THE INFORMATION YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT

SEISMIC

Header : In many disciplines of computer science, a header is a unit of information that precedes a data object. In
a network transmission, a header is part of the data packet and contains transparentinformation about the file or the
transmission. In file management, a header is a region at the beginning of each file where bookkeeping information is
kept. The file header may contain the date the file was created, the date it was last updated, and the file's size. The
header can be accessed only by the operating system or by specialized programs.

The location, acquisition and processing parameters, and other pertinent information attached to a well
log, seismic record and traces.
In a gathering system, a pipe arrangement that connects flowlines from several wellheads into a single gathering line.
A header has production and testing valves to control the flow of each well, thus directing the produced fluids to
production or testing vessels. Individual gas/oil ratios and well production rates of oil, gas and water can be assigned
by opening and closing selected valves in a header and using individual metering equipment or separators

Sor

Abbreviation for residual oil saturation..

residual oil saturation

Fraction of pore volume occupied by oil at the end of oil displacement

that used a specific fluid. This reservoir engineering quantity signifies the ultimate recovery under a given
displacement process and represents the endpoint of the relative permeability curves in reservoir simulation. The
residual oil saturation quantity is the saturation achieved after an infinite number of pore volumes of the displacing
fluid have flowed through a particular portion of reservoir rock. To define residual oil saturation, the displacement
method and the type, volume, direction and velocity of the displacing fluid must be known. Residual oil saturation is
the ratio of the immobile residual oil volume divided by the effective porosity.
Alternate Form: Sor, SOR

Sw

Abbreviation for water saturation.

2D survey Seismic data or a group of seismic lines acquired individually such that there typically are
significant gaps (commonly 1 km or more) between adjacent lines. A 2D survey typically contains numerous lines
acquired orthogonally to the strike of geological structures (such as faults and folds) with a minimum of lines acquired
parallel to geological structures to allow line-to-line tying of the seismic data and interpretation and mapping of
structures.

3D survey

The acquisition of seismic data as closely spaced receiver and shot lines such that there
typically are no significant gaps in the subsurface coverage. A 2D survey commonly contains numerous widely
spaced lines acquired orthogonally to the strike ofgeological structures and a minimum of lines acquired parallel to
geological structures to allow line-to-line correlation of the seismic data and interpretation and mapping of structures.

[Formation Evaluation] The value a in the relation of formation factor (F) to porosity (phi): F = a / phim. The
value a is derived empirically from best fits of measured values of F and phi on a group of rock samples. It has no
clear physical significance, although it has been related to grain shape and tortuosity. In the saturation equation, it
always occurs associated with the water resistivity as (a * Rw). It is sometimes claimed that a must be 1 since at phi =
1, F must be 1. However, a material with phi = 1 is not a rock: a is essentially an empirical factor for rocks and as
such can take any value. A wide range of values has been found, from 0.5 to 5.

1D seismic data
A check-shot survey of a well, which can be used to correct the sonic log and generate a synthetic seismogram that
displays changes in amplitude versus traveltime.
A single seismic trace.

2-way traveltime
The elapsed time for a seismic wave to travel from its source to a given reflector and return to a receiver at the
Earth's surface. Minimum two-way traveltime is that of a normal-incidence wave with zero offset.

4C seismic data
Four-component (4C) borehole or marine seismic data are typically acquired using three orthogonally-oriented
geophones and a hydrophonewithin an ocean-bottom sensor (deployed in node-type systems as well as cables).
Provided the system is in contact with the seabed or the borehole wall, the addition of geophones allows
measurement of shear (S) waves, whereas the hydrophone measures compressional (P) waves
.

M [Formation Evaluation]

The exponent of porosity, m, in the relation of formation factor, F, to porosity, phi. In the Archie equation, F = 1 / phim,
H. Guyod termed m the cementation exponent because m was observed to be higher in cemented rock. The more
general term is porosity exponent.

3C seismic data
A type of multicomponent seismic data acquired in a land, marine, or borehole environment by using three
orthogonally oriented geophones or accelerometers. 3C is particularly appropriate when the addition of a hydrophone
(the basis for 4C seismic data) adds no value to the measurement, as for example, on land. This technique allows
determination of both the type of wave and its direction of propagation.

4D seismic data
Three-dimensional (3D) seismic data acquired at different times over the same area to assess changes in a
producing hydrocarbon reservoir with time. Changes may be observed in fluid location and saturation, pressureand
temperature. 4D seismic data is one of several forms of time-lapseseismic data. Such data can be acquired on the
surface or in a borehole.

nFormation Evaluation
The exponent, n, in the relation of water saturation, Sw, to resistivity index, I (I = Sw-n) for a sample of rock. It
expresses the effect on the resistivity of desaturating the sample, or replacing water with a non-conductive fluid. In
petrophysically simple, water-wet rocks (Archie rocks), n is constant for different values of Sw, and a single
average n can be found for a particular reservoir or formation. A typical value is 2. In more complex rocks, n changes
with Sw, although often being about 2 near Sw = 1. In rocks with conductive minerals, such
as shaly sands, n becomes increasingly lower as Sw is reduced. This change is negligible for high-salinity waters, but
increases as the salinity is reduced. In shaly-sand saturation equations, such as Waxman-Smits, dual water, SGS
and CRMM, n is the intrinsic n, determined with high-salinity water or with the clay effects removed. The variation of I
with Sw is then predicted, with varying success, by the different equations. In carbonates with multiple pore types,
such as fractures, vugs, interparticle porosity and microporosity, n may change as each pore type is desaturated. A
different n may be used for a different range of Sw. In all cases, n increases if any pores are oil-wet. Values up to 8
have been reported in very oil-wet rocks.

2D seismic data
A vertical section of seismic data consisting of numerous adjacent traces acquired sequentially.

A group of 2D seismic lines acquired individually, as opposed to the multiple closely spaced lines acquired together
that constitute 3D seismic data.

3D seismic data
A set of numerous closely-spaced seismic lines that provide a high spatially sampled measure of
subsurface reflectivity. Typical receiver line spacing can range from 300 m [1000 ft] to over 600 m [2000 ft], and
typical distances between shotpoints and receiver groups is 25 m [82 ft] (offshore and internationally) and 110 ft or
220 ft [34 to 67 m] (onshore USA, using values that are even factors of the 5280 feet in a mile). Bin sizes are
commonly 25 m, 110 ft or 220 ft. The resultant data set can be "cut" in any direction but still display a well
sampled seismic section. The original seismic lines are called in-lines. Lines displayed perpendicular to in-lines are
called crosslines. In a properly migrated 3D seismic data set, events are placed in their proper vertical and horizontal
positions, providing more accurate subsurface maps than can be constructed on the basis of more widely spaced 2D
seismic lines, between which significant interpolation might be necessary. In particular, 3D seismic data provide
detailed information about fault distribution and subsurface structures. Computer-based interpretation and display of
3D seismic data allow for more thorough analysis than 2D seismic data.

6FF40
Formation Evaluation
Referring to an induction log made with a particular array of transmitter and receiver coils. The array was introduced
in 1960 and became the industry standard for 30 years. The 6FF40 array has six coils with the main transmitterreceiver pair spaced 40 in. [102 cm] apart. The design of the array includes the spacing between the coils, the
number of turns and the polarity of each coil. The three transmitter and the three receiver coils are each connected in
series to produce one signal output. FF means focused both radially and vertically. Unlike in an array tool, the
focusing is fixed by the hardware design. The 6FF40 was designed to read deep into the formation while minimizing
the signal close to the tool and maintaining reasonable vertical resolution. The 6FF40 was combined with a
shallow electrode device to form the induction electrical survey. The use of both tools gave a qualitative indication of
invasion. Both the deep induction and the 6FF40 had deconvolution and a skin effectcorrection applied. The
deconvolution was designed to reduce the effect of shoulder beds on the readings in high-resistivitybeds. It was not
effective in high-contrast formations. The skin effect correction was a simple exponential fit that would work on
an analog computer.

API Recommended Practice 10B Recommended Practice for

Testing Well Cements
[Drilling Fluids]
The industry-standard document that provides guidelines for testing methods for cements and cement formulations
for use in well cementing. These recommended procedures are commonly modified to address the specific conditions
of a particular well.

API Specification 10A Specification for Cements and

Materials for Well Cementing
[Drilling Fluids]

The industry standard document that specifies requirements for API well cements and specification-testing methods

API
Abbreviation for American Petroleum Institute, a trade association founded in 1919 with offices in Washington, DC,
USA. The API is sponsored by the oil and gas industry and is recognized worldwide. Among its long-term endeavors
is the development of standardized testing procedures for drilling equipment, drilling fluids and cements, called API
Recommended Practices ("RPs"). The API licenses the use of its monogram (logo), monitors supplier quality
assurance methods and sets minimum standards for materials used in drilling and completion operations, called API
Specifications ("Specs"). The API works in conjunction with the International Organization of Standards (ISO).

abandonment costs
[Oil and Gas Business]
The costs associated with abandoning a well or production facility. Such costs are specified in the authority for
expenditure (AFE), and typically cover the plugging of wells; removal of well equipment, production tanks and
associated installations; and surface remediation.

abnormal events
. [Geophysics]
A term to indicate features in seismic data other than reflections, including events such as diffractions, multiples,
refractions and surface waves. Although the term suggests that such events are not common, they often occur in
seismic data.

abnormal pressure
n. [Geology]
A subsurface condition in which the pore pressure of a geologic formation exceeds or is less than the expected, or
normal, formation pressure. Whenimpermeable rocks such as shales are compacted rapidly, their pore fluids cannot
always escape and must then support the total overlying rock column, leading to abnormally high formation
pressures. Excess pressure, called overpressure or geopressure, can cause a well to blowout or become
uncontrollable during drilling. Severe underpressure can cause the drillpipeto stick to the underpressured formation.

[Drilling]
Reservoir pore fluid pressure that is not similar to normal saltwater gradient pressure. The term is usually associated
with higher than normal pressure, increased complexity for the well designer and an increased risk of well control
problems. Pressure gradients in excess of around 10 pounds per gallon equivalent fluid density (0.52 psi/foot of
depth) are considered abnormal. Gradients below normal are commonly called subnormal.

abrasion test
Drilling Fluids]
A laboratory test to evaluate drilling-grade weighting material for potential abrasiveness. The test measures weight
loss of a specially shaped, stainless-steel mixer blade after 20 minutes at 11,000 rpm running in a laboratoryprepared mud sample. Abrasiveness is quantified by the rate of weight loss, reported in units of
mg/min. Mineral hardness, particle size and shape are the main parameters that affect abrasiveness of weighting
materials. Some crystalline forms of hematite grind to a higher percentage of large particles than do other forms and
are therefore more abrasive. Hematites are harder than barites, grind courser and are more abrasive. Thus, a
hematite that is proposed as a weighting material for mud is typically a candidate for abrasion testing.

abrasive jetting
[Well Workover and Intervention]
A wellbore treatment in which a fluid laden with solid particles is used to remove deposits from the surface of
wellbore tubularsand completion components. The treatment fluid is pumped at high pressure through a downhole
tool equipped with nozzles that direct a jet, or jets, of fluid onto the target area. Most tool designs use a controlled
rotary motion to ensure complete circumferential treatment of internal surfaces. Abrasive jetting techniques can also
be used to cut completion or wellbore components. For this application, highly abrasive particles, such as sand, are
carried in a fluid and jetted at the target area over an extended period to erode the tubular.

absolute age
Geology]

The measurement of age in years. The determination of the absolute age of rocks, minerals and fossils, in years
before the present, is the basis for the field of geochronology. The measurement of the decay of radioactive isotopes,
especially uranium, strontium, rubidium, argon and carbon, has allowed geologists to more precisely determine the
age of rock formations. Tree rings and seasonal sedimentary deposits called varves can be counted to determine
absolute age. Although the term implies otherwise, "absolute" ages typically have some amount of potential error and
are inexact. Relative age, in contrast, is the determination of whether a given material is younger or older than other
surrounding material on the basis of stratigraphic and structural relationships, such as superposition, or by
interpretation of fossil content.

absolute filter

Well Workover and Intervention]

A type of high-specification fluid filter frequently used to remove small solid particles from workover or treatment fluids
that may be injected into, or placed adjacent to, the reservoir formation. In using absolute filters, all particles larger
than the micron rating of the filter element in use will be removed from the treated fluid.

absolute open flow potential

[Production Testing]
The maximum flow rate a well could theoretically deliver with zero pressure at the middle of the perforations. The
term is commonly abbreviated as AOFP or OFP.

absolute permeability
Geology]
The measurement of the permeability, or ability to flow or transmit fluids through a rock, conducted when a single
fluid, or phase, is present in the rock. The symbol most commonly used for permeability is k, which is measured in
units of darcies or millidarcies.

absolute pressure
[Geology]
The measurement of pressure relative to the pressure in a vacuum, equal to the sum of the pressure shown on
a pressure gauge and atmospheric pressure.

absolute volume
Drilling Fluids]
The volume a solid occupies or displaces when added to water divided by its weight, or the volume per unit mass. In
the oil field, absolute volume is typically given in units of gallons per pound (gal/lbm) or cubic meters per kilogram
(m3/kg).

absorbing boundary conditions

[Geophysics]
An algorithm used in numerical simulation along the boundary of a computational domain to absorb all energy
incident upon that boundary and to suppress reflection artifacts.

Absorptance

Geophysics]
The ratio of absorbed incident energy to the total energy to which a body is exposed.

absorption
Geophysics]
The conversion of one form of energy into another as the energy passes through a medium. For
example, seismic waves are partially converted to heat as they pass through rock.
[Production Facilities]
The property of some liquids or solids to soak up water or other fluids. The natural gas dehydration process uses
glycols (liquids) that absorb the water vapor to finally obtain dehydrated gas. In the same way, light oil, also
called absorption oil, is used to remove the heavier liquid hydrocarbons from a wet gas stream to obtain dry gas.

absorption band
[Geophysics]
The range of wavelengths of energy that can be absorbed by a given substance.

absorption oil
[Production Facilities]
A light liquid hydrocarbon used to absorb or remove the heavier liquid hydrocarbons from a wet gas stream.
Absorption oil is also called wash oil.