Understanding Production and Operations Management

Introduction
The very essence of any business is to cater needs of customer by providing services and goods, and in process create
value for customers and solve their problems. Production and operations management talks about applying business
organization and management concepts in creation of goods and services.
Production
Production is a scientific process which involves transformation of raw material (input) into desired product or service
(output) by adding economic value. Production can broadly categorize into following based on technique:
Production through separation: It involves desired output is achieved through separation or extraction from raw
materials. A classic example of separation or extraction is Oil into various fuel products.
Production by modification or improvement: It involves change in chemical and mechanical parameters of the raw
material without altering physical attributes of the raw material. Annealing process (heating at high temperatures and
then cooling), is example of production by modification or improvement.
Production by assembly: Car production and computer are example of production by assembly.

Importance of Production Function and Production Management

Successful organizations have well defined and efficient line function and support function. Production comes under
the category of line function which directly affects customer experience and there by future of organization itself.
Aim of production function is to add value to product or service which will create a strong and long lasting customer
relationship or association. And this can be achieved by healthy and productive association between Marketing and
Production people. Marketing function people are frontline representative of the company and provide insights to real
product needs of customers.
An effective planning and control on production parameters to achieve or create value for customers is called
production management.
Operations Management
As to deliver value for customers in products and services, it is essential for the company to do the following:
1. Identify the customer needs and convert that into a specific product or service (numbers of products required
for specific period of time)
2. Based on product requirement do back-ward working to identify raw material requirements
3. Engage internal and external vendors to create supply chain for raw material and finished goods between
vendor production facility customers.
Operations management captures above identified 3 points.

Production Management v/s Operations Management

A high level comparison which distinct production and operations management can be done on following
characteristics:

Output: Production management deals with manufacturing of products like (computer, car, etc) while
operations management cover both products and services.
Usage of Output: Products like computer/car are utilized over a period of time whereas services need to be
consumed immediately
Classification of work: To produce products like computer/car more of capital equipment and less labour are
required while services require more labour and lesser capital equipment.
Customer Contact: There is no participation of customer during production whereas for services a constant
contact with customer is required.

Production management and operations management both are very essential in meeting objective of an organization.

Operations: Policy and Strategy

Introduction
It is very important for an organization to have well defined objective. A well-defined objective facilitates development
of strategies and policy thereby creating value for customers.
Operation Strategy
Operational strategy is essential to achieve operational goals set by organization in alignment with overall objective
of the company. Operational strategy is design to achieve business effectiveness or competitive advantage.
Operational strategy is planning process which aligns the following:

In this global competitive age organization goal tend to change from time to time therefore operations strategy as a
consequence has also be dynamic in nature. A regular SWOT analysis ensures that the organization is able to maintain
competitive advantage and business leadership.
Strategic Management Process for Production and Operation
For success of organizational strategic objective, strategic planning has to trickle down to various function areas of the
business. In order to build strategy management process a sequential process as below is followed
Competition Analysis: In this step company evaluates and studies current competition in the market and practices that
are followed in the industry for operations and production vis--vis company policies
Goal Setting: Next step involves narrowing down the objective towards which the organization wants to move
towards.
Strategy Formulation: The next step is breaking down of organizational goals into operations and production
strategies.
Implementation: The final step is to convert operations and production strategies into day to day activities like
production schedule, product design, quality management etc.

As organizations are always customer-centric, production and operation strategy for organization are built around
them

Productivity
Measurement of formulated operations and production strategy is important to maintain alignment with the
organization objectives. In simple terms productivity is defined as sum of total output per employee or per day.
Productivity of company is dependent on industry and environmental conditions in which it is operating.
Two essential part of productivity are labor and capital. In scenario of limited resources, optimum and efficient
utilization of labor and capital will generate favorable productivity. Productivity measurement also enables company
to identify areas which require improvement or special focus. Also productivity provides ready report card to measure
status against companys production objective.
Productivity measurement can be classified in three categories based on the inputs used for calculation. Partial
productivity ration of output is compared to one of resource used for example, labor productivity where output is
compared to the labor wages.
Total productivity measure takes into consideration sum of all input factors which are used for the output.
In the modern age technology plays an important part in productivity.
Wastivity
Another important factor is the case of production is wastivity. Not 100% of input would be converted to output, there
is going to waste during production. Wastivity is reciprocal of productivity. Classic examples of wastivity are defective
products and services which either have to be re-cycle or disposed of completely. Other example is idle capacity of
material, man-power equipment etc.

International Production and Operations Management (IPOM)

Introduction
International production and operations management deals with production of goods and services in international
locations and markets. It involves management process which has to take into consideration local production
market (labor and capital) and international customer requirements.
Nature of IPOM
The foundation for international production and operations is no different to domestic production and operations
management. But there are certain aspects which make international exposure a challenge for an organization. The
very 1st difference is international business environment where not just economics but also international quality
standards have to be maintained. The 2nd aspect is the international stint makes the company more aware of its
surroundings thus making it more competitive.
As IPOM is dynamic in nature, organization has to design it strategic objectives which cover following points:

Meeting international quality standards

Forecasting demand and production design
Profitability
Minimum production cost
Adaptation to modern available technology

Domestic POM and IPOM

Organization has to clearly identify challenges it is likely to face in an international environment. Those challenges can
be categorized as follows:
Culture: Domestic POM has to content with homogenous culture where as IPOM has to content with multi-culture
multi-ethnicity scenario.
Business Environment: Domestic POM has to consider local economical and social factors where as IPOM has to deal
with economical and social factors across geography and countries.
Quality Standards: Domestic POM has to look at single local market therefore not much variation in quality standards
where as IPOM has to consider different international markets with different quality standard requirements.
Pricing: Pricing for Domestic POM may not be a challenge as competition would also operate in the same
environment. IPOM has to consider the customer paying capacity which may vary from developed country to
developing country.
Technology: In domestic environment innovation and usage of technology is much more comparable among
competition. For IPOM owing to different quality and pricing requirements investment in technology becomes
important.
Economies of Scale: Domestic POM has to deal with limited local market, hence limiting scope of economies of scale
whereas IPOM has to access to larger market thus providing a change of achieving larger economies of scale.
Market Segmentation: Domestic POM is around local market where as IPOM has to developed and diversified market.
Usage of resources: Domestic POM has to deal with in-flexibility of moving around of resources within one location
while IPOM has advantage of moving around of resources from high cost market to low cost market.
IPOM Strategies
Organization needs to consider the following point while developing IPOM strategies:
Production/Factory Location: The choice of location for the production facility depends on its proximity near to the
market and cost of production (labor) in that particular environment.
Factory design, layout and quality standards: Organization need to standardize design and layout across their
production location as to minimize production planning process, provide flexibility in sharing technical knowledge and
manpower.
External vendor and procurement: Organization needs to finalize the vendors to provide raw material as well
important components required to complete the final product. Also procurement schedule has to be finalized as not to
hurt production.

Managing Technology in Operations Management

Introduction
In last decade or so technology has changed the way organization conduct their business. Advent of technology in
operation management has increased productivity of the organization.
Technology and Operations Management
The scope of Technology and operation management has evolved over a period of time and has moved from
development of products into design, management and improvement of operating system and processes.

Usage of technology in operation management has ensured that organizations are able to reduce the cost, improve
the delivery process, standardize and improve quality and focus on customization, thereby creating value for
customers.
Integration of Technology with Production System
Technology drives efficiency in organization and increases productivity of the organization. However, bringing
technology in the production system is highly complex process, and it needs to following steps:
Technology Acquisition: technology acquired should align with overall objectives of the organization and should be
approved after elaborate cost-benefit analysis.
Technology Integration: technology affects all aspects of production i.e. capital, labour and customer. Therefore, a
solid technology integration plan is required.
Technology Verification: once technology integrated, it is important to check whether technology is delivering
operational effectiveness and is been used to its fullest.
Technology in Manufacturing and Design
Technology is getting extensively used in customization of design products and services. The usage of computers and
supporting electronic systems is integral part of modern industrial and services industry. Current techniques can be
broadly classified into following categories:
Computer-Aided Design (CAD): CAD facilitates linking of two more complex components of design at very high level of
accuracy thus delivering higher productivity.
Computer-Aided Manufacturing System (CAM): Precision is very essential in operating any machines and therefore,
Computerized Numerically Controlled machines are used, thus ensuring highest level of accuracy.
Standard for the Exchange of Product Data: As the name suggests product design is transmitted among CAM and CAM
in three dimensions. Standard for The Exchange of Product Data process sharing of product across all phases of
product life cycle and serves as neutral file exchange.
Software Systems in Manufacturing
There are various software systems available to integrated operations and manufacturing functions with other
business functions of organization. Some of the common software systems are Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP),
Supply-Chain Management (SCM), New-Product Development (NPD) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM).
Enterprises Resources Planning (ERP) links all business functions like manufacturing, marketing, human resource and
finance through a common software platform. The main benefits of the ERP solution are that it not only reduces
database errors but also delivers value to customer through faster delivery and order fulfillment.
Automation in Production and Operations
Automation reduces manual intervention in the manufacturing process. It increases productivity and reduces margin
of error thereby facilitating economies of scale. There is this-advantages of automation also, such as unemployment,
high breakdown cost and initial capital investment. Therefore, automation may not be suitable in all situations and in
the end alignment with an overall organization objective is important.
Challenges
Technology can be facilitating factor in bringing about change in operations and production management. But it may
not be feasible to use technology in all aspects with challenge coming through high initial cost of investment, high cost
of maintenance and mismanagement.

Value Analysis: An Applied Concept for Manufacturing and Service Industry

Introduction
All organizations strive to create value for their customers. This value creates mind space for product and services.
Value analysis, therefore, is a scientific method to increase this value.
Value is a perception hence every customer will have their own perceptions on how they define value. However,
overall at the highest level, value is quality, performance, style, design relative to product cost. Increasing value
necessarily does not mean decrease in all-inclusive cost of production but providing something extra for which a
premium can be charged.
The objective and benefits of value analysis can be summarized as below:

Value analysis aims to simplify products and process. There by increasing efficiency in managing projects,
resolve problems, encourage innovation and improve communication across organization.
Value analysis enables people to contribute in the value addition process by continuous focus on product
design and services.
Value analysis provides a structure through cost saving initiatives, risk reduction and continuous improvement.

Activities for Value Analysis

Activities for value analysis are separated into following activities:
Product/Service - The 1st step is to identify the product or service which is based on usage/demand, complexity in
development and future potential.
Cost Analysis: The next step understands in detail cost structure in developing and manufacturing the product.
Define product and function: The next step is to define all the primary function of the product and service through
satisfying the basic need and then taking next step in delighting the customer. For this better understanding of product
components and characteristics is required.
Evaluation of alternatives: Through brainstorming possible alternatives can short listed which can provide value to the
primary function of the product. Cost evaluation at high level needs to be done for all the alternatives, and the
cheapest alternative is short listed.
Secondary Function evaluation: Secondary functions of the product and services are studied and evaluated.
Recommendation: Value Analysis done has to communicate to the various level of the management team as to get
acceptance.
Value Analysis Team
The process of value analysis is carried out by value analysis team. So it becomes paramount that team selection for
value analysis also follows a structured process. Value analysis team consists of trained and qualified team members
who have background and knowledge about the project. Team leader is selected by the project manager. Team size for
value analysis is 5 to 8.
Value Analysis Process
Value analysis process can be divided into three phases of mainly pre-analysis, analysis and post analysis. Pre-analysis
contains activities of project selection and team selection. Analysis phase as the name suggests consists of activities
like investigation, speculation, evaluation, development and presentation of the report. Post analysis consists of
activities implementation of the report and regular audit.

Functional Analysis part of Value Analysis

Function analysis is required to transform the project elements from design of product towards function of product.
The main categories are Basic, Secondary, Required Secondary Aesthetic, Unwanted, Higher Order and Assumed.

Effective Product Design

Introduction
Organization success is dependent on customer satisfaction and delight. Customer satisfaction is achieved through
development of product and service, which have all attributes required by the customer. A success product or services
do not only have attractive package design but should be also able to provide robust performance.
Thus, product design must be practical enough for production and powerful enough to provide a competitive
advantage.
Product Design
A good product design has following common features:

Utility: The product design should make product utility as per expectation of customers and provide steady
performance through the product life.
Aesthetics: Product aesthetics is important in success of the product. The product aesthetics is dependent on
market and end customer.
Producible: Product design should enable effective production of product through available production
methods.
Profitability: Product design should make economic sense as to deliver value to customer and sustainability to
the organization.
Differentiable: A good product design should enable product to be differentiate among its competition. This
can be achieved by attractive packaging and also by providing additional service on the product.

Objectives of Product Design

The essence of product design is to satisfy customer and maximizes the value for the customer at minimum cost. The
product or service should also be able to meet primary needs and desire of the customer. This may not require
development of new product, but enhancement to existing product or service.
Stages of Product Design
Product design is a creative process which looks at all the available options and beyond. The process is can be divided
into three stages:
1. First stage: His stage involves brainstorming, bringing ideas and analysis of customer and market feedback.
2. Second Stage: Idea is converted into a feasible solution to satisfy the customer expectation, using available
resource and technology.
3. Third Stage: This is the last stage in which the product is introduced in the market.
Factors Affecting Product Design
A successful product design is combination factors as follows:
Correct Team Selection: This is very essential to get the correct team in place which has expert designers who are not
only aware and comfortable with technology but also understanding of customer expectation.

Customer Involvement: Involvement of customer in product design and testing can provide insight into the direction
of the project
Prototyping and testing: Product design is high risk concept as it involves commitment of capital and man-power;
therefore, it is imperative that extensive prototyping and testing are done with customer and market.
Raw Material: It is essential that raw material to be used in the production meets the quality standards of the end
product. Furthermore, procurement system needs to be in place to ensure continuous, cost effective supply.
Production method and process layout: Feasibility of production method and process layout determines future
success of the product.
External Factors: Environmental and government regulations plays an important part in product design. And these
norms are updated from time to time, so product design should have the flexibility to adapt.
Product Selection
Production selection process is done through a combination of financial analysis, risk analysis, existing product
portfolio, raw material supply and pre-determined product criteria.

Process Design and Analysis

Introduction
The objective of organization is to provide service and product, which satisfy customer and create value for them. A
product and service designed is based on the customer feedback and requirement of the market. Process design is
where the product is broken down into parts, which further can be helpful in the actual manufacturing process.
A product, for example, has attractive packaging to provide the right aesthetics plus has function and features, which
provide value to customers. Process design ensures that there is smooth and continuous relationship between
required output and all the intermediate process.
For example, manufacturing of Air-Conditioners, process design has to be such that maximum supply is achieved
during the hot months of summer when demand of the product is at the highest. So people, process and machines
need to align to give continuous production throughout the year as to satisfy seasonal demand.
Process Planning
Process development for process design can be summarized through following steps:
1. Process Requirement: The very 1st step is to collect and gather information to give structure with the end
objective. That is to make process requirement document highlighting various stages, risk and stakeholders for
production. This will include assessment of available technology, raw material requirement, factory/plant
layout and demand forecast.
2. Team Building: Once the process requirements are finalized, for each objective, a team is finalized based on
skill level and experience. Function of the team is to get familiarize with the whole process.
3. Planning and Implementation: Process planning team will develop module; policies and procedure require for
production, which are after required approval internal as well as external is implemented.
4. Audit: A regular audit is carried out to ensure that process thus implemented is in line and delivering value to
customers.
5. End of Life: Over a course of time there may be enhancement of the product or product may get discontinued
in these circumstances, process thus develop is discontinued.
Production Process
Based on the nature of product and service production or conversion process can be divided into two broad
categories, continuous production (assembly line, oil refinery) and intermittent production (job work, service).

Production process for both manufacturing industry and service industry can be classified into broad categories based
on standardization of product or service. It can range from single project assignment like a building or bridge
(manufacturing) to interior design (service) and mass production project like a car (manufacturing) to a fast-food joint
(Services).
Process Design
A successful process design has to take into account the appropriateness of the process to overall organization
objective. Process design requires a broad view of the whole organization and should not have a myopic outlook. And
the process should deliver customer value with constant involvement of the management at various stages.
In order to achieve a good process design, effective process strategy is required, which deals with a singular line items
required to manufacture the end product. Effective process strategy deals with raw material procurement, customer
participation, technology investment, etc.
Over a period of time process design has undergone change and new concepts like Flexible Manufacturing Systems
have been developed, which delivers efficient and effective production design and analysis.

Integrated Product and Process Development - Meaning, Advantages and

Key Factors
Introduction
Objective of any organization is to provide customer satisfaction by building product and services, which not only
satisfy needs and want but also create value for them.
This requires product design based on the customer feedback and production process which not only minimizes cost
but also provides a competitive advantage. However, most organizations tend to follow conventional production
method and process.
However, in the global age of new technology and competition organization have to re-invent the way they cater to
needs of customer, focus on specialization and customization is ever increasing. Given this scenario it is imperative for
the organization to integrate technology and innovation within the framework of integrated product and process
development.
Integrated Product and Process Development (IPPD)
Integrated product and process development combines the product design processes along with the process design
process to create a new standard for producing competitive and high-quality products.
Integration of new technologies and methods provide a complete new dimension to product design process. This
process starts with defining of the requirements of products based on the customer feedback while considering the
design layout and other constraints. Once the finer details are finalized, they are fed into CAD models where extensive
testing and modeling are done to get the best product.
With integration of production method and technology with product design, it is natural for integration of product
design and process design. Therefore, integrated product and process development can be defined as a process
starting from product idea to development of final product through modern technology and process management
practices while minimizing cost and maximizing efficiency.
Advantages of Integrated Product and Process Development (IPPD)
Organization stands to benefit greatly from the implementation of IPPD. Some of the advantages are as follows:

Using modern technologies and implement logical steps in production design, the actual production is likely to
come down, thereby reducing product delivery time.

Through optimum usage of resources and using efficient process, organizations are able to minimize cost of
production thus improving profitability of the organization.
Since extensive uses of CAD model are employed chances are of product or design failure are greatly reduced
thus reducing risk for organization.
As the focus is solely in delivering value to customer, quality is paramount importance and achieved through
technology and methods.

Key Factors for IPPD

There are certain factors, which can vastly improve IPPD. These factors are as follows:

IPPD success is greatly dependent on agreement on the end objective which is the successful address to
customer requirements. All the stakeholders and management should be aligned to the single objective.
Since this is a scientific approach, its success dependent on building up of plan, implementation of plan and
constant review of the implemented plan.
With implementation of modern methods and technology comes usage of modern tools and systems. This
tools, and systems need to be integrated within the organization framework.
Skilled manpower is another essential; therefore, organization need to make investment in human capital.

Customer is the focal point of IPPD. Therefore, constant feedback from them is essential for IPPD to be a success.
Therefore, IPPD is approach design to address all the concern of modern organization in the globalized world.
Facility Location - Factors Influencing the Location
Facility Location is the right location for the manufacturing facility, it will have sufficient access to the customers,
workers, transportation, etc. For commercial success, and competitive advantage following are the critical factors:
Overall objective of an organization is to satisfy and delight customers with its product and services. Therefore, for an
organization it becomes important to have strategy formulated around its manufacturing unit. A manufacturing unit is
the place where all inputs such as raw material, equipment, skilled labors, etc. come together and manufacture
products for customers. One of the most critical factors determining the success of the manufacturing unit is the
location.
Facility location determination is a business critical strategic decision. There are several factors, which determine
the location of facility among them competition, cost and corresponding associated effects. Facility location is a
scientific process utilizing various techniques.
Location Selection Factors
For a company which operates in a global environment; cost, available infrastructure, labor skill, government policies
and environment are very important factors. A right location provides adequate access to customers, skilled labors,
transportation, etc. A right location ensures success of the organization in current global competitive environment.
Industrialization
A geographic area becomes a focal point for various facility locations based on many factors, parameters and issues.
These factors are can be divided into primary factors and secondary factors. A primary factor which leads to
industrialization of a particular area for particular manufacturing of products is material, labor and presence of similar
manufacturing facilities. Secondary factors are available of credit finance, communication infrastructure and insurance.
Errors in Location Selection
Facility location is critical for business continuity and success of the organization. So it is important to avoid mistakes
while making selection for a location. Errors in selection can be divided into two broad categories behavioral and nonbehavioral. Behavioral errors are decision made by executives of the company where personal factors are considered
before success of location, for example, movement of personal establishment from hometown to new location facility.

Non-behavioral errors include lack of proper investigative practice and analysis, ignoring critical factors and
characteristics of the industry.
Location Strategy
The goal of an organization is customer delight for that it needs access to the customers at minimum possible cost.
This is achieved by developing location strategy. Location strategy helps the company in determining product offering,
market, demand forecast in different markets, best location to access customers and best manufacturing and service
location.
Factors Influencing Facility Location
If the organization can configure the right location for the manufacturing facility, it will have sufficient access to the
customers, workers, transportation, etc. For commercial success, and competitive advantage following are the critical
factors:
Customer Proximity: Facility locations are selected closer to the customer as to reduce transportation cost and
decrease time in reaching the customer.
Business Area: Presence of other similar manufacturing units around makes business area conducive for facility
establishment.
Availability of Skill Labor: Education, experience and skill of available labor are another important, which determines
facility location.
Free Trade Zone/Agreement: Free-trade zones promote the establishment of manufacturing facility by providing
incentives in custom duties and levies. On another hand free trade agreement is among countries providing an
incentive to establish business, in particular, country.
Suppliers: Continuous and quality supply of the raw materials is another critical factor in determining the location of
manufacturing facility.
Environmental Policy: In current globalized world pollution, control is very important, therefore understanding of
environmental policy for the facility location is another critical factor.

Facility Layout - Objectives, Design and Factors Affecting the Layout

Introduction
For an organization to have an effective and efficient manufacturing unit, it is important that special attention is given
to facility layout. Facility layout is an arrangement of different aspects of manufacturing in an appropriate manner as
to achieve desired production results. Facility layout considers available space, final product, safety of users and facility
and convenience of operations.
An effective facility layout ensures that there is a smooth and steady flow of production material, equipment and
manpower at minimum cost. Facility layout looks at physical allocation of space for economic activity in the plant.
Therefore, main objective of the facility layout planning is to design effective workflow as to make equipment and
workers more productive.
Facility Layout Objective
A model facility layout should be able to provide an ideal relationship between raw material, equipment, manpower
and final product at minimal cost under safe and comfortable environment. An efficient and effective facility layout
can cover following objectives:

To provide optimum space to organize equipment and facilitate movement of goods and to create safe and
comfortable work environment.
To promote order in production towards a single objective

To reduce movement of workers, raw material and equipment

To promote safety of plant as well as its workers
To facilitate extension or change in the layout to accommodate new product line or technology upgradation
To increase production capacity of the organization

An organization can achieve the above-mentioned objective by ensuring the following:

Better training of the workers and supervisors.

Creating awareness about of health hazard and safety standards
Optimum utilization of workforce and equipment
Encouraging empowerment and reducing administrative and other indirect work

Factors affecting Facility Layout

Facility layout designing and implementation is influenced by various factors. These factors vary from industry to
industry but influence facility layout. These factors are as follows:

The design of the facility layout should consider overall objectives set by the organization.
Optimum space needs to be allocated for process and technology.
A proper safety measure as to avoid mishaps.
Overall management policies and future direction of the organization

Design of Facility Layout

Principles which drive design of the facility layout need to take into the consideration objective of facility layout,
factors influencing facility layout and constraints of facility layout. These principles are as follows:

Flexibility: Facility layout should provide flexibility for expansion or modification.

Space Utilization: Optimum space utilization reduces the time in material and people movement and
promotes safety.
Capital: Capital investment should be minimal when finalizing different models of facility layout.

Design Layout Techniques

There are three techniques of design layout, and they are as follows:
1. Two or Three Dimensional Templates: This technique utilizes development of a scaled-down model based on
approved drawings.
2. Sequence Analysis: This technique utilizes computer technology in designing the facility layout by sequencing
out all activities and then arranging them in circular or in a straight line.
3. Line Balancing: This kind of technique is used for assembly line.
Types of Facility Layout
There are six types of facility layout, and they are as follows:

Line Layout
Functional Layout
Fixed Position Layout
Cellular Technology Layout
Combined Layout, and
Computerized Relative Allocation of Facility Technique

Demand Forecasting - Objectives, Classification and Characteristics of a Good Forecast

Forecasting
For an organization to provide customer delight it is important that organization can understand what customer wants
and how much does they want. If an organization can gauge future demand that manufacturing plan becomes simpler
and cost effective.
The process of analyzing and understanding current and past information to understand the future patterns through a
scientific and systemic approach is called forecasting. And the process of estimating the future demand of product in
terms of a unit or monetary value is referred to as demand forecasting.
The purpose of forecasting is to help the organization manage the present as to prepare for the future by examining
the most probable future demand pattern. However, forecasting has its constraint for example we cannot estimate a
pattern for technologies and product where there are no existing pattern or data.
Business Forecasting Objective
The very objective of business forecasting is to be accurate as possible, so that planning of resources can be done in a
very economical manner and therefore, propagate optimum utilization of resources. Business forecasting helps in
establishing relationship among many variables, which go into manufacturing of the product. Each forecast situation
must be analyzed independently along with forecasting method.
Classification of Business Forecasting
Business forecasting has many dimensions and varieties depending upon the utility and application. The three basic
forms are as follows:
Economic Forecasting: these forecasting are related to the broader macro-economic and micro-economic factors
prevailing in the current business environment. It includes forecasting of inflation rate, interest rate, GDP, etc. at the
macro level and working of particular industry at the micro level.
Demand Forecast: organization conduct analysis on its pre-existing database or conduct market survey as to
understand and predict future demands. Operational planning is done based on demand forecasting.
Technology Forecast: this type of forecast is used to forecast future technology upgradation.
Timeline of Business Forecasting
A forecast and its conclusion are valid within specific time frame or horizon. These time horizons are categorized as
follows:
Long Term Forecast: This type of forecast is made for a time frame of more than three years. These types of forecast
are utilized for long-term strategic planning in terms of capacity planning, expansion planning, etc.
Mid-Term Forecast: This type of forecast is made for a time frame from three months to three years. These types of
forecasts are utilized production and layout planning, sales and marketing planning, cash budget planning and capital
budget planning.
Short Term Forecast: This type of forecast is made of a time frame from one day to three months. These types of
forecasts are utilized for day to day production planning, inventory planning, workforce application planning, etc.
Characteristics of Good Forecast
A good forecast is should provide sufficient time with a fair degree of accuracy and reliability to prepare for future
demand. A good forecast should be simple to understand and provide information relevant to production (e.g. units,
etc.)

Forecasting Methods
Forecasting is divided into two broad categories, techniques and routes. Techniques are further classified into
quantitative techniques and qualitative techniques. Quantitative techniques comprise of time series method,
regression analysis, etc., where as qualitative methods comprise of Delphi method, expert judgment.
Routes forecasting consist of top-down route and bottom-up route.
Capacity Planning
The production system design planning considers input requirements, conversion process and output. After
considering the forecast and long-term planning organization should undertake capacity planning.
Capacity is defined as the ability to achieve, store or produce. For an organization, capacity would be the ability of a
given system to produce output within the specific time period. In operations, management capacity is referred as an
amount of the input resources available to produce relative output over period of time.
In general, terms capacity is referred as maximum production capacity, which can be attained within a normal working
schedule.
Capacity planning is essential to be determining optimum utilization of resource and plays an important role decisionmaking process, for example, extension of existing operations, modification to product lines, starting new products,
etc.
Strategic Capacity Planning
A technique used to identify and measure overall capacity of production is referred to as strategic capacity planning.
Strategic capacity planning is utilized for capital intensive resource like plant, machinery, labor, etc.
Strategic capacity planning is essential as it helps the organization in meeting the future requirements of the
organization. Planning ensures that operating cost are maintained at a minimum possible level without affecting the
quality. It ensures the organization remain competitive and can achieve the long-term growth plan.
Capacity Planning Classification
Capacity planning based on the timeline is classified into three main categories long range, medium range and short
range.
Long Term Capacity: Long range capacity of an organization is dependent on various other capacities like design
capacity, production capacity, sustainable capacity and effective capacity. Design capacity is the maximum output
possible as indicated by equipment manufacturer under ideal working condition.
Production capacity is the maximum output possible from equipment under normal working condition or day.
Sustainable capacity is the maximum production level achievable in realistic work condition and considering normal
machine breakdown, maintenance, etc.
Effective capacity is the optimum production level under pre-defined job and work-schedules, normal machine
breakdown, maintenance, etc.
Medium Term Capacity: The strategic capacity planning undertaken by organization for 2 to 3 years of a time frame is
referred to as medium term capacity planning.
Short Term Capacity: The strategic planning undertaken by organization for a daily weekly or quarterly time frame is
referred to as short term capacity planning.

Goal of Capacity Planning

The ultimate goal of capacity planning is to meet the current and future level of the requirement at a minimal wastage.
The three types of capacity planning based on goal are lead capacity planning, lag strategy planning and match
strategy planning.

Factors Affecting Capacity Planning

Effective capacity planning is dependent upon factors like production facility (layout, design, and location), product
line or matrix, production technology, human capital (job design, compensation), operational structure (scheduling,
quality assurance) and external structure ( policy, safety regulations)
Forecasting v/s Capacity Planning
There would be a scenario where capacity planning done on a basis of forecasting may not exactly match. For example,
there could be a scenario where demand is more than production capacity; in this situation, a company needs to fulfill
its requirement by buying from outside. If demand is equal to production capacity; company is in a position to use its
production capacity to the fullest. If the demand is less than the production capacity, company can choose to reduce
the production or share it output with other manufacturers.

What is Aggregate Planning ? - Importance and its Strategies

Introduction
An organization can finalize its business plans on the recommendation of demand forecast. Once business plans are
ready, an organization can do backward working from the final sales unit to raw materials required. Thus annual and
quarterly plans are broken down into labor, raw material, working capital, etc. requirements over a medium-range
period (6 months to 18 months). This process of working out production requirements for a medium range is called
aggregate planning.
Factors Affecting Aggregate Planning
Aggregate planning is an operational activity critical to the organization as it looks to balance long-term strategic
planning with short term production success. Following factors are critical before an aggregate planning process can
actually start;

A complete information is required about available production facility and raw materials.
A solid demand forecast covering the medium-range period
Financial planning surrounding the production cost which includes raw material, labor, inventory planning, etc.
Organization policy around labor management, quality management, etc.

For aggregate planning to be a success, following inputs are required;

An aggregate demand forecast for the relevant period

Evaluation of all the available means to manage capacity planning like sub-contracting, outsourcing, etc.
Existing operational status of workforce (number, skill set, etc.), inventory level and production efficiency

Aggregate planning will ensure that organization can plan for workforce level, inventory level and production rate in
line with its strategic goal and objective.

Aggregate planning as an Operational Tool

Aggregate planning helps achieve balance between operation goal, financial goal and overall strategic objective of the
organization. It serves as a platform to manage capacity and demand planning.
In a scenario where demand is not matching the capacity, an organization can try to balance both by pricing,
promotion, order management and new demand creation.
In scenario where capacity is not matching demand, an organization can try to balance the both by various alternatives
such as.

Laying off/hiring excess/inadequate excess/inadequate excess/inadequate workforce until demand

decrease/increase.
Including overtime as part of scheduling there by creating additional capacity.
Hiring a temporary workforce for a fix period or outsourcing activity to a sub-contrator.

Importance of Aggregate Planning

Aggregate planning plays an important part in achieving long-term objectives of the organization. Aggregate planning
helps in:

Achieving financial goals by reducing overall variable cost and improving the bottom line
Maximum utilization of the available production facility
Provide customer delight by matching demand and reducing wait time for customers
Reduce investment in inventory stocking
Able to meet scheduling goals there by creating a happy and satisfied work force

Aggregate Planning Strategies

There are three types of aggregate planning strategies available for organization to choose from. They are as follows.
1. Level Strategy
As the name suggests, level strategy looks to maintain a steady production rate and workforce level. In this
strategy, organization requires a robust forecast demand as to increase or decrease production in anticipation
of lower or higher customer demand. Advantage of level strategy is steady workforce. Disadvantage of level
strategy is high inventory and increase back logs.
2. Chase Strategy
As the name suggests, chase strategy looks to dynamically match demand with production. Advantage of
chase strategy is lower inventory levels and back logs. Disadvantage is lower productivity, quality and
depressed work force.
3. Hybrid Strategy
As the name suggests, hybrid strategy looks to balance between level strategy and chase strategy.

Materials and Resource Requirement Planning

Introduction
Success of an operation department of any organization is dependent upon an efficient production plan. One of the
key essential of a production plan is material and manufacturing planning system. Material requirement planning plays
a pivotal role in assembly-line production. Material requirement planning is a system based approach, which organizes
all required production material.
Material requirement planning is an information system for production planning based on inventory management. The
basic components of material planning are:

Material planning provides information that all the required raw material and products are available for
production.
Material planning ensures that inventory level are maintained at its minimum levels. But also ensures that
material and product are available whenever production is scheduled, therefore, helping in matching demand
and supply.
Material planning provides information of production planning and scheduling but also provides information
around dispatch and stocking.

Objective of Material Requirement Planning

Material requirement planning is processed which production planning and inventory control system, and its three
objectives are as follows:

Primary objective is to ensure that material and components are available for production, and final products
are ready for dispatch.
Another primary objective is not only to maintain minimum inventory but also ensure right quantity of
material is available at the right time to produce right quantity of final products.
Another primary objective is to ensure planning of all manufacturing processes, this scheduling of different job
works as to minimize or remove any kind of idle time for machine and workers.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Material Resource Planning

As with every system based process, material resource planning also has its advantages and disadvantages, and they
are as follows:
Advantages of Material Resource Planning

It helps in maintain minimum inventory levels.

With minimum inventory levels, material planning also reduces associated costs.
Material tracking becomes easy and ensures that economic order quantity is achieved for all lot orders.
Material planning smoothens capacity utilization and allocates correct time to products as per demand
forecast.

Disadvantages of Material Resource Planning

Material planning is highly dependent on inputs it receives from other systems or department. If input
information is not correct than output for material planning will also be incorrect.
Material planning requires maintenance of robust database with all information pertaining inventory records,
production schedule, etc. without which output again would be incorrect.
Material planning system requires proper training for end users, as to get maximum out of the system.
Material resource planning system requires substantial investment of time and capital.

Material Resource Planning - Inter dependency of Business Function

Material planning not only benefits operation department but is also beneficial to the other department of
organization. They are as follows:

Material planning is useful in determining cash flow requirement based on material requirements and final
dispatch schedules.
It helps procurement team in scheduling purchase of necessary material.
It helps the sales team in determining delivery dates for final products.

Implementation of Material Resource Planning

Implementation and success of material resource planning dependent on following factors:

Acceptability of by top management about advantages and benefits

Proper training and participation of all workers and personnel
Precision and accuracy of input data for accurate and reliable results

Production Planning and Control

Introduction
For efficient, effective and economical operation in a manufacturing unit of an organization, it is essential to integrate
the production planning and control system. Production planning and subsequent production control follow adaption
of product design and finalization of a production process.
Production planning and control address a fundamental problem of low productivity, inventory management and
resource utilization.
Production planning is required for scheduling, dispatch, inspection, quality management, inventory management,
supply management and equipment management. Production control ensures that production team can achieve
required production target, optimum utilization of resources, quality management and cost savings.
Planning and control are an essential ingredient for success of an operation unit. The benefits of production
planning and control are as follows:

It ensures that optimum utilization of production capacity is achieved, by proper scheduling of the machine
items which reduces the idle time as well as over use.
It ensures that inventory level are maintained at optimum levels at all time, i.e. there is no over-stocking or
under-stocking.
It also ensures that production time is kept at optimum level and thereby increasing the turnover time.
Since it overlooks all aspects of production, quality of final product is always maintained.

Production Planning
Production planning is one part of production planning and control dealing with basic concepts of what to produce,
when to produce, how much to produce, etc. It involves taking a long-term view at overall production planning.
Therefore, objectives of production planning are as follows:

To ensure right quantity and quality of raw material, equipment, etc. are available during times of production.
To ensure capacity utilization is in tune with forecast demand at all the time.

A well thought production planning ensures that overall production process is streamlined providing following
benefits:

Organization can deliver a product in a timely and regular manner.

Supplier are informed will in advance for the requirement of raw materials.
It reduces investment in inventory.
It reduces overall production cost by driving in efficiency.

Production planning takes care of two basic strategies product planning and process planning. Production planning is
done at three different time dependent levels i.e. long-range planning dealing with facility planning, capital
investment, location planning, etc.; medium-range planning deals with demand forecast and capacity planning and
lastly short term planning dealing with day to day operations.
Production Control
Production control looks to utilize different type of control techniques to achieve optimum performance out of the
production system as to achieve overall production planning targets. Therefore, objectives of production control are as
follows:

Regulate inventory management

Organize the production schedules
Optimum utilization of resources and production process

The advantages of robust production control are as follows:

Ensure a smooth flow of all production processes

Ensure production cost savings thereby improving the bottom line
Control wastage of resources
It maintains standard of quality through the production life cycle.

Production control cannot be same across all the organization. Production control is dependent upon the following
factors:

Nature of production( job oriented, service oriented, etc.)

Nature of operation
Size of operation

Production planning and control are essential for customer delight and overall success of an organization.

Operations Scheduling and Workplace Planning

Introduction
Scheduling and workplace planning is the final step in operation planning and design. Operations scheduling and
workplace planning is implemented during transformation of input to output. Scheduling deals with production of
required quantity of product within the required time frame. Workplace planning deals with allocation of resources
with priority to work job with first delivery date.
Operations Planning
Scheduling deals with both time allocations as well resource allocation for production of required quantity.
Operations planning is done as part of short term planning.
High level objective of operations planning is to decide the best way of allocation of labor and equipment as to find
balance between time and use of limited resources within the organization.
In modern age of competition and global market importance is given to Just In Time and the lean production concepts.
This has led to importance of operations scheduling. There are three important task performed by operations
scheduling:

Allocation of resources
Workforce scheduling
Production equipment scheduling

Operations planning ensures that proper workflow is established by ensuring allocation of job on appropriate
machines before the advent of production activities. Scheduling is production timetable highlighting sequence of job,
timing and quantity for allocation of resources as to help an organization in cash flow planning. Therefore, there are
three main objectives of production scheduling:

Due importance to delivery date and avoiding delays in completion

Reducing time of job on machines
Proper utilization of work centers

Operation scheduling is arrived at base on the following principles.

Ensure continuous job schedule

End to end completion of job
Remove the bottleneck
Ensure feedback as to make adjustment
Skill set of workforce
Enhancement of product and process
Scheduling helps in capacity planning as to reduce bottlenecks.
Scheduling helps in streamlining order production based on due date.
Scheduling helps in sequencing of various job works.

Scheduling is done with two approaches, and they are as follows:

Forward scheduling is type of scheduling where the planner considers order received date as the starting point
for forward planning of all the activities.
Backward scheduling is type of scheduling where the planner considers the order delivery date as the starting
point and does backward planning of all activities.

Workplace Planning
Workplace planning ensures optimum productivity by ensuring proper utilization of limited resources and priorities
job order at different work centers. Workforce control ensures that maximum output is achieved from machines, raw
material and workforce. All production-related information is recorded as to establish input-output control as to
achieve overall efficiency and optimum utilization of raw materials.
The main objectives of workforce planning and control are as follows:

Priorities various job orders

Record data related to process quantities
Providing status of workplace orders to control panel
Record output data to monitor capacity control
Provide measurement of efficiency and productivity

Therefore operations scheduling and workplace planning play an pivotal role in success of an organization.

Waiting Line (Queue) Management

Introduction
The waiting line or queue management is a critical part of service industry. It deals with issue of treatment of
customers in sense reduce wait time and improvement of service. Queue management deals with cases where the
customer arrival is random; therefore, service rendered to them is also random.
A service organization can reduce cost and thus improve profitability by efficient queue management. A cost is
associated with customer waiting in line and there is cost associated with adding new counters to reduce service time.
Queue management looks to address this trade off and offer solutions to management.
Waiting Line Problems
Waiting in line is common phenomena in daily life, for example, banks have customers in line to get service of teller,
cars queue up for re-filling, workers line up to access machine to complete their job. Therefore, management needs to
work on formulae, which will reduce wait time and create delighted customers without incurring an additional cost.
Generally, queue management problems are trade offs situation between cost of time spent in waiting v/s cost of
additional capacity or machinery.
Finite and Infinite Population
In a waiting line scenario, there are cases of finite population of customers and infinite population of customers.
A finite population scenario considers a fixed or limited size of customers visiting the service counter. It also assumes
that customer once served will leave the line thus reducing overall population of customers. However finite population
model also considers a scenario where the customer after getting served will re-visit the service counter for re-service,
leading to increase in finite population.
An infinite population theory looks at a scenario where subtractions and addition of customer do not impact overall
workability of the model.
Queuing System
To solve problems related to queue management it is important to understand characteristics of the queue. Some
common queue situations are waiting in line for service in super-market or banks, waiting for results from computer
and waiting in line for bus or commuter rail. General premise of queue theory is that there are limited resources for a
given population of customers and addition of a new service line will increase the cost aspect to the business. A typical
queue system has the following:
Arrival Process: As the name suggests an arrival process look at different components of customer arrival. Customer
arrival could in single, batch or bulk, arrival as distribution of time, arrival in finite population or infinite population.
Service Mechanism: this looks at available resources for customer service, queue structure to avail the service and
preemption of service. Underlining assumption here is that service time of customers is independent of arrival to the
queue.
Queue Characteristics: this looks at selection of customers from the queue for service. Generally, customer selection is
through first come first served method, random or last in first out. As a result, customers leave if the queue is long,
customer leave if they have waited too long or switch to faster serving queue.
Service Configuration
Another aspect of waiting line management is the service configuration. There are four types of service configuration,
and they are as follows:

Single Channel, Single Phase (e.g. ship yards and car wash)
Single Channel, Multi Phase (e.g. bank tellers)

Multi Channel, Single Phase (e.g. separate queue of man and women for single ticket window)
Multi Channel, Multi Phase (e.g. Laundromat, where option of several washers and several dryers)

Inventory Management and Just In Time (JIT)

Introduction
Supply-chain management plays a pivotal role in ensuring goods, and services are delivered on time to customers.
Within supply-chain management, inventory management plays a central role. Inventory involves various cost,
investment, space management, etc. Also there are chances that stored inventory may get damaged or get stolen
adding to extra cost to the company. Therefore, it is important to have a robust inventory management for an
organization.
Inventory Holding
For an organization, it becomes important to hold inventory for the following reason:

Inventory holding ensures that operation delay do not impact delivery to customers.
It also ensures that company can meet spikes or fluctuation in product demand.
It ensures that there is flexibility in production.
It ensures that any delay by suppliers do not affect working of the company.

Considering the above inventory holding objectives, next step for the company is to make inventory related decision.
Inventory decision involves two major considerations, first is the order quantity of the raw material and second is
timing for placing those orders.
Inventory Models
Inventory management is based upon two basic models i.e independent demand inventory model and dependent
demand inventory model.

Independent Demand Inventory Model talks about raw material demand which is dependent upon prevailing
market conditions and is not correlated to any raw material currently used by the organization. Finished goods
is an appropriate example for independent demand inventory model.
Dependent Demand Inventory Model talks about raw material demand which are integral parts of production
and form important part of material resource planning. For example, demand for raw material can be
established as the basis of demand of finished products.

Inventory Costs
There are three broad categories of cost associated with inventory; holding cost, ordering cost and set up cost.

Holding costs are carrying cost associated with inventory over a period of time. They include insurance,
warehousing, interest, extra head-count, etc.
Ordering costs are cost associated with purchasing of raw material and receiving raw materials. They include
forms, order processing, office maintenance supplies and staff associated with ordering.
Set Up Cost are cost associated with installation of machine for production. They include clean- up cost, retooling cost and adjustment cost.

Inventory management ensures that organizations are able to minimize cost and maximize profit.
Just In Time (JIT)
Just In Time is set of strategic activities, which are formulated to achieve maximum production with minimal
maintenance of inventory. JIT as philosophy is applicable to various types of organization but on implement side it is
more relevant with manufacturing operations.

For JIT system to be successful, there are two critical elements, attitude of workers/management and practice.
Fundamentals of JIT
JIT is based on the following fundamentals:

JIT manufacturing and ordering

Elimination of waste
Lean management
Signal System (Kanban)
Push-Pull System

With the above fundamentals in place, JIT delivers the following:

Continuous improvement of production and order processing.

Elimination of non-value added activities and procedures.
Simplification and advancement of the existing systems.
Creation of safety environment and ensuring total quality management.
Creation crossed skilled workers.