefit from
booster shot may be required between days 14 and supplemental drinking water, especially if the sow
21. A means to check the adequacy of iron injec- milks poorly and they do not consume enough
tions is to monitor haemoglobin levels in the blood water in the limited amount of milk they receive.
of the young piglets. The levels should be higher Litters that gain poorly during the first one to three
than 8 ml/I OOml. Iron injections should be admin- days after farrowing drink more water than faster
istered in the neck rather than the ham to avoid growing litters. Provision of a fresh water source is
staining of the most valuable cut in the pig carcass. also beneficial in reducing stress that piglets

168
undergo at weaning. Pigs accustomed to drinking Artificially reared piglets should be fed milk
from a watering system prior to weaning will replacer frequently (4 to 6 times daily) and in small
experience fewer problems with water intake after doses ( 10 ml of milk replacer per pig at first).
weaning. Make the water source easy for newborn Daily consumption of milk replacer may be
piglets to find. Piglets take too long to find and use gradually increased to 300 to 400 ml per piglet at
a nipple drinker so a dish drinker located in the which time dry feed should be introduced. Prevent
creep area is a better choice, at least until the piglets over-consumption of milk replacer and take care to
are accustomed to consuming water. If water ensure the piglets do not get wet during feeding.
nipples are to be used, then these should be pointed
downward to discourage piglets from playing with The successful use of milk replacers to reduce
the nipple and wasting water. pre-weaning mortality in runt pigs has prompted the
development of several mechanical devices or
Use of Milk Replacers "artificial sows" which are designed to automate the
Milk replacers have been used quite successfully delivery of milk replacers. The manufacturers of
to raise orphan piglets or surplus piglets from large these devices claim that a piglet can be fostered
litters. Milk replacer may also be offered to piglets onto an artificial sow as early as 3 days of age.
while they are with the sow in the farrowing crate to
increase weaning weights and reduce variation in The need and use of milk replacers in the
weaning weight in early weaning programs commercial swine industry is anticipated to
(weaning age 21 days or less). A point to decrease as more complex creep and early weaning
remember: if milk replacers are used, piglets must feeds are developed. Some of the early weaning
still obtain colostrum from the sow or another dry feeds can support good levels of performance in
source, such as cow colostrum. piglets weaned at 7 days or earlier (see chapter 8).

Creep Feeding
Photo 7-3a. The sow generally reaches her maximum milk
production during the third week oflactation;

l)� thereafter, milk production dec1ines steadily.

Because of her reduced milk production, the sow is
unable to supply sufficient nutrients to meet the
steadily increasing demands from growing piglets.
If the young pigs' rapid growth rate is to be
maximized, the gap between their nutrient
requirements and the nutrients supplied by the saw's
milk must be fiJled by means of creep feeding.

Photo 7-3b.

.
8

"ti
..
>
�2
aJ
0
O+---,.�.---.---.�...-������---��
0 2 4 6 8
Week of Lactation
Piglets should have ready access to water.
Photo courtesy: Centre for Food and Animal Research. Ottawa. Figure 7-1. A lactation Curve for a SO\\..
- -

169
Benefits of Creep Feeding quality diet. Such a diet would contain at least
The benefits derived from creep feeding have l.25% (up to 1.70%) lysine and 3400 - 3600 kcal
been amply demonstrated. The most significant DE/kg. This was demonstrated by recent studies
benefit is that piglets are heavier at weaning. In a conducted at the Agriculture Canada research
typical four week weaning program, weaning station in Ottawa. In these studies, piglets were
weights may be as much as I 0% higher if high weaned at four weeks of age. Litters on high
quality creep feeds are used. For piglets weaned at complexity, palatable diets ate more creep feed
an earlier age, the intake of creep feed is generally prior to weaning, tended to gain more during the
insufficient to stimulate heavier weaning weights. week before weaning, and converted feed more
efficiently. These piglets also gained more weight
Tn addition, the variation in weaning weights in the first two weeks after weaning as compared to
within a litter may be smaller, i.e., fewer runt pigs in litters that were fed a low-complexity, corn-soybean
the litters at weaning. The response to creep feed meal based diet.
will also depend on litter size, the individual sow's
milking ability and the quality of creep feed. During the first two or three weeks of life, up to
approximately five kilograms body weight, a
Creep feeding can also minimize the setback that piglet's digestive enzymes necessary for the diges-
piglets undergo immediately following weaning. tion of starch, sugar (sucrose), and non-milk pro-
An abrupt change from a liquid diet to a meal diet is teins are present at relatively low levels. A piglet's
a nutritional stress that generally results in a growth digestive tract is best suited to digest milk proteins
check during which time pigs consume very little (casein), milk sugar (lactose), glucose, and specific
feed, gain little weight, and often suffer from fats so its diet should include ingredients such as
scours. A gradual introduction to solid feed during skim milk. high quality whey products, high quality
the suckling period will develop the enzymes blood products, added fat (preferably fats with
required for digestion, allow piglets to learn how to medium chain fatty acids, such as coconut oil, or
consume dry feed, and minimize the growth check. unsaturated fats, such as com oil, canola oil, or soy
However, in order to achieve a reduction in setback oil), cooked cereals (rolled oats or flaked corn), and
after weaning through enhanced creep feed con- glucose. In addition, small amounts of non-milk
surnption, substantial amounts of creep feed must proteins should be added to encourage development
be consumed. According to some studies, this may of the piglet's digestive enzymes. High quality pre-
be as much as one kilogram per piglet. starter (Phase T or MEW) diets may be used as
creep feeds for suckling piglets weighing less than
Creep feeding has also been shown to be five kilograms (see chapter 8).
beneficial to the sow. When creep feed is provided
piglets tend to suckle less intensively so sows tend
to be in better body condition at weaning. As a
result, these sows have shorter weaning to a
rebreeding intervals and higher conception rates > 7
than sows whose litters have not been provided with >
.... 6
., ,
creep feed. fi 5 � ......
< 4
w
Creep Feed Formulation � '2
La-(·-
�
Creep feeds are designed to supplement the w
nutrients contained in sows milk. Therefore, creep L-......,..-.....-�..----...-----.--, ...,,....ug,u,
feed does not have to provide all the nutrients t 2 3 4 5 6 7

required by the suckling pig. Digestibility and AGE (WffkS)

palatability arc far more important factors in evalu-
ating creep feeds than nutrient content. However, Figure 7-2. Digestive Enzyme Activity Pattern in
the suckling pig should still be supplied with a high Young Swine.

170
 At approximately three weeks of age, or when before being cleaned and/or replaced. Little and
body weight exceeds five kilograms, this largely often is the rule for creep feeding, with fresh creep
milk-based diet can be replaced by a less expensive, feed supplied each day. Not only does this practice
pre-starter diet based on cereals and high quality ensure the creep is always fresh, but the daily arrival
proteins. In general, high energy grains such as of fresh feed serves to stimulate the piglets' inherent
corn or wheat as well as readily digested protein curiosity in the new material, which also helps to
supplements such as soybean meal form the basis of encourage consumption.
most pre-starter diets. The pre-starter diet should
still contain some of the high quality products that Consumption can be stimulated by feeding a
are included in creep feeds. Ingredients such as oat pelleted or crumbled creep feed. Piglets fed pellets
groats, flaked corn. fish meal. dried skim milk, with a small diameter (0.4cm or smaller) or crum-
dried whey, sugar, and fat are commonly added to bles tend to eat more and waste less as compared to
increase palatability and digestibility. Pre-starter piglets fed pellets with a large diameter (0.5cm or
(Phase I or high quality Phase II) diets may be used larger). If small pellets or crumbles are not avail-
as creep feeds for suckling pigs weighing more than able, a short-cut pellet (2 - 3 mm long) is preferred.
five kilograms as well (see chapter 8).
Even though piglets have access to the sow's
Factors Affecting Creep Feed Intake milk while eating creep feed, they must have access
Creep feed consumption is affected by many to fresh water if feed intake is to be maximized. If
factors. These factors include: the feeding system, pigs are weaned after three to four weeks of age,
feed palatability, the environment in which the creep feed intake will be reduced significantly
piglet is housed the sow's milk composition and without readily available fresh water. Pigs accus-
yield, the piglets' health, vigor, and growth rate, and tomed to drinking from a nipple waterer while in
the amount of water available. A reasonable target the farrowing crate will experience fewer problems
creep feed intake for litters weaned at 4 weeks is in adapting to the watering system at weaning.
about 2.5 kg of feed per litter. If litters are not However, water nipples should be pointed down-
achieving this level of intake, take steps to increase ward to discourage piglets from playing with the
their creep feed consumption. nipple and wasting water.

Research has shown that the location of the

creep feeder in the pen does not affect feed intake
or feed wastage. However, raising the creep feeder
four inches from the floor has been shown to result
in a significant reduction in creep feed wastage.
Since creep feeds are relatively expensive, this
simple procedure is certainly cost-effective.

Creep feed composition will affect how much

piglets eat. As mentioned previously, ingredients
such as oat groats, flaked corn, fish meal, dried
skim milk, dried whey, sugar, and animal fat have
Creep fed piglets are heavier at weaning if weaning age is been utilized to increase creep feed palatability.
28 days or greater. Many flavor-enhancers are currently being
promoted as a means of increasing creep feed
consumption, but research on the effectiveness of
One of the most important factors stimulating these artificial flavors is inconclusive so their use
piglets to eat creep feed is the feed's freshness. All remains questionable.
too often feed is placed in a creep feeder and left
there to be fouled, attract flies, and become stale

171
Starting Pigs on Creep Feed cases, the hypersensitivity can result in an immune
Piglets should be started on creep feed when response in the gut, damaging the intestinal tract
they are about 7 days old by offering a little feed on lining The damage can cause diarrhea in the newly
a clean, dry section of the floor (use a board in weaned pig, and poor post-weaning performance,
farrowing crates with a slatted floor). Piglets are However, if creep feed is introduced early and large
more likely to show interest in feed initially offered amounts are consumed prior to weaning, the im-
in this manner. Never offer creep feed within a mune system may develop a tolerance to feed
couple of hours of the sow being fed; the litter will antigens prior to weaning, and post-weaning scour-
be suckling or sleeping and may not notice the feed. ing can be controlled. The effect of feeding strate-
ln addition, never offer more than 20 g/litter/day gies on changes in the piglet's immune system and
until the piglets are obviously consuming the feed. hypersensitivity in the gut remains an active area of
research.
Floor feeding should continue for the first three
to four days or until the piglets are definitely eating Additional Reading and References
the feed. When the litter is obviously eating the
Aherne, F.X., Danielsen, V. and Nielson, H.E.,
feed, a small feeder may be used. Since piglets
I 982. The effects of creep feeding on pre and post
prefer to feed together, the feed trough should be
weaning pig performance. Acta Agric. Scand. 32:
large enough to allow as many piglets as possible to
155-160.
feed at the same time. A fairly heavy, shallow,
circular trough is suitable for this purpose because it
Azain, M.J., and Jewell, D.E. 1991. Impact of early
makes the creep feed obvious and easily accessible
nutrition on pig performance. Proc. 1991 Georgia
to the piglets, as well as accommodating a fairly
Nutrition conference. pp 99-107.
large litter.
Etheridge, R.D. and Seerley. R.W., 1984. Aspects
of dietary stresses on the digestive system of the
baby piglet. Proc. 1984 Georgia Nutrition Confer-
ence. pp 32-43.

Fowler. V.R., 1980. The nutrition of the piglet.

Proc. Nottingham Nutrition Conference for Feed
Manufacturers. pp. 1-20.

Fraser, D., J.J.R. Feddes and E.A. Pajor. 1994.

The relationship between creep feeding behaviour
of piglets and adaptation to weaning: Effect of diet
quality. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 74: l-6.
Creep feeding should be introduced by placing a small
amount of a good qua I ity feed on the floor of the crate.
Groskreutz, K.A., 1983. Successful rearing starts
with good colostrum. Pigs 2: 3-6.
Creep Feed Induced Hypersensitivity
Veum, T.L. Feeding neonatal pigs. In: Swine Nutri-
Creep feed made up of large quantities of certain
tion (Ed. E.R. Miller, D.E. Ullrey and A.J. Lewis)
ingredients, such as soybean meal and legume
pp 483-496.
seeds, may contain some anti-nutritional elements.
Exposing piglets to large quantities of these ingredi-
ents may provide dietary antigens which can de-
velop a transient hypersensitivity in the young
piglet's gut. After seven to ten days the
hypersensitivity normally disappears, but in some

172
8. FEEDING THE WEANED PIG
The period immediately after weaning is an In addition, it is almost impossible to prevent
extremely important time in the life of the pig, one some decline in nutrient intake as the pig changes
which has a significant impact on future perform- from sow's milk to a starter diet. This decline in
ance. For example, on farrow-to-finish farms intake results in a proportionate decline in meta-
where age at market weight has been identified as a bolic body heat generation, making the pig more
problem, one often finds the root cause in the susceptible to chilling at the time of weaning.
nursery, rather than in the growout barn. Indeed, Control of the thermal environment is critical, and
studies at the Prairie Swine Centre have demon- in some respects, will be related to diet composition
strated that about 30% of the variation in age to (see "the pig's environment" later in this chapter).
market can be attributed to the time it takes a pig to
reach a body weight of 23 kg. It is self-evident that exposure to disease-causing
organisms compromises the ability of the pig to
Healthy, vigorous pigs that are eating and growing adjust to weaning. However, management, as
well adjust more easily to weaning and suffer little opposed to treatment of disease, has proven to be
or no effects of "post-weaning lag." Poor-doing, the most effective strategy. Attaining minimum
lethargic pigs are slower-growing, do not adjust disease status in a herd offers many overall advan-
well to weaning and suffer the greatest drop in tages. particularly for the weanling pig. However,
performance at weaning. Clearly, the key is to get not all diseases can be eliminated from the herd.
pigs off to a good start to ensure ongoing success Depending on the diseases that are a concern in a
(Figure 8-1). given herd, segregated early weaning (SEW) offers
184
advantages in terms of reducing pathogen transmis-
182 sion from the sow to her litter (Table 8-1 ). In the
instance of other diseases, minimizing the age
s
180

a:
178 spread of piglets within the farrowing room and
� 176
within the nursery is highly desirable.
f?
(I)
174

� 172
0
170
In addition to the stresses of nutrition and disease,
168 the impact of a sub-optimal environment and
166 disturbances to the previous social order must not
0· 150 150 • 225 >225
A.D.G. (grams) DURING FIRST WEEK AFTER WEANING
be underestimated. A holistic approach to
managing the newly-weaned pig, particularly as the
Adapted from Tokach et aJ. 1992. Proc. Kansas State industry moves to weaning at an earlier age,
Univ. Swine Day. Manhattan, KS. pp. 15-17.
becomes paramount. Modification of diet cannot
Figure 8-1. overcome the effects of a poor environment, just as
creating an ideal environment will not compensate
for a poor diet. All the pieces of the puzzle must
Stresses at Weaning
be in place and integrated.
At the time of weaning, the pig is exposed to a
series of stressors that, if left unchecked, can lead to
However. the process of weaning, no matter how
poor performance and increased mortality. For
carefully managed, results in changes in the gut of
example, due to removal from the sow, the piglet is
the pig that make it more susceptible to digestive
forced to change from an almost ideal liquid diet,
upset, diarrhea and impaired appetite. The objec-
based on lactose, fat and milk protein, to a dry diet
tive, then, in developing diets for the weanling pig
based on different proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
is to recognize these unique needs and facilitate a
Sow's milk offers other advantages, containing
smooth transition to the piglet's new lifestyle,
'non-nutritive' components that facilitate digestion
and provide protection against disease.

173
resulting in rapid and efficient growth and Limited Photo 8-1.
health problems. This must all be accomplished
with a keen eye to cost and economic efficiency.

Table 8-1. Recommended Weaning Age for

Disease Elimination.

Infectious Agent Age (days)

Pasteurella multocida 10
Mycoplasma hyopneumonia 10 Water medicators are often used to mix nutritional
Actinobacillus pleuropneumonia 21 supplements or medication into water supplies.
T.G.E. virus 21
Serpulina hyodysenteriae 21
PRRS 21 Failure to achieve these performance targets could
be due to diet composition, but could also include
NB. Strep. suis, Haemophilus parasuis, Actinobacillus. such factors as housing (all-in-all-out is essential),
suis are not easily eliminated.
environment (warm, dry and draft-free), genetics
Source: Sheridan, 1995. and health.

Maximizing Feed Intake

Performance Targets In most circumstances, weanling performance is
Monitoring performance is essential for success; Limited by feed intake, and more precisely, by
however, performance data is only useful if it is energy intake. Producers who achieve a high level
employed by management in a constructive way. of feed intake are able to realize the best overall
One effective approach is to compare one's per- performance in their nursery. A few key points
formance with that being achieved by other similar appear to be crucial to such success.
units, in order to determine where further improve-
ments might be sought. If such information is not Feed intake is heavily influenced by diet digest-
available from neighbouring farms, the targets ibility. Seemingly small reductions in digestibility
illustrated in Figure 8-2 and Table 8-2 may be used. can have a proportionately large impact by reducing
"Good" represents the level of performance ex- voluntary feed intake.
pected in a reasonably good environment, while
"better" illustrates what might be expected with a Fresh water must be readily available. Piglets
very high level of overall management. "Best" sometimes have difficulty finding nipple drinkers
represents a level of performance which currently immediately after weaning, so attention to early
exceeds that achieved on most farms, but which water consumption is important. Dish-type drinkers
should become more readily achieved as our under- offer advantages in terms of pigs accessing water
standing of weanling management grows and soon after weaning, but difficulties in keeping them
related technology improves. clean reduces their popularity.

Table 8-2. Performance Targets for Pigs from 7 to 25 Water containing high levels of minerals,
kg Body Weight. especially sulphate, can contribute to diarrhea, but
have surprisingly little impact on feed intake. Each
Good Better Best situation where water is a concern needs to be
Average daily gain (kg) 460 520 585 evaluated closely.
Average daily feed (kg) 740 780 820
Feed conversion 1.6 1.5 1.4 Much is often said about the importance of fresh
Mortality,% 1.0 0.5 0.2 feed. While caked, stale or fouled feed is clearly

174
 Q
0
g� ...
<c ...
C)

<.O
LO

"' l'I

�
C\I
'<t

LO

-
er:>

Cl)

-
�
"O
w

-c
·- �

z
<X)
C\I
as
� �g�
z�o
�;s
CZ)�c,
........ .
l

. .......
. ..
�
z --
---.....
------·u,
-·
.........
II: I
0

<X) <.O '<t C\I O <X) <.O '<t C\I O

C\I C\I C\I C\I C\I <X) <.O C\I

(sweJ50l!)f) .lH813M

Figure 8-2. Growth Curves for Pigs Demonstrating Good, Better and Best Perfromance to 1 O Weeks of Age.

175
undesirable, there is little data to suggest that feed Other important factors that determine feed intake
needs to be added fresh daily. Indeed, limited research are addressed later in this chapter. These include
suggests barn odours have little effect on voluntary ambient temperature, floor space and feeder design.
feed intake in weanling pigs. However, regularly
adding new feed to the feeder appears to attract the
pig's attention and thus may stimulate intake.
Managing the Early-Weaned Pig
Although feed composition is critical to success in
early weaning (<21 days), proper animal and feed
Under some circumstances, limiting daily feed
management is also essential. Pigs should be
intake in the newly-weaned pig might help to
weaned in groups of 10 - 15 pigs per pen into an
control diarrhea. While such a practice may be
all-in-all-out nursery. At the time of weaning, the
effective as a short-term solution, ultimately the
temperature should be approximately 32° C. Heat
underlying cause of the problem needs to be
lamps should also be used for the first two or three
addressed, as the objective in the nursery is to get
days, especially for smaller pigs. If heat lamps are
pigs onto full-feed as quickly as possible. Only
not available, the temperature should be increased
then will growth rate be maximized. A full
by 2° C. The temperature can be reduced by 1 ° C
discussion of limit feeding appears later in this
every two to three days until the room temperature
chapter.
is 28° C. At this time, the temperature should be

Table 8-3. Nutrient Requirements of the Weanling Pig.

Nutrients Weight Range, kg

Wean to 7 kg 7 to 12 kg 12 to 20 kg
Energy!
D.E. kcal/kg 3450 - 3600 3450 - 3550 3350 - 3450

Available amino acids2

Lysine, g!Mcal DE 3.60 3.10 2.90
Lysine,% 1.30 1.10 1.00
Methionine, % 0.36 0.31 0.28
TS.A.A.,% 0.72 0.61 0.56
Threonine,% 0.85 0.72 0.65
Tryptophan, % 0.22 0.19 0.18
Leucine, % 1.30 1.10 1.00
lsoleucine, % 0.78 0.66 0.60
Valine,% 0.88 0.75 0.68
Phenylalanine,% 0.74 0.63 0.57
Histidine, % 0.42 0.35 0.32
Arginine,% 0.55 0.46 0.42
Minerals3
Calcium,% 0.90 0.80 (1.00) 0.70 (1.00)
Phosphorus, % 0.70 0.65 (0.80) 0.60 (0.80)
Sodium,% 0.12 0.12 0.12
Chloride,% 0.15 0.15 0.15

1
Not a "requirement" per se, but a suggested D.E. level for pigs of this weight (age) range. Actual D.E. will depend on
available ingredients and relative cost.
2
All amino acid requirements expressed as "available" using ilea! digestibility as the standard.
3Lcvels for animals destined for slaughter. Levels for animals intended for breeding stock are provided in parenthesis.

176
lowered by 1 ° C each week. These are estimates Some people recommend minimum lighting to
only, as conditions due to drafts, building insula- reduce tail biting and other vices. This may actually
tion, flooring material, humidity, etc., will affect the have the opposite effect. Turning on the lights to
exact needs of the pig. Pig behaviour is a good check the pigs then creates a high level of activity
indicator of comfort. Lying in piles on their bellies that in some cases has led to increased vices. It is
is generally an indication of chilling. Panting is best to create a pleasant, warm, dry, draft-free, and
indicative of heat stress. Ideally, pigs should be uncrowded environment for the pigs. These
lying on their sides, well separated from their conditions are the best way to avoid behavioural
neighbours. Remember, high temperatures suppress problems.
feed intake and may contribute to illness.
Nutrient Requirements of the Weaned
Initially, feed should be provided on pans placed
Pig
in the centre of the pen. Heavy metal pans with 12
The nutrient requirements of the weaned pig, like
to 25 millimetre edges are desirable as they are easy
other classes of swine, depend on many factors,
to work with, difficult to tip, and help reduce
including their genetic potential for lean and fat
wastage. Various feeding regimes are recom-
gain, the environment and health status. For the
mended, but we like offering 50 - 75 g per pig on
purposes of this chapter, when defining nutrient
the pan. It should be replenished three times a day.
requirements and diet composition, we assume
By the third day, pigs should be starting to use the
superior genetics, an optimurn environment and a
self-feeder. By the third to fifth day, the feed pan
reasonably high health status. There are three
can be removed.
reasons for taking this approach.
Feeders should be adjusted to ensure ready access
First, our understanding of the interrelationship
to feed while avoiding wastage. Plenty of feeder
among health status, the environment and nutrient
space is required, as pigs at this age are group
requirements is not well understood at this time.
eaters. Single space feeders are not recommended.
Because of the importance of performance at this
To avoid fouling, the feeders should be at least 15
cm from a corner, since pigs Like to defecate in stage in production, one will typically err on the
side of over- as opposed to under-formulation.
corners. Finally, feeders should be designed with
spacers in the trough to prevent pigs from sleeping
Second, the economic "risk" of over-feeding
in them.
nutrients in the nursery is small compared to the
potential benefit of improved performance. This is
While nipple drinkers are easiest to keep clean,
due to the fact that pigs in the nursery eat a rela-
dish drinkers are more conducive to water intake at
tively small amount of feed; indeed, Jess than l O
the time of weaning. Most importantly, water must
percent of the total feed required to carry the pig
be readily available at all times.
from weaning to market will be consumed during
Photo 8-2. this period. In particular, during the early post-
weaning stage, diet cost will be influenced more by
selection of ingredients than levels of nutrients.
This will be discussed in the next section.

Phase feeding programs help to address this

problem as well, as they allow producers to meet
the unique needs of the pig as it progresses from 2
or 3 weeks of age through to 8 to l O weeks of age
in the most economical fashion. The younger pig
has much more stringent requirements, but in early-
weaning systems (<10 days), less than 15% of the
total starter intake occurs prior to 7 kg body weight

177
(Figure 8-3 ). In pigs weaned at 19 days of age, less Recommended nutrient requirements for the
than 5% of the total starter feed is consumed prior weanling pig are summarized in Table 8-3. The
to 7 kg body weight. recommended energy levels are expressed as a
18.0 to 23.0 kg
30%
range and are quite arbitrary. The exact levels will
depend on the cost and availability of high energy
3.4 to 7.0 kg
basal feedstuffs. The ability to include moderate
13% amounts of fat into diets based on wheat must also
be considered. Lower energy values are possible in
all cases, although growth rate will decline propor-
tionately.

No lower limit for crude protein is provided.

Diets are formulated to meet amino acid require-
Figure 8-3a. Starter Feed Usage: two week weaning. ments. Under commercial conditions, if the re-
18.0 to 23.0 quirements for essential amino acids are met, then it
kg
34% is assumed that the need for non-essential amino
5.5 to 7.0 kg
5% acids will also be addressed. The one exception
that nutritionists might consider is glutamine.

7.0 to 11.5 kg
22%
There may, however, be an upper limit to crude
protein in these diets, but that has not been firmly
established. There are concerns that if crude protein
levels are too high. scouring may be encouraged. In
39%
addition, the metabolic cost of eliminating excess
Figure 8-3b. Starter Feed Usage: three week weaning. nitrogen should be minimized, allowing available
nutrients to be directed towards more productive
Third, during the weanling period, daily nutrient purposes.
intake is generally the most critical factor limiting
animal performance. While genetics. as well as the Feeding Programs
environment and health may influence feed intake, For a variety of reasons, including a rapidly
few pigs are fed diets that allow full expression of maturing gastrointestinal tract and the cost of
genetic potential because the nutrient density of the providing an effective diet to the newly-weaned
diet is limiting for both practical and economic piglet, the optimum diet for weanling pigs changes
reasons (Figure 8-4). almost weekly. Consequently, a phase feeding
program is necessary to balance animal perform-
ance and feed costs. The nature of the program will
depend on a variety of factors. the most important
of which is the age at weaning.

Common Transient Gastrointestinal Hypersensitivity

Dietary D.E.
Range Research over the past two decades has revealed
that early-weaned pigs experience a transient
allergic reaction to certain dietary proteins. Certain
vegetable proteins, such as those found in soybean
meal, have been identified as contributing to
DIET D.E. CONCENTRATION transient allergic reactions. Young piglets, once
exposed to soybean meal, produce antibodies
Figure 8-4. Relationship Between Dietary Energy specific to soy protein antigens; such exposure can
Concentration and Body Protein Gain in Weanling
Pigs. Adapted form Campbell and Dunkin, 1983.

178
result from offering small amounts of creep feed production cycle make up for early losses in animal
containing soybean meal, or from piglets eating performance. The presence or absence of true
small quantities of the sow's feed. This allergic compensatory gain in pork production remains
response results in damage to the intestinal villi, controversial.
which in tum impairs digestive and absorptive
capacity of the associated epithelial cells. Over It is generally safe to conclude that in production
time, pigs develop a tolerance. systems requiring rapid animal throughput or in
early weaning systems, complex diets are essential.
The problem is less acute in pigs weaned at four It is difficult to envisage getting pigs to market in
weeks of age or later, due to the larger intake of less than 150 days on simple starter diets, or
creep feeds and the resulting tolerance to soybean weaning 12 to 17 day old pigs onto a cereal-based
proteins that develops. It is more acute in younger feed. Conversely, with older weaning and less
pigs because their consumption of creep diets wiU emphasis on days to market, less expensive diets
be Jess and tolerance will not yet be established. may suffice. To restate, phase feeding allows
producers to optimize their feeding programs, using
A variety of products derived from soybean meal, more complex diets at the time of weaning,
such as soy protein isolates or concentrates, have followed by increasingly simple and less expensive
been developed to overcome this problem. In diets later.
addition, based on research from Kansas State
University, various kinds of heat treatment, includ- The solution, as in other controversies, remains
ing moist extrusion, help to alleviate the problem. the same: producers should monitor performance on
their farm, consider all options and determine the
Simple Versus Complex best choice under their particular circumstances.
An age old topic of discussion in nursery diets The final decision will depend on economics and
revolves around the use of complex versus simple animal well-being. Without information specific to
diets. Complex diets involve a number of different their farm, producers must depend on
ingredients, including cereal grains, proteins from recommendations based on "typical" or "average"
both animal and vegetable sources as well as fats results.
and/or oils. Simple diets, in contrast. generally
contain cereal grains, vegetable proteins and a small Ad libitum Versus Restricted Feed Supply
quantity of oil. In reality, a continuum exists from Diarrhea is an all-too-common problem in many
highly complex diets, with a dozen or more ingredi- nurseries. Diet change, environmental stress and
ents, to a very simple diet containing no more than reduced resistance to disease combine to increase
4 or 5 ingredients. Complex diets are more expen- the likelihood of illness, often related to the
sive to manufacture and require more skill in digestive system. Typically, at the time of weaning,
obtaining the large number of ingredients. They a period of low feed intake is followed by gorging
also tend to be more difficult to manufacture and which overloads the intestinal tract, resulting in
often are difficult to peUet. However, one cannot scouring.
dispute the much improved performance observed
with early-weaned pigs fed such diets as compared One effective way to address this situation is to
to the more simple formulations. limit feed the pigs for the first 5 to 7 days after
weaning to prevent this period of overconsumption.
The discussion arises from the relative economics While the practice is effective, it is also labour
of the two types of diets, and in particular, whether intensive and requires careful management to ensure
early improvements in performance are reflected in that feed intake is not restricted excessively,
overall gains in productivity and profitability for the resulting in slower growth. Consequently,
farm. The answer, as one might suspect, is not a producers seek ways to provide diets ad libitum that
simple one. Some proponents of simple diets avoid diarrhea and thus eliminate the need to restrict
suggest that compensatory gain later in the feed intake.

179
 The solution is to provide a high quality physical Diet Composition
environment which includes good control of While meeting the nutrient requirements of the
temperature and embraces the all-in-all-out weanling pig is essential in providing a balanced
management system. These two factors, along with diet, the composition of the diet, in terms of
minimizing drafts and keeping piglets dry, will go a ingredient content, is also very important. This is
long way towards eliminating most of the major due to the fact that the gastrointestinal tract of the
contributors to ill health. young pig is not fully matured and is influenced by
the presence of anti-nutritive factors more so than in
The other solution is diet composition. The very older animals. It is also assumed, at least, that
high quality diets recommended for the newly- palatability is more important at this stage of
weaned pig are designed to be highly palatable and production.
digestible thus avoiding the scenario that leads to
gut overload. Such diets are costly, but support The primary focus of composition of weanling
maximal performance. It is up to each producer to diets is providing nutrients in a package that
decide whether a lower cost diet, limit-fed for the recognizes the unique needs of the immature
first five to seven days after weaning, is preferable gastrointestinal tract, avoids anti-nutritive factors
in their operation. and maximizes early feed intake. Cost is an
important consideration, but needs to be addressed
Diet Form in the context of the total production system.
There is not a great deal of published information Generally speaking, diets for the newly-weaned pig,
on the relative merits of pellets, crumbles and mash especially those weaned at less than 4 weeks of age,
in starter diets. Generally speaking, large pellets represent a compromise between what is ideal, from
should be avoided in the very young pig as it does the pig's perspective, and what is economically
reduce feed intake. For creep feeds and early-phase feasible, from the producer's perspective. The
starters, crumbles, small pellets or short-cut pellets greatest success occurs when this compromise is
are generally preferred. Further discussion on managed most effectively.
pelleting pig diets appears in chapter 10.
While ingredients can be selected based on
Phase Feeding Programs "typical" results, it is important to realize that
Whether one is considering the breeding herd, quality standards are particularly important in
market hogs or weanling pigs, phase feeding weanling diets. Following are a few guidelines to
programs are employed to closely match an consider.
animal's changing requirements with diet
composition in the most economical manner. In the Fats and Oils
case of the weanling pig, these changes are rapid Young pigs, particularly those immediately after
and profound. This is due not only to nutrient weaning are sensitive to the type of fats used.
requirements changing, but also the ingredients Short-chained fatty acids are more digestible than
most suited to the two to three week old piglet medium-chained fatty acids and long-chained fatty
differ in a significant fashion from those necessary acids are the least digestible. The differences are
in the five week or eight week old pig. greatest in the 3 week old piglet and decline almost
weekly thereafter. As the pig ages, its ability to
The newly-weaned pig, especially those weaned utilize the energy from fats increases. During the
at less than 4 weeks of age, have a unique first 2 to 3 weeks after weaning, vegetable oils are
requirement for a diet of high nutrient density, high clearly preferred over tallow and lard. However, as
digestibility and high palatability. Meeting these the pig ages, animal source fats are used with
needs requires very expensive ingredients. increasing effectiveness.
However, as the pig ages, its needs become less
stringent and a broader array of ingredients will
support optimal performance.

180
 To maximize the utilization of energy from fats, dried blood cells are produced in a similar manner.
excess calcium should be avoided to reduce the The whole blood is treated with an anticoagulant to
formation of poorly digested soaps. For this maintain it in liquid form. It is then centrifuged to
reason, calcium levels must be carefully controlled separate the cells from the plasma. Once separated,
in starter diets. the cells are spray-dried in a manner similar to that
applied to whole blood. With increased interest in
Blood Products plasma proteins and blood cells, blood meal is
Only spray-dried blood products should be used becoming a less common ingredient.
in the diet of the young pig; flash and ring dried
blood products are of lesser nutritive value and The manufacture of these products has
should generally be avoided in starter cLiets. contributed greatly to the success of early-weaning
programs. However, when formulating diets
Spray-dried blood meal is collected from packing containing blood products, particular attention must
plants. The moisture is removed in a very be directed to methionine levels, as these tend to be
controlled manner to prevent damage to the quite low. For example, in whole blood, the ratio of
proteins. Spray-dried plasma proteins and spray- methionine to lysine is about 0.12, less than half of
what is required in the final pig diet.

Table 8-4. Diet Composition Guidelines for the Weanling Pig.

Ingredient Body Wei�ht Range. kg

Phase I Phase II Phase Ill
Very early wean Early wean Late wean
{<15 days)' (<21 days)' (21 to 28 days)' 7 - 12 kg 12- 20 kg

Soybean meal, max. 15% 20% 25% 25% NUL

Porcine plasma protein.min. 6to 10% 5to 7% Oto3% Oto 5% nil
Spray-dried blood meal, max. Oto 1.5% I to2% Oto4% Oto 5% Oto 5%
Whey powder, min. 20 to 25% 20 to 25% 20 to25% Oto 15% Oto5%
Lactose, min. 20% 15% 9% 0% 0%
Growth promotant Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Form Crumble or small pellet Crumble/short pellet or
pellet mash

I
Feed until the pigs reach 7 kg bodyweight; for later weaning. feed for at least 7 days after weaning

NUL - no upper limit

NB. When ranges are provided, consideration can be given to economic conditions as well as the level of stress imposed on the
animal by housing conditions.

Whey and Skim Milk Powder Skim milk powder may also be used; however, it
Whey powder is used extensively in weanling tends to be a much more expensive source of
diets, especially immediately after weaning when lactose and casein. If skim milk powder is priced
lactose and milk proteins are preferred over starch competitively, it is a highly desirable product in
and vegetable proteins. However, for greatest starter diets.
success, high quality whey powder must be used.
For early-weaned pigs at least, spray-dried, edible- Dehulled Cereal Grains
grade, high-lactose whey is preferred, even though
Oat groats, when available, tend to be a highly
it is more expensive.
palatable ingredient for use in starter diets. In
regions where other cereal grains are more common

181
Table 8-5. Sample Diets for Weanling Pigs.

Body Weight Range. kg

Phase I Phase II Phase III
Very early wean Early wean Later wean
(<15 days) (<21 days) (21 to 28 days) 7 - 12 kg 12 - 20 kg

Ingredients
Wheat 37.55 39.39 40.73 51.68 69.37
Com 36.69 39.01 41.37 52.52 66.38
Soybean meal - 47% 15.00 15.00 20.00 20.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 28.65 25.00
Spray dried whey 25.00 25.00 20.00 20.00 25.00 25.00 15.00 15.00
Lactose 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Select menhaden fish meal 2.50 2.50
Spray-dried plasma proteins 6.00 6.00 5.00 5.00 2.50 2.50
Spray-dried blood meal 2.00 2.00 2.50 2.50 1.25 l.25 2.50 2.50
L-lysine HCI 0.21 0.15 0.11 0.03 0.10 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.13
L-threonine 0.14 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.04 0.10 0.10
DL-methionine 0.16 0.09 0.17 0.10 0.15 0.08 0.07 0.03
Fat/oil 3.80 3.60 4.10 3.90 1.00 l.80 1.00 2.00 0.50 l.15
Premix 3.50 3.50 4.00 4.00 3.50 3.50 3.75 3.75 4.25 4.25
Antibiotic + -r + + + + + + +

Nutrients. minimum
D.E., kcal/kg 3600 3550 3600 3550 3450 3450 3450 3450 3400 3400
Crude protein, % 22. l 23.9 22.0 23.8 22.2 24.1 20.7 23.l 19.5 21.5
Lysine:D.E., g(Mcal 3.60 3.60 3.60 3.60 3.60 3.60 3.20 3.20 2.90 2.90
Dig. lysine,% l.30 1.28 1.30 1.28 1.24 1.24 1.10 l.10 0.98 0.98
Dig. methionine,% 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.31 0.31 0.28 0.28
Dig. TS.A.A., % 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.61 0.61 0.55 0.55
Dig. threonine, % 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.72 0.72 0.65 0.65
Dig. tryptophan, % 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.19 0.19 0.17 0.17
Calcium,% 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70
Phosphorus, % 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.65 0.65 0.60 0.60

NB. These are example diets only and should not be employed without consulting a professional nutritionist. Exact
formulations will require integration of the nutrient profiles oflocal ingredients, as well as completion of least cost
procedures. Also. the technology associated with starter diet formulations is changing very rapidly.

The Phase ll diet can be fed from a body weight of7 to 12 kg. Under some circumstances, producers will find that
such a diet wi II provide satisfactory performance for pigs weaned at 4 weeks of age, avoiding the need for the more
expensive Phase I diet. Success will depend on such factors as quality of the nursery, health status of the pigs and
overall management skills of the herdsman.

The Phase rI1 diet is the simplest in design, requiring no expensive plasma proteins, whey powders, etc. Blood meal
would only be used if economical. Whey powder could be used if problems are observed, but under reasonable
conditions, whey powder will not be required if the previous feeding program has been adhered to.

182
Table 8-6. Effect of Medication on the Performance The Phase I diet is designed to be fed from the
of Weanling Pigs in a High Health Herd. time of weaning until the pig reaches 7 kg, or for at
least one week, whichever is longer. lt may also be
Control Medicated used as a creep feed. A variety of Phase 1 diets are
Average daily gain (kg) 0.37 0.47 provided in Tables 8-4 and 8-5, depending on the
Average daily feed (kg) 0.58 0.70 age at weaning. In general, the younger the age at
Feed conversion l.56 1.48 weaning, the lower the level of starch and vegetable
proteins and the higher the desired levels of lactose
NB. Four week trial, commencing immediately upon and milk proteins. For pigs weaned at less than two
weaning weeks of age, lactose levels should be in the range
of 20% or more. Spray-dried plasma proteins,
Source: Patience and Christison, 1988.
spray-dried blood proteins and spray-dried red
blood cells have all proven beneficial. The exact
than com, groating oats represents a method to levels required will depend on conditions within the
enhance the digestible energy content of what might barn and will, of course, be influenced by economic
otherwise be lower energy feeds. Naked oats and considerations.
dehulled barley represent another alternative to
increase the energy content of the feed, but their As the weaning age rises, the Phase I diet will
value in starter diets has not been fully defined. become less expensive as a greater portion of the
energy and protein can come from plant sources.
Diet Formulations If the pigs are weaned at 21 days of age or older,
Many alternatives are available in developing they should receive the appropriate diet in Table 8-4
effective weanling feeding programs. Diets for a period of at least one week, before switching
presented in this chapter are offered as examples gradually to the Phase Il diet.
only.
While such diets are expensive, they are conswned
Producers are strongly encouraged to discuss their in relatively small quantities. so the cost per pig is
specific needs with a qualified nutritionist as the quite small. For example, at the time of writing, feed-
formulation of starter diets is a highly specialized ing the "later wean" Phase I diet for one week after
science, one which is advancing at a rapid rate. weaning would cost less than $1.75 per pig. The fi-
nal decision on the use of such diets rests with its
impact on the overall profitability of the farm. The
Photo 8-3. cost per tonne of feed tells only a part of the story.

Feed Additives
Antibiotics
There is little doubt that antibiotics employed for
growth purposes are economical in diets for pigs up
to 25 kg body weight. Research at the Prairie
Swine Centre, a high health herd. confirms this
conclusion (Table 8-6). In this particular experi-
ment, the medication increased net income by about
one dollar per pig.

The practice has attracted some recent criticism,

particularly related to environmental loading of zinc
There is a move towards keeping pigs in the nursery via the slurry. Such criticism can be tempered by
longer, until the) are 35 - 45 kg. Over-crowding must only using zinc oxide when diarrhea is a problem
be avoided. and, even then, only for the necessary period of

183
time. Such guidelines also make economic sense. compared to complex formulations. As with all
ln addition, there are legal implications, as such feed additives, selecting the right conditions for
high levels of zinc cannot be added to the feed their use is critical to their success.
without a veterinary prescription.
The Pig's Environment
Zinc Oxide Temperature
A number of years ago, research in Denmark The weanling pig presents a unique set of circum-
revealed that adding zinc to the diet of newly- stances in terms of establishing an ideal thermal
weaned pigs reduced the incidence of diarrhea, environment. In particular, low post-weaning feed
improved growth rate and reduced mortality. Not intake elevates the pig's thermal requirements; for
surprisingly, the use of zinc supplements has grown example doubling the newly-weaned pig's feed
rapidly in the interim. Generally, the recommenda- intake reduces its lower critical temperature from
tion is to provide 2.5 to 4.0 kg of zinc oxide per 32°C to 26°C! This is due to the body heat gener-
tonne of feed for l O to 20 days post-weaning. ated by normal digestion and metabolism. Conse-
quently, room temperature must be linked to the
Copper Sulphate piglet's feed intake.
Copper sulphate is a relatively common growth
promotant added to many starter diets. It is Various components oftbe nursery facilities may
relatively inexpensive, and for this reason, its use is contribute to the overall thermal environment.
almost automatic in many situations. However, While the effect of moisture and draughts on pig
concerns about the environment, recognition that comfort are well known, the impact of cold walls,
the response to copper sulphate is not universal and floors and ceilings, in fact, any cold surface, which
the appearance of "sticky" droppings from treated increase radiant heat losses from the pig, lower the
pigs has tempered its use in recent years. If effective ambient temperature relative to measured
included in the diet, the exact amount will depend temperature. Clearly then, in addition to warm air
on local legislation, but is typically in the range of temperatures, well-insulated walls and ceilings are
125 ppm copper as copper suJphate. critical to piglet comfort.

Organic Acids As a rule, newly-weaned pigs should be main-

High pH is conducive to the proliferation of tained initially at about 30 to 32°C, due to poor
pathogenic bacteria in the gut of the pig. For this feed intake, lowering the temperature by about I °C
reason, diets are formulated to help keep pH low every 2 to 3 days during the first week and by
and thus favour the growth of"good" bacteria. An l to 2°C each week thereafter. The most important
upper gastrointestinal tract pH below four is pre- consideration, however, is to watch the activities of
ferred; with some kinds of diets, and under certain the piglets. If they shiver and huddle, they are too
conditions that are not fuJly understood at this time, cold and the temperature should be raised; however,
the pig finds it difficult to maintain a low gastroin- remember that weanJings are highly motivated by
testinal pH. To assist the pig in this regard, organic social interaction, so lying in close proximity to
acids may be added at 0.5 to 3.0% of the diet. In all other pigs should not be interpreted as huddling!
cases, manufacturers recommendations must be The objective is to keep the temperature warm
followed. enough to prevent huddling, but no warmer.

The observation that organic acids are not always Temperature variation is also a particular concern
beneficial may be due to the fact that pH is not in the nursery. Twenty-four hour fluctuations in
always excessively high. Some research has excess of 2°C have been shown to reduce both
suggested that mixtures of acids will be more growth rate and feed conversion efficiency. It
beneficial than single additions. The response to should be noted that so-called high-low thermom-
organic acids will generally be greater in simpler as eters may underestimate the extent of temperature

184
Table 8-7. Recommended Floor Space Allowances for Weanling Pigs.

Body weight, kg Fully-slatted Partially-slatted Solid, bedded

0.035 X BW0667 0.039 X BW0667 0.045 X BW0·6<,7
10 0.16 0.18 0.21
20 0.26 0.29 0.33
30 0.34 0.38 0.44

Adapted from Recommended Code of Practice for the Care and Handling ofFarrn Animals.Pigs, Ag. Canada, 1993.

fluctuation in the nursery, because they do not Additional Reading and References
record rapid changes very effectively. For example, Nelssen, J.L., R.D. Goodband, S.S. Oritz and M.D.
in mercury thermometers, the response to tempera- Tokach. 1995. The effect of weaning age on
ture change is quite slow and may underestimate nursery pig behavior and growth performance. In.
fluctuation by 50% or more. (Foxcroft. G., ed), Advances in Pork Production,
Vol. 6, pp. 95-112. University of Alberta, Edmon-
While too low a temperature is undesirable, ton, AB.
failure to lower room temperature as the pig's
thermal needs change will suppress appetite and Pettigrew, J.E. and J.T.F. Stairs. 1991. The impact
lower overall animal performance. Managing room of starter diets on the subsequent growth of swine.
temperature in the nursery is not a simple task, In: Proceedings of the Minnesota Nutrition Confer-
because the consequences of error are severe. ence, pp. 163-170, Minneapolis, MN.

Floor Space Pettigrew, J.E. 1995. Nutrition of the convention-

ally weaned pig. In. (Foxcroft, G., ed), Advances in
Overcrowding is a particular concern with the
Pork Production, Vol. 6, pp. 85-94. University of
weanling pig. Because it is a social animal and
Alberta, Edmonton, AB.
often chooses its behaviour based on that of its
penmates, space to express such behavioural pat-
Sheridan, M. 1995. Advantages of multiple site
terns is important. Table 8- 7, extracted from the
production with emphasis on herd health manage-
Recommended Code of Practice for the Care and ment. In. (Foxcroft, G., ed), Advances in Pork
Handling of Farm Animals:Pigs, provides a useful Production, Vol. 6, pp. 147-153. University of
guideline on this subject. Alberta, Edmonton, AB.

Feeder Design VIDO. 1991. Swine Nursery Design. 2nd Ed.

Feeder design is often overlooked, in part because Veterinary Infectious Diseases Org., Saskatoon, SK.
there are few objective guidelines. It is clearly
understood that weanling pigs tend to eat in groups,
so multiple-space feeders are preferred over single-
space feeders. If feeders are too large, however,
pigs will tend to dung in one or both ends of the
feeder. As a general rule, 7 .5 to I 0.0 cm of feeder
space should be allowed per pig. Other than that,
the design should allow easy access to the feed
while concurrently minimizing waste and spill.

185
186
9. FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF MARKET
HOGS
Approximately 60% of the total cost of pork control, pig density, and diet composition. The goals
production is associated with growing out the feeder defined in Table 9-1 are a reasonable guide for most
pig. Traditionally, more attention is paid to feeder barns. These goals arc identified as good,
managing sows and starter pigs than growing- better, and best to denote the ease with which they
finishing pigs. The breeding and farrowing areas are can be achieved. The values in the 'good' column
often considered more challenging and therefore, are being achieved consistently by many producers.
according to many people, deserve more of Those in the 'better' column are being met by some
management's attention. The indifference shown to producers so are currently possible. The goals in the
the feeder barn probably stems from the presence of 'best' column are not all being achieved consistently
apparent problems in the sow-related areas and from at the present time, but the potential exists to meet or
a lack of appropriate records in the feeder barn. exceed them under the right combination of
management. The tremendous gains made in the
recent past provide confidence that the goals in the
Records are very important in identifying both 'best' column will be met or surpassed in the near
production problems and opportunities to improve future.
performance in the feeder barn. Fortunately, as better
record keeping systems and performance monitoring
systems become available, and as potential Table 9-1. Goals for the Feeder Barn.
improvements in profitability become more apparent,
more attention is paid to the feeder barn. Feed is the Goal Level
largest single expense in any swine operation.
Good Better Best
Although there must be an absolute minimum, the
variation in feed costs among farms is proof that Age at 105kg 160 150 140
major savings can be achieved in this area. Even on Days in Feeder Barn 110 100 90
farms with high management standards, differences Feeder Barn (20 - 105 kg)
in feed costs (up to 25% per pig) still exist.
Avg Growth Rate (g) 775 850 950
Feed Conversion 3.20 2.85 2.60
Goals for the Feeder Barn Mortality(%) 2.0 0.5 0.1
Establishing production objectives for the feeder Carcass Index 107 110 112
barn is important. These objectives will vary from
farm to farm depending on a variety of circumstances
including pig genotype, health status, environmental These goals are to be used only as guidelines. The
overall objective is to maximize profit. Establishing
Photo 9-1. the proper goals for your operation is just as
important, if not more so, than your capital outlay.
For example, although superior pig performance is a
desirable goal, setting a goal of the highest standard
of performance may not be profitable because the
extra expense needed to produce the high standard
may not be regained from the market. Setting
arbitrary goals without records to back them up may
also be costly. A strict capital invested to goals
accomplished ratio does not exist, either. In some
Approximately 60% of the total cost of production is cases, the overall goal of profitability can be attained
associated with the feeder barn. Feed is the majD.r_npe11st>._ with a low capital approach that frees the operation

187
from heavy debt and cushions it against depressed In young pigs, growth consists largely of bone and
prices and high interest rates. Establishing your muscle, but as the pig reaches maturity, fat deposition
goals will help you determine the areas important to occurs at an increasingly rapid rate. For example, in
you, and how much you are willing to spend in each the new-born pig, muscle and bone represent 29 and
of those areas. 19%, respectively, of total empty body weight while
Once production goals have been established, the fat represents less than 4% of the total. By 28 weeks
next step is to develop feeding and management of age, muscle and bone represent 32 and 7%,
strategies to accomplish these goals. Finally, a record respectively, and fat has risen to 35% of the total
keeping system should be implemented to monitor (Figure 9-2).
BIRTH
important production parameters, such as days in the
barn, feed usage, carcass lean yield, and mortality.
Lean Tissue Growth in Growing-
Finishing Pigs
ln feeder pigs, both the growth rate and the
composition of growth should be considered.
Growth is the increase in body weight with time or • FatH%
age of the pig. A typical growth curve is shown in • Bone3U%
CJ MJsde 56.2%
Figure 9-1. This curve, a sigrnoida1 growth curve,
Figure 9-2a.
represents a pig's theoretical growth pattern from
28WEEKS
fetus to adulthood. It is clear that at an early age, the
pig's gain is at an increasingly rapid rate; later, rate of
gain is essentially constant and later still, decelerates
as the pig approaches full, mature weight. This curve
represents a pig's potential but under normal farm
conditions Jess than optimal growth may occur due to
limitations in genetics, nutrition. housing, disease, or
other management aspects. Furthermore, the curve is • Fat46.9%
influenced by sex - boars and barrows grow faster • Bone 10.1%
D �e43,0%
than gilts. Pigs are generally slaughtered at a weight Figure 9-2b.
which is under half their mature body weight and at a
time that growth rates are just starting to decline.
Figure 9-2. Relative Proportions of Muscle, Bone and
Fat in Pigs at Birth and 28 weeks of Age (From
McMeakan, 1940).

Since consumers demand high quality lean pork

products, it is in the producer's interest to maximize or
optimize the accretion (growth) of muscle, or Jean body
mass and minimize body fat deposition. One important
additional advantage is that pigs are much more effi-
cient in producing lean tissue than fat. Pigs require
about four times the amount of feed to produce one kg
of body fat compared to one kg of body lean. This
requirement is due largely to the difference in water
Time_ content: fat and lean tissue mass contain about 5% and
70% water, respectively. The pork producer can employ
a number of strategies to manipulate lean tissue growth
Figure 9-1. Sigmoidal Curve Describing the Theoretical in the pig. These strategies include selecting genetically
Growth of the Pig from Conception to Adulthood. lean animals for breeding, maintaining a high herd
health status, carefully formulating market hog diets,
and manipulating feed intake.
188
 Fat and lean content of the carcass is measured in the difference in weight between hot carcass weight
many ways around the world. The most common and cold carcass sides is 8 kg. This 8 kg represents
method is to take back fat measurements at specific the weight of the head, feet, tai 1, kidneys and leaf fat,
locations over the last rib and at various distances from (i.e. the parts that are removed from the carcass
the backbone: P 1, P2 and P3 (Figure 9-3). Back fat before the weight of the cold carcass sides can be
measurements, in turn, can be related to total body fat determined).
content. Back fat measurements can be used to
estimate body lean content because there is an inverse
relationship between body fat and body lean content. Calculating Lean Growth Rates:
Required information:
- initial weight: 25 kg
- final weight: I 05 kg
- average carcass lean yield (from carcass grading
slip): 59%
- average days in the growing-finishing barn: I 03
Assumptions:
- difference in weight between hot carcass and cold
carcass sides: 8 kg
- lean content at initial weight: 35% of body weight
- carcass dressing percentage: 79% of body weight
Figure 9-3. Description of Pl, P2, and P3 Fat Calculations:
Measurements, Taken over Last Rib and Atop the Loin
Eye Muscle. - lean mass at initial weight:
25 kg x 35%/100 = 8.75 kg
- Jean mass at final weight:
In the Canadian swine carcass grading system, a
(105 kg x 79%/100 - 8kg) x 59%/ I 00 = 44.22 kg
special probe is used to determine the measurements,
taken 70 mm from the backbone and between the 3rd - lean growth rates:
and 4th last ribs, used to estimate carcass lean con- 1000 x (44.22 kg - 8. 75 kg) I 103 days
tent. Since early 1995, the lean yield is expressed as = 344 g/d
a percentage of the cold carcass sides, rather than of
the warm carcass. Depth of back fat and the loin eye
muscle is determined at this site. This information is
incorporated into an arithmetic formula to estimate Alternatively, lean growth rates can be estimated
carcass lean yield. The estimated lean yield and from days in the feeder barn and carcass lean yield as
dressed carcass weight is then used to arrive at an outlined in Table 9-3.
index, which becomes the basis for settlement of
value per kg of carcass (Table 9-2). The actual index
value that is assigned to each yield class in each Monitoring lean tissue growth rates in the grower-
carcass weight category may vary between provinces finisher barn is important for three reasons. First,
and even between packers within provinces. lean tissue growth, representing the accretion of the
valuable parts in the pig's body, is a good indicator
of production output. Second, observed lean tissue
Information on carcass lean yield and growth rates growth rates allow for an objective comparison of
can be used to determine lean growth rates in production efficiency between various production
individual groups of feeder pigs. To calculate lean units. Lean tissue growth rates are important for
growth rates, assume that the Jean content in a 25 kg determining whether or not pigs are performing at a
pig is constant at 35% of live body weight, that level close to their performance potential. Third,
carcass dressing percentage is relatively constant at estimates of lean growth rates and lean growth
79% of body weight in market weight pigs, and that

189
Table 9-2. Saskatchewan Carcass Grading Grid (effective March 6, 1995).

t'-C"'IO\t'-\OViM0\00
r-- I"--
0,. 0,. 00 00 00 00 00 00

0 00 °'°'
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00 00 00 00 00 00 I'- I'- r- I"--

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00 \0 \0 \0 Vi Vi Vi Vi Vi e
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190
Table 9-3. Observed Lean Growth Rates in Growing-finishing Pigs (25 to 105 kg body weight) in Relation to
Growth Rates and Carcass Lean Yield Content (75-85 kg carcass weight)*.

Growth rate (g/d)

Estimated lean yield(%) >850 800-850 750-800 700-750 <700
> 61 High High High Medium Medium
59 - 61 High High Medium Medium Unimpr.
57 - 59 High Medium Medium Unimpr. Unimpr.
< 57 Medium Medium Unimpr. Unimpr. Unimpr.

* relates to carcass weights between 75 and 86.99 kg in Saskatchewan; 1995 Canadian carcass grading system;thc high,
medium, and unimproved lean growth rates correspond to lean growth rates of approximately 380, 340, and 300 g/d.

potential are essential for developing cost-effective more likely to consume quantities of feed that are
feeding strategies in individual production units. equivalent to 90% of the daily DE intake in growing-
finishing pigs as suggested by NRC ( 1987). Figure
9-4 represents feed intake curves for feeder pigs
Clearly, the objectives in raising pigs are to consuming a diet with a DE content of 3150 or 3400
optimize lean tissue gain and to minimize the accu- kcal per kg and at 90% of voluntary feed intake
mulation of body fat. The overall goaJ is to meet according to NRC ( 1987). This graph may serve as a
these objectives profitably. benchmark to compare feed intakes on individual
pork production units.

Feed Intake in Feeder Pigs

Feed intake is closely related to growing-finishing Recent work at Purdue University clearly demon-
pig performance. Tn addition, estimates of feed strates that the effect of pig genotype on voluntary
intake are required for accurate feed formulation. feed intake. Their studies demonstrate that in feeder
Unfortunately feed intake appears to vary consider- pigs managed under the same conditions and fed
ably between different feeder pig units. As it is similar diets, the difference in feed intake between
affected by many factors, it is difficult to accurately the various lines of pigs may be as high as 20 - 30%.
predict feed intake as well. These factors are associ- Pigs that have been selected for (lean) feed effi-
ated with the animal ( e.g., body weight, sex, geno- ciency, rather than for lean growth rates, may have
type, health status), the feed (e.g., dietary energy lower feed intake capacities as compared to the un-
density, levels of other nutrients, ingredient composi- selected controls. Another factor associated with the
tion, freshness, feed processing, bulkiness, water animal is that feed intake is reduced (5% or more) in
supply) and the environment (e.g., effective environ- pigs with (sub-clinical) diseases as compared to pigs
mental temperature, animal density, group size, pen managed under minimum disease conditions. For the
design, feeder design and location). development of split-sex feeding programs, the
difference in feed intake between barrows and gilts
should be considered. On average, the difference in
In 1987. the North American National Research feed intake between the two sexes is 10%. However,
Council (NRC) presented a mathematical equation to it tends to increase at increasing body weights and
predict the voluntary daily energy intake in growing- the difference in feed intake between the two sexes
finishing pigs. When this equation was introduced, will vary with pig genotype and the environment (see
digestible energy (DE) content of the diet and the split-sex feeding later in this chapter).
pig's body weight were recognized as two important
factors that affect feed intake. More recent estimates
of feed intake on commercial Canadian pig farms One of the main feed factors that determines feed
suggests that pigs under commercial conditions are intake is the dietary energy density. Finishing pigs
are generally able to compensate for reduction in

191
dietary energy density (with an increase in daily feed and not be sensitive to mechanical failure. No sharp
intake) in such a manner that the daily energy intake objects or protruding objects should be present. If
remains constant. Grower (and starter) pigs are well designed single space feeders arc used, one
generally unable to adjust feed intake with changing feeder is sufficient for up to 12 pigs. When the water
energy densities. For these pigs physical feed intake nipple is placed inside the feeder (wet feeders), feed
capacity, or "gut fill", determine feed intake, An intake is generally higher ( l - 7%) as compared to
increase in dietary energy density will result in that of standard dry feeders. Problems with wet
increases in the daily feed intake. It should be pens, water wastage and the developments of molds
stressed that these principles do not apply to extreme are more likely to occur when wet feeders are used.
dietary energy densities and will be affected by
environmental conditions. The effect of diet energy
density on daily energy intake can have important Given the above considerations, it is important to
consequences for the optimum energy density in the monitor feed intake as well as the main factors that
diet (see "diet formulation" later in the chapter). affect feed intake.
Other nutrients have limited effects on feed intake
when present at levels in the feed which are within

--
3.5
practical range. If feed is the suspected problem with
intake, then the various aspects of feed formulation ,::, - L---
- ..
.. .. - - . -
3
and preparation should be quickly evaluated. These
include: ingredient composition and quality (inclu-
°'or
.Y.
2.5
�- .. -- i.--

sion levels of "unpalatable" ingredients, freshness,

.Y.
«s
+-
e
2
V-·
":: .
./
-3150 Kcal DE/k��
molds and toxins), feed processing and mixing
accuracy (check for the content of the major nutri-
i:,
Q)
Q)
u,
1.5
v - - 3400 Kcal DE/kg

ents: see chapter l 0) and the storage and handling of 0.5

the prepared feed (freshness, contamination of molds 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

after feed preparation). Body weight, kg

Figure 9-4. Typical Feed Intake Curve for Growing

In terms of the environment, the effective environ- Pigs Consuming a Diet with a DE Content of Either
mental temperature (the actual temperature that the 3150 or 3400 kcal/kg. (Feed intake is equivalent to
90% of voluntary feed intake according to NRC
pig "feels"; the net result of air temperature, air
1987*),
movement, humidity, floor type and wetness of skin
and floor, etc.), pig density and the design and * According to NRC 1987, the voluntary daily DE intake
can be predicted from body weight (W, kg). DE intake
management of the feeder are important factors that (Kcal/d) = 13,162 x (l-e-·0176""').
can affect feed intake. For example, for pigs that are
under mild heat stress an increase in the effective
environmental temperature by l °C will reduce feed
intake by approximately l % and 2% in grower and
finisher pigs, respectively. As far as pig density is
Feed Utilization in Feeder Pigs
concerned, the actual space allowance is more critical Pigs use feed for three major purposes: body
than the number of pigs in a group. Feed intake will maintenance functions, lean tissue growth, and body
reduce by about 3% and 2% per 0.1 m2 reduction in fat deposition (Figure 9 -5). Even if they do not
floor space per pig in grower and finisher pigs, grow, pigs require a certain amount of food to
respectively. maintain vital body functions such as circulation,
respiration, and digestion. Only dietary nutrients that
are supplied in excess of maintenance requirements
Feeders should be designed and located in such a can be used to support growth, either in the form of
way that pigs can assume their normal eating behav- lean tissue or body fat. Maximizing the utilization of
iour. The design should discourage feed buildup in feed for growth means minimizing the amount of
the feeder. Feeders should be easily adjusted to feed required for maintenance functions. To maxi-
maximize feed intake while minimizing feed wastage mize growth means that pigs should be maintained in
a comfortable environment so they do not expend

192
energy adapting to their environment (e.g., shivering

,,
"average" pig "good" pig
to keep warm). If the environmental temperature is
suitable, pigs should not require feed to maintain a
constant body temperature, or combat diseases. Fat
Gain

'
Fat
''
.. ·•
Lean
" - \-

/
..
'�';'. '
Gain
Lean

0
1 2 3 1 2 3
Maintenance
Feed Intake (kg/d)

Figure 9-6. The Effect of Feed Intake on Lean Tissue

Feed Intake
Growth and Body Fat Deposition in Finishing Pigs
Figure 9-5. Relationship between Feed Intake and with Average ("average" pig) and High ("good" pig)
Tissue Accretion Rates in Growing Pigs. Lean Tissue Growth Potential*.
* The maximum lean tissue growth rate is considerably
higher in pig type b than in pig type a. To achieve the
When feed intake is increased above that required maximum lean tissue growth rate, the "good" pig requires
more feed than the "average" pig. If feed intake in both
for maintenance, lean tissue growth in pigs rapidly
types of pigs were restricted, e.g., at 2 kg/d, no difference
increases (Figure 9-5). However, even at very low in performance would be observed between the two types
levels of feed intake, growing pigs will deposit some of pigs.
( essential) body fat. It is practically impossible to
avoid the deposition of any body fat in growing pigs.
In some pigs, and at high levels of feed intake, intake The relationships between feed intake, lean tissue
may exceed the amount required for maximum lean growth, and body fat deposition have been explained
tissue growth rates. If so, lean growth is not limited, in Figures 9-5 and 9-6. Figure 9-7 presents the effect
but large quantities of body fat, which result in of feed intake on growth rate, feed efficiency, and
reduced carcass lean yield and poor feed efficiency, carcass Lean content for growing and finishing pigs
will also be deposited. This situation generally with average lean growth potential. In
OCCW'S in finishing pigs (greater than 60 kg body
growing pigs, feed intake limits lean growth so
weight) that are fed ad libitum, but may occur at should be maximized for optimal growth rate and
lower body weights in pigs with poor lean growth feed efficiency. ln finishing pigs, feed efficiency and
potential. On the other hand, even a high feed intake carcass value can be improved by moderately
may be insufficient to maximize lean growth up to restricting feed intake. The optimum level of feed
body weights greater than 60 kg in boars and other intake in the finishing phase is thus determined by
animals with extremely high lean tissue growth the relative importance of feed efficiency (feed cost),
potential (Figure 9-6). lean yield in the carcass (the carcass grading system),
and the value of throughput (the cost of space). Tn all
these relationships it is assumed that performance is
determined purely by energy intake and that other
nutrients, such as amino acids, vitamins, and
minerals, do not limit animal performance.

193
 dietary lysine levels and lean growth in two types of
pigs is demonstrated in Figure 9-8. At low levels of
lysine in the diet there is no difference in
' -, performance between the two types of pigs. Only
when dietary lysine levels are increased can pigs with
' ' -, the higher lean tissue growth potential demonstrate
··gain
. ....: <,
<,

- feed: gain
their potential. Pigs with unimproved lean tissue
...... growth potential will not respond to the increase in
......
...... - lean gain : fat gain

--- dietary lysine levels. To avoid over feeding

expensive nutrients to an animal that does not require

Figure 9- 7a.
Feed Intake
- them, and to ensure that an animal with high
performance potential receive sufficient quantities, it
is important to monitor lean growth rates (see earlier
section on lean tissue growth) and to establish the
animal's lean growth potential.
' -,
' -, <,
··gain
- feed: gain
. ...:
<,
-lean gain : fat gain
' ...... .............
--- ---
500

required feed Intake to just

-
't,
a,
£
..
ma.ximize lean growth
j PIG TYPE:
Feed Intake 0
a, O Unimproved
Figure 9-7b. c
nl •Improved
Q)
Figure 9- 7. Relationship between Feed Intake and ...I
Performance in Growing Pigs where Energy Intake
Limits Lean Growth (Figure a), and in Finishing Pigs 0.5 0.65 0.8 0.95
where Feed Intake does not Limit Lean Growth
(Figure b). Diet LYSINE level, %

Figure 9-8. Effect of Dietary Lysine Levels and Pig

Type on Lean Growth Rates (Stably 1989, University of
Kentucky).
Factors Affecting Nutrient
Requirements in Growing-Finishing
Pigs Estimates of lean tissue growth potential in
various types of pigs may be provided by the
Due to differences in animal performance breeding stock supplier. Do not, however,
potential, health status. body weight, feed intake, underestimate the effect of the animal's heal th on
environmental conditions, and other factors, there is lean tissue growth potential. The presence of disease
a tremendous amount of variation in the optimum can effectively reduce the animal's lean growth
nutrient levels in diets for different groups offeeder potential (Table 9-4) no matter how high its
pigs. Before any attempt is made to formulate diets estimation. Breeding stock is often produced and
for feeder pigs, the main factors that determine the evaluated in herds with a health status much higher
optimum nutrient levels in the diet must be than that in many commercial pork production units.
considered. Estimates of lean growth potential that are derived
from animals tested in herds with a high health status
may not apply to their offspring that are managed on
The lean growth rate in the growing-finishing
commercial farms.
pig is the single most important factor that
determines the daily requirements for amino acids
and one of the main factors determining requirements
for energy. For example, the relationship between

194
Table 9-4. The Effect of Health Status on Performance Because animals require nutrients on a daily basis,
in Growing-Finishing Pigs (Williams 1994, Iowa State estimates offeed intake per day are required to
University).
determine the optimum nutrient level in the diet.
This estimation is especially important for amino
Exposure to Disease Low High acids in finishing pig diets. For example, based on
the animal's lean growth potential, a finishing pig
Feed intake, kg/d 2.47 2.36
may require 20 g of lysine per day. As there is
Growth rate, kg/d 0.89 0.78 generally no effect of energy intake on lean growth
Feed: Gain 2.76 3.04 rates in finishing pigs, daily lysine requirements are
not affected by feed intake. ff the feed intake in the
Muscle in the carcass, % 57.0 52.5 finishing pigs is 2.50 kg per day then the optimum
lysine level in the diet should be 8 g/kg, When feed
intake is 3 kg/d, the lysine level should be 6.66 g/kg.
The animal's lean growth potential may be This reduction in required dietary lysine level will
estimated from observed lean growth rates in the substantially reduce the cost of the finishing diet.
feeder barn (sec Table 9-3). However, take care in
interpreting lean growth rates. Other factors, such as In growing pigs, up to approximately 60 kg body
feed intake or unbalanced diets, rather than the weight, energy intake generally limits lean growth. A
animal's potential, may affect observed lean tissue reduction in daily energy (feed) intake will reduce
growth rates. lean tissue growth and the daily requirements for
amino acids. Iffeed intake happens to be reduced in
A pig's daily nutrient requirements increase as it grower pigs, there is no need to increase the dietary
grows heavier, but so does its feed intake. In fact, a amino acid levels in the remaining food intake. For
pig's feed intake increases more rapidly than its this reason, it is more important to balance the amino
increase in daily nutrient requirements. As a result, acid levels in the grower pig diets based on amino
nutrient levels in the feed can be gradually decreased acid to energy ratios than any other ratio, and to
as the animal grows (Figure 9-9). This concept formulate finisher pig diets based on daily amino
forms the basis of phase feeding. Phase feeding uses acid intakes.
different diet formulations to meet the pig's nutrient
requirements at each stage of its production, which
reduces over-feeding excessive quantities of Question: When should I determine the optimum
expensive nutrients. amino levels in the pig's diet based on daily
intakes and when based on amino acid to energy
ratios?

Answer: Base finishing pig diets on daily intakes; base

t grower (and starter) pig diets on amino acid to energy
�
0

ai J- Nutrient requirements l ratios.

-
>
�
e Why: ln finishing pigs, energy intake docs not

-
Cl)
·;: generally limit lean growth. As a result, there is no

-
:::, relationship between energy (or feed) intake and body
c
protein deposition; daily amino acid requirements arc
Cl)

i:3 not affected by feed intake. In growing pigs (up to

20 40 60 80 100 120 approximately 60 kg body weight), energy intake
usually limits Jean growth. An increase in feed or
Body weight, kg energy intake will result in an increase in body protein
deposition. As a result, the daily amino acid
requirements increase. The optimum amino acid to
Figure 9-9. Change in Required Dietary Nutrient energy ratio in diets for growing pigs is relatively
Levels in Relation to Body Weight.
constant over a range of feed intakes.

195
 The environment also affects a pig's nutrient Due to the many factors that affect nutrient
requirements, especially nutrients needed for body requirements, there is a wide range in recommended
maintenance functions. In modem and well nutrient levels for growing-finishing pigs. For
managed, confinement growing-finishing pig example, recommended lysine levels may range from
facilities, environmental conditions can be optimized as high as 1.3% in early grower diets for pigs with
and the amount of feed required for maintenance extremely high lean growth potential to as low as
minimized. If the environment is too cold, 0.5% in late finisher diets for pigs with poor lean
maintenance energy requirements quickly increase. growth potential that consume large quantities of
Under cold stress conditions, growing pigs (25 to 60 feed. This variance again stresses the importance of
kg body weight) require approximately 25 g of extra recognizing the main factors that affect nutrient
feed to maintain a constant body temperature per °C requirements in various groups of pigs for
drop in environmental temperature. For finishing developing unique management and feeding
pigs, this value is approximately 40 g of feed. This strategies for individual production units. It also
demand means that total feed usage would increase supports the need for a factorial, or modelling,
by approximately 15% for growing-finishing pigs approach to estimating nutrient requirements in
kept in an environment that is effectively l O °C too which the main factors that affect nutrient
cold for them. This usage is equivalent to a drop in requirements are considered. However, when such a
feed conversion ratio from approximately 2.9 to 3.3. modelling approach is used, different agencies or
The cold environment is one of the major reasons for researchers will still provide different estimates of
the poor feed efficiency observed during the winter nutrient requirements. For example, the estimated
months in low-cost, outdoor feeder pig housing lysine requirements for a 50 kg pig with a given rate
systems. Remember that the effective environmental of lean growth {body protein deposition), estimates
temperature to which pigs are exposed is determined may vary by as much as 30% (Table 9-5). Obviously
not only by the environmental temperature but also our knowledge of pig nutrition is not yet complete.
by other factors such air speed, air humidity, floor As we continue to improve our understanding of
type, dryness of the floor, and the pig's body nutrient utilization in pigs, these discrepancies will
condition. disappear.

In developing feeding programs for feeder pigs it is Table 9-5. Estimated Available (Apparent lleal
also important to consider the production objectives Digestible) Lysine Requirements for a Growing Pig at
50 kg Body Weigbt1•
and the economic conditions. Different feeding
strategies and diet compositions are required when
the objective is to maximize income per pig rather Moughan et al., 1987 .54%
than income per pig place per year, or when
economic conditions change. Stranks et al.. 1988 .59%
Fuller et al., 1989 .43%
TMV2, 1991 .62%
Nutrient Allowances and Diet
Formulation Moughan, 1992 .65%

The basic concepts of diet formulation are covered Whittemore, 1993 .58%
in chapter 5. In that chapter, the importance of
fonnu la ting diets on the basis of available rather than I
Average lean tissue growth rate (340 g/d according to the
total nutrients is emphasized, as well as the Canadian definition of lean , this is equivalent to 130 g/d of
importance of monitoring feed ingredient quality, body protein deposition). The pig consumes 2.2 kg of a
feed preparation, and feed handling. As we continue diet with a DE content of 3150 kcal/kg (feed intake is
to meet the animal nutrient requirements more equivalent to 90% ofNRC [1987)). Pigs are assumed to
be in a thermo-neutral and relatively disease free
closely through phase feeding, split-sex feeding, and environment.
feeding for different genetics, these basic concepts of 2
Technisch Model Varkensvocding.
diet formulation and quality control become
increasingly important.

196
 The optimum energy density in feeder pig diets is In growing pigs, physical feed intake capacity, or
determined largely by the cost per unit of energy in gut fill, generally determines feed intake. An in-
the available feed ingredients. As mentioned earlier, crease in diet DE content will thus result in propor-
finishing pigs (over 60 kg body weight), are tional increase in the daily DE intake. As illustrated
generally able to adjust feed intake with changes in by the data in Table 9-7, an increase in energy density
dietary energy density in such a way that the total in the diet for growing pigs will result in improve-
daily energy intake remains constant. at least when ments in both feed efficiency and growth rate. For
the diet's DE content ranges between 3000 and 3400 growing pigs, the optimum energy density is not only
kcal/kg. In other words, if the diet's DE content is determined by the cost per unit of energy in the diet,
reduced by I 0% from 3300 to 3000 kcal/kg, the but also by the effect of energy density on growth
finishing pig will simply consume 10% more feed, rate, and thus throughput in the grower barn. As the
growth rate will not be affected, and the feed animal's Jean tissue growth potential continue to
conversion ratio (feed/gain) will simply increase by increase, energy intake will become a limiting factor
10%. In this case, the optimum energy density in the up to higher live body weights. This situation may
diets should be based on purely the cost per unit of also mean that finishing pigs with extremely high
energy in the diet as outlined in Table 9-6. lean tissue growth potential may be unable to com-
pletely maintain a constant daily energy intake as the
energy density in the finishing diet is reduced.
Table 9-6. Estimation of the Lowest Cost per Unit of Clearly, more information is required on the interac-
Energy in Growing Pig Diets (varying in energy
density)*. tive effects of pig genotype and body weight, as well
as tbermaJ environment and animal density, on the
optimum energy density in the diet.
Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet3
DE content, kcal/kg 3150 3250 3350
In most practical swine diets, lysine is the first
Ingredient comp.(%): limiting amino acid. It is thus appropriate to first
Barley 59.30 35.29 3.12 define the target (available) lysine level in the diet
Wheat 17.40 42.80 75.51 and to derive the required level of other amino acids
from that oflysine based on an optimum amino acid
Soybean meal, 4 7% 15. JO 18.10 18.15
balance (outlined in chapter 3). The suggested
Canela meal 5.20 0.70 0.00 allowances of available (apparent ileal digestible)
LysineHCI 0.03 lysine in relation to body weight and lean growth
Premix 3.00 3.11 3.19 rates are presented in Table 9-8. Allowances are
expressed either as lysine to energy ratios or as daily
Calculated nutrients:**
lysine intakes. These suggestions are based on a
DE, kcal/kg 3150 3250 3250 factorial estimation of lysine requirements to support
Avail. Lysine,% 0.70 0.72 0.74 the indicated lean growth rates. A safety margin of
Avail. Threonine,% 0.46 0.47 0.48 about 5% for the grower phase and I 0% in the
Prices:
$/tonne 132.62 138.44 146.11 Table 9-7. Effect of Dietary Energy Density on the Voluntary
$/Meal DE 42.10 42.60 43.61 Feed Intake and Performance of Entire Male Pigs between 22
and 50 kg Body Weight (Campbell and Taverner, 1986).
Estimated Feed usage:
Kg per pig 160 155 150.5 DE content,
kcal/kg 2820 3035 3250 3466 3600
Feed: Gain 3.55 3.44 3.34
Meal DE : kg gain 11.18 11.18 11.18 Voluntary Intake, kg/d 2.19 2.21 2.19 2.17 2.05
Voluntary DE, Mcal/d 6.14 6.62 7.10 7.48 7.39
* Prices of ingredients: barley $80/tonne, wheat $95/tonne, Growth Rate, g/d
soybean meal $265/tonne, canola meal $190/tonne, lysine 695 776 847 898 913
HCL $3000/tonne, premix $600/tonne. Feed: Gain 3.16 2.89 2.61 2.39 2.25
** Levels of all nutrients are adjusted with diet's energy Carcass P2 14.40 15.30 15.60 16.00 16.40
content to ensure a constant nutrient to energy ratio.

197
 finisher diets is already included in these values to Once the requirements for available lysine are
allow for inaccuracies in feed preparation and varia- established, the requirements for the other essential
tion in feed intake. In comparison to other factorial amino acids can be determined based on the opti-
estimates of lysine requirements, the suggested mum amino acid balance, i.e., the concept of ideal
allowances can be considered high (Table 9-5). protein as outlined in chapter 3. It is estimated that
However, the suggested allowances are supported by per I 00 g of available lysine, growing-finishing pigs
empirical animal performance studies as well. The require 60 to 70 g available threonine, 56 to 64 g of
actual recommendations that are expressed as a available methionine plus cystine, and 18 to 20 g of
percentage in the diet in Table 9-8 relate to a diet available tryptophan. At least 50% of the methionine
with an energy density of 3150 kcal/kg and for pigs plus cystine requirements needs to be supplied by
consuming average quantities of feed (90% ofNRC methionine. The ratio of these amino acids to lysine
l 987; Figure 9-4). If feed intake is different from the increases with increasing body weight or with reduc-
indicated values or when the diet DE content is tions in lean growth potential.
different from 3150 kcal/kg, the available lysine
levels in the diet should be adjusted to maintain a
constant available lysine to energy ratio in the grower Question: How do I adjust the suggestions in
diets, and a constant daily available lysine intake in Figure 9-8 for the diets on my farm? My pigs
the finisher diets. have an average lean growth potential; I feed a
grower and a finisher diet with DE contents of
3300 and 3000 kcal/kg, respectively. I have
Table 9-8. Recommended Allowances of Available (ap- established feed intake curves on my farm:
parent ilea) digestible) Lysine in Relation to Lean Growth consumption on my grower and finisher diets are
Potential and Body Weight in Growing-finishing Pigs. 2.2 and 2. 7 kg/d, which is equivalent to 85% of
estimated intake according to NRC (1987).
Body weight
(kg) 25 45 60 70 110
Answer: The available lysine level in the grower diet
High* should be increased to 0.74 %. In the finisher diet it
2.70 2.35 should be 0.65%.
20.00
(.86%) (.74%) (.67%)
Medium" Background: The lean growth potential are average so
the recommendation derived for these pigs should be
2.25 17.50 the average lean growth rates - medium - in Figure
(.71%) (.61%) 9-8. In the grower diet the available lysine to energy
ratio should be 2.25. At a DE content of3300 kcal/
Unimproved" kg, the available lysine level should be 7.40 g!kg or
1.95 15.50 0. 74%. In the finishing phase, the daily available
lysine requirements are 17.50 g/d. Given the daily
(.61%) (.54%) feed intake of 2. 70 kg, the available lysine level in this
finisher diet is 17.50 divided by 2.70, which is 6.50 g/
kg or 0.65%.
* The average lean growth rates are 480, 440, and 400 g/d.
for pigs with high, medium, and unimproved lean growth
rates. respectively (see Figure 9-6 also).

In Table 9-9, the estimated changes in the balance

If only one diet is being used in the feeder barn, do in which amino acids are required by growing pigs
not use a grower type diet because is too expensive with average lean growth potentials and with increas-
to feed all the way to market weight. To optimize ing body weights are presented. It should be stressed
profitability, some performance in the early stages of that these values are estimates and that these values
growth should be sacrificed by minimizing over- may change based on research that is currently in
feeding of expensive nutrients in the finisher phase. progress.

198
 In Tables 9-10 and 9-11, the suggested additions of Table 9-10. Recommendations for Vitamin Fortiflca-
vitamins and minerals to practical grower and fin- tion of Grower and Finisher Diets=.
isher diets are summcrized. These suggested values
include a safety margin to account for inaccuracies in Vitamin Units/kg Grower Finisher
feed preparation, variation in requirements for Vitamin A IU 7000 5500
different groups of pigs, loss of potency of vitamins
during storage, and the effect of stress on require- Vitamin D ru 700 550
ments. Given these safety margins and the cost of Vitamin E IU 351 251
these nutrients, it is not critical to adjust these Vitamin B12 mcg 20 15
suggested levels of fortification for specific groups
of pigs. Exceptions may be made for breeding stock, Vitamin C mg -2 -2
animals with extremely high lean growth potentials Vitamin K mg 2.5 2
(such as entire males) or when diets with extremely _3.4
Biotin mcg _3,4
high energy densities are fed. In these cases the
FolicAcid mg 04 04
suggested additions may be increased by up to 20%.
Niacin mg 25 20

Table 9-9. Estimated Change in the Balance in which Pantothenic acid mg 20 15

Amino Acids are Required by Growing Pigs with Pyrodoxine mg 0 0
Average Lean Growth Potentials and with Increasing
Riboflavin mg 5 4
Body Weights.
Thiamine mg 0 0
Body Weight Choline mg 0 0
30 kg 60 kg 90kg
Lysine 100* 100 100 'The values in this table are minimwn supplemental
quantities recommended for practical diets. Due to
Methionine 28 28 28 varying conditions and the influence of the diet type on
TSAA** 58 60 62 vitamin requirements, deviations from these nwnbers may
be required in some circwnstances. In pigs with extremely
Threonine 62 65 67 high performance levels, when pigs may be used as future
breeding stock, or when high nutrient dense diets are fed,
Tryptophan 18 19 19 these levels may be increased by 10 - 20%.
Isoleucine 62 62 61 'Higher levels (up to 200 IU/kg) of vitamin E in the
finishing diet have been shown to enhance meat quality;
higher levels of vitamin E may be required when unsatu-
* all values are expressed relative to lysine and as apparent rated fats are included in the diet (3 TU/kg additional
ileal amino acid digestibilities: derived from Fuller. M.F., vitamin E per g/kg of additional linoleic acid is recom-
R. McWilliam. T.C. Wang and L.R. Giles. 1989. Brit. J. mended).
Nutr. 63:255-267; and Technisch Model Varkcnsvoeding
The pig's requirement for vitamin C remains unclear.
2
(TMV). 1994. Proefstation voor de Varkenshouderij,
Postbus 83, 5240 AB, Rosmalen, The Netherlands. 3
When large quantities of ingredients are used that contain
low quantities of available biotin (barley-canola meal based
** Total Sul fer Amino Acids - Methionine+ Cystine. diets) than an inclusion of50 mcg/kg of biotin is recom-
mended.
"Bictin and folic acid should be included in diets for pigs
that may be used as future breeding stock (200 mcg/kg of
biotin and I .5 mg/kg of folic acid.

199
Table 9-11. Recommendations for Mineral Levels in Grower and Finisher Diets.

Vitamin Units Grower Finisher

Macromincrals - Total
Calcium % 0.70 0.60
Phosphorus % 0.60 0.50
Available Phosphorus % 0.25 0.20
Sodium % 0.15 0.15
Chloride % 0.18 0.18
Potassium % 0.35 0.35
Magnesium % 0.05 0.05

Microrninerals - Supplemented
Iron mg/kg 701 501
Copper mg/kg 151 JOI
Zinc mg/kg JOO' 901
Iodine mg/kg 0.30 0.20
Selenium mg/kg 0.30 0.30

* The values in this table are minimum levels or supplemented quantities recommended for practical diets. Due to varying conditions and
the influence of diet type on mineral requirements. deviations from these numbers may be required in some circumstances. In pigs with
extremely high performance levels, when pigs may be used as future breeding stock, or when high nutrient dense diets are fed these levels
may be increased by 10 - 20%.
I
Copper may be used as a growth promotant at 125 mg/kg in the diet. Due to interactions in the utilization of copper, zinc and iron, the
levels of iron and zinc should be raised by approximately 60 mg/kg when copper is included at growth promoting levels.

Photo 9-2.

i
..........,
... �
,, '? �
Y: -
_.....
-<,, '
../
Modem feeder barns provide a climate controlled environment, designed for the con fort of pigs as well as farm workers. A
proper environment is required if feeder barn goals are to be achieved.
-=---��������������������������

200
Typical Diets
There are a wide variety of options available to Table 9-12 contains diets that might be used in
feed growing-finishing pigs. Tables 9-12 and 9-13 areas where barley and wheat are most available.
present some alternative formulae for the various Table 9-13 offers typical diets for areas where corn is
types of pigs. the predominant grain.

Table 9-12. Examples of Growout Diets based on Wheat and Barley.

2 3 4 5 6

Ingredients, %
Wheat 50.00 50.00 60.00 55.35 60.00
Barley 73.23 23.10 21.70 7.50 16.72
Peas 20.00
Soybean meal - 47% 11.70 16.90 18.50 10.35 17.60
Soybean meal - 44% 11.8
Canola meal 10.00 10.00 7.40 9.00 9.30
Fat/oil 1.00 l.00 1.00 l.00 1.40
Lysine HCl 0.07 0.10 0.18
Threonine 0.10
Premix 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00

Nutrients, minimum %
D.E., kcal/kg 3,100 3,100 3,250 3,350 3,350 3,350
Crude protein 17.2 18.3 19.9 21.l 20.6 18.5
Digestible lysine 0.73 0.73 0.78 0.84 0.84 0.84
Digestible methionine 0.20 0.20 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23
Digestible TS.A.A. 0.42 0.42 0.47 0.52 0.52 0.52
Digestible threonine 0.45 0.45 0.51 0.56 0.56 0.56
Digestible Tryptophan 0.13 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16
Calcium 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Phosphorus 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
Sodium 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Chloride 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

These are sample diets only and are for illustrative purposes only. While every attempt has been made to present exam-
pies that reflect successful commercial formulations, these examples are not intended for actual use without assistance
from a qualified nutritionist.

All amino acid concentrations arc expressed as apparent ilea! digestible amino acids.

201
Table 9-13. Examples of Growout Diets Based on Corn.

2 3 4 5
Ingredients, %
Corn 69.25 70.18 64.30 40.70 47.10
Wheat 30.00
Peas 25.00
Soybean meal - 47% 26.75 27.80 23.50 13.85
Soybean meal - 44% 24.65
Canola meal 7.50
Lysine HCI 0.10
Fat/oil 1.05 3.90 l.80 2.55
Threonine 0.02
Premix 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

Nutrients, minimum %
D.E., kcal/kg 3,440 3,450 3,650 3,500 3,500
Crude protein 18.60 17.00 18.70 18.67 19.30
Dig. lysine 0.84 0.79 0.86 0.79 0.79
Dig. methionine 0.23 0.22 0.24 0.22 0.22
Dig. T.S.A.A. 0.52 0.46 0.50 0.47 0.47
Dig. threonine 0.56 0.49 0.53 0.51 0.51
Dig. Tryptophan 0.16 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15
Calcium 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Phosphorus 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
Sodium 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Chloride 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

These are sample diets only and are for illustrative purposes only. While every attempt bas been made to present exam-
pies that reflect successful commercial formulations, these examples are not intended for actual use without assistance
from a qualified nutritionist.

All amino acid concentrations are expressed as apparent ilea! digestible amino acids.

All diets will support a reasonable level of per- Formulations employing commercial supplements
formance. These formulations are examples only and are not included in the tables because their nutrient
many other combinations are possible. Due to the many composition varies among suppliers. Combinations
factors that influence pig performance, results with these of grains with supplements are possible and inter-
diets may vary from fa11TI to farm. ested persons are encouraged to contact their feed
These formulations are only samples. Exact supplier for assistance to develop a balanced diet.
rations will depend on the 'actual' composition of the No one diet formulation will be the best for all
ingredients on hand, which can be determined only farms under all economic conditions. Flexibility is
by having the feeds tested. Rations used on indi- the key to success in attaining the most value from
vidual farms may vary from these examples and your feed dollar.
should be formulated by a qualified nutritionist.

202
Feed Additives A situation where feed additives may be particu-
larly effective is when feeder pigs are just moved into
A whole range of feed additives are available for the grower-finisher units, especially when pigs arc
inclusion in feeder pig diets. They include enzymes, commingled from different sources with varying
acidifiers, probiotics, feed flavours, medications, health status. In these situation, pigs should be fed
toxic binders, etc .. Many of these are discussed in palatable, highly digestible diets that arc hightly
chapters three and eleven. Most of these additives fortified with vitamins and minerals and contain
are more effective in diets for weaner and starter pigs appropriate levels of feed medication. The use of
and for sows than in diets for feeder pigs. This can feed additives, such as acidifiers, may be considered
be attributed to the relative maturity of the feeder as well. A practical means to ease the adjustment to
pig's digestive and immune system, and the lack of the new environment is to feed a good quality pig
sudden changes in levels of production and feed starter diet for the first week after the pigs have
intake (such as those around the time of farrowing). arrived or until feed intake has increased to accept-
The effectiveness of feed additives also differs able levels.
between individual production units, and in particular
with variation in the herd's health status and environ- It should be stressed that feed additives should not
mental management. The average effects of the be used to compensate for poor management and that
various feed additives that are listed in Table 9 -14 feed medication, at the allowed levels, will be inef-
may differ substantially from their effects on indi- fective in treating clinical levels of disease.
vidual pig production units. It is thus difficult to
make general statements about the cost-benefit
relationship of each of these feed additives. Produc- Phase Feeding
ers that are considering the use of various feed
Various options are available for feeding growing-
additives are encouraged to demand "proof', or the
results of on-farm studies, from the suppliers of these finishing pigs. One option is phase feeding, in which
products. It should be noted that the use of many more than one diet is fed to pigs between their arrival
feed additives, and of medications in particular, are in the feeder barn and their attainment of market
under govenment control and subject to the Feeds weight. Phase feeding allows producers to meet the
Act (see also chapter 10). pig's nutrient requirements more closely at its various

Table 9-14. Pig Response to Antimicrobials in Feed of Growing-finishing Pigs (16 kg to market weight) (adapted from
Zimmerman, 1986).

Number Wt(kg) Average Daily Gain (g) Feed:Gain

Antimicrobial Exp Initial Final + %improve + %improve

CTC-P-S 7 25 92 738 787 6.6 3.16 3.11 1.8

Bacitracin MD 7 26 98 724 742 1.2 3.01 3.00 0.4
Bacitracin Zn I 31 100 695 695 0 3.36 3.42 -1.8
Chlortetracycline 17 27 94 694 717 3.3 3.23 3.23 0
CTC:P:ST 2 21 94 790 845 7.0 3.02 2.97 1.8
Copper sulfate 4 21 90 704 724 2.9 3.07 2.96 3.7
Bambermycin 30 37 94 669 687 2.7 3.48 3.36 3.4
Lincomycin 7 38 99 714 750 5.1 3.49 3.43 1.7
Nosiheptide 3 II 92 623 670 7.5 3.35 3.25 3.0
Salinomycin 9 17 94 735 779 6.0 3.05 2.94 3.7
Tiamulin 9 14 72 610 665 8.9 2.97 2.86 3.8
Tylosin 45 30 90 665 689 3.6 3.37 3.26 3.1
Virgin iamycin 23 24 93 726 745 2.5 3.13 3.09 1.4

203
live body weights. For example, a diet with rela- Table 9-15. Estimated Value of a One versus Two
tively high DE and amino acid levels can be fed to versus Three Phase Feeding Program in Pigs with
the grower pigs, and energy density and amino acid Average Lean Grol, th Potential*.
levels can be reduced in the finishing diet. At the
same time, the supply of excessive nutrients can be Phase
reduced when phase feeding is applied (see Figure 9-
One Two Three
9). It should be noted that a large proportion of feed
used in the feeder barn is consumed by the finishing Animal 12erfQrmance
pigs. Based on a typical feed intake and growth Growth rate, g/d 0.772 0.784 0.789
curve and a three phase feeding program, feed usage Feed: Gain 3.28 3.24 3.22
between 25 and 45 kg body weight (grower I), 45
Carcass index 106.20 106.30 106.30
and 70 kg body weight (grower II) and 70 and I 05
kg body weight (finisher) would be 18%, 27% and Financial 12erformance
55% of total feed usage, respectively. This implies Feed cost, S/pig 38.44 37.03 35.89
that close attention should be paid to the formulation Gross margin, $/pig 48.85 50.30 51.55
and cost of the finisher diet and that producers can
afford to invest in high, nutrient dense grower I diets. Gross margin, $/pig place/yr 156.23 163.14 168.16

* All diets contained 3150 kcal DE/kg. In the one phase

Phase feeding requires the handling of more than feeding program, one diet (available lysine .65%) was fed
one feed in the feeder barn. The feed can be handled from 25 to I 05 kg body weight. In the two phase feeding
program, Dietl (available lysine .70%) was fed from 25 to
in one of two ways: extra feed lines can move the
60 kg body weight, and Diet II (available lysine .57%) was
additional feed in bulk, or the pigs can be moved fed from 60 kg to market weight. In the three phase feeding
from grower to finisher pens where they are fed program, Diet J (available lysine .75%) was fed from 25 to
di:fferent diets. Phase feeding will increase the cost 45 kg body weight, Diet Il (available lysine .60%) was fed
of feed and/or animal handling but these additional from 45 to 75 kg body weight, Diet Ill (available lysine
.52%) was fed from 75 kg to market weight. The levels of
costs will be offset by the savings in feed cost.
other amino acids and calcium and phosphorus were also
According to the results in Table 9-15, the gross adjusted in the different diets. 1993 Saskatchewan prices.
margin per pig and gross margin per pig place per
year can be improved substantially when phase
feeding is applied. ln Table 9-15, gross margins Split-sex Feeding
relate to carcass value minus feed cost, feeder pig
price, and variable cost per pig. Separate feeding of sexes (barrows, gilts, entire
males) is an option that should be considered. Over
the last several years, a considerable amount of
information on the 'best' feeding regimes for

Table 9- J 6. Performance of Barrows and Gilts Fed a Similar Diet.

ex
Barrows Gilts Difference
Initial weight, kg 23.9 24.4
Final weight, kg 105.1 104.1
Feed intake, kg/d 2.42 2.16 +11%
Gain, kg/d .84 .78 +8%
Feed: Gain 2.87 2.78 +3%
Dressing percentage, % 80.9 80.3 +.7%
Carcass lean yield, % 48.1 50.5 -5%
"Calculated as performance of barrows - gilts divided by the average performance of the two sexes.
** 1993 carcass grading system. Source: Prairie Swine Centre Inc., I 993

204
barrows and gilts has been generated. As indicated the daily feed allowance for barrows may be reduced
by the results in Table 9-16, barrows consume more in the finishing phase during which barrows deposit
feed, grow faster, have poorer feed efficiency, and large quantities of body fat. This reduction wi II
lower carcass lean yields than gilts. Generally, the improve feed efficiency and carcass value slightly. If
differences in performance between these two sexes you choose split-sex feeding as a feed option in your
increases as pigs grow heavier. Up to approximately operation, keep in mind that difference in perform-
25 kg body weight, identifying any differences in ance between the two sexes, and thus the optimum
performance between gilts and barrows is difficult, feeding strategy, may vary somewhat with the differ-
but differences in feed intake and growth rate may be ent pig breeds and genotypes. Monitoring feed
as high as 15% during the finishing phase of intake and performance in the two sexes is important
production. This is illustrated by the feed intake whenever split-sex feeding is applied.
curves for Prairie Swine Centre barrows and gilts that
are presented in Figure 9-10.
Table 9-17. Effect of Sex and Dietary Lysine Level on
Performance in Finishing Pigs (50.7 to 104.6 kg Body
Weight; NCR-42 Committee on Swine Nutrition 1993)

I �i : : : _. -- . -· .: - ·. -� : --· · ·: : : : :
2.8 •• • •••• • ••• • • ••••••• • • •• • •••••••••••• • ••••• • • ••• • ••• • •

!
'\:S --··---- ...

Dietary lysine level(%)

.60 .67 .74 .82
Barrows
1.4 • _•• •• ••••••••••••••••• • • •• • •• • ••••• • • •• • • •••••••• • ••• • •
1.2.---�-�-�-�---�-�----< Growth Rate, kg/d .817 .834 .828 .839
20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 100
Live body weight (kg) Feed Intake, kg/d 2.91 2.99 2.93 2.96
- Barrows -· Gilts
Feed: Gain 3.56 3.54 3.46 3.46
Figure 9-10. Feed Intake Curves of Barrows and Gilts Lean Growth, g/d 306 315 313 320
Fed a Similar Diet and Housed in Groups of 12 Pigs
Gilts
per Pen*.
*The DE content of the diet was 3250 kCal/kg; the DE
Growth Rate, kg/d .738 .781 .777 .779
intake ( cal/d) as a function oflive body weight (W) was Feed Intake, kg/d 2.59 2.63 2.59 2.58
best described as 1747 x W089 for barrows and 1588 x
W090 for barrows and gilts, respectively. Feed: Gain 3.52 3.35 3.32 3.27
Lean Growth, g/d 299 321 322 334
Managing barrows and gilts separately means that
the two sexes can be fed different diets. Because of
Photo 9-3.
their lower feed intake and higher lean growth rate,
gilts require higher levels of amino acids and other
nutrients than barrows. Amino acid levels, or amino
acid to energy ratios, should be approximately 5%
and 15% higher in the gilts grower and finisher
diets, respectively. These numbers are supported by
observations from a large scale American study in
which the optimum dietary lysine levels were deter-
mined for gilts and barrows (Table 9-17). Gilts also
respond more favourably to increases in dietary
energy density. Producers may consider feeding gilts
diets that have higher DE content than those for
barrows, and maintaining the higher energy density The use of separate diets for Stage I (20 - 60 kg) and II (60 -
diets up to higher body weights. On the other hand, 105 kg) growers is one \�a) to improve efficiency. Providing
diets that are specific for each class of pigs helps to maximize
productivity without wasting expensive nutrients.

205
 Photo 9-4.

Feeding Management Options Specifically

for Gilts and Castrates

* Feeding higher lysine diets to gilts than to

barrows. Gilts arc better at converting protein into
lean tissue than castrates, therefore the concept of
feeding to need will maximize the return per dollar
invested in feed.

* Feeding diets with a higher energy density to There is no doubt that in the future barrows and gilts will be
gilts than to barrows, especially in the finishing fed separatley, some producers are already doing so.
phase. In gilts, energy intake will limit lean growth
up to higher body weights than in barrows.
meat derived from entire male pigs. Lean growth
potential are higher in entire males than in gilts.
Entire males require more nutrient-dense diets but
* Slaughtering castrates at a lighter weight than can utilize these diets more efficiently than gilts.
gilts. Because gilts are leaner, carcass grades can
be maintained at heavier weights. Barrows tend to
deposit fat sooner and faster, therefore should be Feeding to Appetite Versus Restricted
marketed at a lighter weight.
Feeding
Most pigs in Canada are fed to appetite, which
* Feeding a different daily feed allowance to each means they are given continuous access to feed. The
sex. Barrows' feed intake can be restricted to reduce objective of this feeding method is to maximize feed
the deposit of excessive fat in the carcass. Barrows intake, thus growth rate. There are several benefits to
grow faster than gilts but they also lay down fat feeding to appetite. Carcass merit will suffer
more quickly. somewhat when pigs are fed to appetite, but the
reduced value of a slightly fatter carcass is thought to
be more than off-set by a faster growth rate. Ad
libitum feeding is more easily automated than
An additional advantage of managing the two restricted feeding so that labour costs are lower.
sexes separately is that barn space will be used more Restricted feeding also has benefits, the major one
efficiently. Because barrows grow faster than gilts. being that feed efficiency and carcass value may
growth rates within pens will be more uniform when improve and growth rates may be reduced when feed
the two sexes are kept separately. The barrow pens intake is reduced (see Figure 9- 7).
will empty more quickly so can be turned over faster
than the gilt pens. As a result, more pigs can be
produced per year using the same amount of space The results in Table 9-18 indicate that feed intake
when split-sex feeding is utilized. should be maximized when the production objective
is to maximize income per pig place per year. Yet, a
l 0% reduction in feed intake is expected to increase
The benefits of split-sex feeding will be increased the income per pig. Efforts to improve carcass
when entire males, rather than barrows, are used in quality in Canada have been directed largely al
commercial pork production. In North America, genetic selection and diet formulation. As the lean
entire males cannot (yet) be used for pork growth potential of pigs continue to increase due to
production. This situation may change as more genetic selection and improvements in health status,
information becomes available about the factors that the potential benefits of restricted feeding will
cause the strong, adverse smell (boar taint) in some decline.

206
Table 9-18. Estimated Effect of Level of Feed Intake on feeder pigs were allowed continuous access to two
Animal and Financial Performance in Pigs with a feeders with different feeds. One diet was formu-
Slightly Better than Average Lean Growth Potential*. lated to contain high levels of available nutrients to
meet the highest possible nutrient requirements of
Level of feed intake Average* Average - 10% any pig in the pen. The second diet was formulated
with low available nutrient levels to meet the require-
ments of the pig with the lowest possible nutrient
Growth rate, g/d 823.00 729.00 requirements. The theory tested was that each pig
Feed: Gain 2.97 2.88 would adjust its consumption of the two diets to meet
its nutrient requirements. Gilts would consume more
Carcass dressing % 79.70 79.20
of the high nutrient diet than barrows, and all the pigs
Carcass index 107.80 110.30 would consume relatively more of the low nutrient
Gross margin per pig($) 30.22 31.42 diet as they grew heavier and required fewer nutrients
per kg of feed. Unfortunately, the observations in
Gross margin many studies were different from the expectations.
per pig place per year($) 98.50 92.50 The pigs tended to over-consume on the more expen-
sive ' hizh
0
nutrient dense diet. Plus, the choice of
diets was affected by the presence of small quantities
*Upper limit to lean growth is approximately 350 g/d.
Average feed intake is considered 90% of voluntary fe�d
of unpalatable ingredients in both diets. Clearly,
intake according to NRC 1987. 1993 Saskatchewan prices. more research is needed before choice feeding can be
applied to commercial pork production units.

Limit feeding systems must be carefully managed

and controlled to maximize the benefits and mini- Feeding of Pigs Housed Outdoors
mize the loss in growth rate. A recommended
Due to the high cost of constructing new facilities,
feeding scale for Canada has not been developed.
there has been a renewed interest in low-cost, alterna-
However, if carcass improvement through dietary
tive outdoor housing systems for growing-finishing
manipulation is desired, the best approach is to
pigs. Initial experience at the University of Manitoba
progressively restrict feed intake (as a percentage of
suggests that during the summer months. pig per-
ad libitum) as the pigs approach market weight.
formance in a low-cost housing system is nearly
Early restriction (under 60 kg body weight) offers
similar to that of pigs in a conventional feeder barn
little benefit. Feed intake should not fall below 80%
(Table 9-19). However, in the fall and winter
of voluntary feed intake, according to NRC (1987),
months, feed efficiency is substantially poorer in the
or growth rate will be seriously impaired. An addi-
pigs housed in the low-cost, outdoor system. The
tional disadvantage of (severe) feed intake restriction
differences in feed efficiency in the fall and winter
is that the variation of feed intake between pigs
were 12% and 21%, respectively. Obviously, addi-
within pens will increase and, as a result, variation in
tional feed cost should be weighed against the
growth rates may increase. The incidence of pigs
reduction in construction and operating costs when
doing poorly may increase when feed intake is
these low-cost facilities are considered.
restricted too severely.
No actual studies have been conducted to deter-
mine the nutrient requirements for pigs raised out-
Choice Feeding doors under Canadian conditions. However, the
difference in performance between outdoor and
Whenever phase feeding or split-sex feeding is indoor raised pigs during the fall and winter months
applied in the feeder barn, various diets are needed to
was due primarily to differences in feed intake.
meet each group of pigs' specific nutrient require- Differences in feed efficiency can be largely attrib-
ments. One way to reduce the need for different uted to differences in energy required to maintain a
diets and diet changes is to allow the pigs to make constant body temperature. This difference in energy
their own choice of feed and quantity they want to requirement means that the levels of amino acids,
eat. Various studies have been conducted in which
vitamins, and minerals can be reduced in the diets
that are fed to the outdoor pigs in the fall and winter

207
months because they are consuming more feed. Table 9-19. Performance Data Comparing Shelter and
Based on the observations at the University of Conventionally Raised Feeder Pigs During the
Manitoba, the dietary levels of amino acids, vitamins Summer {May through August, Trial 1), Fall (August
and minerals may be reduced by approximately 8 through November, Trial 2) and Winter (November
through February, Trial 3). (University of Manitoba,
and 15% during the fall and winter months, respec-
Courtesy of Dr. Connor)
tively, as compared with diets for pigs housed in
conventional indoor facilities. Despite the reduction
in the dietary levels, the daily allowance of these Trial 1
nutrients should still be maintained somewhat higher Shelter Conventional
to account for the larger variation in feed intake and
# of pigs 175 150
feed wastage in pigs that are housed outside in large
groups. Initial weight, kg 23.9 28.20
FinaJ weight, kg 100.80 I 01.00
Feed intake, kg/d 3.05 2.98
Feed Separation Weight gain, kg/d 0.90 0.92
Feed separation was discussed in detail in chapter Feed/gain 3.39 3.24
5. Table 9-20 summarizes the results of a Swedish
study reported by Dr. Ove Olsson. The study looked Carcass index 103.70 103.60
at three feed handling systems: I) mixed feed added
directly to 50 kg bags, 2) bulk feed with careful Trial 2
handling, and 3) bulk feed with ordinary handling. Shelter Conventional
Study results show that separation decreased uniform
# of pigs 177 150
growth and feed efficiency. Separation is a problem
that costs money and should receive much more Initial weight, kg 32.50 34.10
attention than it does. Final weight, kg 101.00 100.80
Feed intake, kg/d 3.38 2.92
Weight gain, kg/d 0.92 0.89
Photo 9-5.
Feed/gain 3.67 3.28
Carcass index 103.20 102.80

Trial 3
Shelter Conventional
# of pigs 178 150
Initial weight, kg 31.7 32.3
Final weight, kg 100.5 101.1
Feed intake, kg/d 3.62 3.19
Weight gain, kg/d 0.90 0.96
Feed/gain 4.02 3.32
Carcass index 103.40 103.0

In the system that was evaluated at the University of

Manitoba, approximately I 75 pigs were housed in one
Since corrosion is a major problem in feeder construction, large group in a quonset-shaped structure, 9.15 x 21.96 m,
concrete, plastic, or stainless steel feeders are becoming much with the ends opened during most of the year. Pigs were
more popular in free choice systems. fed from a large 5 tonne feeder and two waterers were
present on a cement pad at one end of the shelter. Deep
litter straw was present in the remaining area.

208
Table 9-20. Effect of Feed Handling on Pig Performance.

F��d Handling S::tst�m

I n Ul
Careful Normal
Bagged Bulk Handling Bulk Handling

No. of pigs 24 24 24
Initial weight, kg 20.500 20.500 20.500
Final weight, kg 97.000 96.000 96.300
Average daily gain, kg 0.580 0.560 0.550
Variation in weight gain 1
0.030 0.038 0.042
Feed efficiency 3.310 3.440 3.550

I Standard deviation for growth rate.

Feed Wastage floor fed pigs is restricted to reduce feed wastage,

There is a growing misconception that feed wast- performance of floor fed pigs is poorer than those
age is an over-rated concern. Feed wastage is very given the same amount of feed through feeders.
difficult to measure but given the design of feeders in From these results it can be estimated that feed
use, the frequency (or Jack) of adjustments, and the wastage was approximately 5.5% higher for the floor
nature of current housing systems, it is apparent that fed pigs. This increase in feed wastage, in combina-
wastage is still a problem to be addressed. Perhaps a tion with the improvements in performance of pigs
more accurate picture of wastage would be painted if that are fed ad libitum through feeders, will quickly
feed utilization was referred to as 'feed disappear- pay back for the investment in feeders.
ance' rather than 'feed intake'.
Feed disappearance includes the feed that is wasted
as well as the feed that is eaten. The producer pays
Table 9-21. Effect of Floor Feeding on Growing-
for the total feed disappearance, not just the feed that
finishing Pig Performance (33 to 88 kg body weight).
is eaten. The difference in terminology is important.
Differences in feed conversion of 10% can result
solely from controlling feed wastage. According to Floor Feeder feeding
farm surveys, that 10% can be worth as much as five
Feeding Restricted Ad lib
to six dollars per pig. Controlling excessive wastage
is probably the easiest money a farmer will ever Feed Disappearance" 2.12 2.11 2.21
make. An important point to consider is proper care Gain (kg/d) 0.74 0.77 0.81
and maintenance of the feeders. Buying the right
Feed:Gain 2.89 2.74 2.78
type of feeder will make the job much easier as will
care in selecting and positioning feeder adjustments *(kg/d) includes feed wastage
that provide the pigs easy access to feed without Derived from Patterson. D.C. 1989. Anim. Feed Sci.
wastage. Techn. 26: 251-260.

Feed wastage is particularly high when pigs are Feed form and feed processing are also related to
floor fed. Results from British studies (Table 9-21) feed wastage. As illustrated by the results in Table 9-
clearly demonstrate that, even when feed intake in 22, feed efficiency is approximately 8% better in

209
pigs fed pelleted feeds as compared to pigs fed the minimal labour, provides extremely useful
same diet but in a meal form. As there is little effect information.
of pelleting on the digestibility of nutrients by
The importance of good financial and production
grower-finisher pigs (as is the case in starter pigs),
records is well established. The computer has helped
the difference in performance can largely be attrib-
many of us monitor cash flow, animal flow, and
uted to feed wastage. This implies that the effect of
production in a very sophisticated manner. One note
feed pelleting on feeder pig performance will depend
of caution: records from a computer are only as
on feeder design and feeder management; it will be
correct as the information entered into it and are only
smaller when feeders are well managed and when
as accurate as the program being used. Anyone using
feed wastage is already minimal. For further discus-
a program should learn how the calculations are
sions on feed processing see chapter I 0.
made so he or she knows how the final numbers are
produced. Very often the summaries make important
Table 9-22. The Effect of Feed Form on Performance assumptions that can influence how the data is to be
of ad libitum Fed Pigs (35 to 87 kg body weight; interpreted. If unaware of these assumptions, a
combined results of various studies; approximately producer may misunderstand the information and
1000 pigs per treatment). make unsound management decisions. Companies
Feed form offering record keeping systems are generally more
than willing to provide assistance in this regard.
Pellets Meal
Compare your computer summaries with 'real'
Feed Disappearance (kg/d)* 2.29 2.17
data. For example, if the computer says you are
Grun (kg/d) 0.75 0.78 weaning 21 pigs per sow per year and you have a
Feed:Gain herd of I 00 sows, are you really weaning 2100 pigs
3.06 2.82
per year? Checks like this one will give you greater
*includes feed wastage confidence in your computer results.
Derived from Walker. N. 1990; Pig News and Information
Vol. ll(l)pp.31-33. A computer is not necessary to keep records,
though. If the number of pigs in a barn is reasonably
constant, you can estimate the days to market by
Monitoring Performance measuring the rate of inventory turnover (if the
number of pigs in the barn fluctuates too much, the
Once the 'correct' feeding regime has been se- results will be misleading). To measure inventory
lected, it must be maintained. Performance must be turnover, you must know the average number of pigs
monitored to see if goals are being achieved. If goals on the farm throughout the year and the number of
are consistently not being achieved, solutions to pigs sold per year, including gilts raised as replace-
existing problems must be found. If goals are being ment breeding stock (see Table 9-23). Month-end
met, they should be re-evaluated and new ones set. If inventories including nursing pigs, and weanling and
the goal is to maximize profit per pig, changes in market hogs can be used for the calculation. Do not
feed prices relative to the price of pork may require include the breeding herd in your calculation.
adjustments in the feeding program. If the objective
Surveys have shown that the average number of
in developing feeding programs is to meet the ani-
'days to market' is close to 200 days. The experi-
mals' nutrient requirements as closely as possible,
ence of some commercial producers, however,
nutrient levels in the feed should be adjusted with
indicates that 165 days for pigs to reach I 05 kg is a
changes in observed levels of feed intake.
realistic management objective. Better performance
Monitoring feeder barn productivity is a very ( 140 - 150 days) is possible with careful manage-
worthwhile activity. Full record keeping systems are ment, all-in all-out housing, healthy stock, excellent
more comp I icatcd than those in the breeding and diets. and maybe just a bit of luck! The data summa-
farrowing areas and may be daunting at first. Some rized in Table 9-23 demonstrates that the average
type of monitoring, however, is important - even number of days to market below 150 is possible
spot-checking of days-to-market or recording feed under commercial conditions.
conversion on the odd random pen, which requires

210
Table 9-23. Calculation of Days to Market Based on Inventory Turnover.

Item l 2 3 4 5

Erem RecQrds
Avg. Inventory 325 3215 1256 1230 698
# of Pigs Sold/Year 728 5883 2135 3038 1459

Calculated
Inventory Turnover 2.24 1.83 1.70 2.47 2.09
Avg. Days to Market 163 199 215 148 175

Inventory turnover= number of pigs sold per year - by average inventory.

Average days to market = 365 days in the year - by inventory turnover.

Photo 9-6a. The feed conversion in a feeder barn can be

estimated if you know how much feed entered the
barn during the year. This amount is determined by
measuring the feed inventory at the beginning of the
year; adding all purchases made during the year, then
subtracting the year-end inventory. This calculation
is much easier if you purchase all your feed but can
also be used for the total farm if specific amounts of
feed cannot be assigned to individual barns. The
following example can be used for a feeder barn
only:

Feed disappearance= 545.7 tonnes/year

Photo 9-6b.
= 545,700 kg/year

Amount of pork sold= 161.673 kg/year

(from marketing statements)

Live weight sold - 161,673 - 0.79

= 204,650 kg
(79% dressing percent)

Feeders need to be adjusted very carefully to avoid wastage

Pigs weigh an average of 20 kilograms on entering
due to spill, but also to ensure continuous access to feed. The
top (9-6a) feeder is well adjusted, generating little waste. the feeder barn. Therefore, the total weight gain
The bottom (9-6b) feeder is acceptable, although some within the feeder barn will be:
sections may be difficult to eat from.

211
 Total weight gain= 204,650 - (2025 weanling x ciency is required to estimate feed cost per pig. The
20 kg/weanling)= 164,150 kg marginal feed efficiency is required to determine the
optimum shipping weight, i.e., the increase in feed cost
to raise pigs to heavier weights. For the development
Feed conversion= 545,700 kg feed/year -
of a multi-phase feeding program, the estimated levels
164, 150 kg weight gain in the feeder barn of feed intakes can be used to determine the optimum
- 3.32 kg feed/kg gain dietary nutrient levels in diets at each individual phase.
Prairie Swine Centre Inc. has created a computerized
performance monitoring system that allows for the de-
The major disadvantages of inventory-based velopment of a feed intake and growth curve based on
performance monitoring systemsare that they do not a limited number of detailed observations on a selected
provide information on uniformity of growth and number of pens. The program can also be used to esti-
flow of pigs through the barn and on performance at mate feed cost and gross margins per pig or per pig
the various stages of growth. Since highly variable place per year.
growth rates among pigs leads to reduced barn
Feed Intake Curuc
utilization, many producers use individual animal
1.0,--------------------.
tattoos to monitor average and ranges of days to • Obserued !Jat.a e
• • fl tted Intake Curue e
market. If there is too much variation in starting and - Standard lntalce Curuo <NRCl d

ending inventories, estimated feed efficiency can also 3.0

n
be badly skewed. Records should be collected over t
z.8 i ; ,,, ; ·-··-- � . •k
at least a three month period, and more likely over a ··········.·····
six month period, before performance can be esti- i r (

mated with reasonable accuracy.

An alternative to these inventory-based record
LO •
: I : : I
.....................
k
II
/
d

y
keeping systems is to accurately monitor perform- 8.8'--------'------'---'--...;.__...___
18 ze se i8 se 60 ?e
)
89 '8 109 110
ance in a limited nwnber of representative pens in the Obserued Lluo Bocly Weight Ckgl
growing-finishing barn. Based on feed usage and
body weight gain in the monitor pens, performance
An 1... 1 Grouth Cw-uc
in the rest of the barn can be estimated. If feed
disappearance and body weight gain is monitored at
110.9,----------------��
• Obscrucd Do.ta .> • r
•• Fitted - Curuoc B
regular intervals, complete feed intake and growth Q
d
85.8
curves can also be developed. y
:
The feed intake and growth curves, presented in fig- 60.0
.-·-- -·,-
: ···'· -f i fl
l I !
,r":.,,..,,. ··-- !---•·•-•••,•••••·•···•-:·•
00

g
ures 9-11 a and 9-1 lb, are derived from observations l .l-- i h
»:"
t
on six different pens over a 14 day period. Observa-
tions were recorded for feed intake (based on feed dis-
35.8
, /,·; s, ·l-··-··-i···- "j·1 ------!--··-·'t', - :! . . (

. .. i : : k
i

appearance and feed wastage), average body weight, !

i !

10.e�---'----------------�
and the number of days the pigs are in the barn. These 9 12 21 36 '18 60 72 111 'J6 108 120

curves provide information on animal performance at 0..ys In the Born

each stage of production. For example, the informa-

tion on feed intake, growth rate, and feed efficiency Figure 9-lla and 9-llb. Estimated Feed Intake and
summarized in Table 9-24 is derived from the feed in- Growth Curves Derived from a Limited Number of De-
take and growth curves presented in Figure 9-11. The tailed Observations on Feed Intake and Body Weights
in a Feeder Barn.
data in Table 9-24 indicate that the overall feed effi-
ciency between 25 and 105 kg body weight is 2.95 in Once a reliable system for monitoring herd perform-
this particular growing-finishing barn. However, the ance has been established. the success or failure of cur-
marginal feed efficiency, the amount of feed required rent management methods can be evaluated. Plus, the
to produce the last kg of body weight, is 3.95 between benefits of any changes made in management practices
l 00 and 105 kg body weight. The overall feed effi- can be assessed on the basis of actual measurements
taken.

212
 Table 9-24. Estimated Performance of Feeder Pigs Based on Feed Intake and Growth Curves Presented in
Figure 9-11.

Wt. Range Marg. Cumm. Feed Int. MargGain Cum. Gain Marg.FCE Cum. FCE
(kg) Days Days (kg/day) (g/day) (g/day) (g/g) (gig)
25 - 30 8.0 8.0 1.475 628.4 628.4 2.35 2.35
30- 35 7.3 15.3 1.671 682.4 654.3 2.45 2.40
35 - 40 6.9 22.2 1.868 727.9 677.1 2.57 2.45
40-45 6.5 28.7 2.034 766.0 697.3 2.66 2.50
45 - 50 6.3 35.0 2.184 797.5 715.3 2.74 2.55
50 - 55 6.1 41.0 2.322 823.1 731.3 2.82 2.60
55 - 60 5.9 47.0 2.447 843.5 745.4 2.90 2.64
60- 65 5.8 52.8 2.562 859.0 758.0 2.98 2.68
65 - 70 5.7 58.5 2.666 870.2 769.0 3.06 2.73
70- 75 5.7 64.2 2.762 877.1 778.6 3.15 2.77
75 - 80 5.7 69.9 2.848 880.3 786.9 3.24 2.81
80- 85 5.7 75.6 2.927 879.9 793.8 3.33 2.85
85 - 90 5.7 81.3 3.000 876.1 799.6 3.42 2.90
90-95 5.8 87.0 3.066 869.2 804.2 3.53 2.94
95 - I 00 5.8 92.9 3.126 859.2 807.7 3.64 2.99
100 - 102 2.4 95.2 3.164 850.5 808.7 3.72 3.01

Some other dietary nutrients have been related to

Meat Quality
various aspects of meat quality, most noticeably vita-
Meat quality is not valued in the Canadian price set- min E. Several studies with beef, and a limited number
tlement system for pig carcasses. The relative carcass of studies with pigs, have demonstrated that, when up
value is determined based on dressed carcass weight to 200 IU/kg of vitamin E are included in the diet just
and the estimated lean yield in the carcass (Table 9-2). prior to slaughter, meat colour in fresh meat products
Thus, there is no direct benefit for pork producers to can be maintained longer and drip losses can be re-
produce pig carcasses with superior meat quality. How- duced.
ever, the profitability of the meat packer, and indirectly
that of the pork producer, will be affected by the qual-
ity of the pork products that are sold. Many aspects of Other Management Considerations
meat quality, such as the incidence of pale, soft and As previously discussed, feed cannot be considered
exudative (PSE) pork, are affected primarily by pig in a vacuum. It must be viewed as part of a total man-
genotype and the handling of pigs just prior to slaugh- agement package.
ter. Attempts to reduce the incidence of PSE in pork
via manipulation of the composition of the pre-slaugh- Floor space per pig is important. It not only influ-
ter diet have been largely unsuccessful. ences productivity, but also the pigs' health, behaviour,
and well-being. Table 9-25 summarizes floor space
One aspect of meat quality, the quality of intra- and guidelines for the feeder barn that were suggested in
extra-muscular fat, can be manipulated by the diet com- the Recommended Code of Practice for the Care and
position. As more unsaturated fat is included in the Handling ofFarm Animals recently published by Ag-
finishing pig diet, carcass fat becomes softer and more riculture Canada. These values are not absolute, but
prone to oxidation or rancidity. This condition can af- are useful estimates of the space allowances for feeder
fect shelf-life and consumer acceptance of fresh pork pigs. There is a very fine line between reducing the
products. If the total fat content of the finishing diet space per pig to expand the barn population, and over-
exceeds 4.5%, more saturated fats, such as tallow, crowding causing the barn throughput to suffer. Other
should be chosen over vegetable oils, such as soybean factors, such as pen size, the number of pigs per pen,
or canola oil.

213
feeder design, and location, will also affect space re- Table 9-25. Recommeded Pen Floor Space Allowances
quirements and performance of growing-finishing pigs. for Growing Pigs*
If 15 finishing pigs are grouped in one pen, a pen size
of 4.3 m x 2.3 mis suggested. This size is based on the
Body weight Fully slatted Partial slats
amount of space required according to the Canadian
code of practice to accommodate 15 pigs at 95 kg body kg (lb) m2 (sq ft) m2 (sq ft)
weight. Given variations in animal performance, the
first pig is already shipped from the pen when the av- 25 (55) .30 (3.2) .33 (3.6)
erage body weight of all pigs in the pen reaches 95 kg.
50 ( 110) .48 (5.2) .53 (5.7)
Controlling the barn temperature is also an impor- 75 (165) .62 (6.7) .70 (7.5)
tant practice. The effective barn temperature, which is
the combined effect of many factors, including air tem- 100 (220) .76 (8.2) .85 (9.1)
perature, air speed, air humidity, floor type, dryness of
floor, and the pig's body condition, all have a direct *Recommended Code of Practice for the Care and Handling
effect on feed intake and animaJ performance. If the ofFann Animals
effective environmental temperature is too cold, extra
feed is required to maintain a constant body tempera-
ture and feed intake will increase. If, on the other hand, Additional Reading and References
the effective environmental temperature is too hot, feed Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Publicaiton 1898/
intake will quickly reduce and growth rates will de- E. 1993. Recommended code of practice for the care
cline. The optimum temperature range, i.e., the tem- and handling of farm animals - pigs. Communication
perature range in which pigs are neither too hot nor too Branch, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
cold, is relatively narrow, and will reduce with increases
Veterinary Infectious Disease Organization. 1987.
in live body weight. It is recommended that barn tem-
Feeder Barn Design and Management. Saskatoon, Sas-
peratures do not fall below 18 - 20°C for growing pigs.
katchewan. 48 pp.
Lower temperatures (l2°C) may be acceptable in all-
in, all-out barns when the pigs in a given room reach Forbes, J.M., M.A. Varley and T.L.J. Lawrence (Ed.).
75 kg of body weight. As pigs approach market weight, 1989. The voluntary food intake of pigs. Occasional
a barn temperature of 12°C is quite acceptable if the publication of the British Society of Animal Produc-
pigs are dry and free of drafts. tion. P.O. Box 3, Penicuik, Midlothian Eh26 ORZ,
Scotland.
Other housing recommendations include the provi-
sion of one waterer for every 15 pigs. The scientific Midwest Plan Service. 1983. Swine Housing and
basis for this recommendation is limited, so it should Equipment Handbook. Iowa State University, Ames,
be interpreted as a useful guideline only. Water quality IA. 112 pp.
and water flow rates should be monitored regularly. It
Miller, E.R., D.E. Ullrey and A.J. Lewis (Ed.). 1991.
is recommended that the flow rate for growing-finish-
Swine Nutrition. Butterworth-Heinemann, 80
ing pigs be between 1.0 and 1.5 litres per minute (0.22-
Montvale Avenue, Stoneham. MA 02180, USA. pp.
0.33 imperial gallon per minute). Consult the manu-
1-673.
facturer's recommendations for optimum waterer place-
ment. Moughan, P.J., M. W.A. Verstegen and M.I. Visser-
Reyneveld (Ed.). 1995. Modelling growth in the pig.
EAPP publication No. 78. Wageningcn Pers, P.O. Box
42, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
English, P.R., V.R. Fowler, S.Baxter and B. Smith.
1988. The Growing and Finishing Pig - Improving
Efficiency. Farming Press, Ipswich. 555 pp.
Zhang, Y. 1994. Swine building ventilation - a guide
for confinement swine housing in cold climates. Prai-
rie Swine Centre Inc. Saskatoon.

214
10. DIET PROCESSING AND DELIVERY
Processing and delivery of feed to pigs is obvi- 3. To isolate specific parts of an ingredient.
ously a critical part of pork production. Whether For example, oat hulls can be separated from oats
feeds are prepared at a commercial feed mill or to produce oat groats for use in starter diets. The
mixed on the farm, proper processing and delivery remaining oat hulls can be used in gestating sow
are absolutely essential to achieving high quality, or cattle diets.
consistent feed mixtures for pig consumption. 4. To improve handling. The objective of feed
Poorly processed feeds result in impaired feed processing is to create a feed mixture that flows
utilization, poor performance and in some instances, freely and does not separate. In some cases
serious health problems. Understanding the nature producers may wish to increase bulk density to
of feed processing, the reasoning behind each reduce storage and hauling costs. For example,
procedure and the needs of the pig are important to pelleting has been found to increase the bulk
all pork producers, whether they buy prepared feeds density of wheat shorts by 80%. Bulkiness of the
or manufacture their own diets on the farm. feedstuff can also reduce feed intake. By increas-
ing the physical density of the diet, daily nutrient
intake can be improved. For example, gut
There are several reasons for processing diets
capacity often limits the quantity of feed con-
before feeding them to swine:
sumed by the young pig. Therefore, physical
density of the feed will influence the young pig's
1. To alter the physical form or particle size. nutrient intake.
For example, grains are ground to reduce particle
size and thus improve their compatibility with 5. To improve palatability. Mixing unpalat-
other ingredients in the diet. able, but necessary ingredients with those that are
more appealing to the pig, increases the intake of
2. To improve nutrient availability. All grains
required nutrients over the amount that would be
must be ground before being fed to swine if
eaten if ingredients were offered individually.
nutrient availability is to be maximized. Studies
at the University of Alberta found that lysine is 6. To preserve. Drying or treating high mois-
12% more available to the pig from ground ture grains with organic acids improves the length
wheat as compared to rolled wheat. The average of time they can be stored.
improvement in availability of all essential amino 7. To detoxify. Cleaning removes undesirable
acids is more than 6%. Pelleting and extruding weed seeds that may prove to be toxic to the pig.
are also processes used to improve nutrient Researchers are currently looking at chemical
availability. detoxicants as a way to improve the feeding
value of moldy grains.
Photo 10-1.
8. To create a uniform final feed mixture.
This is particularly critical in feeds for young
pigs, who eat relatively small quantities offeed
per day. However, a proper feed mixture is
necessary for all classes of swine to ensure that
they achieve maximum performance. Research
has shown that pigs do not possess "nutritional
wisdom" to the extent that they will consume a
properly balanced diet. They will seek out
certain nutrients such as salt if required, but they
are incapable of balancing a complete diet. For
this reason, a nutritionally balanced mixed feed
must be offered to pigs. Jf the feed is not uni-
A modern commercial feed plant. form, daily nutrient intake could fall below
Photo courtesy of Federated Co-operatives Ltd. requirement and thus impair performance.

215
 A large number of processing methods are avail- Table 10-1. Effect of Fineness of Grind on the
able to the swine industry. They include mixing, Performance of Weanling Pigs Fed Barley-based Diets.
grinding, rolling, cracking, popping, extruding,
micronizing (pulverizing), roasting, dry pelleting, Screen size, mm 3.2 4.8 Difference
steam pelleting, steam rolling and reconstituting. In Particle size.urn 634 767
practice, only a few, including mixing, grinding, Daily gain, g 386 367 +5.2%
extruding and steam pelleting, are commonly used. Daily feed, g 653 653 nil
The selection of one or more processes will depend Feed:gain l.70 1.79 +5.0%
on the ingredients employed, the age of the pig
being fed and the cost/benefit relationship. Source: Adapted from Goodband et al., 1993.

Table 10-2. Effect of Fineness of Grind on the

Grinding Performance of Finishing Pigs Fed Barley-based Diets.
Grinding is an essential first step in manufacturing
diets for swine. Whole grains are poorly utilized by Screen size, mm 3.2 4.6 6.8
the pig and un-ground grains do not create a very Particle size, µm 714 902 1146
uniform medium for delivering minerals, vitamins Daily gain, g 890 820 810
and protein in the mixed feed. It may surprise some Daily feed, g 2940 2820 2950
that older pigs benefit more from ground feed than Feed:gain 3.32 3.58 3.65
younger pigs because as pigs age, they grind their
food less before swallowing (Figure 10-1). Source: Adapted from Goodband et al., 1993.

� 30
Dietary particle size also affects sow performance
-"'
a> 20
(Table 10-3). While the smaller particle size im-
proved productivity, the incidence of ulcers was
s
Cl
also increased.
"O
� 10
....Q.
0
Photo 10-2.
E
- 0
Dry Matter Energy Protein
• 34kg
• 70kg

Figure 10-1. Improvement due to Grinding on the

Digestibility of Nutrients for Two Sizes of Pigs

In general, it is suggested that barley should be

ground using a 3.2 mm (1/8") screen. On the other
hand, com should be ground using a 4.6 mm (3/
16") screen; there is ample evidence to show that a
4.6 mm screen reduces growth rate (5 - 8%) and
feed conversion (5%) compared to the smaller size
screen (4.6 mm). The data in Tables 10-1 and 10-2
illustrate the results of trials at Kansas State Univer-
sity using barley-based diets.
Hammers and screens must be replaced regularly to
ensure constant diet quality.

216
Table 10-3. Effect of Particle Size on the Perform- grinding if they are not replaced. Based on a report
ance of Lactating Sows Fed a Corn-based Diet. by Pouteaux, 1988, screen wear is much more
serious than hammer wear (Table 10-5).
Particle size, um
400 600 900 1200 Other factors may also play a role in the quality of
Litter size, d2 l 8.9 9.4 9.0 9.0 grinding. These include the speed of the mill, the
Sow wt. loss, kg 8.0 6.8 8.5 3.7 design of the hammers and screens, the ingredient
Sow backfat transporting system and the physical characteristics
loss, mm 3.3 3.8 4.6 4.1 of the grains, most important of which is moisture.
Litter weight, kg 50.4 50.4 48.9 46.9 Broad recommendations suggesting a specific
Feed intake, kg 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.2 screen size must be interpreted with care since a
Diet digestibility, % 88.6 86.7 85.4 84.4 universal guide is not possible. This is graphically
shown in Table l 0-5. The same screen size and
Source: Adapted from Goodband et al., 1993. hammer speed were employed for both the hammer
and screen studies. Only the brand of hammer mill
differed. Nevertheless, mean particle diameter,
In addition to the potential for increased ulcers, particle surface area and particles per gram varied
there are other down sides to seeking a more finely significantly, even with new equipment. The best
ground diet: mill output is reduced, the power alternative is to determine mean particle size on
demands per tonne of diet increase (Table I 0-4 ), each diet and adjust mills accordingly. Mean
palatability may suffer and dustiness will increase. particle size for market hogs and sows should be
Another consideration is shrink, a factor often 650 to 750µ.m.
ignored when calculating the true cost of manufac-
turing feeds. It refers to material lost as dust and
moisture and is believed to increase in parallel with
Photo 10-3.
fineness. Although shrink is difficult to quantify,
most estimates range from one to three percent.

Table 10-4. Impact of Fineness of Grind on Mill

Productivity and Energy Efficiency.

Particle size Energy cost Production Rates

(urn) (Kwh/tonne) (tonnes/hr)
400 7.5 2.1
600 4.1 4.0
800 3.3 4.3
1000 2.7 4.3

Source: Adapted from Wondra et al.. 1992, J. Anim. Sci.

70(Suppl. 1 ):239.

Many factors influence the efficiency of the

grinding process. Screen size of the mill is impor-
tant as well as the condition of the screen and the
hammers. Nonna! wear and tear during grinding Proportioner-type mills are very common in the swine
will result in uneven screen size, broken screens and industry. However, for best results, they must be
worn hammers and will result in a poor job of carefully calibrated and regularly re-calibrated.

217
Table 10-5. Effect of Screen and Hammer Wear on Grinding Effectiveness

Mean Particle Surface Area Particles/Gram

Diameter (microns) ( cm2 per gram)
Peas
New Screen 646 179 130,480
Worn Screen 344 355 1, 132,500
(Difference) ( I .88x) (l.98x) (8.68x)
New Hammers 399 393 2,244,800
Worn Hammers 417 397 1,659,000
(Difference) (l.05x) (1.0lx) ( l.35x)

Barley
New Screen 692 229 118,200
Worn Screen 388 419 311,400
(Difference) (l .78x) ( l .83x) (2.46x)
New Hammers 633 274 180,700
Worn Hammers 627 250 124,100
(Difference) (l.Olx) (1.1 Ox) (l .46x)

Wheat (HRS)
New Screen 772 186 73,290
Worn Screen 358 427 938,200
(Difference) (2.16x) (2.30x) (12.8x)

Wheat (Winter)
New Hammers 443 390 2.319,500
Worn Hammers 433 392 1,841,900
(Difference) (l.02x) (--) (l.26x)

x: The number of times the smaller value exceeds the larger value in a column.
All studies were conducted with a 7/64" (2.78mm) screen. Both the screen and hammer study employed a 100 HP
tear-drop circular hammer mill operated at 3600 RPM. The mill used for the screen study though, was a different
brand than that used for the hammer study.

Adapted from Pouteaux, 1988. Proc. Alberta Pork Congress. Red Deer, pp.20.

The most commonly recommended screen sizes analyses of particle size, therefore visual inspection
for swine diets based on barley range from 3.0 to of the ground feed remains important. In terms of
3.5 mm. Often. producers should use these as final particle size, screen size is Jess important for
guidelines only, considering them with the other barley than for wheat, as shown in Table I 0-5.
variables involved in manufacturing swine diets
such as moisture content, nature of the grain and the As introduced previously. the incidence of gastric
feed mill itself. Producers do not have access to ulcers tends to increase with the use of finely
ground feeds (Table I 0-6 and I 0- 7).

218
Table 10-6. Effect of Fineness of Grind of Corn on Incidence of Ulcers and Other Stomach Lesions in Swine

Hammermill Screen Size (mm}

1.6 6.4 12.7
Fineness of Grind
Mean Particle Size (microns) 465 820 1,363
Surface Area (cm2/gm) 110 72 52
Stomach Lesions(%)
Normal Stomachs 0 50 63
Comifications 25 38 38
Erosions 25 13 0
Slight Ulcers 38 0 0
Serious Ulcers 13 0 0

Adapted from Wu and Allee. 1984. Kansas State University Swine Day Progress Report pp. 83-88.

Table 10-7. Effect of Fineness of Grind of Barley on It should also be noted that as farms move to
the Incidence of Ulcers and Other Stomach Lesions phase feeding, where nutrient supply is closely
in Swine.
linked to nutrient requirements, the importance of
diet uniformity will be much greater; this is due to
Hammermill Screen Size, (mm) the fact that single phase diets, for example, tend to
3.2 6.4 provide nutrients in excess of requirement and thus
Fineness of Grind provide some degree of protection from poor diet
Mean Particle Size mixing.
(microns) 71 l 1159
Surface Area (cm2/gm) 79 50 In all cases, the variation of the nutrient within the
Stomach Lesions(%) batch is expressed as the coefficient of variation
Normal Stomachs 17 67 (C.V.). In general, the objective of most mixing
Comifications 33 17 systems is to reduce nutrient variability within a mix
Erosions 0 17 to a C.V. of less than 10% and certainly no greater
Slight Ulcers 0 0 than 15%. Excessive variability within a mix
Serious Ulcers 0 0 reduces growth rate and feed efficiency (Tables I 0-
8 and 10-9).
Adapted from Goodband 1986. Master's Thesis. Kansas
State University, Manhattan, KS.

Table 10-8. Impact of Mixing Time on Diet Uniform-

Mixing ity and Performance of Weanling Pigs.
Mixing is often taken for granted as a simple
process that requires little attention to quality Mixing time, min.
control. Unfortunately, nothing could be further 0 0.5 2.0 4.0
from the truth! Mixer adjustment, mixing time and Coefficient
mixer design are all important variables in develop- of variation 100+ 28 16 12
ing a proper protocol. Mixing efficiency is gener- Daily gain, g1 268 377 381 399
ally evaluated by taking l O to 12 samples from Daily feed, g1 599 712 703 721
within a single batch and analysing each sample Feed efficiency1 2.24 1.89 1.85 l.81
individually for a single nutrient such as sodium,
chloride, iron or lysine; sodium and chloride are the 1
Effect of mixing time significant, P < 0.05
lowest cost assays. Tracer particles can be used as Source: Adapted from Traylor ct al., 1994.
an alternative.

219
 While proper mix time is required to achieve Table 10-9. Impact of Mixing Time on Diet Uniform-
adequate mixing, worn or poorly adjusted parts may ity and Performance of Finishing Swine.
also contribute to a poor mix. Operators must be
careful not to exceed the recommended capacity of Mixing time, min
the mixer; otherwise poor mixing efficiency is 0 0.5 2.0 4.0
almost a certainty. Coefficient
of variation 53.8 14.8 12.5 9.6
There are two general types of mixers: horizontal Daily gain, g 776 808 794 785
and vertical. The following comments are generali- Daily feed, g 2945 2904 2886 2881
ties only; differences will exist among manufactur- Feed conversion 3.80 3.60 3.63 3.67
ers due to variation in design. Typically, horizontal
mixers are more expensive to purchase than vertical Source: Adapted from Traylor et al., 1994.
mixers but have a lower maintenance cost, in part
'
because they have a slower ribbon speed of rotation
(30 to 40 rpm vs. 200 to 300 rpm). Also, horizon- Pelleting
tal mixers can generally handle higher quantities of Swine diets are pelleted for handling reasons and
added liquids than vertical mixers. to improve performance. The increased feed
efficiency is believed to be due to reduced wastage
Horizontal mixers may employ either paddles or and perhaps improved digestibility. A survey of
ribbons, or a combination of the two, circulating 117 experiments showed an average increase in
within the batch to achieve a uniform mix. Typical growth rate of 6.6% and an improvement in feed
mixing times for horizontal mixers range from 3 to efficiency of7.9% due to pelleting. The benefit
6 minutes, while for vertical mixers, a somewhat depends on the nature of the ingredients used.
longer period- 8 to 15 minutes - may be required to
bring the coefficient of variation below the desired Generally, improvement in performance is greater
I 0%. Portable grinder mixers are a version of the with more fibrous feeds. Therefore greater benefits
vertical mixer described above. Studies in which from pelleting would be expected from barley than
mixing efficiency has been properly evaluated from wheat or com. One study found that the
suggest that for a mixer in good repair, mixing for advantage to pelleting corn in terms of feed effi-
I 2-17 minutes after the addition of the last ingredi- ciency was approximately 11 % while improvement
ent should suffice. in growth rate ranged from 4-9%, depending on the
age of the pig; this was confirmed by a recent report
The proper order of addition of ingredients is also from Kansas State University (Table 10-10).
important. For best results, one-half to two-thirds
of the major ingredient (eg. barley) should be added A survey of l O experiments using barley-based
first. Intermediate ingredients, such as supplement, diets suggested that on average, pelleting improved
soybean meal or canola meal can then be added, growth rate and feed efficiency by 15%. On bal-
followed by the minor ingredients such as premix or ance this appears to be high, but improvement in the
salt. Finally, the remainder of the major ingredient range of7-9% would not be unexpected. For
can be added. example, Bell and Keith reported an average 4.7%
improvement in growing pigs and an average 12.6%
improvement in finishing pigs fed barley- or barley
and wheat-based diets (Table I 0-11 ).

220
Table 10-10. Impact of Pelleting Com-based Diets on Finishing Pig Performance, Nutrient Digestibility and
the Incidence of Ulcers.

Meal Pellet Difference, %

Pig performance
Initial wt., kg 68
Final wt., kg 119

Ave. daily gain, kg 0.83 0.90 +8.8

Ave. daily feed, kg 3.02 3.11 +3.2
Feed conversion 3.65 3.46 +5.2

Apparent nutrient digestibility, %

Dry matter 86.2 86.9 +0.8
Nitrogen 83.1 83.4 +0.4
Gross energy 87.0 87.3 +0.3
Stomach keratinization1 1.60 1.63 0.0
Stomach lesions1 0.32 0.97 +203

'Lesions and degree ofkeratinization in easophageal region of the stomach scored on a scale ofO to 3, with 3 being
the most severe.
Source: Adapted from Wondra et al.. 1992a.

Photo 10-4. There are a number of things that can be done if

ulcers are a problem. In the short-term, hay or a
similar material can be offered to the animals ad lib.
This practice is most effective but may not be
practical in barns using liquid manure pits. A
second option is to include approximately 10%
whole grain (eg. oats or barley) in the diet. Pellet
quality may suffer somewhat, especially in diets
based on corn, but it is an effective method for
treating ulcers.

The preferred pellet size depends on the age of

the animal being fed. The young pig prefers a
smaller-sized feed, and therefore small or short-cut
pellets or crumbles are best. Crumbled creep feeds
tend to stimulate intake. As the pig gets older,
larger pellets are quite acceptable.

Pelleting helps to increase nutrient digestibility and

reduce ingredient separation in swine diets.
Photo courtesy of Federated Co-operatives Ltd.

221
Table 10-1 J. Effect of Pelleting Diets Based on Canela (seed and/or meal) and Cereal Grains (barley or barley
plus wheat) on Pig Performance

Mash Pellets Difference %

Growing pigs (23-59 kg)
Ave. daily gain, kg 0.67 0.72 +7.5%
Ave. daily feed, kg 1.89 1.83 -3.2%
Feed conversion 2.83 2.55 +9.9%

Finishing pigs (59-lOOkg)

Ave. daily gain, kg 0.73 0.87 +19.2%
Ave. daily feed. kg 2.73 2.98 +9.2%
Feed conversion 3.78 3.43 +9.3%

Source: Adapted from Bell and Keith, 1991. Annual Report, Prairie Swine Centre, Saskatoon, SK. pp. 21-24.

Pellet quality is a subject that attracts a great deal Although many factors are believed to be in-
of attention in feed manufacturing and probably volved. gastric ulcers tend to increase when pigs are
receives more attention than is necessary if a pro- fed pelleted diets. Part of the problem may be
ducer's major concern is pig performance. Pellet related to the fineness of grind used to prepare
durability is heavily influenced by diet composition. grains for pelleting. A finer grind results in better
Wheat in particular is a good binding agent, while quality pellets; consequently, pellet-mill operators
pellets made of com do not hold together as well. tend to use finely ground grains in an attempt to
When pigs have access to pellets and fines, they minimize customer complaints. With a coarser
appear to prefer the pellets and let the fines collect grind. pellet quality will suffer but the incidence of
in the corner of the feeder. This prompts concern ulcers will be reduced. The heating process associ-
on the part of the producer. Recent studies at ated with pelleting results in gelatinization of the
Kansas State University reveal that the presence of grain starches and has also been implicated as a
fines has little effect on growth rate, but reduces cause of ulcers. In the example presented in Table
feed efficiency (Tables 10-12 and 10-13). 10-10, the grains used in both the meal and the
pelleted diets were ground to the same particle size.

Table 10-12. Effect of Pellet Fines on Performance of Finishing Pigs Fed a Corned-based Diet (Initial wt.= 54kg).

Meal Screened Percentage fines

pellets 20 40 60

Ave. gain, kg/d 0.93 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.94

Ave. feed intake, kg/d 2.58 2.54 2.66 2.66 2.65
Feed conversion1 2.78 2.65 2.78 2.77 2.82
I
Linear effect of fines significant, P<O. IO
Source: Stark et al., 1993.

222
Table 10-13. Effect of Pelleting and Fines on Performance of Newly-weaned Pigs Fed Corn-based Diets (Initial
wt.= 5. 7 kg).

Meal Pellets Pellets + 25% fines

d7tod21
Ave. gain, kg/d 0.32 0.36 0.34
Ave. feed intake, kg/d 0.56 0.52 0.54
Feed conversion'> 1.73 1.44 1.55

d7 to d35
Ave. gain, kg/d 0.47 0.49 0.49
Ave. feed intake, kg/d 0.78 0.73 0.76
Feed conversion1•3 1.67 1.50 l.54
I
Effect of pelleting significant, P<0.01
2
Effect of fines significant, P<0.05
3
Effect of fines significant, P<0.07
Source: Stark et al., 1993.

Liquid Feeding
Liquid feeding was popular many years ago but True liquid feeding systems are also appearing on
fell into disfavour for a variety of reasons. Most of the Canadian market. The new systems offer more
the reasons were related to problems with the precision in mixing and delivery and if they are
mechanical equipment. New approaches have linked to computer systems, they provide a much
rekindled interest. greater degree of control than was previously
possible. It is too early to offer a definite evalua-
For example, one "version" of liquid feeding is tion of these newer units, but they do offer consid-
the use of "wet-dry" feeders, a compromise erable advantages over previous liquid feeding
between liquid and dry feeding. Feed is delivered systems. Small improvements in pig performance
to the self-feeder in dry form, but a nipple waterer can be expected with such feeding systems. The
located below the feeding platform allows the pig to main drawback is cost and the difficulty of adding
drink water at the same time as it is eating. The pig antibiotics to certain diets without contaminating
can even mix the dry feed with water in the dish others.
located below both the feeding platform and the
waterer. Photo 10-5.

Field studies in Manitoba indicate that the wet-dry

feeders are well received by the pigs, and the feed
intake may be improved over conventional dry
feeders. To maintain the cleanliness of the pens, the
feeders should be placed within 2 feet of the slatted
area, since some water spillage does occur. Wet-dry
feeders have proven to be an efTective way of
incorporating liquid whey into the feeding program.
Whey is delivered via the nipples and the
composition of the dry feed is adjusted to
complement the whey composition. Computer controUed liquid feeding systems which supply
exact amounts of feed to each pen at specified times are
relatively new on the market, but gaining in popularity.

223
 Liquid or paste feeding has shown some benefits Photo 10-6.
for the young weanling pig. Liquid feeding refers
to a feed with a high water content (2: I water:feed
ratio), while paste feeding is drier but still moist
(J .3-1.5: 1 water:feed ratio). Young pigs tend to eat
wet feed more readily. The problem is maintaining
feed freshness. Starter diets are high in milk prod-
ucts and tend to develop off-flavours very quickly.
However, if suitable antioxidants arc included in the
diet and the feed delivery system is managed
properly, these concerns can be largely overcome.
The key to liquid or paste feeding systems is to
provide fresh feed on a regular basis.

Drying Grains
Depending on cropping practices and weather
conditions, grains may be dried to reduce moisture Grain dryers are used to reduce the moisture content
content and thus prevent spoilage during storage. of wet grains thus preventing spoilage.
An alternative to drying is to store the product as a
high moisture grain. This method is discussed later
in the chapter. Research has shown that corn can be Sealed, oxygen-limiting silos are the most
dried to 12-15% moisture using temperatures of convenient systems for storing high-moisture grains,
up to 110°C with no adverse affects on pig but they are also the most expensive. Vertical
performance. Temperatures in excess of 150°C concrete silos or horizontal silos can be used
have been shown to affect the palatability of corn successfully, although the level of management
to the pig. required is greater than with the oxygen-limiting
systems. Mechanization of feeding is also more
difficult. especially in the case of the horizontal
High Moisture Grains silos.
High moisture storage and feeding of grain is
popular in areas where grains are harvested wet and The grain should be ground and well packed in
must then be dried before conventional storage. the silo to eliminate oxygen. All doors should be
High moisture storage involves the use of either sealed; unsealed systems result in losses of 2-5%
oxygen limiting structures or the addition of compared to oxygen limiting systems. Once a
acidifying compounds. Both systems inhibit vertical silo is opened, a minimum of three inches
undesirable microbial deterioration, allowing the must be removed per day to prevent spoilage. This
wet grain to be stored until fed. The systems add to may have to be increased during warm weather.
the cost of storage but save on the cost of drying.
On a dry matter basis, there is very little
The use of high moisture grain can improve difference in the feeding value of com or barley of
harvesting management, since a dryer tends to slow equal quality stored in an oxygen limiting unit
down the grain handling process. High moisture compared to being conventionally dried. High
grains stored in silos should normally fall within the moisture storage appears to increase the availability
range of 22-28% moisture. This range limits the of phosphorous in the grain but it may also reduce
period of time for harvesting but provides ideal the amounts of vitamins A and E. The main point
moisture to generate the desired level of to keep in mind is that rations must be adjusted to
fermentation. compensate for the extra moisture content of the
grain.

224
 Organic acids have been used extensively as [fa proportioner-type mill is being used, the
preservatives for high moisture grains. The bushel weight should also be measured. Bushel
different types include propionic, acetic, isobutyric, weight should be checked on a regular basis
formic and benzoic acids or their various because changes in bushel weight will alter mixing
combinations. These acids preserve the grain by accuracy. Appendix II outlines the steps required to
preventing mold growth and by killing the grain calibrate a typical proportioner-type mill, one of the
germ. Organic acids can be corrosive to any metal common mixing systems.
they come in contact with such as transportation and
storage equipment. If metal granaries are to be It has been suggested that the moisture content of
used, they must be lined with a protective covering the ingredients will influence the rate of addition in
to avoid premature rusting. proportioner-type mills. This is because moisture
content affects bushel weight. However, moisture
Acid preservation systems are more flexible than tests from a feed testing laboratory may not be
the use of oxygen limiting silos. The advantage is completely accurate. This is because the moisture
that continuous feeding is not necessary. The acid content of a sample of grain can change a great deal
remains with the grain until feeding: therefore from the time it is sampled at the farm until it is
spoilage outside the granary is eliminated. finally measured in the lab. This problem is
relatively minor for dry grains, but increases as
Pigs normally perform very well on high-moisture actual moisture content increases. Researchers go
grain. Dustiness is reduced so the wet grain tends to to great pains to measure moisture accurately under
be very palatable. It should not be used for the very laboratory conditions that would not be practical for
young pig though, due to the high moisture content farmers. Consequently, a good bushel weight is
of the grain and the limited gut capacity of the small likely to be the best overall measurement on a grain
pig. Once high moisture grain is harvested and sample, to determine if mill re-calibration is
stored, there tends to be very little resale market required.
available. The owner is generally committed to
feeding it to livestock. For cereal grains, calcium and phosphorus
analysis may not be required, as they are quite
consistent from year to year and because they
Mixing Feeds on the Farm contribute relatively small proportions of the total
In Canada, a high but declining proportion of
feeds are manufactured on the farm. There are Photo 10-7.
many indications though, that many home-
maufactured diets are not well mixed. Toe results
of surveys in several provinces indicate that up to
75% of feeds submitted to feed testing laboratories
for analysis fail to meet the nutrient requirements of
the pigs being fed. The problem can occur at any
number of the steps involved in feed manufacturing:
diet formulation, feed mixing or feed delivery. A
proper quality control program must be in place to
ensure diet quality and consistency. A system for
quality control was discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
Ingredients grown on the farm should be analysed at
least for crude protein and moisture.

To obtain best results, P.T.O. mixers should be operated

for 12 to 17 minutes after adding the last ingredient.

225
quantities in the diet. Purchased ingredients should Table 10-14. Separation of Feeds Following Mixing on
be analysed for protein, calcium, phosphorus and the Farm.
salt on a regular basis, perhaps every 2-3 months, to
ensure that the assumed nutrient content is indeed Portion of Storage Tank
correct. Nutrient Start Middle End
(%)
Mixed diets should be sampled monthly and Protein 17.60 17.40 15.70
analysed as required. This step ensures that mixing Calciwn 1.09 0.99 0.74
and formulation steps have been completed Phosphorus 0.95 0.85 0.65
correctly, and provides a final check on the quality Fibre 3.80 4.20 9.00
of the feeds being offered to the pigs. Refer to Salt 0.74 0.71 0.61
Chapter 5 for a recommended feed sampling and (parts per million)
analysis schedule. Iron 310 200 200
Zinc 260 140 140
Processing Problems Manganese 50 40 40
Achieving a proper mix on the farm is not easy, Copper 23 20 20
based on the results of surveys showing generally
poor quality control. Surveys continually reveal A pre-grower diet was mixed using a proportioner-type
mill and stored in a hopper-bottomed bin before feeding.
that diets lack nutrient balance and often uniformity. Feed samples were collected at three stages of emptying:
beginning, middle and end of the batch.
One major problem is separation. For example,
Table l 0-14 summarizes the results of a study
conducted on a commercial farm in Saskatchewan proven beneficial in removing nuisance dust, but is
using a typical proportioner-type mill. Feed was very poor at controlling respirable dust - that which
mixed in batches and stored in a hopper-bottomed is small enough to enter the lungs and thus poten-
(centre flow) steel bin. Feed samples were tially contribute to respiratory problems. Including
collected for analysis at the beginning, middle and whole seed canola or soybeans in the formula is one
end of the batch as it left the storage bin. way of accomplishing this objective and has the
Considerable separation was taking place, such that added benefit of increasing the energy content of
pigs were receiving diets of varied composition, the diet. Sprinkling oil directly in the barn is much
depending on the location of the feed within the more effective in reducing dust - by up to 80% -
storage tank. Since this diet was formulated to be a and at less cost than adding the oil to the diet.
pre-grower, the very high crude fibre and low
protein level found in the latter part of the batch Care must be taken to increase amino acid
was a serious cause for concern. (protein) content of the diet when any fat source is
used; otherwise, poor carcass grades may result.
To improve uniformity, dispersion tubes should For every l % vegetable fat added to the diet, the
be placed inside feed bins to prevent segregation of limiting amino acids should be increased by about
ground feeds. Coarse grinding may also help, but 4%. For example, for every l % of fat added to a
losses in performance must be avoided. Pelleting of finisher diet, lysine should rise by about 0.03
course would solve the problem, but is generally not percentage units (eg. lysine increased from 0.75%
available on most farms. to 0.78%). This can be accomplished most easily
by increasing the amount of protein by 4% (i.e.
Dustiness is another problem. Recognition that crude protein increased from 16.5% to 17.2%).
dust in the barn poses a threat to the health of When whole seed canola or soybeans are used, they
humans as well as pigs has focused greater attention add protein as well as fat, so the increase in protein
on this subject. Adding 0.5-2% fat to the diet has per l % fat would be 1.5-2.0%.

226
Feeds Act and Regulation 2. When livestock diets are fed to animals
Everyone manufacturing feeds, whether they are a resulting human food products, such as meat or
commercial feed company or a private farmer milk, do not pose any kind of health threat to
persons consuming them. For example, the Act
mixing feed for his own use, should be familiar
specifically forbids the use of in-feed drugs in
with three publications: the Feeds Act ( 1976). the
such kind or quantity that would result in residue
Feeds Regulations ( 1983, revised) and the Com- in the meat intended for human consumption.
pendium of Medicating Ingredient Brochures
(CMIB). These are federal statutes and guides 3. Animal feeds do not pose a health threat to
governing the manufacture and use of livestock the animals consuming them.
feeds in Canada. Copies of all three can be ob- 4. Animal feeds do not pose a threat to the
tained from the Federal Government. They detail environment.
the legal responsibilities associated with the produc-
tion of feeds intended for use in livestock opera- The Food Production and Inspection Branch
tions; contrary to common thinking, these rules administers the Feeds Act and Feeds Regulations.
apply equally to both commercial feed companies As a consequence of changes in the nature of the
and farmers manufacturing their own feeds. How- livestock feed industry, and in their view, to obtain
ever, the Feeds Act states that it does not apply to a the best results from a limited budget, they are
feed: focusing less attention on random visits to commer-
cial feed mills, a major activity in the past, and
"that is manufactured by a livestock producer if it spending more time following up on suspected
is not offered for sale and has not had incorpo- abuses of in-feed drug usage at commercial mills or
rated into it any drug or other substance that may on livestock farms.
adversely affect human health or the environment
or that is sold by the individual grower thereof if
At the present time, all feeds imported,
it is free from prescribed deleterious substance�."
manufactured or sold in Canada must be registered
with the Federal Government, unless they are
Simply stated, if the individual pork producer is
mixing his own diets for his own use and is not s�eci�ically exempted by the Feeds Act; fortunately,
since rt takes considerable time and effort (and
adding anything to the feed that will be harmful to
S95.00) to register a single feed, the majority of
human health or the environment, then he or she is
feeds are exempted. For example, a feed is
not bound by the legislation contained in the Act.
exempted from registration if it does not contain
However. if feed medications are used such as
any medicating ingredients and meets specified
antibiotic-type growth promotants, then the Feeds
minimum requirements with respect to nutrient
Act must be adhered to.
composition. These nutrient specifications are
outlined in Table 4, Schedule I of the Feeds
The following discussion summarizes general
Regulations. Table 10- 7 summarizes the
points of interest to livestock producers. It is not
information as it relates to swine. It must be
intended to be comprehensive; anyone interested in
recognized that Table 4 of the Regulations is
answers to specific questions should consult the Act
continually being reviewed and adjusted; therefore,
or contact their nearest Agriculture Canada office.
the reader is cautioned that changes to the
Regulations may have occurred since this book was
Essentially, the objectives of the Feeds Act are to
written and that Table 10-7 may not be completely
ensure that:
up to date.
I. All animal feeds are efficacious in terms of
the original purposes for which they were As indicated, registration requirements do not
intended. For example. a sow lactation diet apply if the feeds are manufactured for a livestock
should support milk production in the sow. producer's own use and do not contain medications;
similarly, if the feed contains medications added at
levels defined in the CMIB, the registration

227
requirements are again waived. The CMIB defines It is clear that the government wishes to be very
which drugs are permitted to be used in swine diets, careful about permitting the use of medications in
what levels may legally be added to the diet and livestock feeds. Anyone mixing diets which include
identifies restrictions on their use, such as medications may be required to submit to an on-
withdrawal times. Levels of drugs or combinations farm inspection. The Act discusses such inspec-
of drugs, not included in the CMIB cannot be used tions of feed mixing facilities. They are intended to
in swine diets unless the producer or feed ensure that, if medications are going to be used,
manufacturer receives a veterinary prescription. they are mixed adequately and safely. In this
respect, the on-farm feed mixing facility is treated
Agriculture Canada is primarily concerned with exactly the same as a large commercial feed mill.
diets that contain medications or other substances Such an inspection could include a listing of all
that pose a potential hazard to animal or human medicating ingredients used and determine if such a
health and if not used properly could result in premix is approved for use, a check of feed han-
carcass residue. They are also concerned about the dling, delivery and mixing facilities to ensure they
use of other substances that may be harmful to the are in good repair and adequate for the job, and an
environment such as high levels of copper, which evaluation of manufacturing practices such as those
accumulate in manure and become concentrated on related to preventing inadvertent contamination of
land where it is spread. other, un-medicated feeds mixed at the same site.

Table 10-15. Nutrient Guarantees Required for Swine Diets that are Exempt from Registration Requirements.

Nutrient Minimum Maximum Nutrient Minimum Maximum

Calcium,% 0.80(1) 2.00 Magnesium, % 0.04 0.30
0.75(2,3) Manganese, mg/kg 10 200
0.5(4)
Cobalt, mg/kg NRS 5 Phosphorus, % 0.60(1) 2.00
0.50(4)
Copper, mg/kg 6 125 Potassium, % 0.2 2.0
Iodine, mg/kg 0.2 10 Sodium,% 0.20(2) 0.80
Iron, mg/kg 150(5) 750 0.15(3)
80(3) 0.10(4)
40(4)
Selenium, mg/kg NRS 0.30
Vitamin A, IU/kg 4,000(3) 20,000 added
1,300(6)
2,000(4) Sulphur,% NRS NRS
Vitamin D, TU/kg 125(4) 1,500
200(7)
Zinc,mg/kg 100 500 Vitamin E, TU/kg 10 NRS

Minimum and maximum nutrient composition specified in the Feed Regulations for unregistered diets fed to various
classes of swine:( I) 1- l O kg bodyweight; (2)1actation; (3 )breeding; (4 )all classes not specified; (5)up to 20 kg
bodyweight; (6)20 kg to market; (7)up to 60 kg; (NRS)No requirement specified. Diets offered for sale which fall
within these ranges need not be registered. The limitations specified in this table do not apply to individual livestock
producers who are exempt from these regulations (see above).

228
 Clearly, the use of medications in livestock diets Additional Reading and References
is considered a serious matter which must be Goodband, R.D., 1986. The effects of barley on
carefully controlled to ensure that the pork industry starter and finishing pig performance. Master's
produces a safe, wholesome product. It is the Thesis, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS.
responsibility of each individual producer to ensure
that proper procedures are followed. Goodband, R.D., M.D. Tokach and J.L. Nelssen.
1993. Diet particle size influences pig
Because they are in the business of selling feeds, performance. Proc. Manitoba Swine Seminar,
the commercial feed manufacturer is expected to Winnipeg, MB. pp. 91 - 104.
meet certain standards beyond those applying to the
individual farmer. All feeds must be carefully Stark, C.R., K.C. Behnke, J.D. Hancock, and R.H.
labelled. Although the Regulations carefully define Hines. 1993. Pellet quality affects growth
labelling requirements, the major objective is to performance of nursery and finishing pigs. Swine
provide the buyer with sufficient information to use Day Progress Report pp. 67-70.
the feed effectively and safely. Labels include
feeding instructions, withdrawal times if Traylor, S.L., J.D. Hancock, K.C. Behnke, C.R.
medications are involved and cautions with respect Stark, and R.H. Hines. 1994. Mix time affects diet
to proper use. All diets manufactured for sale by uniformity and growth performance of nursery and
feed companies that contain nutrients outside the finishing pigs. Swine Day Progress Report pp. 171-
bounds defined in Table 4 of the Feeds Regulations 175.
must be registered with the Federal Government.
An exception is what the Regulations refer to as a Wondra, K.J., J.D. Hancock, K.C. Behnke, C.H.
customer formula feed. If the pork producer Fahrenholz, C.R. Stark, and R.H. Hines. 1992a.
specifically asks for a feed that may contain levels Effects of mill type (hammer vs roller) and particle
above or below the standards outlined in Table 4 size uniformity on growth performance, nutrient
and provides a signed request form listing all the digestibility, and stomach morphology in finishing
ingredients to be used, the feed manufacturer does pigs. Swine Day Progress Report pp.126-129.
not have to register the feed with the Federal
government. Consequently, requests from farmers Wondra, K.J., J.D. Hancock, K.C. Behnke, G.A.
to commercial feed manufacturers should keep such Kennedy, and R.H. Hines. l 992b. Does diet form
restrictions in mind. (pelleted vs meal) affect optimum particle size of
com for finishing pigs? Swine Day Progress Report
Agriculture Canada provides the 'Medicated Feed pp. 122-125.
Information Guide'. Like any legal document, the
Feeds Act is written in very precise legal language Wondra, K.J., J.D. Hancock, K.C. Behnke, R.H.
which is sometimes difficult to understand. This Hines, and C.R. Stark. 1993. Effects of
Guide is useful because it explains the Feeds Act hammerrnills and roller mills on growth
and associated documents in simpler terms. performance, nutrient digestibility, and stomach
Everyone mixing feeds on the farm would be well morphology in finishing pigs. Swine Day Progress
advised to read it, so they are familiar with their Report pp.135-138.
legal obligations. The Guide also provides useful
tips on feed mixing and handling to help avoid
potential problems.

229
230
11. TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN FEEDS
While the main focus of animal nutrition is the
need for - and supply of - nutrients, the feedstuffs Potential Toxins or Toxin Producers
which supply these nutrients may also carry with Which May be
them certain toxins or antinutritional factors. Tox- Present in Common Feed Ingredients
ins are generally considered to be poisonous sub-
stances present in the feed, often produced by the Endogenous Exogenous
host plant or by an organism living in the feed,
which could adversely affect the health and wellbe- Phytates Fungi
ing of animals; conversely, antinutritional factors Saponins Aspergillus
are substances which impair normal feed digestion Estrogens Fusarium
or nutrient utilization. A diet can be perfectly Trypsin Inhibitors Penicillium
balanced but fail to support optimal growth if it Tannins Ergot
contains anti-nutritional factors that adversely affect Glucosinolates
appetite, feed utilization or animal health. Lectins Bacteria
Thiaminase Escheriscia coli
Toxins may be substances that occur naturally in Oxalates Salmonella
certain species of plants. Examples are tannins and Gossypol Campy lobacter
phytates; their presence is readily predicted and Listeria
appropriate adjustments can be made in the diet Clostridia
formulation. Toxins can also be the result of
contamination by bacteria or fungi. The bacteria
themselves may be toxic to the pig, or if the bacte-
ria or fungi are not poisonous. they may produce to formulate rations around them. Research is
substances which are. This is not a predictable underway to negate the effects of many of these
occurrence and therefore. can be much more diffi- toxic factors. The following is a discussion of some
cult to deal with. Listed adjacent are some of the of the more common toxicants which may be
toxins or toxin producers which may be found in encountered when formulating pig diets in Canada.
feeds in Canada. It does not include weed seeds
which may also contain noxious substances. Phytates
Mycotoxins are metabolites (products of metabo- Phytic acid is present in many plant seeds, contain-
lism) of fungi, the most common in Canada being ing 6 phosphorus molecules linked to an organic
ergot alkaloids, ochratoxin A, zearalenone and the compound called inositol. In the plant kingdom, it
tricothecenes. These are discussed in detail later in serves as an important storage form of phosphorus.
the chapter. Phytic acid may chelate or bind with a variety of
minerals, including calcium, magnesium, iron and
zinc to form phytate. In pig diets, phytate typically
Toxicants Produced by Plants binds calcium and magnesium as well as phospho-
Many common feed ingredients contain natural rus; destroying phytate through enzymatic or
toxicants and/or toxins which may impair pig processing activity will therefore increase the
performance. For example, raw soybeans contain utilization of all three mineral elements, not just
trypsin inhibitors and the enzyme urease. They are phosphorus as normally assumed.
part of the normal plant or seed and are generally
predictable in both quantity and impact on the pig. In mature cereal grains, 60% to 80% of the total
Although their presence is undesirable, our knowl- phosphorus is so bound; in soybean meal, about
edge of anti-nutritional factors allows nutritionists half of the phosphorus exists as phytate phosphorus.

231
Table 11-1 provides information on the relative Table 11-1. Phytate Phosphorus Content of Common
proportion of total phosphorus present in the form Feedstuffs.
of phytate in common feedstuffs.
Total Phytate
Phytate is of nutritional significance because Feeds tu ff Phosphorus, % Phosphorus,
phosphorus in phytic acid is poorly absorbed by the % of total
pig. In fact, the availability of total phosphorus Alfalfa meal 0.30 0
from grain sources ranges from 20% in com to 45% Barley 0.34 56
in wheat; barley and oats are intermediate at about Com 0.26 66
30% availability. These low availabilities are the Cottonseed meal 1.07 70
result of poor utilization of phytate-bound phospho- Grain sorghum 0.31 68
rus - essentially zero bioavailability in com and Oats 0.34 56
oats, 10% in barley and 40% in wheat. In contrast, Sesame meal l.27 81
inorganic phosphorus supplements, such as Soybean meal 0.61 61
dicalcium phosphate are about 80% available or Wheat 0.30 67
better. Wheat bran 1.37 70
Wheat middlings 0.47 74
A number of factors will influence the availability
of phytate phosphorus. Germination releases the Source: Ward, 1994.
naturally-occurring phytase in cereal grains; within
one week of germination, the amount of phytate
phosphate will be reduced by 50%. Some grains Table 11-2. Naturally-occurring Phytase in Common
contain more natural phytase than others; wheat in Feedstuffs.
particular, is known to be a relatively rich source of
Feedstuff Relative Phytase Activity
phytase and thus has a higher phosphorus availabil-
ity (Table 11-2). Wheat, rye High
Barley Medium
Phytase supplements can also be purchased for Oats, soybean meal Low
inclusion in pig diets; these are normally derived Com, sorghum Very low
from a genetically-modified Aspergillus strain. Cottonseed Undetectable
Biological action will vary with the source, but as a
rule, approximately 500 units of pbytase per kg of Source: BASF Technical Bulletin No. 9201.
mixed feed is equivalent to 0.1 % supplemental
phosphorus in the diet. Phytase supplements must Saponins
be properly handled to obtain maximum benefit. Saponins are a family of compounds found in
Because phytase is an enzyme, it is susceptible to many plants of economic importance, including
the effects of heat and moisture. Therefore, canola. alfalfa, soybeans, peas, sugarbeets, sunflow-
pelleting diets containing phytase must be carefully ers, oats, chickpeas and beans. They are character-
controlled to avoid die temperatures in excess of ized by a bitter taste, but are used commercially in
70°C as losses in enzyme activity may exceed 25%; such diverse consumer products as shampoo, soft
alternatively, phytase can be added as a liquid post- drinks, soap and fire extinguishers. The type of
pelleting or used in mash diets. saponin, the concentration present and the physi-
ological effect on swine varies a great deal within
Certain micronutrients, such as iron sulphate, and among plant species.
copper sulphate or choline chloride will contribute
to phytase breakdown. Therefore, phytase is best If injected, saponins are highly toxic, attacking
not added to premixes containing trace minerals or and altering the structure and function of cell
choline; because these ingredients are diluted in membranes. However, when administered orally,
complete feed, their impact on phytase in mixed their effect is greatly reduced. Saponins impair pig
diets is greatly reduced. performance, due to their bitter taste and irritating

232
effect on the lining of the mouth and gut. There is formance independent of their impact on protein
some suggestion that the absorption of certain digestion, at least in some species. In some species,
nutrients, including vitamins and trace minerals is but not the pig, the effect of trypsin inhibitors can
altered by saponins, presumably due to changes in be reduced by supplementation with sulphur amino
the structure of the lining of the gut; for example, acids; this occurs because such animals respond to
soybean saponins bind zinc and render it less trypsin inhibitors by producing more trypsin, a
available, while ginseng saponins actually increase protein which is particarly rich in sulphur amino
the absorption of iron. Interestingly, saponins also acids. In the pig, inhibition of protein utilization
lower blood cholesterol levels. occurs because the quantity of trypsin inhibitor
present exceeds the available supply of trypsin, and
In animal nutrition, concern about impaired increased supply is either not possible or is inad-
performance due to saponins is most often associ- equate.
ated with alfalfa. The saponin content of alfalfa
varies according to season, being highest in mid- Trypsin inhibitors are readily destroyed by heat;
summer and tapering off thereafter; not surprisingly, fifteen minutes at 100°C is sufficient to remove
the saponin content of second cut alfalfa tends to be almost all negative effects. A simple, indirect test,
higher than that of first or third cuttings. Plant called the urease test, is often employed to deter-
breeders are now developing low saponin alfalfa mine the level of trypsin inhibitor left after
varieties. soybeans have been processed. The enzyme urease
is also present in soybeans; it converts urea to
Estrogens (Phytoestrogens) ammonia and can be tested quite easily. It is as-
The estrogen content of feeds can occur from the sumed that the destruction of urease during soybean
plant directly or from contamination with molds processing parallels that of trypsin inhibitor, so that
which produce estrogenic mycotoxins. Alfalfa and if one is inactivated, the other will be similarly
soybeans can produce an estrogenic compound destroyed. If the urease test is negative, this serves
called coumestrol. The use of alfalfa pellets in sow as an indirect indication that trypsin inhibitor has
diets has declined, due in part to the fear that also been destroyed.
possible estrogenic compounds may impair repro-
ductive performance. Heating ingredients to destroy protease inhibitors
must be carried out with great care; this is because
Protease Inhibitors (Trypsin Inhibitors) excess heat may damage certain amino acids,
Most legume seeds (eg. soybeans, faba beans), especially lysine, rendering them unavailable to the
some grains (eg. com, rye, barley and triticale), pig.
alfalfa and potatoes contain protease inhibitors.
These are protein molecules which bind to and Tannins
inactivate trypsin or other digestive enzymes that The term "tannin" was originally used to describe
help to break down protein molecules in the small a group of plant extracts used in tanning leather.
intestine. Of the protease inhibitors, trypsin inhibi- They are found in many crops, including rapeseed,
tors are best known, but inhibitors of chymotrypsin soybeans, fababeans, sunflower seeds, alfalfa and
also exist in nature. In practical terms, while sorghum. More technically speaking, tannins are a
protease inhibitors are widespread throughout the group of compounds that bind to proteins, including
plant kingdom, the ones of greatest significance in dietary proteins, digestive enzymes and proteins
pig nutrition are those found in soybeans, other which assist in nutrient absorption in the gut. It is
beans and triticale. not surprising, then, that tannins impair the ability
of the pig to use dietary protein, carbohydrates and
ln swine nutrition, protease inhibitors are most fats; however, the most significant impact is directly
often discussed in the context of impaired perform- on protein utilization. Tannins also reduce palat-
ance due to reduced protein digestibility. However, ability, due to a sour taste.
trypsin inhibitors have been shown to impair per-

233
 Tannins are divided into two broad categories: Lectins are known to impair growth, cause diarrhea
condensed and hydrolyzable. The latter are named and interfere with nutrient utilization.
due to their ability to be readily broken down while
the condensed tannins are much more stable and Found in highest concentration in legumes,
complex in structure. including soybeans, lectins were first associated
with castor beans. The ability of the lectins to bind
The tannin content of sorghum differs among to cells along the intestinal tract is highly specific,
varieties, with yellow sorghum having very low such that certain Jectins will bind and others will
levels. Tannin content is directly related to bird not. If binding occurs, the lectins may enter the cell
resistance in the field; consequently, plant breeders and. if toxic, can initiate a range of adverse reac-
are faced with the decision to select varieties for tions, from greatly enlarged intestinal tissue to
low tannin content, desirable in animal nutrition, or impaired nutrient absorption and depleted body
high resistance to predation by birds, which is muscle, fat and glycogen reserves.
desirable in regions where sorghum is a human food
staple, but is vulnerable to attack by wild birds. Thiaminase
Sorghum tannins are of the condensed kind. Thiaminase is an enzyme which destroys the B
vitamin thiamine. It is not found in any feedstuff
The most effective means of addressing the issue common in pig diets, but is present in certain fish,
of tannins in swine nutrition is to select crops and including carp. If such fish are fed in uncooked
varieties of crops with little or no tannin content. form to swine, problems may occur. Since feeding
Alternatively, affected crops can be treated with raw fish to swine is unlikely, the risk of problems
dilute alkali or polyethylene glycol to improve their due to thiaminase is remote.
feeding value. Heating is somewhat less effective
because tannins are heat stable. Oxalates
Oxalic acid is a compound with the ability to bind
Glucosinolates calcium, rendering it less available for absorption
Glucosinolates are common in plants in the by the pig. Oxalate poisoning, while common in
Brassica family, including rapeseed, mustard, grazing species exposed to certain plants, is rare in
turnips, crambe and kale. They reduce palatability swine. However. some feedstuffs that may be
and impair the function of the thyroid gland. Since included in swine diets, such as alfalfa. contain
the thyroid gland is so important in regulating oxalate, lowering the bioavailability of calcium.
animal growth, this can be a serious problem.
Gossypol
Canadian plant breeders have developed low Gossypol is a yellow pigment found throughout
glucosinolate varieties of rapeseed; to distinguish the cotton plant: in the seed. gossypol is found in
these new varieties with highly different nutrition the pigment glands. During processing. the glands
characteristics, the term "canola" was coined. are ruptured and gossypol released. A portion of
Continued research on lowering the glucosinolate the gossypol will bind to protein, primarily the
level to essentially zero is on-going; however, it is amino acid lysine, rendering it less available to the
not yet known if these further improvements will pig. Thus. the higher the portion of bound as
affect animal performance. Meal from current compared to free gossypol, the lower will be the
varieties of canola can be fed at high levels to swine biological value of the protein. The remaining, or
without any apparent effect due to glucosinolatc free. gossypol is reactive and affects animals in a
activity. number of ways: depressed appetite. lower weight
gains, impaired lung, heart and liver function,
Lectins anemia and male infertility. Free gossypol levels
Lectins arc either protein or carbohydrate-protein should not exceed I 00 ppm in pig diets.
compounds which share a common characteristic:
the ability to selectively bind certain carbohydrates.

234
 The effects of gossypol can be reduced by adding feed trucks that arc regularly sanitized as a further
ferrous sulphate to the diet; the generally accepted safeguard against disease transmission. The data in
recommendation is 1 unit of iron as iron sulphate Table 11-3, based on the results of a survey reported
per unit of gossypol. Even with added iron, the by the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory at the
maximum upper limit of free gossypol in swine Pennsylvania State University, illustrates that
diets is 400 ppm. Increasing dietary protein is removing ingredients of animal origin will not
helpful as well, but rarely economical. eliminate the risk of Salmonella contamination.

Exogenous Microbes and Toxin Table 11-3. The Results of Salmonella Assays
Reported by the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory at
Producers the Pennsylvania State University.
Bacteria
Contamination of feed by pathogenic microbes Ingredient No. Samples % Positive
such as certain strains of Salmonella may lead to
Animal Protein 62 63
infection of the herd and an outbreak of disease. In
Distillers Grains 51 0
the case of Salmonella, there are more than l ,000
Canola Meal 11 18
different serotypes, yet only a handful tend to be of
Oats 15 7
significance in pork production. including S.
Soybean Meal 20 20
choleraesuis and S. typhisuis. Some other Salmo-
nella serotypes have a broad spectrum of hosts and Adapted from John, R.E., 1990. Proc. Symp. Feed
could therefore infect swine if the conditions were Quality Assurance, Centre for Veterinary Medicine,
right. USDA, Arlington, VA.

It is unclear how significant a threat feed repre-

sents to herd health. However, owners of herds These results compare to a survey of five feed
with a minimum disease health status prefer to act compounders conducted by the United Kingdom
conservatively and avoid any potential health Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries (Table
problems; some therefore refrain from using feed 11-4).
ingredients which may be more prone to contamina-
tion. This is difficult in practice; although animal
by-product meals are most commonly suspected, all Table 11-4. Survey of Raw Materials Provided by
Five Feed Compounders in the U.K.
feeds are at least potentially at risk.
Ingredient No. Samples % Positive
Animal by-products manufactured in modem
facilities are usually processed and handled in ways Barley 42 0
that eradicate initial contamination and prevent Com 18 6
reinfection. Dealing with reputable suppliers will Fats 31 3
certainly help minimize risk with products such as Feather Meal 23 0
meat meal. blood meal, feather meal and plasma Fish Meal 44 9
proteins. Meat and Bone Meal 46 7
Peas 30 0
However, care in processing animal byproducts Soybean Meal 46 7
will not eliminate risk. Uncontaminated material. Wheat 51 6
of animal or vegetable source, passed through a
contaminated storage or transport facility will Adapted from John, R.E., 1990. Proc. Symp. Feed
become infected. Contamination can also occur Quality Assurance, Centre for Veterinary Medicine,
USDA, Arlington, VA.
through exposure to wild birds, rodents, etc. which
are often carriers of disease. Some producers only
use mixed feeds that have been steam pelleted and

235
Fungi and Mycotoxins aflatoxin, and Fusarium roseum which produces
Fungi impair feed quality in at least two ways. zearalenone and vomitoxin. Several other fusarium
They may alter the nutritional quality of feeds by varieties also produce toxins while Penicil/ium and
destroying or making unavailable important nutri- Aspergillus produce ochratoxin. These are ex-
ents such as vitamins or they may produce plained in detail later in the chapter.
myeotoxins that are harmful to the pig.
Ergot
The direct effect on nutrient composition is Ergot alkaloids are very potent toxins produced
difficult to predict and attempts have failed to by the fungi ergot (Claviceps purpureay. Triticale
demonstrate impaired pig performance due solely to and rye are the most susceptible grains, but wheat,
fungal growth. Documented cases of feeding barley, oats and corn can also become infected.
extremely moldy corn to swine without difficulty Visual inspection of suspect grain is useful, since
demonstrate that mold by itself probably represents the infected kernels are usually dark, swollen and
only minimal risk to the pig. It is not until the fungi have a rough coat. Once the grain is ground,
produce mycotoxins that animal performance detection requires laboratory analysis.
suffers. Some toxins need only be present in very
small concentrations to affect pig health. Ergot alkaloids can severely affect pig health and
performance. They impair blood flow to the
While it would be useful to have tables summariz- extremities, affecting tissues such as the kidney and
ing maximum tolerances for the various toxins of uterus. Reduced blood flow to the reproductive
importance in swine production, the reality is that tissues can result in spontaneous abortion in poi-
such tables are very difficult to produce. The soned sows. In fact, in ancient times, abortions in
maximum tolerance for any particular toxin will be humans were induced by feeding ergot. Piglets
affected by many factors, including the response born to infected sows have poor viability, due to
criteria (animal performance versus tissue damage), impaired lactation of the dam.
time frame (short-term versus long-term effects)
and, interestingly, the nutrient specifications of the Poor blood flow also explains other symptoms of
diet. For example, some toxins are involved in the ergot toxicity such as blackening of the tips of ears
metabolism of highly toxic compounds called free and sloughing of hooves. In these examples, poor
radicals; protection from free radicals is obtained by blood flow actually results in the death of the
consuming increased quantities of antioxidants, respective tissue. Ergot poisoning can also reduce
such as vitamin E. Consequently, the toxic level of feed intake, induce convulsions and muscle incoor-
certain mycotoxins will vary, depending on the dination, cause respiratory distress and precipitate
vitamin E level of the diet. an outbreak of diarrhea.

Another problem in determining the toxicity of a At the present time, only imprecise recommenda-
moldy grain sample is the occurance of multiple tions on ergot are available. Suspect grains should
toxins, some of which may be present at low levels never be fed to breeding animals and the quantity of
or which are difficult to identify. While the toxin(s) contaminated kernels fed to growing pigs should
assayed may be below tolerance, associated toxins not exceed 0.1 % of the total grain in the ration ( one
which may not have been measured may contribute infected kernel for every 1000 clean kernels).
to the overall toxicity of the sample. This is a
particularly troubling aspect of mycotoxin technol- Ochratoxin A
ogy, since there are literally dozens of toxins known Ochratoxin affects the kidneys in swine. Post
to man and one cannot practically assay them all! mortems of infected pigs reveal swollen kidneys
which are lighter in colour and firmer than healthy
The molds of greatest interest in Canada and the kidneys. Ochratoxin can cause birth defects when
United States areAspergillusjlavus which produces sows are infected and impairs growth in market

236
hogs. Swollen kidneys will occur at levels much Photo ll-1 a.
lower than those required to impair performance.
lmmunosuppression has also been associated with
Ochratoxin A.

Ochratoxin infects many crops including barley,

oats, wheat, com and soybean meal. It is produced
by the fungi Aspergillus and Penicillium and is
generally restricted to areas of temperate climate
such as those found in the southeastern United
States. Safe levels of ochratoxin for swine have not
been defined, although it is known that weanling
pigs fed 28 ppm ochratoxin will die within three
weeks.

Zearalenone
Zearalenone, sometimes referred to as F2 toxin, is Aborted and mummified piglets.
a mycotoxin produced by the fungi Fusarium. It is
often associated with corn but can infect many other
crops including wheat. It is an estrogenic com- Photo 11-lb.
pound; as a result, its effects on the pig are similar
to those of the natural hormone, estrogen. Estrogen
particularly affects reproduction and consequently,
most research on zearalenone bas been carried out
on sows and gilts, with less information being
available on growing pigs. Pigs, as a species, are
particularly susceptible to zearalenone toxicity.
Levels between 1 and 5 ppm are sufficient to elicit a
number of estrogenic symptoms.

SYMPTOMS OF
ZEARALENONE TOXICITY

-swollen vulvas in gilts

-vaginal or rectal prolapse
.
Rectal prolapse.
-swollen mammary tissue
-reduced testicle size in young boars
-shrunken ovaries in gilts
-enlarged uteruses The effect on neonatal piglets depends on when
-infertility the infected feed was eaten. If consumed in late
-abortion pregnancy, the incidence of stillbirths and spraddle
-reduced litter size leg is increased. [f eaten in mid-pregnancy, only
-birth of small, weak piglets often spraddle leg increases. If the zearalenone is eaten in
suffering from spraddle leg early pregnancy, litter size (total number of piglets
born) is reduced, but no affect on spraddle leg
conditions or stillbirths is detected.

237
 Zearalenone can also be carried in the sow's or Vornitoxin contaminated feed does not appear to
gilt's milk and thus affect the growth rate of new- affect reproductive performance in gilts. Levels up
born piglets. Up to 30 ppm of pure zearalenone to 8 ppm vomitoxin did not produce adverse results
appears to have a minimal effect on litter size in with regards to reproduction. Since vomitoxin is
gilts while levels of 60 to 90 ppm result in the often found in grains containing zearalenone, it is
complete loss of fetuses. The impact of difficult to determine which of these toxins is
zearalenone remains with gilts for many months causing a given problem. From research to date, it
after the infected diet is removed. appears reproductive impairment is most likely due
to zearalenone and not to vomitoxin contamination.
Zearalenone appears to also affect boars. lt
reduces libido (sex drive) and delays sexual matu- Other trichothecenes may be even more toxic than
rity in growing boars. However, diets containing up vomitoxin. They cause feed refusal, vomiting,
to 60 ppm zearalenone have no apparent effect on irritation of the skin and the gut and may also result
semen quality or libido of mature boars. in the birth of deformed piglets. One to JO ppm
diacetoxyscirpenol will reduce growth rates. Diets
The effect of zearalenone on growth is less clear. containing 8 ppm T-2 toxin do not affect weight
Some experiments have demonstrated that as little gains but increasing levels to 16 ppm will depress
as l O ppm of zearalenone depresses pig growth and growth rate.
appetite. Other experiments suggest that there is no
effect on growth at levels of toxin as high as 50 Aflatoxin
ppm. There is even the suggestion that growth is Aflatoxin is produced primarily by the fungus,
actually enhanced by zearalenone. Part of the Aspergillus. Ideal conditions for Aspergillus growth
problem with the variable responses produced by include moisture content above 14%, temperature
zearalenone may be due to contamination of the test above 25°C and the presence of oxygen. It is
ingredients with other toxins such as vomitoxin. known to affect many feed ingredients including
Vomitoxin is known to impair performance and is corn, rye. oats, wheat, barley, soybean meal, sun-
often found in samples of grain contaminated with flower meal, rapeseed and alfalfa. There are four
zearalenone. types of aflatoxin: B1, B2, G1 and G�. Aflatoxin B1
is considered to be the most potent for swine.
Tricothecenes
Tricothecenes are a group of very toxic com- The impact of aflatoxin on swine is age and dose
pounds which include deoxynovalenol (also called dependent, and ranges from depressed perfonnance
DON or vornitoxin), HT-2 toxin, through immune suppression. Acceptable upper
diacetoxyscirpenol and T-2 toxin. They are pro- limits have been defined by various agencies; for
duced by Fusarium molds and are very toxic to young pigs, levels in excess of 20 ppb should be
pigs. T-2 toxin is unique in that it forms during avoided, for finishing swine, the limit is 200 ppb
storage at low temperatures (6 - l 8°C). and for breeding animals, the limit is l 00 ppb.
Recovery from aflatoxin toxicity is rapid in grow-
One feature of tricothecenes that is particularly ing pigs. Seven days on clean feed will usually
troubling is its suppression of the immune system. result in a full recovery. In younger pigs, scouring
Even low levels in the diet may increase the pig's can result from aflatoxin poisoning. In sows, milk
susceptibility to pathogenic organisms that normally production is impaired.
would not create health problems. Studies with
contaminated wheat indicate that as little as l ppm
vomitoxin reduces feed intake and growth rate in
market hogs. Levels in excess of 20-40 ppm cause
vomiting and feed refusal. One of the most striking
features of DON contamination is feed refusal.

238
Prevention of Mycotoxin prevent mold from growing. At 21 °C, moisture can
rise to 15% before there will be a problem. In
Contamination
soybean meal, moisture should be kept below 14%.
Since effective treatment methods have not been
developed, prevention of mold contamination is
In summary, it is important to recognize that mold
very important. Cropping practices can play a
contamination of grains can occur at many stages:
useful role in prevention. Rye and triticale are
during growth, at the time of harvest, during storage
examples of crops that are particularly susceptible
as seed or after being processed into livestock feed.
to ergot. The selection of more resistant grain
Field contamination is worse when kernels are
varieties is a major consideration. Late maturing
damaged, when the weather conditions are moist or
com may provide greater yields but the seeds are at
if insects infest the crop. The satisfactory storage of
a susceptible stage of development during the wet
grains or mixed feeds requires low moisture levels
weather that often occurs in the late summer and
and temperatures as cool as possible.
fall. Crop rotation can help break the life cycle of
infecting spores. Com and wheat can be rotated
with less susceptible crops. Profitability in the short Treatment
term may be reduced. but this must be compared to If grain contamination is suspected, samples
the long-term benefits. Researchers have also should be submitted to a laboratory for analysis.
observed that scabbiness caused by Fusarium Increasing numbers of labs are setting up to conduct
molds, especially in wheat, can be reduced by mycotoxin analyses. It is a difficult analysis due to
fertilizer selection. The use of urea fertilizer in the sophisticated tests required and also due to
place of ammonium nitrate can be helpful. problems with sampling. A heavy infestation of
Fusarium infestation is favoured by warm (15°C- only a small portion of a field of com can result in
350C), windy, rainy weather. These conditions swine diets contaminated above acceptable limits.
provide an excellent environment for infecting If sampling failed to include the contaminated area
spores to spread. Therefore. this kind of weather of the field, tests would be falsely negative.
during late growth and harvest should raise con-
cerns about potential contamination. If grains are suspected of being infected, a sample
can be fed to a group of young gilts. If swelling or
Once grains are harvested, other practices can be reddening of the vulva appears or iffeed intake is
beneficial. The cleaning of grains to remove impaired, contamination should be suspected. The
damaged kernels will help to remove sources of infected grain should not be fed to breeding animals
infestation. Broken kernels and related material
often contain the highest concentration of
mycotoxins. Their removal greatly improves the
feeding value of the grain. The addition of mold
inhibitors will not kill mycotoxins already present
but will prevent further formation.

'Water activity' is an important factor influencing

mold growth and mycotoxin production in grain. It
differs substantially from simple moisture content
because it also takes into consideration ambient
temperature and the nature of the grain. These three
conditions determine the susceptibility of the grain
to mold growth. It is important to keep water
activity below 0.75, which means keeping both
moisture and temperature as low as is practical. If Accumulation of water or wet feed in augers, feed
ambient temperatures are expected to rise as high as trucks.or storage bins can lead to rnycotoxin contamina-
32°C, moisture in corn must be kept below 13% to tion of feeds.

239
and if it is fed to market hogs, it should be diluted Additional Reading and References
as much as possible with "clean" grain. Anon. 1987. Recent developments in the study of
mycotoxins. Kaiser Chemical Co., Cleveland, OH.
Chemical treatments of infected grains are being
investigated. It has been shown that sodium Cheeke, P.R. and LR. Shull. 1985. Natural
bisulphite added to infected corn and then toxicants in feeds and poisonous plants. AYINon
autoclaved can reduce DON (deoxynovalenol or Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York. 492 pp.
vomitoxin) concentrations by a factor of I 0. To
date, this is not commercially practical, because d'Mello, J.P.F., C.M. Duffus and J.H. Duffus.
autoclaving is slow and expensive. However, other 1991. Toxic substances in crop plants. The Royal
heating processes may prove to be as beneficial. Society of Chemistry, Cambridge. 339 pp.

Another possibility is the addition of hydrated Marquardt, R.R. 1993. Effects of moulds and their
sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) to diets toxins on livestock performance: A western Cana-
containing vornitoxin and/or zearalenone. Prelimi- dian perspective. Proc. Western Nutrition Conf.,
nary results suggest that there may be some value in Winnipeg, MB. pp. 115 - 121.
the use of such products, although more research is
required.
Trenholm, H.L., D.B. Prelusky, J.C. Young and J.D.
Miller. 1988. Reducing mycotoxins in animal
If mild contamination is suspected, the nutrient feeds. Publication #1827E, Agriculture Canada,
density of the diet can be increased to help compen- Ottawa, Ontario.
sate for reduced intake. The vitamin, mineral and
amino acid concentrations should be increased by
5-20% depending on the severity of feed refusal
expected.

Safety
Molds and mycotoxins can also be harmful to
humans. Symptoms include allergies, skin and eye
irritation, headaches and vomiting. Fusarium
spores are a well-known toxin and must be avoided.
Aspergillus poisoning has also been recorded. If the
grain must be handled, ventilation is important and
the use of gloves and respirators is advised.

If contaminated grain must be handled, gloves and

rcpirators should be used.

240
12. WATER
Like other nutrients, such as energy and essential
amino acids, water is an absolute requirement in the
diet of the pig. Lndeed, the pig can survive much
longer without energy or protein, minerals or
vitamins than it can without water. This is espe-
cially true in hot weather.

Water fulfils many functions in the pig. It pro- Input.

vides the liquid environment that supports the
movement of nutrients, waste products and hor-
mones throughout the body. Water helps the pig
·-...
maintain constant body temperature and acid-base
balance, and it is a critical part of many essential
chemical reactions.

Water makes up about 80% of the total body

weight of the newborn piglet; this declines to about Output.
50% in adult swine because of the lower water Figure 12-1. Water balance in the pig: intake and
content in fat as compared to muscle tissue. output.

Pigs derive water from three sources: water

physically contained in the feed, water consumed by Requirements and Intake
drinking and water produced by normal metabolism The water requirements of the pig have never
in the body. Figure 12-1 illustrates typical sources really been defined. In part, this is due to the
and fates of water in a young growing pig; under assumption that pigs will drink when they need
varying environmental, nutritional and behavioural water and all that is required is an adequate delivery
circumstances, actual values could differ signifi- system. There seemed little point in spending
cantly from this example. money on research that would provide little appar-
ent economic benefit!

The relative absence of research defining the pig's

requirement for water is also due to the fact that
such investigations are extremely difficult, and
cannot be accomplished in the same way that one
defines the requirements for other nutrients. The
response criteria employed for defining amino acid
or energy requirements do not apply to water. Also,
a wide range of environmental factors, such as
temperature and diet composition (mineral levels,
protein content) influence requirements.

In the absence of traditional requirements, studies

of actual water intake have been used to help
predict the water requirements for a given produc-
tion unit. Measuring water consumption accurately
is not an easy task. Simply placing a water meter in

241
the drinker line overlooks two important problems: underestimated; boredom and hunger can increase
the amount of water wasted and the inaccuracy of water intake many fold over basic requirements.
most meters at very low or intermittent flow rates.
Waste can represent a significant portion of total The obvious question relates to the importance of
water "disappearance." With nipple drinkers, waste over-consumption. ls it a problem? For the most
can reach 50% or more of intake and will be even part, we do not believe that it is, in terms of pig
higher when boredom or other stressors are present. health or productivity; any water consumed above
Much of the earlier information published on water requirement will be eliminated as urine. However,
intake failed to measure waste and must be inter- over-consumption does waste water and perhaps
preted with great care. most critically, increases the cost of slurry storage
and spreading. Excess water intake, and more
Research at the Prairie Swine Centre and else- importantly, direct water waste is a growing con-
where has found that true, free choice water intake cern; the cost of slurry storage is rising in response
in young growing pigs fed ad libitum is about 2.2 to to environmental concerns and the expense of
2.8 times the intake of feed. Thus, a pig eating 2 kg spreading slurry is also increasing due to higher
of feed will normally drink at least 4.5 litres of labour and fuel costs.
water per day.
Is under-consumption a problem? There is an
Additional water, to compensate for elevated increasing body of data which strongly suggests that
environmental temperature or excess mineral or even under ad libitum conditions, pigs do not
protein in the diet, or to help the pig deal with always drink as much water as they require for good
certain health problems. must be added to the above health and maximum performance. Clearly, more
intake levels. It is difficult to define water intake at research is needed, but the implication is that
high barn temperatures, since much of the reported providing water free choice may not always ensure
research measured water disappearance, which optimum intake.
includes waste, rather than actual intake. Actual
intake probably rises by only 15% to 75% in hot Gestating Sows
weather, but waste increases dramatically, such that Water use by gestating sows is affected by both
total water disappearance from nipple drinkers physiological need and behavioural influences.
might increase as much as 3- to 4-fold. Following Since dry sows are limit fed, they consume addi-
are some of the factors that increase or decrease tional water to help achieve a feeling of satiety (full
water consumption. stomach). This additional intake has little to do
with "requirements" as defined in the classical
sense, but may be important to the sow's achieving
INCREASE DECREASE an overall sense of well-being. For example, in
human nutrition, it is not uncommon to recommend
Hunger Cold stress that people on diets consume additional water, in
Boredom Warm water part to help achieve a sense of satiety.
Heal stress temperature
Increased dietary minerals High mineral levels
In addition, dry sows are often housed in indi-
Moderate mineral levels in water
in water vidual gestation stalls, where boredom is common.
Pelleted feed Sows will consume additional water, and play with
drinkers more often, merely to offset this sense of
boredom. This additional water intake and playing
with drinkers may lead to excessively wet, dirty
Pigs do not drink solely to satisfy their conditions in the barn, depending on the design of
physiological need for water. They will also drink the stalls. If it is a problem, providing water in the
water to alleviate a feeling of hunger or boredom. feeding trough, rather than nipple drinkers, has
The impact of "luxury" intake must not be

242
proven helpful. The provision of small amounts of this is not practical in most situations, placing water
straw, to serve as an object of foraging, or the in the feeder for the first three to four days after
feeding of a bulky diet have also proven helpful in farrowing, for those few sows who do not appear to
minimizing excessive drinking. be drinking or eating well, may be advised.

Providing water in a properly-designed trough Beyond day three, when this initial adjustment
which minimizes waste and spill is an ideal method period of early lactation has passed, nipple drinkers
for providing water to the dry sow. In the case of with flow rates between I and 2 L/minute, will
nipple drinkers, firm recommendations are not yet suffice. While some recommendations exist for
available, but flow rates of 0.5 L/minute will more much higher flow rates, research at the Centre for
than suffice. Food and Animal Research in Ottawa suggest no
such advantage exists; the only real effect is greatly
Lactating Sows increased wastage with attending problems and
All things being equal, lactating sows have the costs. Indeed, the few studies which have shown
highest relative requirement for water, due to the impaired lactation performance required flow rates
demands of milk synthesis. Intake studies under ad well below 0.5 L/minute!
libitum conditions have suggested that nursing sows
will drink between 9 and 20 litres of water per day. Some suggestions have been made that sows will
This is a very large variation and reflects the tre- spend no more than five to six minutes drinking
mendous differences one sees among animals. water per day; this may be true for a few sows
Well-controlled experiments, where wastage is during the first two to three days after farrowing,
accurately measured, reveal that the majority of but is clearly not the case for most sows and cer-
sows will drink about 15 litres per day. tainly not beyond the third day of lactation. Re-
search has shown that sows will spend 15 minutes
However, provision of water ad libitum may not or more per day at the drinker.
be enough to ensure optimum intake. Drs. Fraser
and Phillips at the former Centre for Food and Excessive flow rates will not only waste water,
Animal Research in Ottawa have studied water but will also result in messy crates and wet piglets.
intake in newly-farrowed sows and found that litters For this reason, addressing the issue of lethargic
tended to gain poorly during the first three days sows by adding water to the feeder for those few
after birth if the sow drank less than 10 litres of animals in difficulty is a more practical and eco-
water during this period. The researchers concluded nomical solution.
that in some sows, poor early lactation performance
is associated with very low water intake. This low Piglets
water consumption may be a symptom of other Recent research, again by Ors. Fraser and Phillips,
health problems, or just a case of simple lethargy on suggest that piglets may require water immediately
the part of the sow. Until more information be- after birth. They reported that litters gaining poorly
comes available, it may be prudent to encourage during the first one to three days after farrowing
sluggish sows to become active as soon after drink more water than faster growing litters. It has
farrowing as possible to stimulate drinking and thus been suggested that when sows are not milking
promote better early lactation performance. Placing well, piglets may not consume enough water from
nipple drinkers at different heights in the farrowing their limited milk intake and might benefit from
crate docs not appear to alleviate the problem. supplemental drinking water. Nipple drinkers are
not adequate for newborn piglets, because the
How should water be provided to the lactating piglets take too long to find and use the drinker; a
sow? In early lactation, lethargy is a problem in dish drinker, located in the creep area, is a better
some animals and the best way to maximize the rate alternative. Balancing cost and convenience,
of consumption is to provide water troughs. While portable dish drinkers may be the best choice,

243
employing them only in newborn litters where sow Water Delivery
milk production appears to be a problem. Nipple drinkers are by far the most common
method of providing water to pigs. They are of
Some people have asked if the provision of relatively low cost, easy to maintain and generally
drinking water to very young piglets may be harm- free of fouling. However, nipple drinkers do have
ful, reducing their motivation to suckle. A number their problems. They encourage waste and cannot
of studies have clearly indicated this is not the case. be easily monitored; often, it will be many hours or
Consequently, providing water to newborn piglets, even days before a plugged drinker is noticed, if
although not a common practice, is strongly recom- daily checks are not observed. Nonetheless, nipple
mended, especially in warm conditions where drinkers are probably the method of choice for the
piglets lose moisture rapidly. time being for all classes of swine except newborn
piglets, where dish drinkers are clearly superior.
One common belief is that providing water to
nursing piglets encourages creep feed intake. A relatively recent variation is the wet/dry feeder
Although this may be true, studies have shown that which incorporates a nipple drinker inside the
the effect is relatively small until the pigs are four to feeder bowl; in some respects, they combine the
five weeks of age. features of nipple and dish drinkers. Since in some
circumstances they increase feed intake, wet/dry
Weanling Pigs feeders are increasing in popularity. They also
At the time of weaning, pigs are suddenly re- reduce water wastage; a Manitoba study by Froese
quired to obtain aU of their water from the drinker. and Hodgkinson found that water usage was re-
It is not altogether clear how well the newly-weaned duced by 40% with the use of wet-dry feeders.
pig can regulate water metabolism, or select a daily
intake appropriate to its needs. For example, a Several studies have demonstrated that restricted
number of experiments have shown that water nipple-drinker flow rates can impair water intake
intake follows a peculiar pattern at weaning, being and, under severe restriction, growth rates as well.
initially quite high, falling to a minimum at about However, the flow rates must be quite low - prob-
four days post-weaning, followed by a gradual ably below 200 mL/min. A recent survey of Sas-
increase as feed intake rises. Surprisingly, water katchewan farms revealed typical flow rates that
intake is at its lowest when scouring is typically at greatly exceed this minimum (Table 12-1 ). These
its worst, raising questions as to the adequacy of data suggest that excessive flow rates, leading to
water intake at this time. wastage, may be more of a concern than inadequate
flow rates. However, individual nipple drinkers still
need to be checked regularly to ensure against
blockage or malfunction.

Table 12-1. Nipple Drinker Flow Rates on

Saskatchewan Farms.

Location No. Ave. flow rate % below 0.5

farms (mlJmin) (mUmin)

Farrowing 65 1.55 4.6

Weanling 68 1.34 4.4
Growout 77 1.52 3.9
Figure 12-2. Typical Water Intake Pattern During
the Post-weaning Period. Source: 1990 Prairie Swine Centre Annual Report

244
 The critical question for pork producers is what such as the age or health status affect the response
are the minimum and maximum flow rates neces- of individual animals.
sary to optimize health and productivity? Unfortu-
nately, research on the subject is extremely limited;
in the absence of definitive experimental data, Table 12-3. Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for
estimates are the best that can be provided. For Livestock.
weanlings and growers, flow rates between 500 and
1500 mL/min would appear to be satisfactory. For Item Maximum Recommended
Limit, ppm
nursing sows, flow rates between 1000 and 2000
mL/min should cause little problem. In all cases, Major ions
the major impact of excessive flow rates will be Calcium 1,000
excessive wastage. Nitrate+ nitrite 100
Nitrite alone 10
Sulphate 1,000
Table 12-2. Recommended Nipple Drinker Flow
Rates for Various Classes of Swine. TDS 3,000

Heav)'.'. metals and trace ions

Class of Swine Recommended
Aluminum 5.0
Flow Rate, mL/min1
Arsenic 0.51
Minimum Maximum
Beryllium 0.12
Gestation 500 1,000 Boron 5.0
Lactation 1000 2,000 Cadmium 0.02
Weanling 750 1,000 Chromium 1.0
Growout 750 1,000 Cobalt 1.0
Copper (swine) 5.0
I
Estimates only, as exact ranges have yet to be com- Fluoride 2.03
pletely defined. Iron no guideline
Lead 0.1
Manganese no guideline
Liquid feeding, whereby water and feed are
Mercury 0.003
presented to the pig as a preformed mixture. offers
an alternative to separate feeders and waterers. Molybdenum 0.5
Nickel 1.0
Although the primary objective of liquid feeding is
Selenium 0.05
to increase feed intake, reducing water waste may
be a notable additional benefit. Normally, a Uranium 0.2
Vanadium 0.1
water:feed ratio of 2.5: l is utilized in liquid feeding
systems; this may change slightly with the make-up Zinc 50.0
of the diet, the class of swine being fed and the
environmental conditions within the barn. Source: Adapted from Task Force on Water Quality
Guidelines, 1987.
Water Quality
There are essentially three major criteria for The most common chemical analyses are listed in
evaluating water quality: microbiological, physical Table 12-4. Two schedules are provided: the
and chemical. Within each, individual items relate primary test provides a useful overview and should
to safety and/or asthetics. Canadian Federal Water be the first step in characterizing a water sample. If
Quality Guidelines appear in Table 12-3. Such no problems are detected, there is no value in
standards must be interpreted with caution. Al- proceeding to the secondary tests, which are more
though they provide a useful general tool, they must comprehensive - and expensive. This approach
not be considered definitive, because other factors combines economy and efficiency and helps focus
attention on those issues of true importance.

245
Table 12-4. Assays to Include in the Chemical pH
Evaluation of Water Used in Pig Production. pH is rarely a concern because the vast majority
of samples fall within the acceptable range of 6.5 to
Primary Test Supplementary 8.5. If elevated, pH impairs the efficiency of
Test chlorination; low pH may cause precipitation of
Total Dissolved Solids Sulphates some medications delivered via the water system.
pII Sodium This could lead to carcass residues of these same
Iron Magnesium drugs, if the precipitate is later carried in the water
Hardness Chloride to pigs nearing market weight.
Nitrates/nitrites Calcium
Potassium Hardness
Manganese Hardness is caused by multi-valent metal cations,
the most abundant in groundwater being calcium
and magnesium. Although it has no effect on
animal health, hardness does impair the cleansing
All minerals elevate TDS. but only a few cause ability of water and also results in the accumulation
health problems; for example, calcium and magne- of scale in water delivery and treatment equipment.
sium contribute both to hardness and TDS, but Thus, hardness can lead to problems associated with
unless present at extremely high levels or in associa- inadequate water supply if nipples, filters, etc.
tion with sulphate, have no adverse effect on pig become plugged. Water is considered soft if
health. Sulphates, a major contributor to TDS in hardness is below 50 ppm; if above 300 ppm, it is
some regions, can result in severe diarrhea at even deemed very hard.
moderate levels. One can conclude that ifTDS is
low, the water is of good quality. lfTDS is moder- Chloride
ate to high, it may still be perfectly safe to drink. Chloride is not commonly elevated in
depending on what minerals are responsible. For groundwater on the Prairies. If chloride, as sodium
this reason, ifTDS is above 1000 ppm, the supple- chloride (salt), is elevated. it can be countered by
mentary tests are required to determine if those adjusting the salt content of feed; this must be
minerals responsible for the high reading represent a carried out by a qualified nutritionist to avoid
significant health risk to the pig. problems.

Total Dissolved Solids Iron

Total dissolved solids (TDS) measures the sum of Low levels of iron, as low as 0.3 ppm, can cause
all inorganic matter dissolved in a sample of water. brownish-coloured stains in laundry and bathroom
Tfless than 1,000 ppm, there is little concern. If fixtures. Normally, iron in ground water exists in
greater than 7,000 ppm, it is unfit for swine. Be- the soluble form; when pumped to the surface and
tween 1,000 ppm and 7,000 ppm, some farmers and exposed to oxygen, the iron in the water becomes
veterinarians report economically relevant losses. insoluble. The consequence of all this is the pre-
Sometimes, the water with a high level ofTDS is cipitation of iron when water is pumped from the
called "hard." This is incorrect, as hardness and a well, leading to possible blockage of the delivery
high mineral content can be quite different. system. In such cases, iron filters or a settling tank
(Table J 2-5) can be used to remove the iron before
Conductivity it becomes a problem.
Conductivity may be used as a predictor of
overall water quality in place ofTDS. Multiplying
conductivity by a constant is used to estimate TDS;
however, the value of this constant differs among
types of water, so that such conversions must be
viewed with discretion.

246
Table 12-5. Effect of Aeration and Seven Days magnesium and sulphates present. As mentioned
Settling on Water Chemistry (mgfL). above, magnesium, along with calcium, is also used
to calculate total hardness.
Item Dai
0 7 Sodium
pH 7.92 8.06 Sodium sulphate, also know as Glauber's salts, is
ms 2388 2378 a laxative and cathartic agent. By themselves,
Hardness 761 760 magnesium and sodium normally pose little risk to
Alkalinity 408 405 the pig, but their association with sulphate is a
major concern.
Sulphates 1268 1248
Sodium 446 432 Manganese
Calcium 183 189 Like iron, manganese can also cause staining of
Magnesium 75 72 laundry and bathroom fixtures. The threshold level
Chloride 40 45 of manganese is 0.05 ppm. Like iron, manganese
Potassium 10 11 exists in groundwater in the soluble form and is
Nitrates L.0 1.0 precipitated only when pumped to the surface.
Nitrites 0.3 0.3
Iron 2.5 0.6 Nitrates
Many people are concerned about nitrates and
Source: Tremblay et al., Prairie Swine Centre Annual nitrites in their water. For human infants, their
Report, 1989. concern is well-founded since nitrates can be a
serious problem. The primary concern relates to the
Iron in the water can also support the growth of reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the
iron bacteria, if the well has been contaminated; blood. Among livestock, cattle are more suscepti-
however, not all wells with iron in the water will be ble to the problem than pigs, because the bacteria in
contaminated with iron bacteria. Iron bacteria can the rumen convert nitrate to the much more danger-
cause foul odours and in extreme cases, can actually ous nitrite.
plug water systems, including the well itself. Such
foul odours and blockage is caused by the accumu- Nitrates are often a man-made problem. They are
lation of dead and decaying bacteria. formed by the decomposition of organic material,
and can percolate through soil and into a well at up
Shock chlorination may solve the problem, but in to 1 metre (3 ft) per day! They are also persistent.
many cases, the benefits are temporary and the Examples of barns tom down three decades earlier
procedure may need to be repeated on a regular still causing nitrate problems have been
basis. One method is to mix 25 L of household documented.
bleach with 900 L of water; this mixture is poured
into the new well and left there overnight. If Nitrates as well as nitrites in the water have been
necessary, the chlorinated water can be drawn shown to impair the utilization of vitamin A by the
through the pipes by turning on a tap at the farthest pig and reduce overall animal performance. llow-
location from the well. Such water cannot be ever, the levels required to affect performance were
consumed, so all waterers must be turned off until so much greater than observed in most water that
the system is thoroughly flushed the following day. there is little cause for concern under practical
conditions. Although pork producers should be
Magnesium cognizant of the potential hazards of nitrates to
Magnesium sulphate, also known as Epsom salts, livestock, they pose a greater risk to humans who
is undesirable in water because of associated consume contaminated water.
diarrhea. Typical water analysis will not define the
amount of Epsom salts present, only the amount of

247
Sulphates Table 12-6. Effect of Water Quality on the
Sulphates arc a primary source of problems Performance of Weanling Pigs Fed a Diet Containing
associated with well water quality. Sulphates are Antibiotics.
not well-handled by the gut of the pig, resulting in
diarrhea and possibly reduced performance. Wean- TDS <m2m)
ling pigs are most susceptible, but in severe cases, Variable 217 2350 4390
even adult sows have been afflicted. Depending on Water quality, ppm
the level of sulphate in the water, pigs can adapt and Sulphates 83 1280 2650
over a period of a few weeks, become accustomed Calcium 24 184 288
to the water. This may explain why pigs at weaning Chloride 8 34 70
appear to be most susceptible, since prior to wean- Magnesium 15 74 88
ing, they have likely consumed very little drinking Sodium 24 446 947
water.
Hardness 124 767 1080
Impact of Water Quality pH 8.4 8.1 8.0
What effect does poor quality drinking water have
on pigs? Diarrhea is certainly the major concern, Performance
especially in the weanling pig (adult swine may be Avg daily gain, kg/day 0.43 0.43 0.44
effected in severe cases); the impact of water Avg daily feed, kg/day 0.55 0.56 0.57
quality on animal performance remains Feed:gain 1.28 1.31 1.30
controversial.
Avg daily water, kg/day' I.60 1.84 1.81
Clinical reports suggest a major impact of poor Scour score1 1.07 l.30 1.46
quality water on animal performance on some
farms. Yet, this has not been supported by control-
led research, which has consistently concluded that NB. Pigs were weaned at 28 days of age and immediately
pigs have considerable ability to handle water of placed on test for 21 days; feed and water were offered
free choice. Source: McLeese et al. 1991.
widely varying quality with no effect on perform- 1
Effect of water source significant, P<0.05.
ance. The observation of diarrhea associated with
poor quality water has never been questioned; the
impact on pig performance has. In the second experiment (Table 12-7), the starter
diet did not contain any antibiotic, and in this
How does one proceed? The results of experi- instance, the pigs on the poor quality water grew
ments summarized on Tables 12-6 to 12-8 provide slower and less efficiently than those on the good
useful information. Tn the first experiment (Table water. Finally, when pigs were given either good or
12-6), pigs received either good quality water or poor quality water and exposed to either a normal
one of two samples obtained from local farms; in or chilled environment (Table 12-8), the cold stress
all cases, the pigs pcrformed very well, despite the did not appear to make the pigs more susceptible to
fact that sulphate was as high as 2650 mg/L. the effects of the water. In fact, pigs actually grew
better on the poor quality water, apparently due
primarily to increased feed intake!

248
Table 12-7. Effect of Water Quality on the Perform- Response to Poor Quality Water
ance of Weanling Pigs Fed a Diet Free of Antibiotics.
ln response to water problems, some changes to
the diet might be warranted. These must always be
T.D.S.
carried out with great care. Following are some
Item 217 ppm 4390 ppm
changes that are commonly adopted in response to
Avg gain (kg/day) 0.418 0.360 water problems.
Avg feed intake (kg/day) 0.530 0.521
Feed:gain1 1.33 1.47 Dietary Salt Reduction or Removal
This is a common practice on farms using water
NB. Pigs were weaned at 28 days and immediately placed containing a high mineral load. Partial removal of
on test for 21 days. Feed and water were available free salt can almost always be done without fear of
choice. Source: Mcleese et al., 1991
1
Effect of water significant, P< 0.05) difficulty because most diets contain a reasonable
safety margin. However, complete removal of salt
from the feed must be done with great care, because
Table 12-8. Effect of Pen Temperature and Water removing dietary salt removes both sodium and
Quality on the Performance of Newly-weaned Pigs. chloride. While most water that is high in sulphate
often contains high levels of sodium, the chloride
Environment Water Quality content of water on the Prairies is usually very low.
Consequently, removing too much salt from the
Normal Chilled Good Bad
feed could result in a chloride deficiency. There-
Avg gain/day, g12 1574 1057 960 1671 fore, careful water analysis must attend any adjust-
Avg feed/day, g1 2106 2170 1848 2428 ment of dietary salt levels. Furthermore, if salt
Avg water intake, s' 9632 7628 7382 9878 adjustment is employed, water analysis must be
Gain: feed ratio2 708 366 434 639 repeated on a regular basis to ensure that the min-
eral content of the water has not changed.
Pigs were weaned at 28 days and immediately placed on
test for 10 days. Feed and water were available free If the dietary salt is altered inappropriately and a
choice. Source: Maenz et al.. 1993 chloride deficiency results, depressed appetite will
I Effect of water significant, P<0.05 occur. If severe, it could cause a greater production
2
Effect of environment significant, P <0.05 loss than the water! Interestingly, the beneficial
effects of salt removal may be related to a marginal
chloride deficiency which reduces feed intake and
From the above, and from research conducted thus is "seen" to reduce diarrhea!
elsewhere, it is clear that pigs can perform very
well, even in the presence of very high levels of Lowering Nutrient Density in the Diet
sulphate. Interestingly, in every case, scouring was Lowering diet nutrient density has proven suc-
clearly related to water quality, confirming clinical cessful in the case of the weanling pig, where the
observations. What may be most significant to the stress of weaning combined with water proves to be
industry is that the presence of scouring should not too much. Adding bulky ingredients, such as beet
be interpreted as causing impaired growth and pulp or even oats or barley appears to reduce the
productivity. Therefore, pork producers, visible signs of scouring, but also greatly reduces
veterinarians and nutritionists are cautioned to the growth potential of the pig. As with the case of
separate the effect of drinking water quality on salt removal, the cure may be worse than the dis-
diarrhea from that on animal performance and ease, so such dietary changes must be carried out
determine if indeed, performance is compromised. with caution.
This is critical as it has a major impact on how one
responds to a water quality problem. It appears to
run counter to popular thought, but the results of so
many experiments cannot be ignored.

249
Improved Animal Management Chlorination is performed to provide disinfection
A more desirable approach would be to lessen all and remove deleterious bacteria and other disease-
stresses on the pig, by improving the overall causing microorganisms. It must be recognized that
environment for the pig (drafts, humidity, crowding, protozoa and enteroviruses are much more resistant
disease, etc). This enables the pig to withstand the to chlorination than arc bacteria; it is not altogether
effects of the water with less impact on its health clear if chlorination is unsatisfactory in this regard,
and productivity. Jmproving housing, for example, but there is definitely cause for concern.
is generally easier than altering the make-up of the
water, and would, in most cases, improve The effectiveness of disinfection and the quantity
productivity. of chlorine required in the water will depend on the
quantity of nitrites, iron, hydrogen sulphide,
Water Delivery ammonia and organic matter content, as well as pH
It is entirely possible that many of the problems and temperature. For example, the higher the pH,
associated with water quality are related to its the more chlorine must be added to achieve the
delivery. Poor quality water often plugs screens in same degree of disinfection. The presence of
drinkers, leaves scale in pipes and generally disrupts organic matter in the water converts the free
the flow of water from the well to the animals. chlorine to chloramines which have less disinfecting
Poor delivery systems which actually restrict the action. The length of contact will also influence the
availability of water to the animals is a serious demand for added chlorine.
problem on many farms.
Water softeners of many types are available. The
Water Treatment most common is the ion-exchange unit, which
If the problem is excess sulphates, treatment may replaces calcium and magnesium with sodium. This
not be an option due to cost. Reverse osmosis will reduces the hardness of the water, but clearly has no
remove sulphates, but both the capital and operating effect on overall mineral load. Because of sodium's
costs for a livestock unit are very high and the cost role in the process, it is important to recognize that
relative to benefit must be carefully balanced. water softened in this manner will have elevated
levels of sodium.

lncreasin� nipple flow rates docs little to increase water intake in pigs but greatly increases water wastage.

250
Additional Reading and References
Brooks, P.H. and J. L. Carpenter. 1993. The water
requirement of growing-finishing pigs - theoretical
and practical considerations. In (D.J.A. Cole, W
Haresign and P.C. Garnsworthy, Eds.) Recent
Developments in Pig Nutrition 2. Butterworths,
London, pp. 179-200

Fraser, D., J.F. Patience, P.A. Phillips and J.M.

Mcleese. 1993. Water for piglets and lactating
sows: quantity. quality and quandaries. In (DJ.A.
Cole, W. Haresign and P.C. Garnsworthy, Eds.)
Recent Developments in Pig Nutrition 2.
Butterworths, London, pp. 201-224.

Maenz, D.D., J.F. Patience and M.S. Wolynetz.

1993. Effect of water sweetener on the perform-
ance of newly weaned pigs offered medicated and
unmedicated feed. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 73:669-672.

Mcleese, J.M., M.L. Tremblay, J.F. Patience and

G.I. Christison. 1992. Water intake patterns in the
weanling pig: effect of water quality, antibiotics
and probiotics. Anim. Prod. 54:135-142.

N.R.C. 1974. Nutrients and toxic substances in

water for livestock and poultry. Nat'l Acad. Sci-
ence, Washington, DC. 93 pp.

Patience, J.F., J. Mcleese and M.L. Tremblay.

1989. Water quality - implications in pork produc-
tion, Proc. Western N utr. Conf., pp. 113-138.

Patience, J.F. 1990. Water requirements of pigs:

principles and applications. Proc. Minn. Swine
Conf. for Veterinarians, Univ. of Minnesota, St.
Pauls, MN, September 16-18, pp. 380-390.

Patience, J.F. 1990. Assessing water quality:

separating fact from myth. Proc. Minn. Swine
Conf. for Veterinarians, Univ. of Minnesota, St.
Pauls, MN, September 16-18, pp. 31-37.

251
252
Appendix I. Typical Nutrient Composition of Selected Feed Ingredients

Alfalfa Meal Barley- Barley- Beet Pulp Blood Meal Bone Meal
Grain Hulless Spray Dried
Energy, kcal/kg
-Digestible 1850 3100 3250 3000 3050
-Metabolizable 1675 2960 3100 2850 2810

Proximate analysis, %
-Crude protein 17.0 10.6 13.7 9.9 84.0 28.0
-Crude fibre 25.6 5.1 3.6 15.3 0.8
-Acid detergent fibre 29.2 7.1 1.2 17.7
-NDF 39.6 17.8
-Ash 9.5 2.4 4.4
-Ether extract 2.8 1.8 1.0

Total amino acids,%

-Lysine 0.76 0.39 0.54 0.60 7.60 1.00
-Threonine 0.72 0.36 0.47 0.40 3.84 0.68
-Methionine 0.25 0.17 0.24 0.01 0.98 0.20
-T.S.A.A. 0.47 0.40 0.47 0.02 1.88 0.43
-Tryptophan 0.36 0.14 0.16 0.10 1.15
-Isoleucine 0.77 0.42 0.45 0.30 0.95 0.54
-Leucine 1.30 0.80 0.95 0.60 12.34 1.21
-Valine 0.93 0.58 0.62 0.40 7.66 1.03
-Phenylala nine 0.90 0.60 0.76 0.30 6.20 0.80
-Arginine 0.74 0.50 0.64 0.30 5.20 1.92
-Histidine 0.34 0.24 0.30 0.20 5.87 0.31

Apparent Ileal digestible amino acids, %

-Lysine 0.36 0.27 6.38 0.77
-Threonine 0.34 0.23 3.11 0.51
-Methionine 0.16 0.13 0.76 0.16
-Cystine 0.05 0.17 0.67 0.09
-Tryptophan 0.19 O.IO 0.92
-Isoleucine 0.42 0.31 0.63 0.41
-Valine 0.48 0.41 6.51 0.93

Macrominerals, %
-Calcium 1.33 0.07 0.24 0.70 .40 30.00
-Phosphorus 0.23 0.35 0.37 0.08 .30 12.50
-Avail. phosphorus 0 0.11
-Magnesium 0.30 0.11 0.21 0.25 .15 0.30
-Potassium 2.27 0.55 1.00 .15 0.10
-Sodium 0.09 0.03 0.19 0.40 5.00
-Chloride 0.46 0.13 0.25 0.25

Microminerals, ppm
-lron 330 90 275 45
-Copper 10 7 9 13 IO
-Zinc 21 24 I 12
-Mangancse 37 20 44 35 5
-Selenium 0.6 0.2 0.04

253
 Buckwheat Canola Meal Canola Seed Com- Com Com Gluten
Grain Distillers Grain Meal
Energy, kcal/kg
-Digcstiblc 3010 3100 4750 3550 3450 4150
-Mctaboliz-
able 2810 2900 4475 3360 3260 3840

Proximate analysis, %
-Crude protein 11.2 37.7 20.7 8.5 27.6 60.0
-Crude fibre 13.3 11.8 7.0 2.2 12.0 3.1
-Acid detergent fibre 20.0 17.2 3.4
-NDF 12.0
-Ash 2.1 4.8 1.4 2.2 2.8
-Ether extract 2.5 3.5 3.6 9.0 2.4

Total amino acids, %

-Lysine 0.64 2.16 1.20 0.26 0.79 1.03
-Threonine 0.42 1.65 1.01 0.31 0.91 2.05
-Methionine 0.21 0.75 0.40 0.19 0.35 1.60
-T.S.A.A. 0.40 1.79 0.85 0.37 0.80 2.80
-Tryptophan 0.18 0.46 0.27 0.06 0.17 0.35
-Isolcucine 0.39 1.55 0.89 0.32 0.98 2.40
-Leucine 0.63 2.64 1.65 1.04 2.50 10.04
-Valine 0.58 1.99 1.11 0.46 1.30 3.00
-Phenylala nine 0.49 1.49 0.90 0.40 1.45 3.80
-Arginine 0.95 2.26 1.43 0.45 0.95 1.89
-Histidine 0.28 1.34 0.62 0.21 0.60 1.39

Apparent IleaJ digestible amino acids, %

-Lysine 1.60 .17
-Threoninc 1.12 .21
-Mcthionine .59 .16
-Cystine .78 .14
-Tryptophan .29 .04
-Isoleucine 1.12 .25
-Valine 1.55 .36

Macrominerals, %
-Calcium 0.08 0.63 0.39 0.02 0.12 0.06
-Phosphorus 0.32 1.01 0.64 0.25 0.65 0.38
-Avail. phosphorus 0.03
-Magnesium 0.10 0.51 0.38 0.11 0.15 0.07
-Potassium 0.45 1.22 0.73 0.30 0.43 0.24
-Sodium 0.05 0.01 0.40 0.07
-Chloride 0.05 0.04 0.18 0.06

Micromincr-als, ppm
-lron 40 142 95 20 200 230
-Copper 9 6 4 3 50 15
-Zinc 9 69 37 15 55 30
-Mangancse 34 49 22 4 23 8
-Sclenium I. I 0.6 0.05 0.35 0.8

254
 Fababeans Feather Meal Fish Meal- Fish Meal- Fish Meal- Flaxseed Meal
Herring' Menhaden' Whitc1
Energy, kcal/kg
-Digestible 3150 2250 3725 3700 3550 4550
-Metabolizable 2960 2070 2625 2930 2385 4250

Proximate analysis,%
-Crude protein 26.7 85.0 71.0 61.2 63.8 25.3
-Crude fibre 7.8 1.4 0.8 0.9 0.5 9.5
-Acid detergent fibre 10.0
-NDF
-Ash 6.4 3.7 10.7 19.5 22.7
-Ether extract 1.2 2.5 9.4 9.9 5.4

Total amino acids, %

-Lysine 1.62 1.67 5.82 4.82 4.34 1.20
-Threonine 0.90 3.63 3.09 2.49 2.71 1.10
-Methionine 0.19 0.47 2.19 1.80 1.76 0.44
-TS.A.A. 0.45 4.13 2.91 2.42 2.41 0.80
-Tryptophan 0.26 0.49 0.77 0.69 0.67 0.40
-Isoleucine 0.98 3.79 3.12 2.77 2.81 1.20
-Leucine l.83 6.20 5.41 4.94 4.57 1.80
-Valine l.08 5.85 4.83 3.27 3.48 1.40
-Phenylala nine l.04 3.60 2.81 2.42 2.75 l.60
-Arginine 2.29 5.90 5.26 3.65 3.97 3.00
-Histidine 0.60 0.47 1.83 1.48 1.62 0.70

Apparent Ileal digestible amino acids, %

-Lysine 1.09 4.95 4.10 3.69
-Threonine 2.54 2.41 1.94 2.11
-Methionine .30 1.80 1.48 1.44
-Cystine 2.64 0.46 0.40 0.42
-Tryptophan 0.29 0.58 0.52 0.50
-Isoleucine 2.99 2.53 2.24 2.28
-Valine 4.50 3.96 2.68 2.85

Macrominerals, %
-Calcium 0.12 0.34 2.75 5.11 6.97 0.20
-Phosphorus 0.49 0.53 1.75 2.92 3.94 0.70
-Avail. phosphorus
-Magnesium 0.13 0.13 0.18 0.14 0.20 0.40
-Potassium 1.08 0.20 l.22 0.72 I.OJ 0.80
-Sodium 0.08 0.35 0.81 0.45 l.l3 0.05
-Chloride 0.23 0.83 0.55 2.00 0.04

Microminer-als, ppm
-lron 65 76 110 443 120
-Copper 4 7 5 11 s 12
-Zinc 42 72 135 150 80
-Manganese 12 IS 7 35 18
-Seleniurn 0.90 2.0 2.1 1.5 0.4

I
Published Ileal digestibilities for fish meal do not differentiate the source of the product. Variation is likely.

255
 Lentils Meal Meal Meat and Molasses-Beet Oats Grain Oats Naked
Bone Meal

Energy, kcal/kg
-Digestible 3065 2850 2825 2475 2800 3600
-Metabolizable 2865 2585 2570 2350 2650 3420

Proximate analysis, %
-Crude protein 24.6 55.0 50.0 7.1 10.8 13.2
-Crude fibre 3.9 1.3 2.7 0.0 11.0 3.6
-Acid detergent fibre 4.1 0.0 15.3
-NDF
-Ash 23.2 31.9 8.9 3.4 2.0
-Ether extract 10.1 8.4 0.0 4.2 8.7

Total amino acids, %

-Lysine 1.63 2.99 2.70 0.40 0.50
-Threonine 0.81 1.85 1.65 0.35 0.40
-Methionine 0.18 0.79 0.70 0.20 0.20
-TS.A.A. 0.51 1.40 1.20 0.40 0.54
-Tryptophan 0.25 0.35 0.30 0.14 0.15
-Isoleucine 0.88 1.85 1.75 0.42 0.50
-Leucine 1.64 3.45 3.20 0.78 1.00
-Valine 1.00 2.60 2.30 0.59 0.75
-Phenylalanine 1.09 1.85 1.75 0.59 0.68
-Arginine 1.79 3.70 3.50 0.80 0.89
-Histidine 0.56 1.10 1.05 0.20 0.27

Apparent Heal digestible amino acids, %

-Lysine 2.48 1.89 0.26
-Threonine 1.55 1.09 0.19
-Methionine 0.67 0.54 0.15
-Cystine 0.38 0.27
-Tryptophan 0.21 0.17 0.08
-Isoleucine 1.52 1.24
-Valine 2.13 1.66

Macrorninerals, %
-Calcium 0.08 8.10 9.50 0.10 0.10 0.12
-Phosphorus 0.33 3.63 4.70 0.02 0.35 0.40
-Avail. phosphorus
-Magnesiurn 0.94 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.11
-Potassium 0.62 0.65 4.60 0.40 0.45
-Sodium 0.04 1.20 0.80 1.20 0.05 0.05
-Chloride 0.90 0.70 1.20 0.10 0.08

Macrominerals, ppm
-Iron 88 450 500 70 75 75
-Copper 7 10 10 15 5 9
-Zinc 46 80 100 15 30 36
-Manganese 10 10 5 40 44
-Selenium 0.4 0.4 0.3

256
 Peas Potatoes Poultry By- Rye Grain Screenings Screenings
Dried Product Meal #1 Feed #1 Wheat
Energy, kcal/kg
-Digcstible 3400 3350 3250 3300 3100 3250
-Metabolizable 3175 3160 3020 3085 2930 3075

Proximate analysis, %
-Crude protein 23.4 7.7 60.0 11.5 11.2 12.9
-Crude fibre 5.5 5.1 2.5 2.4 4.9 5.5
-Acid detergent fibre 8.2 5.9 4.4
-NDF 14.7
-Ash 3.3 3.3 17.0 1.6
-Ether extract 1.3 0.2 13.0 1.6

Total amino acids, %

-Lysine l.50 0.40 2.11 0.40 0.39 0.37
-Threonine 0.90 0.24 1.57 0.38 0.38 0.37
-Methionine 0.25 0.08 0.70 0.18 0.19 0.23
-T.S.A.A. 0.50 0.16 1.47 0.38 0.44 0.54
-Tryptophan 0.24 0.14 0.50 0.14 0.14 0.14
-Isoleucine l.IO 0.25 1.56 0.45 0.40 0.50
-Leucine 1.80 0.60 2.82 0.69 0.80 0.85
-Valine l.l5 0.35 1.97 0.55 0.58 0.53
-Phenylalanine 1.04 0.40 1.45 0.59 0.57 0.53
-Arginine 1.40 0.27 2.76 0.52 0.56 0.58
-Histidine 0.72 0.15 0.96 0.27 0.24 0.25

Apparent Deal digestible amino acids, %

-Lysine l.25 0.26
-Threonine 0.62 0.23
-Methionine 0.19 0.13
-Cystine 0.15 0.14
-Tryptophan 0.16
-Isoleucine 0.86 0.29
-Valine 0.82 0.36

Macrominerals, %
-Calcium 0.09 1.20 4.30 0.06 0.07 0.04
-Phosphorus 0.50 0.85 2.30 0.32 0.29 0.32
-Avail. phosphorus 0.15
-Magnesium 0.13 0.13 0.39 0.12 0.11 0.13
-Potassium 1.01 1.70 0.40 0.45 0.64 0.30
-Sodiurn 0.04 1.85 0.82 0.02 0.03 0.02
-Chloride 0.05 l.50 0.54 0.03 0.15 0.05

Microminer-als, ppm
-Iron 60 14 450 75 57 30
-Copper 9 45 14 6 7 6
-Zinc 28 3 120 32 24 36
-Manganese 23 4 II 57 21 29
-Seleniurn 0.4 0.06 0.03 0.2 0.1

257
 Skim Milk SBM- SBM- Soybean Sugar Sunflower
Powder 44% 47% Seeds, Raw Meal - Dehulled
Energy, kcal/kg
-Digestible 3850 3500 3675 4200 3800 3115
-Mctabolizablc 3565 3190 3350 3875 3610 2920

Proximate analysis, %
-Crude protein 33.4 44.3 47.5 37.2 40.5
-Crude fibre 0.0 6.9 3.9 17.2 14.9
-Acid detergent fibre 8.3 7.4 8.0
-NDF 12.0 9.3
-Ash 8.0 6.4 6.5 4.0 6.8
-Ethcr extract 1.8 0.7 1.4 15.0 5.0

Total amino acids, %

-Lysine 2.70 2.86 3.18 2.25 1.39
-Threonine 1.60 1.70 1.85 0.55 1.35
-Methionine 0.85 0.65 0.64 1.10 0.93
-T.S.A.A. 1.30 1.30 1.44 1.54 1.42
-Tryptophan 0.50 0.58 0.62 0.47 0.46
-Isoleucine 1.75 2.26 2.30 1.95 1.56
-Leucine 3.40 3.55 3.68 2.75 2.32
-Valine 2.25 2.17 2.69 1.85 1.88
-Phenylala nine 1.65 2.17 2.44 2.00 1.78
-Arginine 1.15 3.35 3.49 2.65 3.05
-Histidine 0.95 1.14 1.26 0.90 0.84

Apparent Deal digestible amino acids, %

-Lysine 2.43 2.40 2.70 1.03
-Threonine 1.31 1.29 1.44 0.97
-Methionine 0.73 0.55 0.54 0.81
-Cystine 0.36 0.48 0.62 0.36
-Tryptophan 0.46 0.50 0.35
-lsoleucine 1.49 1.85 1.91 1.22
-Valine 1.91 1.71 2.18 1.41

Macrominerals, %
-Calcium 1.20 0.29 0.29 0.25 0.42
-Phosphorus 1.00 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.90
-Avail. phosphorus
-Magncsium 0.12 0.26 0.30 021 0.70
-Potassium l.55 1.90 2.10 1.70 1.10
-Sodium 0.55 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.20
-Chloridc 0.95 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.20

Microminerals, ppm
-Iron 15 140 125 80 30
-Copper 11 25 20 16 4
-Zinc 40 55 60 26 100
-Mangancse 3 30 40 30 20
-Selenium 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10

258
 Triticale Wheat Grain Wheat Bran Wheat Shorts Whey Powder
HRS

Energy, kcaVkg
-Digestible 3375 3425 2475 3140 3350
-Metabolizable 3150 3210 2310 2905 3150

Proximate analysis, %
-Crude protein 13.6 13.5 15.5 17.5 14.0
-Crude fibre 2.5 2.7 10.5 7.5 0.0
-Acid detergent fibre 3.5 13.1 0.0
-NDF 10.8 35.0
-Ash 1.9 6.2 8.2 9.1
-Ether extract 1.5 1.8 3.6 4.2 0.7

Total amino acids, %

-Lysine 0.40 0.40 0.59 0.70 0.95
-Threonine 0.43 0.40 0.49 0.54 0.77
-Methionine 0.19 0.24 0.19 0.23 0.19
-T.S.A.A. 0.44 0.57 0.49 0.50 0.46
-Tryptophan 0.14 0.16 0.27 0.23 0.21
-Isoleucine 0.53 0.53 0.55 0.60 0.83
-Leucine 0.82 0.89 0.92 l.02 1.23
-Valine 0.63 0.56 0.70 0.78 0.70
-Phenylalanine 0.65 0.56 0.57 0.66 0.40
-Arginine 0.71 0.61 1.04 0.98 0.40
-Histidine 0.35 0.26 0.32 0.40 0.22

Apparent Ileal digestible amino acids, %

-Lysine 0.29 .29 0.32 0.50 0.77
-Threonine 0.28 .28 0.25 0.32 0.63
-Methionine 0.16 .20 0.14 0.18 0.17
-Cystine 0.21 .27 0.21 0.24
-T ryptophan 0.10 .13 0.16 0.18 0.17
-Jsoleucine 0.42 .44 0.42 0.73
-Valine 0.49 .44 0.57 0.61

Macrominerals, %
-Calcium 0.05 0.04 0.12 0.10 0.98
-Phosphorus 0.32 0.34 1.16 0.85 0.79
-Avail. phosphorus
-Magnesium 0.12 0.14 0.53 0.27 0.13
-Potassium 0.47 0.32 1.23 0.90 1.62
-Sodium 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.03 1.57
-Chloride 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.04 1.50

Microminerals, ppm
-lron 30 31 150 85 140
-Copper 9 6 11 12 45
-Zinc 45 38 95 105 5
-Manganese 25 30 110 110 5
-Selenium 0.10 0.60 0.50 0.06

259
 Canola Oil Lard Poultry Grease Soybean Oil Tallow
Energy, kcal/kg
-Digestible 8800 7850 8625 8800 8200
-Mctabolizable 7300 7550 8200 7275 7900

Disclaimer:Every attempt has been made to provide accurate information on each ingredient. Due to the nature of
these materials. variability among samples will occur.

260
Appendix II. Calibrating Proportioner-type Mills

l. Ensure that the dial settings for the mill are 3. Tum on the mill and collect the ingredients until
correctly set for the diet being tested. Record the a reasonable amount is added to all containers. The
setting for each dial. more material that can be collected properly, the
more accurate the test will be.
2. Remove the back housing cover from the mill to
expose the proportioning augers and attach the 4. Weight the ingredients in each container and
testing tray. Place collecting containers below the subtract the weight of the empty container. Be sure
tray to ensure accurate collection of each ingredient to use a small scale that can accurately weigh
from each auger. ingredients such as premixes and medications.

5. Complete the calculations. Add up the quantity

Photo IIl-1. of all ingredients to obtain the total. Divide the
weight of each ingredient by the total weight to
determine the proportion of each in the mix. If the
proportions do not agree with the desired formula,
reset the mill and repeat the procedure.

6. Once the expected formulation has been

achieved on the mill, collect half a dozen samples
the next time feed is mixed. Thoroughly mix the
samples into a single sample and submit it to a
laboratory for analysis. Refer to Chapter 5 for a
recommended schedule for feed analysis.

261
Useful Conversion Factors

Length Miscellaneous
To convert: Multiply by: To convert: Multiply by:
Centimetres to inches 0.394 Calories to joules 4.184
Inches to centimetres 2.540 Kilocalories to calories 1000
Millimetres to inches 0.039 Megacalories to kilocalories 1000
Inches to millimetres 25.40 Joules to calories 0.239
Feet to metres 0.305 Percent to grams per kilogram 10.00
Metres to feet 3.281 Grams per kilogram to percent 0.100
Metres to inches 39.37 Gallons of water to pounds 10.00
Inches to metres 0.254 Megajoules to kilocalories 239
Kilometres to miles 0.621
Miles to kilometres 1.609

Temperature
op oc op oc
Area 212 100.0
To convert: Multiply by: 106 41.l 55 12.8
Square foot to square metre 0.093 104 40.0 50 10.0
Square metre to square foot 10.75 102 38.9 45 7.2
Acres to hectares 0.405 100 37.8 40 4.4
Hectares to acres 2.469 98 36.7 35 l.7
96 35.6 30 -1. l
94 34.4 25 -3.9
92 33.3 20 -6.7
Volume 90 32.2 15 -9.4
To convert: Multiply by: 88 31. l 10 -12.2
Millilitres to fluid ounces 0.033 85 29.4 5 -15.0
Fluid ounces to millilitres 30.00 80 26.7 0 -17.8
Litres to quarts 0.880 75 23.9 -5 -20.6
Quarts to litres 1.137 70 21. l -10 -23.3
Gallons to litres 4.546 65 18.3 -15 -26.1
Litres to gallons 0.220 60 15.6
Litres to millilitres 1000

262
 Common Abreviations

Weights
To convert: Multiply by: Length
Grams to ounces 0.035 Kilometer km
Ounces to grams 28.35 Meter m
Kilograms to pounds 2.205 Centimeter cm
Pounds to kilograms 0.454 Millimeter mm
Micrograms to milligrams 0.001 Mile mi
Milligrams to grams 0.001 Yard yd
Kilograms to tonnes 0.001 Foot ft
Tonnes to kilograms 1000
Tonnes to tons 0.984
Tons to kilograms 1102
Tons to tonnes 1.016
Tons to pounds 2000
Parts/million to grams/tonne 1.000 Volume
Grams/kilogram to grams/tonne 1000 Litre L
Millilitre mL
$/bushel to $/tonne Micro litre mcL
(barley) 45.94 Gallon gal
(wheat) 36.75 Quart qt
(oats) 61.25
(corn) 39.37

$/tonne to $/bushel
(barley) 0.0218
(wheat) 0.0272 Mass
(oats) 0.0163 Kilogram kg
(com) 0.0254 Gram g
Milligram mg
Pound lb
Ounce oz
Hundredweight cwt
Tonne (metric) T

263
264
Glossary
Abscess - Collection of pus formed by breakdown Anemia - A condition in which the blood is defi-
of tissues. cient in the amount of needed hemoglobin or in the
number of red blood cells or in both.
Absorption - The uptake of nutrients through the
intestinal wall. Anion - An ion carrying a negative electric charge.
Chloride is an anion.
Acclimatization - The process of becoming accus-
tomed to a new climate or other environmental Anorexia - Lack of loss of appetite.
conditions.
Anti-nutritional factors - Factors that work against
Acute - Having a short and severe course of devel- the nutritional value of a feedstuff
opment; opposite of chronic.
Anti-oxidant - A substance that prevents fats from
Adaptation - The adjustment of an animal to a new becoming rancid through oxidation.
or changing environmental condition.
APF (animal protein factor) - original name for
ADF (acid detergent fibre) - Fibre extracted with vitamin B,r
acidic detergent in a technique used in appraising
Apparent digestibility - The amount of a nutrient
the quality of forages.
absorbed from the gut.
ADG (average daily gain) - Rate of body weight
Arginine - An essential amino acid.
gain, expressed on a 'per day' basis.
Arthritis - Inflammation of a joint and its adjacent
Adipose - Fat.
tissues.
Ad lib feeding - See ad libitum.
As fed - Refers to the nutrient composition of
Ad libitum - Self-feeding, or allowing swine to feedstuffs; including moisture normally present in
consume feed to appetite. the feed at the time it is fed; differs from dry matter
basis, which defines nutrient concentration after aJl
Agalactia - Absence of milk production by the sow.
the water is removed.
Albumin -A water soluble plant (and animal)
Assay - The determination of the chemical compo-
protein.
sition of a feed or ingredient.
Aleurone - The protein portion of the endosperm of Ataxia _ Lack of muscle coordination.
a seed.
ATP - Adenosine triphosphate: a source of energy
Alfatoxin - Any carcinogenic mycotoxin produced
for the cell.
by molds in stored agricultural crops.
Atrophic rhinitis - Inflammation of the mucous
Alkyl resorcinol - A colorless crystalline com-
membranes and turbinate bones of the nose, often
pound used in making dyes and pharmaceutical.
resulting in distortion in shape or size.
Amino acids - The building blocks of proteins;
Atrophy - Wasting away of cell or tissue.
hundreds are known, but only about 20 are nor-
mally found in proteins. Availability - That proportion of a nutrient that is
available to the animal.
Amylase - An enzyme that breaks down starches.
Available amino acids - The proportion of the total
Anabolic - The process by which food is changed
dietary amino acids that can be absorbed from the
into living tissue. Building tissue; opposite of
gut of the pig, and thus are actually used for growth
catabolic. and production.

265
Bacterin -A suspension of killed bacteria (vaccine) Calorie (cal) - A unit of energy measurement
used to increase disease resistance. defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of water from 14.5 to
Bacteria - Single celled living organism that
15.5°C. Equivalent to 4.184 joules.
multiplies by simple division; some arc beneficial
and others cause disease. Calorimetry- Measurement of the amount of heat
produced during normal metabolism.
Barrow - A young castrated male pig.
Capillary - Small blood vessel delivering arterial
Basal (energy) feeds - A group of grain and grain
blood to the tissues and venous blood from the
by-products containing not more than 16% CP and
18% CF. tissues. Walls of the capillaries are in close contact
with individual cells of the tissues.
Basal metabolism (BM) - The chemical changes
Carbohydrates - A class of compounds in the feed,
that occur in the pig in the fasting and resting state,
including starches, sugar, cellulose, and gums.
when it uses just enough energy to maintain basic
metabolic activity. Casein - The major protein of milk.
Beta carotene - A source of vitamin A found in Catabolism - A breakdown of tissues; opposite of
some plant and plant products. anabolism.
Beta-glucan - A polysaccharide that interferes with Catalyst - A substance that increases the rate of a
digestion. chemical reaction. Enzymes are catalysts. Cata-
lysts are absolutely essential for the normal body
Bile salts - Compounds released from the gall
processes.
bladder into the intestine which help emulsify and
digest fats. Cathartic - A compound that acts as a laxative.
Bioassay - Using animals to evaluate feed quality. Cation - An ion carrying a positive electrical charge
(i.e. sodium, potassium, and calcium).
Biopsy - The colJection and analysis of tissue
collected from alive animal. Cecum, ceca - See caecume.
Biotin -A vitamin found in high levels in liver, egg Cellulose - The carbohydrate constituent of plant
yolk and yeast. cell walls that are resistant to normal digestive
processes in the pig.
Boar - Uncastrated male pig.
Chelating agent - A compound that can bind
Bomb calorimeter - An apparatus for measuring
mineral ions to improve their utilization by the pig.
the gross energy content of feed.
Cholecalciferol - Vitamin D3•
Bone meal (steamed) - Ground animal bones that
are steamed under pressure. It can be used as a Coenzyme - A substance, usually a vitamin or
source of calcium and phosphorus. mineral, which works with an enzyme to help it
catalyze (speed up) metabolic processes.
Bran - The seed coat of cereal grains.
Colitis - An inflammation of the colon.
Brewer's grains - A by-product of the brewing
industry. Colon - The lower portion of the large intestine.
Bushel - Eight-gallon measure. Colostrum - The first milk, produced by the sow
during the first few days of lactation; rich in fats
Caecum (cecum) -A section of the large intestine
and antibodies essential for piglet survival.
in which bacterial action breaks down some fibre
that escaped digestion i the small intestine. Comfort zone - The temperature range in which
pigs will not expend energy to keep warm.
Calciferol - Commonly known as vitamin D2"

266
Complete feed - Provides all the nutrients required Digestion - The processes which feed undergoes
except water. A balanced diet. within the gastrointestinal tract to prepare it for
absorption.
Condition - Refers to the amount of flesh (fat) on
the body; the general health of animals. Diuresis - Increased urination.
Congenital - Characteristics of the fetus acquired DL-methionioe - Synthetic source of methionine.
before birth, i.d. during the gestation period.
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid; also called the
Connective tissue - Tough fibrous tissue that blueprint of life because it directs cells in the body
supports and connects tissues of an animal body. to build proteins in certain ways.
Creatine phosphate - A storage form of energy for Dressing percent - The portion of the carcass
cell metabolism. remaining after removal of most internal organs,
feet, and in some cases the head.
Critical temperature - Environmental temperature
below which extra energy is required to maintain Duodenum - The first portion of the small intes-
the pig's body temperature, and less energy is thus tine.
available for growth purposes.
Ear notches - Slits or perforations in an ear used
Crude fibre (CF) - That portion of feedstuffs for identification.
composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and
Eczema - Skin disease characterized by redness,
other complex carbohydrates.
itching, loss of hair, and the formation of scales.
Crude protein (CP) - An estimate of the protein in
Edema - Swelling due to accumulation of fluid.
a feed. In calculating the protein percentage. the
feed is first chemically analyzed for its nitrogen EFA (essential fatty acid) -A fatty acid that
content. Since proteins average about 16% (1/6.25) cannot be synthesized in the body in sufficient
nitrogen, the amount of nitrogen in the analysis is quantities for the body's needs.
multiplied by 6.25 to give the CP percentage.
Electrolyte - Any charged article: an ion.
Crumbles - Pelleted feed reduced to granular form
with corrugated rollers. Electrolyte solution - A solution of simple sugars
and minerals often used in the treatment of scours.
Cyanocobalamine - Vitamin B12•
Endogenous - Internally produced in the body,
Cyst - A sac or bag-like structure, especially one such as hormones.
that contains a liquid or semi-solid material.
Endogenous proteins - Sloughed cnterocytcs
Cystine - Amino acid that can replace up to one together with enzymes.
half of a pig's requirement for methionine.
Endosperm - Part of the seed which provides food
Dermatitis - An inflammation of the skin. for the developing embryo.
Dextrose - Glucose. Endotoxins - Toxic substances stored inside bacte-
rial cells.
Dicoumarol - A chemical compound found in
spoiled sweet clover, which acts as an anticoagulant Enteritis - Inflammation of the intestinal tract.
causing internal hemorrhages when eaten.
Enterotoxin - A toxin produced by microorganisms
Digestibility - A measure of the extent to which a that disturbs the gastrointestinal tract.
feed is digested and absorbed by the animal.
Enzyme - Biological catalysts that increase the rate
Digestible energy (DE) - Gross energy minus fecal of chemical reactions.
energy; generally pertains to feeds.
Enzyme activator - A substance which the enzyme
requires in order to be active.

267
Epidemiology - The study of relationships of Feed conversion - Amount of feed used per unit of
various factors that interact to cause or prevent gain.
disease or other health related problems.
Folacin - Compounds derived from folic acid.
Ergocalciferol - Vitamin 02•
Gastric - Referring to the stomach.
Ergosterol - A plant sterol that (upon activation by
ultraviolet rays) becomes vitamin 02• Gastrointestinal - Referring to the stomach and
intestines.
Ergot - Undesirable fungi found in rye.
GE - Gross energy.
Ergonovine - A toxic alkaloid found in ergot.
Gluconeogenesis - Formation of glucose.
Ergotamine - A toxic alkaloid found in ergot.
Glutelin - A cereal protein.
Ergotoxine - A toxic alkaloid found in ergot.
Glycolysis - Degradation of simple sugars.
Erythropoieses - The production of red blood cells.
Occurs in bone marrow. Goiter - Enlargement of the thyroid gland caused
by iodine deficiency.
Esophagus - Structure extending from mouth to
stomach. Gossypol - A toxic yellow pigment found in
cottonseed.
Essential amino acid - An amino acid that cannot
be synthesized in the body in sufficient quantities GRAS - "Generally recognized as safe". Used by
for the body's needs; therefore required in diet. the USDA as related to feed or feed ingredients.

Estrogen - A female sex hormone; promotes estrus Gross energy (GE) - The amount of heat released
and stimulates the development of female second- when a substance is completely oxidized (burned).
ary sex characteristics. Gut - The digestive tract.
Estrus - Heat. Heat increment (HI) - Heat of nutrient metabo-
Estrous cycle - The recurring sexual cycle. lism. This heat may be used to keep the body
warm.
Ether extract - Substances in feeds which are
soluble in ether. Used in feed analysis to estimate Hemagglutinin - An antibody which causes red
fat content of a feed. blood cells to stick together.

Etiology - The study of the causes of diseases. Hemicellulose - A simple cellulose.

Exogenous - Produced or supplied from outside the Hemoglobin - A protein that imparts a red color in
body. red blood cells.

F I generation - First-generation progeny. Hepatic - Referring to the liver.

F 2 generation - The second generation resulting Histidine - The mechanisms by which animals
from the mating of F1 individuals. maintain a constant internal environment.
Fagopyrin - Photosensitizing agent found in Homeostasis - The mechanisms by which animals
buckwheat. maintain a constant internal environment.
Fagopyrism - Buckwheat poisoning. Hormone - A substance, secreted by one gland,
Farrow - To give birth. which has an effect on other tissues.

Fat soluble vitamins - Vitamins A, O, E and K. HRS Wheat - Hard red spring wheat.

Fatty acid - A part of a fat molecule. Hulls - Outer covering of seeds.

268
Hybrid vigor - Increased stamina or vitality of Megacalorie (Meal) - Unit of energy equal to 101'
crossbred animals. joules.
Hydrocephalus - Accumulation of fluid on brain. Menadione - Vitamin K.
Ileum - The lower portion of the small intestine. Metabolic body size - The weight of the animal
raised to the 3/4 power (W01s).
Immunoglobulins - Proteins (also known as
antibodies) that produce a state of immunity. Metabolism - The sum total of the chemical
changes in the body, including building up {anabo-
International units (IU) - An arbitrary scale. used
lism) and breaking down (catabolism).
to compare sources of vitamins.
Metabolizable energy (ME) - Gross energy minus
Intestine - The portion of the gastrointestinal tract
fecal energy and urinary energy.
from the stomach to the anus.
Metabolite - Substance produced by metabolism.
intrinsic factor - A substance secreted by the
stomach which allows absorption of vitamin B1�. Microvilli - Projections from the villi.
In utero - Within the uterus. Middlings - A by-product of flour milling contain-
ing endosperm, bran, and germ.
.n vitro - Outside the animal in an artificial environ-
ment such as a test tube. Mycotoxicosis - Poisoning due to fungal or bacte-
rial toxin.
in vivo - Within the living body.
Mycotoxins - Toxic substances produced by molds.
Ion - Charged molecule.
Myrosinase - An enzyme found in rapeseed meal
Kcal (kilocalorie) - A unit of energy equal to 1000
capable of breaking down glucosinolates.
calories.
National Research Council - See NRC.
Keratin - Protein that composes hair, horn, claws,
and feathers. NDF (neutral detergent fibre) - Fibre in the plant
cell wall, which is undigested by swine. Developed
Kjeldahl -0 A method of determining the quantity
to evaluate forages for ruminants.
of crude protein based on the nitrogen content.
Necropsy - Autopsy: postmortem examination.
Lactose - A simple sugar found in milk.
Necrosis - Tissue death.
Lesion - Change in the structure, color or size of a
part of the body. Neurotransmitter -A substance involved in the
transmission of signals by the nervous system.
Lignin - A complex carbohydrate that is almost
completely indigestible. Niacin - A vitamin.

Linoleic acid - An essential fatty acid. Nicotinamide - Niacin.

Lipase - An enzyme that breaks down fat. NFE (nitrogen-free extract) - An approximation
Lipid - Fat. of the carbohydrate content in feeds.

Lucerne - Alfalfa. NPN - Non-protein nitrogen.

Macro (or major) minerals - Minerals present or NRC - National Research Council. A division of
required in large amounts e.g., calcium, phospho- the National Academy of Sciences promoting
rus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and chloride. utilization of scientific and technical information.

Mas ti tis - An inflammation of the udder. Ochratoxin - A mycotoxin, produced by the mold
aspergillus, which attacks the kidneys, reduces pig
performance and may lead to birth defects.

269
Odd chain fatty acids - Those fatty acids with Tetany - A condition where muscles become rigid
uneven chain lengths e.g. containing 7, 9 or I l and have spasms.
carbon atoms.
Thiamine - Vitamin 81•
Osteogenesis - Formation of bone.
Tocopherols - One of the compounds that make up
Osteomalacia - Softening of the bones. Vitamin E.
Osteoporosis - Reduction in bone mass. Tocotrienols - One of the compounds that make up
Vitamin E.
Pantothenic acid - Vitamin B5•
Total sulfur amino acids (TSAA) - Methionine
Parakeratosis - Skin disease.
plus cystine.
Parasite - An organism that lives at the expense of
Tricothecene - A group of mycotoxins, including
living animals.
vomitoxin (deoxynivalenol), HT-2 toxin, T2 toxin
Pepsin - A stomach enzyme which breaks up and diacetoxyscirpenol, produced by thefusarium
proteins. molds. They are very toxic compounds, causing
vomiting, depressed growth and suppression of the
Pepsinogen - Precursor to pepsin;. Secreted by the
immune system. The pig is especially sensitive.
stomach.
Ulcer - Erosion or disintegration of tissues; often
pH - Measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a fluid.
refers to stomach.
pH= 7 is neutral.
USDA - United States Department of Agriculture.
Phytin - A naturally occurring compound in many
cereal grains containing phosphorus oflow avail- USP - United States Phannacopeia.
ability to the pig.
VFA - Volatile fatty acids.
Pneumonia - Inflammation of the lung.
Villi - Finger-like projections on the surface of the
ppm - Parts per million. gut.

Premix - Mixture of vitamins, trace minerals, and Vitamin A - Retinol.

sometimes macrominerals.
Vitamin B1 - Thiamine.
Prolapse - Displacement of tissue from its normal
Vitamin B2 - Riboflavin.
position, most often the rectum or the uterus.
Vitamin B5 - Pantothenic acid.
Proteolytic - Protein degrading.
Vitamin B6 - Pyridoxine.
Pyrodoxine - Vitamin B6.
Vitamin B12 - Cyanocobalamine.
Renal - Pertaining to the kidney.
Vitamin C - Ascorbic acid.
Retinol - Vitamin A.
Vitamin D2 - Ergo-calciferol.
Riboflavin - Vitamin B2•
Vitamin 03 - Cholecalciferol.
Ridgling - Any male whose testicles fail to
descend; cryptorchid. Vitamin E - Tocopherol plus tocotrienol.
Screenings - Residual from the cleaning of grains. Vitamin K - Menadione.

Serotonin -A hormone and neurotransmitter. Volatile fatty acids - The short chain fatty acids
such as those produced in the rumen of cattle and
Starch - A white, tasteless, odorless complex the cecume and colon of swine.
carbohydrate found in large quantities in potatoes,
Zearalerone - Also called F2 toxin, is a mycotoxin
rice and wheat.
produced by thefusarium molds.

270
Index
A
absorption 5, 7, 9, 12, 27 carcass grading 70, 189, 193, 204
ADF 19 carmelization 29
Aflatoxin 238 carotene 42, 43, 68
aflatoxin 236, 238, 239 carotenoid 42
albwnen 25, I 00 cecum 12, 27
alfalfa 18, 28. 42. 45 63, 232, 233, cellulose 19
allergic reaction 5 chemical analysis 1, 33, 68, 113, 245
ammonia 13, 27, 252 chewing 7
amylase 7, IO chloride 15, 34, 35, 248, 249
anemia 8 choline 41, 46, 150, 163, 199, 232
animal by-products 235 chymotrypsin I 0, 86, 91
antioxidant 236 cobalt 15, 34, 36, 37, 45
amino acid 22, 28, 147, 159 colon 12
synthetic 115 colostrwn 82, 111, 167, 168, 169, 172
appetite 9, 22, 34, 40, 46, 47, 48 comfort zone 143
arginine 15. 24, 26, 31, 148, 149, 160, 161, 176 computer formulation 123, 124
available phosphorus 33, 34. 200 computers 3
conception 133, 154, 155, 162, 170
B condition scoring 143, 144, 146
bacteria 6, 12, 27, 45, 67, 113. 167, 184. 231. 235 copper 15. 32, 36, 113, 150, 163 184, 200. 228, 232
com 15, 18, 32, 52, 76. 202. 239
barley 18, 65, 126, 130. 132, 183. 197. 218,
232, 235, 253 com gluten feed 78
high moisture 67 com gluten meal 45, 78
hulless 69 com oil I 08, 170
creep feed 90, 169, 170, 171, 172, 179, 180, 183
barn 18, 119, 129, 141, 157, 200, 213
criticaltemperature 143, 147, 163, 184
beet pulp 71, 152, 251, 255
bile 9, 10 crumbles 171. 180, 221
bile salts 10 cyanogenetic glycosides 82
cystine 22, 29, 31, 36, 80, 85, I 00, 164, 198
biotin 15, 45, 46
bleeding ulcer 8, 38 D
blood meal 181, 182
bomb calorimeter 17 deflourinated phosphate 112
bone meal 33, 54, 55, 59. 60, 235 dermatitis 46
buckwheat 71, 72, 85 diarrhea 34, 39, 41, 47
bushel weight 2 l. 66, 77. 79. l 02. J 23, 225 dicalcium phosphate 112, 232
dicoumarol 4 7
c dietary requirement 46
calciferol 43, 44 digestible nutrients 12
calcium 15, 32, 55, 59, 61, 64. 112. 124, 134, 163, digestive enzymes 7, 8, 9, I 0, 12
231,234,248,253 digestive tract 5, 6, 113. I 14
DL-methionine 115, 182
calorie 19. l 07
canola meal 24, 28, 33, 45, 52, 73, 83, 126, 130, 197 dressing percentage 58, 70, 189
dried bakery product 80
canola oil 170
canola screenings 85 duodenum 12
eanola seed 74, 75, 110, 11 l durum 100
carbohydrate 5, I 0. 12, 16, 19, 20, 32, 39. 45, 47

271
s u
saliva 7 ulcers 8, 9, 138, 221
salivary enzymes 7
salt 34, 35, 36, 38, 41, 46, 59, 80
v
sample diet 153, 182, 20 I, 202 valine 15, 24, 28, 31, 148, 149, 160, 161, 176
saponins 63. 64, 94 villi 9, 10. 11, 12
scours 39, 40, 170 vitamins 15. 40, 150. 161, 228
selenium 31, 39, 40, 44, 64, 82, I 09, 168 vitamin A 15, 40, 42, 60, 150, 151, 162, 199, 249
self-feed 142, 143, 177 vitamins B 15, 36, 45. 47. 48, 150, 162. 163, 199
small intestine 8, 11 vitamin C 199
soapstocks I 08 vitamin D 15, 34, 42, 43, 44, 47, 199
sodium 34, 35, 36, 40, 47. 248, 249, 251, 252 vitamin E 15, 39, 40. 44, 45. 199. 213
sorghum 47. 72, 232, 233, 234 vitamin K 42. 47, 199
soybean meal 19, 20, 24, 26, 45, 51, 73. 83, 96, 178 fat soluble vitamins 41
soybeans 27, 45, 93, 109. stability 41
starch 5. 7. IO. 19, 65. 76. 80, 82, 90, 222 supplement 41
stomach 5, I 0, 12, 22, 27, 35, 45, I 03, 116 water soluble vitamins 41
stress 8, 12. 244, 250, 251. 252 volatile fatty acid 12
sucrose 10 vomitoxin 77, 104, 236, 238, 239, 240
sulphur 22, 36, 54, 69, 74, 83, 85, 86 vulva biting 139
sunflower meal 97. 98. 238
sunflower seed 97, 98. 99, 233 w
water 168, l 71, I 77, 241
T
delivery 244. 250
tallow 59, 107, 108, 180 quality 245
tannins 63, 72, 81, 86, I 00, 231, 233. 234 wheat 84, IOI. 201
taste 7 bran 65. 71, 98. 104. 152
thiamine 42, 48 middlings 104
threonine 29. 30, 31, 85, 100, 105, 106, 115. red dog 104
153. 160, 161 182. 198 screenings 84
thyroxine 38 shorts 104. 105
total sulpher amino acids whey 170. 171. 261
toxin 231, 236. 237. 238, 240
tricothccenes 231. 238 z
triglyceride 154. 166 zearalenone 231, 236. 237. 238. 240
triticale I 00. IO I zein 26. 76
trypsin 100
tryptophan 23. 25. 29. 30, 47, 55, 115, 153. 182

274
Authors
John F. Patience, Ph.D.
Dr. Patience received his B.Sc.(Agr.), majoring in Animal Science and
M.Sc. in Animal Science from the University of Guelph. Following
employment in extension and in the feed industry, Dr. Patience re-
turned to school, earning a Ph.D. in Nutritional Biochemistry from
Cornell University in 1985. He was employed as a Visiting Fellow at
the Animal Research Centre in Ottawa and, in 1987,joined the Univer-
sity of Saskatchewan as a Research Scientist and Director of the Prairie
Swine Centre. When Prairie Swine Centre was incorporated in 1991,
Dr. Patience was appointed its first President and Chief Executive
Officer. His research interests include nutrition of the growing-
finishing pig, dietary influences on acid-base balance and water quality
and requirements.

I I

Phil A. Thacker, Ph.D.

Dr. Thacker is currently a Professor in the Department of Animal and
Poultry Science at the University of Saskatchewan where he teaches
both graduate and undergraduate courses and conducts research in
swine reproduction, enzyme utilization in swine diets and alternative
feed ingredients. Dr. Thacker received his B.S.A. and M.Sc. from the
University of British Columbia and a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from
the University of Alberta. Prior to joining the University of Saskatch-
ewan faculty, he was employed as an extension swine specialist with
Alberta Agriculture.

C.F.M. (Kees) de Lange, Ph.D.

Dr. de Lange received his early education in the Netherlands where he
was born. He earned his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in Animal Nutrition from
Wageningen Agricultural University. ln 1985, be enrolled at the
University of Alberta where he earned a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition.
Following graduation, he was Research and Technical Service Man-
ager for swine nutrition at Ralston Purina Canada. During this period,
Dr. de Lange developed his keen interest in the development and
application of growth models in swine production. In 1992, he joined
the staff of the Prairie Swine Centre Inc. in Saskatoon. In 1994, he
was appointed Assistant Professor of Swine Nutrition at the University
of Guelph, where he continues his interest in growth models and
conducts research in amino acid metabolism.