Ho Kong Weng
http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/vide
o/s-pore-vietnam-elevate/810032.html
Watch above video and read the uploaded
news articles in IVLE for Lecture 6.
Question: Are the determinants of business
investment and government investment
different? Why?
Business fixed investment
Residential investment
Inventory investment
Business fixed investment:
businesses spending on equipment and
structures for use in production.
Residential investment:
purchases of new housing units
(either by occupants or landlords).
Inventory investment:
the value of the change in inventories
of finished goods, materials and supplies,
and work in progress.
Billions
of 2005
dollars
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
Total investment
Business fixed investment
Residential investment
Change in inventories
1400
1200
0.5
1000
800
600
400
200
0
-200
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
The standard model of business fixed
investment:
the neoclassical model of investment
Shows how investment depends on:
MPK
interest rate
tax rules affecting firms
For simplicity, assume two types of firms:
1. Production firms rent the capital they use
to produce goods and services.
2. Rental firms own capital, rent it to
production firms.
In this context,
investment is the rental firms
spending on new capital goods.
Production firms must
decide how much
capital to rent.
real rental
price, R/P
Competitive firms rent
capital to the point
where
MPK = R/P.
equilibrium
rental rate
capital
supply
capital
demand
(MPK)
capital
stock
For the Cobb-Douglas
production function,
the MPK (and hence
equilibrium R/P ) is
Y = A K L1
R
PK A (L K
= M=
P
The equilibrium R/P would increase if:
K (e.g., earthquake or war)
L (e.g., pop. growth or immigration)
A (technological improvement, or deregulation)
Rental firms invest in new capital when the
benefit of doing so exceeds the cost.
The benefit (per unit capital):
R/P, the income that rental firms earn
from renting the unit of capital to
production firms.
Components of the cost of capital:
interest cost: i PK,
where PK = nominal price of capital
depreciation cost: PK,
where = rate of depreciation
capital loss: PK
(a capital gain, PK > 0, reduces cost of K )
The total cost of capital is the sum of these
three parts:
Nominal cost
P K
= i P K + P K P=
PK i +
K
of capital
P
Example: car rental company (capital: cars)
Suppose PK = $10,000, i = 0.10, = 0.20,
and PK/PK = 0.06
Then,
interest cost
depreciation cost
capital loss
total cost
= $1000
= $2000
= $600
= $2400
For simplicity, assume PK/PK = .
Then, the nominal cost of capital equals
PK(i + ) = PK(r + )
PK
and the real cost of capital equals
(r + )
P
The real cost of capital depends positively on:
the relative price of capital
the real interest rate
the depreciation rate
A firms net investment depends on its profit rate:
PK
PK
R
Profit rate =
(r + )
(r + ) = M PK
P
P
P
If profit rate > 0,
then increasing K is profitable
If profit rate < 0, then the firm increases profits by
reducing its capital stock
(i.e., not replacing capital as it depreciates)
Rental Price minus User Cost = Profit Rate
Question:
Hence,
net investment =
= K I n M PK (P K P
)(r
+ )
where I n[ ] is a function that shows how
net investment responds to the incentive to invest.
Total spending on business fixed investment equals net
investment plus replacement of depreciated K:
gross investment =K + K
= I n M PK (P K P
)(r
+ ) + K
=
I I n M PK (P K P
An increase in r :
raises the cost of
capital
reduces the
profit rate
and reduces
investment:
)(r
+ ) + K
r2
r1
I2
I1
=
I I n M PK (P K P
An increase in MPK
or decrease in PK/P
increases the profit
rate
increases
investment at any
given interest rate
shifts I curve to the
right.
)(r
+ ) + K
r1
I1
I2
Two of the most important taxes
affecting investment:
1. Corporate income tax
2. Investment tax credit
Impact on investment depends on definition of profit.
In our definition (rental price minus cost of capital),
depreciation cost is measured using current price of
capital, and the CIT would not affect investment
But, the legal definition uses the historical price of
capital.
If PK rises over time, then the legal definition
understates the true cost and overstates profit,
so firms could be taxed even if their true economic
profit is zero.
Thus, corporate income tax discourages investment.
PK
PK
R
Profit rate =
(r + )
(r + ) = M PK
P
P
P
Increase in will not change profit rate
according to above definition
But government has a different definition!
The ITC reduces a firms taxes by a certain
amount for each dollar it spends on capital.
Hence, the ITC effectively reduces PK
which increases the profit rate and the
incentive to invest.
(1-)PK
Does profit rate increase as
increases?
Market value of installed capital
q =
Replacement cost of installed capital
numerator: the stock market value of the economys
capital stock.
denominator: the actual cost to replace the capital
goods that were purchased when the stock was issued.
If q > 1, firms buy more capital to raise the market value
of their firms.
If q < 1, firms do not replace capital as it wears out.
Market value of installed capital
q =
Replacement cost of installed capital
The stock market value of capital depends on the
current & expected future profits of capital.
If MPK > cost of capital, then profit rate is high, which
drives up the stock market value of the firms, which
implies a high value of q.
If MPK < cost of capital, then firms are incurring losses,
so their stock market values fall, so q is low.
Reasons for a relationship between the
stock market and GDP:
1. A wave of pessimism about future
profitability of capital would:
cause stock prices to fall
cause Tobins q to fall
shift the investment function down
cause a negative aggregate demand
shock
Reasons for a relationship between the
stock market and GDP:
2. A fall in stock prices would:
reduce household wealth
shift the consumption function down
cause a negative aggregate demand
shock
Reasons for a relationship between the
stock market and GDP:
3. A fall in stock prices might reflect bad news
about technological progress and long-run
economic growth.
This implies that aggregate supply and fullemployment output will be expanding more
slowly than people had expected.
Percent
change
from
1 year
earlier
50
Stock prices (left scale)
10 Percent
20
change
8 from
1 year
6
earlier
10
40
30
-10
-20
-30
Real GDP (right scale)
-2
-40
-4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Using the materials presented so far,
argue whether a tapering of
Quantitative Easing will increase or
decrease investment?
Efficient Markets Hypothesis (EMH):
The market price of a companys stock is the fully
rational valuation of the company,
given current information about the companys
business prospects.
Stock market is informationally efficient:
each stock price reflects all available information
about the stock.
Implies that stock prices should follow a random walk
(be unpredictable), and should only change as new
information arrives.
Idea based on newspaper beauty contest in which
a reader wins a prize if he/she picks the women most
frequently selected by other readers as
most beautiful.
Keynes proposed that stock prices reflect peoples
views about what other people think will happen to
stock prices; the best investors could outguess mass
psychology.
Keynes believed stock prices reflect irrational waves of
pessimism/optimism (animal spirits).
Both views persist.
There is evidence for the EMH and randomwalk theory.
Yet, some stock market movements do not
seem to rationally reflect new information.
Neoclassical theory assumes firms can borrow to buy
capital whenever doing so is profitable.
But some firms face financing constraints:
limits on the amounts they can borrow
(or otherwise raise in financial markets).
A recession reduces current profits.
If future profits expected to be high,
investment might be worthwhile.
But if firm faces financing constraints and current
profits are low, firm might be unable to obtain funds.
The flow of new residential investment, I H ,
depends on the relative price of housing
PH /P.
PH /P determined by supply and demand in
the market for existing houses.
(a) The market for housing
PH
P
Supply
Supply and demand for
houses determines the
equilib. price of houses.
Demand
KH
Stock of housing
capital
The equilibrium price of
houses then determines
residential investment:
(a) The market for housing
PH
P
(b) The supply of new housing
PH
P
Supply
Demand
KH
Stock of housing
capital
Supply
IH
Flow of residential
investment
(a) The market for housing
PH
P
(b) The supply of new housing
PH
P
Supply
Demand
KH
Stock of housing
capital
Supply
IH
Flow of residential
investment
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
50
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
75
2001
2000
Housing Price Index
= 100 in 2000 1st quarter
175
2,000
150
1,500
125
1,000
100
Housing prices
(left scale)
500
Housing starts
(right scale)
0
Housing Starts (thousands)
200
2,500
Inventory investment is only about
1% of GDP.
Yet, in the typical recession,
more than half of the fall in spending
is due to a fall in inventory investment.
1. production smoothing
Sales fluctuate, but many firms find it
cheaper to produce at a steady rate.
When sales < production, inventories rise.
When sales > production, inventories fall.
1. production smoothing
2. inventories as a factor of production
Inventories allow some firms to operate more
efficiently.
samples for retail sales purposes
spare parts for when machines break down
1. production smoothing
2. inventories as a factor of production
3. stock-out avoidance
To prevent lost sales when demand is higher
than expected.
1. production smoothing
2. inventories as a factor of production
3. stock-out avoidance
4. work in process
Goods not yet completed are counted in
inventory.
Inventories and the real interest rate
The real interest rate is the opportunity cost of holding
inventory (instead of, e.g., bonds)
Example: High interest rates in the 1980s motivated
many firms to adopt just-in-time production, which is
designed to reduce inventories.
Inventories and credit conditions
Many firms purchase inventories using credit.
Example: The credit crunch of 2008-09 helped cause a
huge drop in inventory investment..
Is investment both a function of present value
of future and current profits?
Explain whether investment shows more
than consumption?
Can investment be
or
