Conceptual foundations of marketing and marketing

theory

Robert E. Morgan
Cardiff Business School, University of Wales, Cardiff, UK

Provides a review of the

nature of marketing. In order
to explicate this work,
presents marketing as a
concept, management philosophy and organizational
function. Acknowledges the
contribution of key authors in
the field, such as Alderson,
Bagozzi, Houston, Hunt and
Sheth, and pays attention to
the nature of developments in
marketing. Provides illustration to the evolution of
marketing as a discipline with
specific regard to the
theoretical foundations of the
subject matter. Draws various
conclusions and makes
certain implications as to the
future of marketing.

Introduction
One of the classic management myths of
recent history is that marketing involves
nothing more than advertising. Furthermore,
the marketing director of a medium-sized
engineering firm recently told me of his profession, ...were only peddlars and theres
not more much to it than that! Incidentally,
since that illuminating discussion, his firm
has been turned over to receivership.
However, in attempting to clarify what is
meant by the term marketing, many questions have been raised, some of which have
been addressed by members of the profession
and others that have remained unanswered
because of their potential complexity. This
article will attempt to illustrate a contemporary understanding of the term and a particularly useful framework with which to format
the discussion will be to comment, in turn, on
the concept, philosophy and function of marketing. For this purpose, the concept will be
expressed as the means of operating within
an organizational philosophy, the philosophy
will be regarded as the medium which governs organizational life and the function will
be referred to as the implementation reality
and the form in which the concept is conspicuous in organizational behaviour[1,2]. The
article will then address issues that underly
the development of the marketing discipline
and provide the foundation to marketing
theory. Finally, a number of conclusions are
made which indicate areas of future development for the discipline.

The marketing concept

Management Decision
34/10 [1996] 1926
MCB University Press
[ISSN 0025-1747]

The health of the marketing discipline is

manifest in its constant desire and willingness to review and question the domain of
marketing[3-6] and this form of evolution has
been sustained for several decades. For
example, during the 1960s, the marketing
concept was proclaimed as the saviour of
companies[7], the 1970s saw it being challenged because it was unresponsive to greater
societal issues[8-10], while during the 1980s it
caused discontent by over-segmenting markets[11] and overstating the value of

consumers expressed needs[12,13].

Responses to such indictments of the marketing concept have been many and varied. To
date, the marketing concept has been broadened[14,15], deepened[16], extended[17],
redefined[18] and repositioned[2]. By implication, the marketing concept has attracted an
abundance of definitions.
While there is some evidence of intellectual
progress towards achieving an accepted definition of marketing[19-23], further developments are constrained owing to the difficulty
of determining the precise inclusiveness of
the term. That is, as the nature and scope of
marketing has expanded, little attention has
been given to explaining the boundaries
within which the concept is applicable. For
instance, some of the definitions which prevail are narrow in their form[24], while others have so much latitude in their nomenclature that they are notably generic and offer
no real foundation for conceptualizing marketing. Even though it is difficult to reconcile
these and other distinct viewpoints, Raymond and Barksdale[1]
provide a definition of the marketing concept
which is applied in nature. They have
purported that,
the marketing concept [provides] a single
prescription for running a business successfully. The consumer must be recognised and
accepted as the focal point for all business
activities, and knowledge of customer needs
and wants should be the starting point for
all major business decisions[1, p. 42].

This applied management emphasis is echoed

in McGee and Spiros[25] work which has
stated that the marketing concept was
intended to help marketers manage and coordinate their thinking about specific marketing questions. In formulating their definition
they considered that the marketing concept
involved the,
specific techniques by which one seeks to
identify and satisfy consumer needs. The
concept involves what is commonly referred
to as the marketing mix, the marketing tools
a manager combines in a specific way to
deal with a specific marketing situation[25,
p. 41].

This compares favourably with the American

Marketing Associations (AMA) view. The

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Robert E. Morgan
Conceptual foundations of
marketing and marketing
theory
Management Decision
34/10 [1996] 1926

AMA updated their definition of the marketing concept after an exhaustive debate. The
definition now reads:
Marketing is the process of planning and
exacting the conception, pricing, promotion
and distribution of ideas, goods and services
to create exchange and satisfy organizational objectives[26, p. 1].

These definitions are useful to the manager

because they enable him/her to articulate the
essence of marketing in the organizational
setting. This is contrasted with the somewhat
esoteric definitions found in the teaching
literature in marketing. For instance,
Houston [13, p. 85] considered that:
The marketing concept is a managerial
prescription relating to the attainment of an
entitys goalsThe marketing concept
states that an entity achieves its own
exchange determined goals most efficiently
through a thorough understanding of
potential exchange partners and their needs
and wants, through a thorough understanding of the costs associated with satisfying
those needs and wants, and then designing,
producing, and offering products in light of
this understanding.

A similar viewpoint has been expressed by

Kotler[27, p. 10] who has described the marketing concept as,
a social and managerial process by which
individuals and groups obtain what they
need and want through creating, offering,
and exchanging products of value with
others.

Even though many of these readings provide

conceptually pure, well-grounded definitions
of the marketing concept, they have been
heavily criticized for their abstraction and
limited practical value[21]. Indeed, this has
been suggested as the basis for many misinterpretations of marketing in organizations[28] and has initiated some of the criticism surrounding the marketing concept.
The number of definitions of the marketing
concept are probably equalled, if not
surpassed, by the number of criticisms it
attracts. Nevertheless, for the most part,
these criticisms can be distilled down to four
main critical themes. First, historical
evidence suggests that marketing has been
portrayed as the most crucial management
perspective within the firm[13,29]. Second,
many examples of poor implementation
abound[30-33] indicating a divorce between
the rhetoric of the marketing concept and the
reality of marketing practice. Third, the marketing concept does not sufficiently recognize
the responsibility of the organization to
society[27], the consumer[2,25] or the human
resources within the firm[34]. Finally, an
exaggerated emphasis on the marketing

[ 20 ]

concept within organizations has been

blamed for a decline in productivity, competitiveness and the ability to successfully innovate[12,35,37].
In summary, despite the multiplicity of
definitions for the marketing concept, it is
clearly something which concerns the
relationship between producers and consumers[17,38]. Furthermore, the notion of an
exchange relationship is central to understanding the foundation of the marketing
concept[39-41]. Consequently, a clear axiom of
marketing centres on exchanges of value
between producers and consumers for the
purpose of satisfying human needs and
wants[27].

The marketing philosophy

It has been argued by many management
writers that the implementation of the
marketing concept in organizations requires
the maintenance of a particular managerial
philosophy or orientation[42-46]. Nevertheless, most organizations exhibit a host of
conflicting philosophies which provide
problems for the implementation of such a
concept[47].
In contemporary readings, the marketing
philosophy is usually presented as one of a
number of managerial philosophies which
constantly compete for visibility within the
organization. Table I exhibits a number of
these more prominent managerial philosophies and illustrates some attitudes that are
typically associated with each.
The cost philosophy is generally considered
short-termist and is a disinvestment
approach commonly used as a strategy of
retrenchment[48]. The product philosophy is
reflected in organizations which have aggressive research and development
programmes[2]. The production philosophy is
concerned with capacity creation and volume
production[28]. While this approach does
require the identification and development of
markets, manufacturing and production
issues assume much greater significance in
decision making[38]. The sales philosophy
engages an organization to seek out
customers aggressively and persuade them to
consume existing offerings[13]. The erratic
philosophy is the term used to characterize
an organization that is unable to plan its
activities owing to the turbulence and complexity of environmental circumstances[49].
The marketing philosophy focuses directly on
three key issues of customer orientation,
integrated organizational effort and profit
direction[25]. First, customer orientation is
derived through generating knowledge of the

Robert E. Morgan
Conceptual foundations of
marketing and marketing
theory
Management Decision
34/10 [1996] 1926

Table I
Prominent managerial philosophies
Type of
philosophy

Typical associated attitude

Cost philosophy

The only way to improve our profits is to reduce our marketing and
production costs

Product philosophy

The quality of our product sells itself and customers will always need our
products

Production philosophy

The more we make the more profitable it becomes. So lets get out there and
make the customers buy

Sales philosophy

We place a major emphasis on selling and promotion efforts to ensure sales

Erratic philosophy

You just cannot plan ahead in this industry, nobody knows whats going to
happen from one day to the next

Marketing philosophy

We place a major emphasis on the analysis of target market needs and wants
and deliver the desired satisfactions more efficiently and effectively than
competitors

Societal marketing philosophy

We place a major emphasis on the analysis of target market needs and wants
and deliver the desired satisfactions more efficiently and effectively than
competitors in such a way that it preserves or enhances the consumers or
societys wellbeing

Source: Compiled from[27,49,50]

customer through an understanding of

market needs and wants, and taking necessary actions to respond to the demands of
target customers. Second, integrated effort
refers to total organizational unity in
attempting to achieve marketing purposes
successfully. Finally, profit direction is
intended to focus the attention of the organization on achieving profit rather than simply
sales volume. The societal marketing philosophy is an augmented form of the marketing
philosophy and has its origins in questioning
the legitimacy and acceptability of the marketing philosophy[51]. The societal marketing
philosophy calls for a balance between three
considerations of company profits, consumer
want satisfaction and public interest[27].
Provided these three policy areas find an
equilibrium, the organization is said to have
adopted and implemented the societal
marketing concept.
Even though the normative prescriptions of
the marketing philosophy have been subject
to some criticism[52-54], most of the controversy surrounding marketing can be targeted
at the actual practice or rather malpractice[38, p. 11] of marketing. To this end, this
discussion will proceed with an examination
of the function of marketing.

The marketing function

In addition to being a concept and a philosophy, marketing is an organizational function[30,55]. The extent of implementation of
the marketing concept depends on a host of

variables such as the organizational structure and the demands of internal operations.
However, a number of writers have
documented research studies in this area and
attempted to operationalize and measure the
degree of implementation of the marketing
concept[56, p. 92] construct. Some of these
studies were carried out a considerable time
ago[57-61], while others are of more recent
origin[31,62-66]. These studies were
conducted across many different industries
and surveyed firms of different sizes with the
general finding that the marketing concept
had been adopted, to a certain extent, and
marketing responsibilities expanded to
accord marketing with the position of recognized functional status within the organization. Nevertheless, caution should be exercised in accepting these findings in that the
degree of implementation of the marketing
concept[56, p. 92] construct is multidimensional which provides complex measurement
problems[67]. Furthermore, many of the
empirical conclusions in this area are
contingent in nature and, therefore, limited
to specific industries or organizational circumstances.
To summarize, there are formidable arguments to suggest that organizations should
recognize the potential of marketing and
thereby seek ways to implement the marketing concept in their own settings. To do so
should provide benefits to the organization
itself in the achievement of its goals and customers in the form of greater levels of satisfaction. For a detailed discussion of current
thinking on the topic of market orientation, a

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Robert E. Morgan
Conceptual foundations of
marketing and marketing
theory

pragmatic review has been provided by

Harris[68] in a recent issue of this journal.

Management Decision
34/10 [1996] 1926

Development of the marketing

discipline
It has been argued that the genesis of the
marketing discipline can be sourced to the
beginning of the twentieth century[69]. Until
that time, economic theory had provided
explanations of decision-making activity and
guidelines for business and government
actions. However, as a result of changing
economic circumstances the direct demandsupply relationship was complicated by
increasingly sophisticated channels of distribution and wholesalers who were exerting
greater influence in their transactions[70]. It
has been further contended that the role of
marketing within the firm formally
developed during the early 1950s[1,71] as a
result of the post-war conditions of
scarcity[25]. In short, firms began to realize
that it was in their interests to focus their
efforts on the satisfaction of the needs, wants
and desires of particular customer segments.
In the mid-1950s, marketing had become the
keystone philosophy of business[1,72] which
was reflected in contemporary management
opinion at that time and emphasized by
Drucker[73, p. 37] who claimed that:
There is only one valid definition of
business purpose: to create a satisfied
customer. It is the customer who determines
what the business is.

Although the 1950s witnessed the development of marketing, it was the mid-1960s that
saw the pinnacle of its acceptance[25,74].
However, marketing began to lose its
organizational recognition during the 1970s
for a number of reasons, one of which
Clayclamp[72] considered to be managements disillusionment with the contribution
of marketing to profit making. In addition,
Wind and Robertson[75] believed another
indicator to point to the demise of marketing
was that production and sales orientations
typically dominated organizational decision
making. Nonetheless, it remained that new
explanations of marketplace activities were
needed and this formed the basis for the evolution of the marketing discipline.
Early writings on marketing were mainly
descriptive and it was not until the 1940s that
the discipline received recognized theoretical
attention by researchers. The most significant contributions in this area at that time
were provided by Alderson and Cox[76] and
Bartels[77], who debated the position of marketing as a scientific discipline. The development of marketing thought was not at all

[ 22 ]

rapid and, in 1964, Halbert[78] provided a

damning indictment of the status of marketing. He concluded that marketing had no
defensible theory on the basis of logical consistency, experimental rigour or adequate
philosophical grounding. Indeed, theoretical
developments were so limited that somewhat
later, Bartels[77, p. 73] suggested that there
was an identity crisis in marketing. Thereafter, a trend towards the examination of
marketing theory emerged which provided a
resurgence of interest in developing the foundations of the academic discipline[79].
The last two decades have witnessed
numerous contributions to the field which
now form the basis of contemporary marketing theory. Writers have approached this field
of examination from several perspectives. For
example, some see marketing theory in terms
of its scientific content[80-83], managerial
perspective[73, 84-86] and meta-theoretical
foundations[87-90]. Despite this significant
research attention, numerous opportunities
still exist within the marketing discipline for
generating new theories and providing a
substantial contribution to knowledge[91].
This has been further emphasized by Howard
et al.[79] who suggested that, in order to gain
greater recognition, the marketing discipline
must now generate an exemplary body of
theory which:
provides not only a continued interest in
fundamental theory questions, but a raison dtre for the current increase in scholarly attention being given to marketing[79,
p. 15].

Theory in marketing
In order to understand what constitutes
theory and what is currently acceptable as
such, some discussion needs to be given to the
nature of scientific inquiry. Historically, it
was considered that the role of science was to
convert doxa (what is believed to be true)
into episteme (what is known to be true)[83,
p. 86]. However, this suggests that contentions
can somehow be proven. The contemporary
philosophical view tends to suggest that
knowledge is not infallible but, moreover,
tends to be conditional on particular circumstances. Arguably, one of the foremost commentators on the philosophy of science, in
present times, is Dubin. His opinion of what
constitutes a sound theory building approach
is described, in two parts, as
follows[92, pp. 7-8]:
A theoretical model starts with variables or
(1) units whose interactions constitute the
subject matter of attention. The model then
specifies the manner in which these units
interact with each other as (2) the laws of

Robert E. Morgan
Conceptual foundations of
marketing and marketing
theory
Management Decision
34/10 [1996] 1926

interactionSince theoretical models are

generally of limited portions of the world,
the limits as (3) boundaries must be set forth
within which the theory is expected to hold.
Most theoretical models are presumed to
represent a complex portion of the real
world, part of whose complexity is revealed
by the fact that there are various (4) system
states each of which the units interact differently with each otherThe theorist is [then]
in a position to derive conclusions that
represent logical and true deductions about
the model in operation or the (5) propositions of the model.

However, the early stages of theory building

represent conceptual aspects, whereas the
final two reflect the empirical part of the
research activity. It follows, therefore, that:
Should there be any desire to determine
whether the model does, in fact, represent
the real world, then each term in each
proposition whose test is sought needs to be
converted into (6) an empirical indicator
The next operation is to substitute the
appropriate empirical indicators in the
propositional statement to generate a
testable (7) hypothesis. The research operation consists of measuring the values on the
empirical indicators of the hypotheses to
determine whether the theoretically predicted values are achieved or approximated
in the research test[92, p. 8].

Therefore, theory building can be considered

to be a disciplined, systematic and rigorous
approach to formulating and testing models
of knowledge. Furthermore, Dubins[92]
seven-stage sequence, outlined above, is
believed to be a generic framework for theory
building and one which is not solely applicable to social science disciplines.
In considering the specific role of theory
building in marketing, Hunt[93] has extensively reviewed definitions of theory[89,94-96]
and recognized some broad underlying
common themes in various writings. He
subsequently defined the scope of marketing
theory as follows:
A theory is a systematically related set of
statements, including some lawlike generalisations, that are empirically testable. The
purpose of theory is to increase scientific
understanding through a systematised
structure capable of both explaining and
predicting phenomenon[93, p. 228].

Accordingly, marketing theory has three

components: systematically related themes,
lawlike generalizations and empirical testability. The first two of these components are
fundamental criteria for any scientific
explanation. That is, phenomena cannot be
viewed in isolation and must be considered
within the framework of broader and
interconnected variables. The justification

for the final component of empirical testability is explained by Hunt[93, p. 243] in that,
any systematised structure which is not
empirically testable will suffer from
explanatory and predictive impotence.

Therefore, in order to claim some form of

inference from a model, the theory must
possess an empirical grounding. A review of
most well-regarded marketing journals indicates the wealth and proliferation of research
in the area. In fact, the nature of marketing
theories are now so diverse that it could be
suggested that the discipline has become
fragmented. This fragmentation could mean
that marketing is now only a generic label
applied to a multitude of topics ranging from
consumer behaviour to intra-organizational
dimensions of marketing. However, this
author prefers to believe that such a divergence in interests reflects the richness and
colour of marketing, and demonstrates the
breadth of contemporary understanding in
the discipline.

Conclusions
It is reasonable to claim that marketing has
achieved the position of, legitimate
scholarly discipline[91, p. 183] and is
respected by academics and practitioners in
the fields of management, economics, psychology, sociology and other social science
professions. The nature of marketing and
what it is seen to represent has been changed
and adapted to conform with the requirements of the relevant decade. The 1990s will,
no doubt, be regarded as the decade of relationship marketing[97] and, as we welcome
the new millennium, opportunities offered by
advances in information technology will
surely take the application of marketing to
even greater heights. Furthermore, the
generic nature of marketing illustrates that
challenges stand to be met from introducing
the concept to non-traditional contexts such
as professional services, political environments and allied areas of public administration.
The heritage that marketing can claim
suggests that the profession is in a strong
position to consolidate its status as a
valuable organizational resource and a
discipline which can enjoy established
maturity. Furthermore, as emerging themes
continue to be developed in both the practice
and theory of marketing, it remains that such
innovations are likely to maintain the
position of marketing as a key discipline for
the management student and as an item of
crucial importance on the boardroom
agenda.

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Robert E. Morgan
Conceptual foundations of
marketing and marketing
theory
Management Decision
34/10 [1996] 1926

[ 24 ]

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marketing and marketing
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Management Decision
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Application questions
1 Is marketing a profession?

[ 26 ]

2 Taking this paper as an overview and

review of the field, analyse, criticize and
put into the conceptual frameworks presented, your organizations marketing
efforts.