MATHEMATICS III

(ENGINEERING)
MAT3700
STUDY GUIDE 2

Revised by: L. E. Greyling 2011

Compiled by: A. Hildebrand 1993

Unisa
MAT301W Copyright Technikon SA 1994, First Edition 1995
MAT3700 Copyright Unisa 2010

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Printed in South Africa

CONTENTS
MODULE 2
UNIT 1
1.1
1.2

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

1.1.1 Definition

PROPERTIES OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

1.2.1

Linearity property

1.2.2

First translation or shifting property

1.2.3

Second translation or shifting property

1.2.4 Change of scale property

10

1.2.5

Multiplication by tn

11

1.2.6

Division by t

12

1.3

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF DERIVATIVES

13

1.4

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF INTEGRALS

14

UNIT 2

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

2.1

THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

18

2.2

PROPERTIES OF THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

21

2.2.1

Linearity property

21

2.2.2

First translation or shifting property

22

2.2.3

Second translation or shifting property

22

2.2.5

Multiplication of sn

23

2.2.6

Division by s

24

2.2.7

The Convolution Property

25

2.3

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF DERIVATIVES

26

2.4

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF INTEGRALS

27

UNIT 3

SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

3.1

THE UNIT STEP FUNCTION

3.2

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE UNIT STEP

3.3

THE UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION

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40
FUNCTION

41
44

3.4

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE UNIT IMPULSE

FUNCTION

46

3.5

THE UNIT RAMP FUNCTION

50

3.6

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE UNIT RAMP FUNCTION

50

3.7

TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

51

UNIT 4 APPLICATIONS
4.1

SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS USING

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

UNIT 5
5.1

55

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE LAPLACE

TRANSFORM

69

5.1.1

Application to electric circuits

69

5.1.2

Application to vibrating systems

73

5.1.3

Application to beams

77

MODULE 3
UNIT 1

LINEAR ALGEBRA I

1.1

INTRODUCTION

89

1.2

EIGENVALUES

89

1.3

EIGENVECTORS

90

UNIT 2

LINEAR ALGEBRA II

2.1

INTRODUCTION

96

2.2

GAUSS ELIMINATION

96

MODULE 4
UNIT 1

FOURIER SERIES

1.1

INTRODUCTION

102

1.2

REVISION OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

102

1.3

FOURIER SERIES

106

MAT3700

MODULE 2
UNIT 1
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

1.1
1.2

CONTENTS

PAGE

THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

1.1.1

Definition

PROPERTIES OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

1.2.1

Linearity property

1.2.2

First translation or shifting property

1.2.3

Second translation or shifting property

1.2.4

Change of scale property

10

1.2.5

Multiplication by tn

11

1.2.6

Division by t

12

1.3

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF DERIVATIVES

13

1.4

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF INTEGRALS

14

MAT3700

Unit 1

Outcome
To find the Laplace transform
of a function

MAT3700

1.1

THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

In recent years the Laplace transform has been used increasingly in the solution of
differential equations. While of great theoretical interest to mathematicians, the transform
provides an easy and effective means of solving many problems occurring in the fields of
science and engineering. Its usefulness lies in its ability to transform a differential equation
into a purely algebraic problem. We shall begin by studying the theory of the Laplace
transform and its inverse, and then go on to apply what we have learned to the solution of
differential equations.
1.1.1

Definition

Let f (t) be a function of t defined for t > 0.

Then the Laplace transform of f (t) is the function
F (s) =

e st f (t ) dt

(1.1)

where, for our purposes, the parameter s is regarded as real (although in more advanced work
it can be complex).
It is clear that F(s) exists only if the improper integral (1.1) exists, that is if the integral
converges for some value of s. The values of s for which the transform does exist are those
for which e st f ( t ) 0 if t .

Consider the function f (t ) = et

The Laplace transform, if it exists, is given by F ( s ) =

e st .et dt =
2

et

st

dt

We can see that as t , the integrand e-st f (t) also approaches infinity. Thus the integral
2

does not exist, and so f (t) = et possesses no Laplace transform.

We often denote the Laplace transform as an operator, and this is written as

L { f (t )} = F ( s)

MAT3700

When referring to text books you should take note of the notation used in the specific book.
It is worth noting here that some text books use a capital letter for the function of t. In this
case the corresponding small letter indicates the Laplace transform that is

L {F (t )} =

f (s) =

e st F (t ) dt

When writing by hand it is easy to confuse the letter s with the number 5. To avoid this
confusion you may opt to use the letter p instead of s when writing by hand.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the Laplace transform of f (t) = 1.

SOLUTION
By definition we have
F ( s ) = L{1}
=

e s t (1) dt

e st
=

s 0
0 1
=

s
1
=
s

(Remember e0 = 1)

We stated above that the transform exists for values of s for which e-st f (t) 0 as t .
Now if, in this example, s < 0, we would have lim e ( s ) t = lim e st which is infinite and the
t

transform will not exist.

But if s > 0, then lim e st = 0 , so that the transform exists only for s > 0.
t

We therefore write the result as

L {1} = 1 ,
s

s > 0.

EXAMPLE 2
If f (t) = eat find

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L {f (t)}.

SOLUTION

L{eat } = 0
=

e st .eat dt
e ( s a ) t dt

( s a )t
L{e } = e

( s a ) 0
at

0 1
=

( s a )
1
,s > a
=
sa

1.2

PROPERTIES OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Listed below are some of the more important properties of the Laplace transform with
examples of each. These properties can often be used to derive the transforms of complicated
functions from those of elementary ones.

1.2.1

Linearity property

If f1 (t) and f2 (t) are functions with Laplace transforms F1(s) and F2(s) respectively, then

L{c1 f1 (t ) + c2 f 2 (t )}
= c1L{ f1 (t )} + c2 L{ f 2 (t )}
= c1 F1 ( s )

+ c2 F2 ( s )

where c1 and c2 are constants.

Because of this property we say that L is a linear operator. The above result can be extended
to the sum of more than two functions.

EXAMPLE 3
Find

L{cos at} where a is any real constant.

SOLUTION
cos at can be expressed in exponential form as:

MAT3700

cos at =

eiat + e iat
2

Thus

L{cos at} = L e

iat

+ e iat
and using the linear property of the transform
2

L{cos at} = 1 L {eiat } + 1 L {eiat }

2

Now

(1.2)

L {eiat } = 0

e st .eiat dt

and

L {eiat } = 0

e ( s +ia ) t dt

e ( s ia ) t
=

( s ia ) 0
1
=
, s >0
s + ia

e ( s ia )t dt

e ( s ia ) t
=

( s ia ) 0
1
, s >0
=
s ia

Thus equation (1.2) becomes

L{cos at} = 1

1
1
+

2 s ia s + ia

1 s + ia + s ia

2 s2 i2 a2
s
, s >0
= 2
s + a2
=

We can, of course, apply the definition and evaluate

L{cos at} = 0

cos at. e st dt using

integration by parts without using the linear property.

In the same way it can be shown that

1.2.2

L{sin at} =

a
, s > 0.
s + a2
2

First translation or shifting property

If L {f (t)} = F(s), then L{e at f (t )} = F ( s a ) , where a is any real constant.

EXAMPLE 4
Evaluate

L{e -3t cos t}

SOLUTION
From example 3 we know that

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L{cos bt} =

s
s + b2
2

s
s +1

L{cos t} =

so that

(1.3)

Using the first translation property we have

L {e 3t cos t} =

s ( 3)

( s ( 3)) + 1
2

s+3

( s + 3)

+1

where the function of s in (1.3) has become the same function of (s a). Thus we have
replaced the s with s a, which in this case is s (3) = s + 3.

Thus

1.2.3

If

s+3
.
s + 6 s + 10

L {e3t cos t} =

Second translation or shifting property

L {f (t)} = F(s), and g(t) is the function defined by

then

f (t a )
g (t ) =
0

t > a
t <a

L {g (t )} = e as F ( s) , where a is any real constant.

EXAMPLE 5
2
cos t 3

Find L{g (t)} if g ( t ) =

2
3
2
t<
3
t>

SOLUTION
Using the result of example 3,

L {g (t )} = e as F ( s) = e

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2 s
3

L {cos t} =

s
= F ( s) , and the second shifting property
s +1
2

s
2

s +1

1.2.4

Change of scale property

If L {f (t)} = F(s), then

L{ f (at )} = 1 F s where a is any real constant.

a

EXAMPLE 6
If

L { f (t )} =

s2 s + 1
, find
(2 s + 1) 2 ( s 1)

L{ f (2t)}.

SOLUTION
By the change of scale property

We are given that

L { f (2 t )} = 1 F s
2

F (s) =

s2 s + 1

( 2s + 1)

( s 1)

thus
2

s
s
+1

2
2
s
F = 2
2 2s s
+ 1 1
2
2
1 2
( s 2s + 4 )
= 4
1
( s + 1) 2 ( s 2)
2
s 2 2s + 4 )
(
=
2
2 ( s + 1) ( s 2)

and

L { f (2t )} = 1 F s

2
s 2s + 4
=
4( s + 1) 2 ( s 2)
2

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10

1.2.5

If

Multiplication by tn

dn
F ( s)
ds n
= (1) n F ( n ) ( s )

L {f (t)} = F(s), then L {t n f (t )} = (1)n

EXAMPLE 7
Find the Laplace transform of t 2 e at .

SOLUTION
From example 2 we know that

1
sa
= F ( s)

L {eat } =

L {t 2 eat } = (1)2

thus

d2 1

ds 2 s a
2

d 1

ds s a
2
=
,
s >a
( s a )3
=

In general

dn 1

ds n s a
n!
=
,
s >a
( s a ) n +1

L {t n eat } = (1)n

where n! = 1 2 3 ......... (n - 1) n

and

(1.4)

0! = 1 (by definition)

Putting a = 0 in (1.4) leads to:

L {t n } =

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n!
s >0
s n +1

11

1.2.6

If

Division by t

L{f (t)} = F(s), then L f (t ) = s

F (u ) du provided that lim

t 0

f (t )

exists.

EXAMPLE 8
Find

L e

at

e bt

SOLUTION
Let

f (t ) = e at e bt

(1.5)

Before we can apply the rule for division by t, we must check that lim
t 0

Then

lim
t 0

f (t )
t

exists.

e at e bt
f (t )
= lim

t 0
t
t

This has the indeterminate form

0
, so we have to use 1Hospitals rule to obtain
0

d at
bt
dt ( e e )
f (t )
= lim
lim

t 0
t 0
d
t

(t )

dt
ae at + be bt
= lim

t 0
1

=ba

Thus the limit exists, and we can use the rule to find
From equation (1.5) we have

f (t )
.
t

L { f (t )} = L{e at ebt }
= L{e at } L{e bt }

which, on using the result of example 2 becomes

1
1

s+a s+b
= F ( s)

L { f ( t )} =

MAT3700

12


f (t )
= s F (u ) du
t

1
1
=

du
s
u+a u+b

Then

where the function of s has become the same function of u.

Thus

L f (t ) =
t

An ( u + a ) An ( u + b ) s

u + a
= An

u + b s

s+a
= 0 An

s+b
s+b
= An

s+a

1.3
If

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF DERIVATIVES

L{f (t)} = F(s), and f (t) is continuous for t 0, then L { f '(t )} = sF ( s) f (0) ,

where f '(t ) =

d
f (t )
dt

By definition (1.1) we have

L { f '(t )} = 0

e st f '(t ) dt

= lim

e st f '(t ) dt

On integrating by parts this becomes

( e
= lim ( e

L { f '(t )} = Blim

f (t ) + s

st

sB

e st f (t ) dt

f ( B) f (0) + s

e st f (t ) dt

Since we have assumed the existence of F(s), it follows that

e st f (t ) dt

is convergent, and so lim e st f (t ) = lim e sB f ( B ) = 0

t

MAT3700

13

thus

L { f '(t )} = f (0) + s 0

e st f (t ) dt

(1.6)

= sF ( s ) f (0)

In a similar way it can be shown that

L { f "(t )} = s 2 F ( s) sf (0) f '(0)

L { f ( n ) (t )} = s n F ( s) s n1 f (0) s n2 f '(0) .... f ( n 1) (0)

and in general

The above results are of particular importance in the solution of differential equations by
means of Laplace transforms. We will return to these in unit 3.

EXAMPLE 9
If f ( t ) = e at , find L{ f ' ( t ) )}.

SOLUTION
Since f ( t ) = e at , we have f (0) = 1 and, by example 2
1
sa
= F ( s)

L {eat } =

L { f '(t )} = sF ( s) f (0)

Thus

s
1
sa
a
=
sa
=

1.4

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF INTEGRALS

If L{f (t)} = F(s), then

Let

g (t ) =

L { f (u )

du} =

F ( s)
s

f (u ) du

so that g '(t ) = f (t )
and

G ( s ) = L {g (t )}
=L

MAT3700

f (u ) du

14

Then F ( s ) = L { f (t )]

by equation (1.6).

= L {g '(t )]
= sG ( s ) g (0)
But g (0) =

f (u ) du

=0
thus F(s) = s G(s)
and

F ( s)
=L
s

(1.7)

f (u ) du

EXAMPLE 10
Evaluate

L 0

sin u du

SOLUTION
Let

f (u) = sin u

so that

f (t) = sin t

L { f (t )} = L {sin t}

Then, from example 3:

1
s +1
= F (s)
=

By equation (1.7) we have

thus

{
L {

L 0
t

} F s(s)
1
sin u du} =
s ( s + 1)
f (u ) du =

(1.8)

We can check this by evaluating the integral in (1.8).

L 0

} {[ cos u ] }
t

sin u du = L

= L { cos t + 1}

= L {cos t} + L {1}
s
1
+
s +1 s
s2 + s2 + 1

=
=
=

MAT3700

s ( s 2 + 1)
1

s ( s + 1)
2

which agrees with our previous result.

15

SELF TEST: MODULE 2 (UNIT 1)

(Solutions on myUNISA)
Time: 53 minutes

Marks: 35

L{(t2 + 1)2}

1.

Evaluate

2.

Find the Laplace transforms of

(a)

e -2t cos3t

(5)

(b)

2e3tsin4t

(5)

L{sin t} =

3.

If

4.

Find:

5.

(4)

1
, find
s +1
2

L {sin5t} using the change of scale property.

(5)

(a)

L{t 4e4t}

(2)

(b)

L{t2 cos t}

(6)

If f (t) = sin2t, evaluate

L{f "(t)}.

(8)

[35]

MAT3700

16

MODULE 2
UNIT 2
INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
CONTENTS

PAGE

2.1

THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

18

2.2

PROPERTIES OF THE INVERSE LAPLACE

TRANSFORM

21

2.2.1

Linearity property

21

2.2.2

First translation or shifting property

23

2.2.3

Second translation or shifting property

23

2.2.5

Multiplication of sn

24

2.2.6

Division by s

25

2.2.7 The Convolution Property

2.3

26

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF DERIVATIVES

27

2.4

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF INTEGRALS

28

MAT3700

17

Unit 2

Outcome
To find the corresponding
function in t, given the Laplace
transform of the function.

MAT3700

18

2.1

If

THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

L{f (t)} = F(s) = 0

then f (t) =

e st f (t ) dt is the Laplace transform of a function f (t),

L-1 {F(s)} is called the inverse Laplace transform where L-1 is the inverse

transform operator.
For example, since L{eat} =

1
, the inverse transform is
sa

L 1

1
at
=e .
s a

The inverse transform f (t) of a given F(s) is unique in all the examples we will deal with.
For real values of s we have to refer to a table of commonly occurring functions and their
Laplace transforms, to find that function f (t) whose transform is the given function F(s).
Therefore given a transform, we can write down the corresponding function in t, provided we
can recognise it from a table of transforms. In practice, however, this is not always easy,
since F(s) is often a complicated function, which does not appear in the table in its given
form. We then have to rewrite it as one or more "standard" functions which are listed in the
table.

MAT3700

19

Table 1: Table of Laplace Transforms

L-1 {F(s)}

1.

f(t) =
1

2.

3.

tn

4.

eat

5.

sin at

6.

cos at

7.

sinh at

8.

cosh at

9.

t n eat

10.

t sin at

F(s) = L{ f (t)}
1
s
1
s2
n!
s n +1
1
sa
a
2
s + a2
s
2
s + a2
a
2
s a2
s
2
s a2
n!
( s a ) n +1
2as

(s
11.

t cos at

t cosh at
eat sin bt

15.

e cos bt

MAT3700

s> a
s> a
s>a
s>0

s> a

s> a

2 2

s>a
+b

sa

(s a)

s>0

2 2

(s a)
at

s>0

s2 + a2
2

s>a

s>0

+ a2 )

s>0

2as

(s
14.

t sinh at

(s
13.

+a

s>0

2 2

s2 a2

(s
12.

s>0

+b

s>a
2

20

2.2

PROPERTIES OF THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

To all the properties of the Laplace transform discussed in the previous unit, there correspond
properties of the inverse transform. These are listed below, with one useful addition, viz. the
convolution property.

2.2.1

Linearity property

If F1(s) and F2(s) are the Laplace transforms of f1(t) and f2(t) respectively, then

L 1{c1 F1 ( s) + c2 F2 ( s)}
= c1L 1{ F1 ( s )} + c2 L1 { F2 ( s )}
= c1 f1 (t ) + c2 f 2 (t )
where c1 and c2 are constants.
This result holds for any number of functions.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the inverse transform of F ( s ) =

5s + 4
.
s3

SOLUTION
There is nothing in the table which resembles F(s) in the given form, so we rewrite it as
F (s) =

5 4
+
s 2 s3

By linearity property we then have

L 1 5s +3 4 = 5L 1 12 + 4L 1 13
s

Referring to the table, we see from no.2 that

L 1 13 = t
s

(2.1)

L 1 12 = t
s

and from no.3 that

2!

Thus equation (2.1) becomes

L 1 5s +3 4 = 5t + 2t 2
s

MAT3700

21

MAT3700

22

2.2.2

If

First translation or shifting property

L 1{F ( s)} =

f (t ) , then

L 1{F ( s a)} = eat f (t )

EXAMPLE 2
Find

3
( s 3)

L 1

SOLUTION
Let F ( s ) =

2
, then by no. 3 of the table,
s3

By the first translation property

L 1{F ( s)} = t 2 .

3t 2
=e t
3
( s 3)

L 1

where the function of s has become a function of s a, which in this case is (s 3).
2.2.3

If

Second translation or shifting property

L 1{F ( s)} =

f (t ) , then

L 1{e as F ( s)} =

f (t a )

t > a

t <a

EXAMPLE 3
Find

se 2 s

2
s + 16

L 1

SOLUTION
Let F ( s ) =
Then
and

s
s + 16
2

L 1 {F ( s)} = cos 4t
s cos 4(t 2)
=
0
s + 16

L 1 e as

MAT3700

(no. 6 of table 1)
t > 2
t < 2

23

2.2.4

If

Change of Scale Property

L 1 {F ( s)} =

f (t ) , then

t
f
a a

L 1 {F (as)} = 1

EXAMPLE 4
Find

L 1

2s

2
4s + 4

SOLUTION
Let F ( s ) =
Then
and so

s
s +4
2

L 1 {F ( s)} = cos 2t

L 1

2s

( 2 s )

(no. 6 of table 1)

1
= L { F (2 s )}
+ 4
1
2t
= cos
2
2
1
= cos t
2

where we have used the change of scale property.

2.2.5

If

Multiplication of sn

L 1 {F ( s)} =

f (t ) and f(0) = 0, then

L 1 {sF ( s)} =

d
f (t ) = f '(t )
dt

This result follows from taking the inverse transform of equation (1.6) of unit 1, and it can be
generalised to

L-1{sn F(s)}.

EXAMPLE 5
If

L 1

2
= sin 2t find
s + 4
2

MAT3700

L 1

2s

s + 4
2

24

SOLUTION
Since

L 1 {F (s)} = L 1

s + 4
= sin 2t
2

= f (t )
and f (0) = sin 0 = 0
we have

2s
2
1
= L s 2

s + 4
s + 4

L 1

d
( sin 2t )
dt
= 2 cos 2t
=

2.2.6

If

Division by s

L 1 {F ( s)} =

f (t ) , then

L 1 F ( s) = 0

f (u )du

Thus division by s (or multiplication by 1s ) has the effect of integrating f (t) from 0 to t.
Taking the inverse transform of equation (1.7) in unit 1 leads to the above result, which can
be generalised to

L 1 F (ns) = 0

.................. f (t ) dt n
0

EXAMPLE 6
Find

L 1

s ( s + 1)

SOLUTION
Let F ( s ) =
Then, since

1
s +1

L 1 {F (s)} = L 1

s + 1

= et
= f (t )

MAT3700

25

L 1 F ( s) = L 1

it follows that

s ( s + 1)

= e u du
0

where the function of t has become the same function of u, so that

L 1

1
u t
= e 0
s ( s + 1)
= e t + 1
= 1 et

2.2.7

If

The Convolution Property

L 1 {F (s)} =

f (t ) and
t

L 1 {F ( s)} G ( s) = 0

L 1 {G ( s)} = g (t ) , then

f (u ) g (t u )du = f * g

where f * g is called the convolution of f (t) and g(t).

This property gives us a method of finding the inverse transform of a product.

EXAMPLE 7
Find

( s 2 )( s + 3)

L 1

SOLUTION
If we let F ( s ) =

1
1
and G ( s ) =
, then by no. 4 of the table
s2
s+3

L 1 {F ( s)} = L 1

1
and
s 2

L 1{G (s)} = L 1

s + 3

= e2t

= e 3t

= f (t )

= g (t )

On using the convolution property we have

L 1{F ( s)G ( s)} = 0

f (u ) g (t u ) du

= e 2u .e 3( t u ) du
0

where f (t) has become the same function of u, and g(t) the same function of (t u).

MAT3700

26

5 u 3t
du
= 0 e
s
s

+
2
3
(
)(
)

t
1
= e5u 3t
0
5
1
= ( e 2t e 3t )
5

Thus

L 1

2.3

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF DERIVATIVES

If

L 1 {F ( s)} =

f (t ) , then

L 1 { f ( n ) ( s)} = L 1 d n F (s)
ds
= (1) n t n f (t )

(2.2)

This result follows directly from section 1.2.5 of unit 1 where it was stated that

L {t n f (t )} = ( 1)n

dn
F ( s)
ds n

Taking the inverse transform of this gives equation (2.2). For n = 1 we have

L 1 {F '( s)} = t f (t )
EXAMPLE 8
If

L 1

1
3t
= e , find
s
3
+

3
( s + 3)

L 1

SOLUTION
d 1
1

=
ds s + 3 ( s + 3)2

and

Thus

2
d2 1
=
2
ds s + 3 ( s + 3)3

( s + 3)

1 d2 1

2 ds 2 s + 3

On taking the inverse transform of both sides we get

MAT3700

27

2
1
1
1 d
L
=
2

3
ds s + 3
( s + 3) 2
1
= (1) 2 t 2 e 3t
2

L 1

where we have used equation (2.2) with n = 2.

1 1 2 3t
= t e
3
( s + 3) 2

Thus

L 1

2.4

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF INTEGRALS

If

L 1{F ( s)} =

L 1 s

f (t ) then

F (u ) du =

f (t )
t

This follows from 1.2.6 of Unit 1 which states that

(2.3)

L f (t ) = s

F (u ) du .

Equation (2.3) is simply the inverse transform of this.

EXAMPLE 9
Find

du

0 u (u + 1)

SOLUTION
Let f (u ) =

1
1
so that F ( s ) =
u (u + 1)
s ( s + 1)

In example 6 we found that

Thus

L 1 s

L 1

F (u ) du = L

1
t
= 1 e = f (t )
s ( s + 1)

1
du
s
u (u + 1)

f (t )
t
1 et
=
t
=

MAT3700

28

EXAMPLE 10
Find the inverse Laplace transform of

F (s) =

7s 6
s s6
2

SOLUTION
Since s2 s 6 = (s 3) (s + 2) we can express F(s) in partial fractions.
7s 6
A
B
=
+
( s 3)( s + 2) s 3 s + 2

Let

We multiply both sides of equation by (s 3) (s + 2) to get

7s 6 = A (s + 2) + B(s 3)
= (A + B) s + (2A 3B)
Equating coefficients of like terms gives
s terms:

7=A+B
A=7B
6 = 2A 3B

constant terms:

= 2(7 B) 3B
-20 = -5B
B=4
and

A=3
7s 6
s s6
3
4
=
+
s3 s +2

F (s) =

Thus

We can now use the linearity property. Each term is easily recognisable as the transform of
an exponential function (see table, no. 4) and hence the inverse transform is
7s 5
3t
2 t
= 3e + 4e
s s 6

L 1

EXAMPLE 11
Find the inverse transform of:

F (s) =

MAT3700

2s + 1
( s + 1)( s 2 + 1)
29

SOLUTION
2s + 1
A
Bs + C
=
+ 2
2
( s + 1)( s + 1) s + 1 s + 1

Let

Since the second partial fraction has a denominator of second degree, we assume the
numerator to have the form Bs + C.

On multiplying both sides of the equation by

(s + 1) (s2 + 1) we obtain
2 s + 1 = A( s 2 + 1) + ( Bs + C )( s + 1)
= ( A + B)s 2 + ( B + C )s + ( A + C )

Equating coefficients of like terms gives

s2 terms:

A+B=0
B=A

s terms:

2=B+C
2 = A + C

constant terms:

1=A+C

C=

hence

Thus F ( s ) =

3
1
, A = and
2
2

B=

1
2

1
s+3
+
2( s + 1) 2( s 2 + 1)

1 1 1 s 3 1
=
+
+

2 s + 1 2 s2 + 1 2 s2 + 1

and

L 1 {F (s)} = 1 L 1
2

1 1 1 s 3 1 1
+ L 2
+ L 2

s + 1 2
s + 1 2
s + 1

The inverse transforms of these partial fractions are found from the table, and we obtain

2s + 1
1 t 1
3
= e + cos t + sin t
2
2
2
2
( s + 1)( s + 1)

L 1

MAT3700

1
(cos t + 3sin t e t )
2

30

EXAMPLE 12
Find the inverse transform of F ( s ) =

4s 2 4s + 2
( s 1)3

SOLUTION
Since F(s) has the repeated factor (s 1)3 for its denominator, the corresponding partial
fractions must have s 1, (s 1)2 and (s 1)3 as denominators.

Let

4s 2 4s + 2

( s 1)

A
B
C
+
+
2
s 1 ( s 1)
( s 1)3

Multiplying both sides of the equation by (s 1)3 leads to

4 s 2 4 s + 2 = A( s 1) 2 + B( s 1) + C
= A( s 2 2 s + 1) + B( s 1) + C
= As 2 + (2 A + B) s + ( A B + C )
We equate coefficients of like terms to get
s2 terms:

A=4

s terms:

4 = 2A + B
=8+B
B=4
2=AB+C

constant terms:

2=44+C
C=2

F (s) =

Therefore

and

4
4
2
+
+
2
s 1 ( s 1)
( s 1)3

L 1 {F ( s)} = 4L 1

1
+ 4L
s 1

1
+ 2L

2
( s 1)

3
( s 1)

We now use the table to find that

L 1 4s

4s + 2
2 t
t
t
= 4e + 4te + t e
(2 1)3
2

= et (4 + 4t + t 2 )
= et (t + 2) 2
Remember when resolving a function into partial fractions that you must find the prime
factors of the denominator.
MAT3700

31

1
is not in prime factors, since (s2 1) = (s 1)(s + 1). When the
( s + 2)( s 2 1)

For example

denominator for F(s) has no real factors, the use of the partial fraction method would involve
the use of complex algebra. Instead, if we can, we write the denominator as the sum or
difference of two squares.
For example: s 2 + 2 s + 5 = ( s 2 + 2 s + 1) + 4
= ( s + 1) 2 + 4
s 2 8s 9 = ( s 2 8s + 16) 25
= ( s 4) 2 25

The numerator of F(s) is then expressed in terms of the same function of s (in the above
examples (s + 1) and (s 4)). The first translation property now enables us to remove an
exponential factor e t and eut above), and the transform of what remains can easily be found
from the table.

EXAMPLE 13
Find

2s + 1

s + 4 s + 13

L 1

SOLUTION
Since the denominator has no real factors we write it as
s 2 = 4 s + 13 = ( s + 2) 2 + 9

which is the sum of two squares. Next we express the numerator in terms of s + 2 as well,
thus obtaining
2s + 1
2s + 1
1
=L

2
s + 4 s + 13
( s + 2) + 9

L 1

2s + 4 3
= L 1

2
( s + 2) + 9
2( s + 2) 3
= L 1

2
( s + 2) + 9
= L 1 { F ( s + 2)}
On using the first translation or shifting property this becomes

MAT3700

32

L 1 {F (s + 2)} = e2t L 1 22s 3

s + 9

3
s
1
= e 2t 2L 1 2
L 2
by the linearity property.
s + 9
s + 9

We now use the table to obtain

2s + 1
2t
= e ( 2 cos 3t sin 3t )
s + 4 s + 13

L 1

EXAMPLE 14
Find

1 5s

s + 2s 3

L 1

SOLUTION
Using the method described above of expressing both numerator and denominator in terms of
the same function (s a) we obtain

1 5s
1 5s
1
=L

2
s + 2s 3
( s + 1) 4

L 1

6 5( s + 1)
= L 1

2
( s + 1) 4
6 5s
= e t L 1 2

s 4
where e-t has been removed by virtue of the first translation property.
Use the linearity property to write
2
s
6 5s
t
1
1
e t L 1 2
= e 3L 2
5L 2

s 4
s 4
s 4

and from the table we find that

1 5s
t
= e (3sinh 2t 5cosh 2t )
+

s
2
s
3

L 1

Sometimes the removal of some power of s or

1
s

, will leave F(s) in a form which can be more

easily handled. From unit 1 we use the facts that

then

L 1 {F ( s)} =
L 1 {sF ( s)} =

and

L 1 F (s) = 0

If

MAT3700

f (t )
f '(t )
t

f (u ) du

33

EXAMPLE 15
Find

s2

2
2
( s + 4 )

SOLUTION

= t sin at
2
2
2
( s + a )

From the table we see that

L 1

so that

L 1

t sin at
s
=
2 2
2a
(s + a )

Let F ( s ) =

Then

2as

s
( s + 4) 2
2

{F ( s)} = L 2
2
( s + 4 )
t sin 2t
=
4
= f (t )
1

L {sF ( s)} = L
1

It follows that

s2

2
2
( s + 4 )

d
f (t )
dt
d t sin 2t
=

dt 4
1
= ( sin 2t + 2t cos 2t )
4
=

EXAMPLE 16
Find

s
5
( s + 1)

L 1

SOLUTION

1 t 4 et
=
5
4!
( s + 1)

L 1

MAT3700

t 4 et
24

34

Let F ( s ) =
Then

1
( s + 1)5

1
5
( s + 1)

L 1 {F ( s)} = L 1
t 4 et
24
= f (t )
=

Thus

s
5
( s + 1)

L 1 {sF (s)} = L 1

d
f (t )
dt
d t 4e t
=

dt 24
e t
=
( 4t 3 t 4 )
24
=

EXAMPLE 17
Find

1
2
s ( s + 1)

L 1

SOLUTION
Let F ( s ) =

1
( s + 1) 2

then from the table we find that

1
2
( s + 1)

L 1 {F ( s)} = L 1
= te t
= f (t )

Thus

1
2
s ( s + 1)

L 1 F (s) = L 1
s

f (u ) du

= ue u du
0

The integrand is the product of two functions of u, so we have to integrate by parts.

dg
df
To refresh your memory. Integration by parts:
du = fg
du
f
g
du

du

MAT3700

35

In our example we put f = u and

df
= 1 and g = e u
du

Thus

Thus

dg
= eu
du

1
= ue u ( e u ) du
2
0
s ( s + 1)

L 1

= te t e u
0
= te t e t + 1
= 1 e t (1 + t )

EXAMPLE 18
Use the convolution property of the inverse transform to find

2
( s + 2) ( s 2)

L 1

SOLUTION
Let F ( s ) =

1
1
and G ( s ) =
2
s2
( s + 2)

so that

L 1 {F ( s)} = te2t

and

L 1 {G ( s)} = e2t

= f (t )

= g (t )

Then, by the convolution property,

t

L 1 {F ( s)G (s)} = 0

f (u ) g (t u ) du

= u e 2u e 2( t u ) du
0

= u e 2t 4u du
0

Again it is necessary to integrate by parts.

If we put f = u and
Then

dg
= e 2t 4u
du

df
1
= 1 and g = e 2t 4u
du
4

MAT3700

36

Thus

t
1
1
{F ( s)G ( s)} = u e2t 4u 0 e2t 4u du
4
0
4

= t e

e2t 4u
16
0

2 t

16

= t e 2 t
Thus

e 2t +

1
16

e 2t

1 2t
1
2 t
2 t
= ( e e 4t e )
2
( s + 2) ( s 2) 16

L 1

You may remember that sinh at =

1 at
(e e at ) , so that the above result can also be written as
2

1
1
2 t
= (sinh 2t 2te )
2
8
(
2)
(
2)
+

s
s

L 1

This example can also be done by using partial fractions.

Let

1
A
B
C
=
+
+
2
( s + 2) ( s 2) s + 2 s + 2 s 2

Then A =
Thus

1
1
1
, B= , C=
16
4
16

1
1
=
2
16
( s + 2) ( s 2)

L 1

L 1

1 1

s + 2 4

1 1 1 1
+ L

2
s 2
( s + 2) 16

L 1

1 2t 1
1
e t e 2t + e2t
16
4
16
1
= ( e 2t e 2t 4t e 2t )
16
=

which agrees with our previous result.

MAT3700

37

SELF-TEST: MODULE 2 (UNIT 2)

(Solutions on myUNISA)
Time: 108 Minutes
1.

Find the following:

(a)

L 1

(b)

L 1 26

(2)

(c)

L 1 4s 18
2

(4)

(d)

L 1

s + 16

If

3.

Find:

(2)

9s

s ( s + 9)

L 1

2.

4.

Marks: 72

(4)

1 sinh at
=
, show that
2
a
s a
2

t sinh at
s
=
2 2
2a
(s a )

L 1

(6)

6
4
( s + 3)

(a)

L 1

(b)

L 1

(c)

L 1

(d)

L 1

(e)

L 1 4s(2s

(4)

s+4

s + 5s + 6

(12)

3s 2

s 4s + 8

(7)

s ( s 1)

(7)

9)
2
( s + 9)
2

(8)

Use the convolution property of the inverse transform to show that

L 1 2 1 = et t 1
s ( s 1)

(16)
[72]

MAT3700

38

MODULE 2
UNIT 3
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
CONTENTS

PAGE

3.1

THE UNIT STEP FUNCTION

40

3.2

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE UNIT STEP

FUNCTION

41

3.3

THE UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION

44

3.4

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE UNIT IMPULSE

FUNCTION

46

3.5

THE UNIT RAMP FUNCTION

50

3.6

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE UNIT RAMP

FUNCTION

3.7

50

TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF

SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

MAT3700

51

38

Unit 3

Outcomes
To find Laplace transforms of the
unit step, Dirac delta and unit
ramp functions

MAT3700

39

3.1

THE UNIT STEP FUNCTION

One of the main advantages of the Laplace transform in solving differential equations is the
ability to handle discontinuous functions.

These occur in problems where stimuli are

suddenly applied, such as when a switch is opened or closed. they are also to be found in
problems on discontinuous loading in beams where, for example, a load is uniformly
distributed over one section of a beam, with no load on the remainder.
To deal with this type of problem where a "step discontinuity" is involved, we use the unit
step function U(t), also called Heaviside's unit function H(t) , which is defined as
0 when t < 0
U (t ) = H ( t ) =
1 when t > 0

(3.1)

1
0

t
Figure 1

U(t) has a unit step discontinuity at t = 0.

t < a
t > a

0
U (t a ) =
1

From the definition it follows that:

Therefore U(t a) is a unit step function with step at t = a.

1
0

t
a

Figure 2

It is clear that U(t a) is the function obtained by shifting U(t) a distance a along the positive
t-axis.

MAT3700

40

3.2

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE UNIT STEP FUNCTION

By

definition

{U (t a) =

the

Laplace

e stU (t a ) dt

transform

of

U(t

a)

is

given

by

Since U(t a) has the value 0 when t < a and 1 when t > a it follows that

e stU (t a ) dt =

e st (1)dt + e st (0) dt
0

st

dt

e st
=

s a

e s a
= 0

Thus

L {U (t a)} = e

and

as

(3.2)

e as

= U (t a )
s

(3.3)

Putting a = 0 in (3.2) and (3.3) gives

L {U (t )} = 1

s
1
L 1 = U (t )
s

EXAMPLE 1
e t
Write the function f (t ) =
0

t <3
t >3

in terms of the unit step function and find L {f (t)}.

SOLUTION
In its given form f (t) does not represent a unit step function. If we subtract e-t from both
sides of the equation we get

MAT3700

41

e t e t
f (t ) e =
t
0 e

t<3
t >3

= 0
t
e

t<3
t >3

0
= e t
1

t <3
t >3

This is a unit step function, with step discontinuity of magnitude - e-t at t = 3.

Thus

f (t ) e t = e tU (t 3)
f (t ) = e t e tU (t 3)

We now take Laplace transforms of both sides to obtain:

L { f (t )} = L {et etU (t 3)}

= L {e t } L {e t U (t 3)}

1
e st e tU (t 3) dt
s +1 0
3

1
=
e st e t (1)dt e st (0)dt
3
0
s +1

1
=
e ( s +1) t dt
3
s +1

e ( s +1) t
1
=

s + 1 ( s + 1) 3
=

1
33( s +1)

s + 1 ( s + 1)

1 e 3( s +1)
s +1

EXAMPLE 2
Express the following function in terms of unit step functions. Hence find the Laplace
transform of f (t):
0

f (t ) = 2
0

t <a
a <t < b
t > b

SOLUTION
f (t) may be represented graphically as follows:

MAT3700

42

Figure 3
[ This function is called a pulse of duration (b a), magnitude 2 and strength 2(b a). The
strength of a pulse is the product of its magnitude and duration, i.e. the area under the graph.]
We would like to express f (t) in terms of the unit step function. We begin by introducing
step functions at each point where there is a kink or jump in the graph. In this case at t = a
and t = b. At each jump we will add in the new behaviour and subtract the old behaviour.
f ( t ) = ( 2 0 )U ( t a ) + ( 0 2 )U ( t b )
= 2U ( t a ) 2U ( t b )

(3. 4)

= 2 U ( t a ) U ( t b )

[ In general a pulse is defined by f (t ) = k [U (t a ) U (t b) ] where (b a) is the duration

and k the magnitude. ]
We now take Laplace transforms of both sides of equation (3.4), obtaining

L { f (t )} = L {2 [U (t a) U (t b)]}
= 2L {U (t a )} 2L {U (t b)}
2e as 2e bs

s
s
as
e e bs
= 2
s >0
s

MAT3700

43

U(t a) can be written in another form using the second translation or shifting property of the
inverse transform which states that if
then

L 1 {F ( s)} =

0
f ( t a )

L 1 {e as F ( s)} =

t < a
t > a

t<a

0
We also have f (t a )U (t a ) = f (t a )
1
0
=
f (t a )

from which it follows that

f (t )

L 1 {e as F ( s)} =

t > a
t < a
t > a

f (t a )U (t a )

and e as F ( s ) = L { f (t a )U (t a )}

EXAMPLE 3
Find

s
2 s

L 1 e 2

SOLUTION
Let F ( s ) =

1
1
so that L 1 { F ( s )} = L 1 2
2
s
s
=t
= f (t )

In this example a = 2 so that f(t a) = f (t 2), and we obtain

3.3

= (t 2)U (t 2) .
s
2 s

L 1 e 2

THE UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION

A pulse of very large magnitude and infinitesimally short duration (but of finite strength) is
called an impulse. For example, in mechanics we use the term when speaking of a large
force which acts for a very short time, but produces a finite change in momentum. It is also
used in beam problems where a concentrated load acts at a point, thus giving a very great
load intensity.

MAT3700

44

Let f x (t ) =
0

0t
t >

represent a pulse of duration from t = 0 to t = and of magnitude

t
Figure 4

As 0 the height of the rectangle increases indefinitely, while the width decreases in such
a way that the strength of the pulse i.e. the area, is always equal to

1
= 1 . The limit of

f (t ) as 0 is denoted by the Dirac delta (t) and we call this limiting function the unit

impulse or Dirac delta function. It represents an impulse of unit strength at t = 0.

(t) has the following properties:
(a)

(b)

(c)

(t ) dt = 1

(t ) g (t ) dt = g (0)
(t a ) g (t ) dt = g ( a ) where g(t) is any continuous function.

Since f ( t ) is a pulse of magnitude

1
and duration it can be expressed in terms of unit

step functions (see example 2) as f (t ) =

Hence (t ) = lim f (t ) = lim
0

MAT3700

1
[U (t ) U (t ]

([U (t ) U (t ])

45

A unit impulse at t = a is represented by (t a) where

( t a ) = lim f (t a )
0

And f (t a ) =
0

3.4

a t a+
t > a+

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION

In order to evaluate the Laplace transform of (t a) we first find the Laplace transform of

f (t a) and then take the limit of this as 0, i.e.

L {(t a)} = lim

L { f (t a)}
0
By definition:

L { f (t a ) } = 0

e st f (t a ) dt

a +

a +

e st (0)dt +

a +

e st

1
dt

e st
dt

a +

e st
=

s a
=
=

e s ( a + ) e s
s
as
e ( e s 1)

L { f (t a)} = e
And

as

s
(1 e s )
s

L {(t a)} = lim

L { f (t a)}
0
1 e s
= e as lim

0
s

MAT3700

46

 1 e s
But lim
0
s

0
= , which is an indeterminate form, so we use L'Hospital's rule,
0

obtaining:

1 e s
lim
0
s

(1 e s )

= lim d
0 d (s)
d

s e s
= lim
0
s
= lim e s

=1
Then

L {(t a)} = lim

L { f (t a)}
0
= e as

Setting a = 0 in this equation, we find that

L {(t )} = lim
L { f (t )}
0
=1
The inverse transforms are ( t a ) = L 1 {e as }
And ( t ) = L 1 {1}

EXAMPLE 4
Show f (t 3) graphically and find

L {(t 3)} .

SOLUTION
The function f (t 3) is defined as
1

f (t 3) =
0

MAT3700

3 t 3+
t > 3+

47

3 3+
Figure 5

Now (t 3) = lim f ( t 3)
0

and since

L { ( t a )} = e as

it follows that

L {(t 3)} = e3s

EXAMPLE 5
Find

L {(t 1) ( t 1)}

SOLUTION

L {( t 1) ( t 1)} = lim
L {( t 1) f (t 1)}
0
1

where f ( t 1) =
0
Then

1 t 1+
t > 1+

L {( t 1) f ( t 1)} = 0

1+

e st ( t 1) f ( t 1) dt
e st
( t 1) dt

Since the integrand is the product of two functions of t, we have to integrate by parts.
Let f = (t 1) and

MAT3700

dg e sst
=

dt
48

Then
Thus

df
e st
= 1 and g =
s
dt

1+

s 1

L {( t 1) ( f ( t 1) )} = ( t 1) e

st

1+

e st
dt
s

1+

e s (1+ ) e st
=
2
s
s 1
=

e s (1+ ) e s (1+ ) e s

s
s2

In the limit as 0 this becomes

L {( t 1) ( t 1)} = lim
L {( t 1) f ( t 1)}
0
e s (1+ ) e s (1+ ) e s
= lim

0
s
s2

s
s (1+ )
s
e
e
e
=
lim

2
0

s
s

The term in brackets has the indeterminate form

0
so we use L'Hospital's rule to obtain
0

s (1+ )
e s )
dx ( e
e s (1+ ) e s
lim

= lim
0
d 2
s2

s
( )

d
se s (1+ )
= lim

2
0
s

s
e
=
s

Thus

L {( t 1) ( t 1)} = e

e s
s

=0

Remember that to find

L{( t a)} we must first evaluate L{f(t a)} and then take the

limit as 0 , that is

L { ( t a )} = lim
L { f ( t a )}
0

MAT3700

49

3.5

THE UNIT RAMP FUNCTION

The unit ramp function R(t a) is defined as

t a

0
R (t a ) =
t a

t > a

1
1
45

a
Figure 6

3.6

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE UNIT RAMP FUNCTION

By definition we have

L {R ( t a )} = 0

e st R(t a )dt
a

e st ( t a ) dt + e st (0)dt
0

= lim e (t a )dt
st

B a

We integrate by parts, putting

f = t a and
Then is

dg
= e st
dt

df
e st
= 1 and g =
dt
s

B
st

B e
e st

dt
Thus L { R ( t a )} = lim ( t a )

a
B
s a
s

e sB e st

= lim ( B a )

B
s s 2 a

as
e
= 2
s

MAT3700

50

EXAMPLE 6
Express the function in terms of the unit ramp function, and hence find the Laplace transform
of f (t):
0
f (t ) =
4t 12

t 3
t >3

SOLUTION
0
f (t ) =
4 ( t 3)
0
= 4
t 3

t 3
t >3
t 3
t >3

= 4 R (t 3)

L { f (t )} = 4L {R(t 3)}
4e 3 s
= 2
s

3.7

TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF SPECIAL

FUNCTIONS

The following table is a summary of the results of this unit:

MAT3700

f (t)

L{f (t)}

U(t)

1
s

U(t a)

e as
s

(t)

(t a)

e-as

R(t a)

e as
s2

51

SELF-TEST: MODULE 2 (UNIT 3)

(Solutions on myUNISA)
Time: 40 minutes

1.

Marks: 28

1
Write the function f (t ) =
0

t < 2
t > 2

in terms of the unit step function and hence find L{f (t)}.

(6)

2.

e 2 t
Find the Laplace transform of f (t ) =
0

(9)

3.

Express f (t ) = 6
0

t <1
t >1

t <3
3<t <5
t >5

in terms of the unit step function and find L{f (t)}.

4.

Write the function f (t ) =

0

(5)

2 t 2+

t >

in terms of the unit impulse function and find its Laplace transform.

5.

2
Write the function f (t ) =
t

(4)

t 2
t> 2

in terms of the unit ramp function and find L{f (t)}.

(4)

[28]

MAT3700

52

MODULE 2
UNIT 4
APPLICATIONS
CONTENTS
4.1

PAGE

SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS USING

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

MAT3700

55

53

Unit 4

Outcome
To solve differential equations
using Laplace transforms

MAT3700

54

4.1

SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS USING

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Laplace transforms can also be used to solve differential equations.

We will use the

following results from unit 1 :

If

L{f(t)} = F(s)

then

L{f '(t)} = sF(s) f (0)

and

L{f "(t)} = s2F(s) s f (0) f

(4.1)
'(0)

(4.2)

Consider the second order linear differential equation

P1

d2y
dy
+ P2
+ P3 y = f (t )
2
dx
dx

or

P1 y "(t ) + P2 y '(t ) + P3 y (t ) = f (t )

(4.3)

where P1, P2 and P3 are constants. Suppose we are asked to solve this equation subject to the
initial or boundary conditions, y (0) = A and y '(0) = B where A and B are given constants.

On taking Laplace transforms of both sides of equation (4.3) we obtain

P1L { y "(t )} + P2 L { y '(t )} + P3L { y (t )} = L { f (t )}

Let

L { y (t )} = Y ( s)

(4.4)

(4.5)

By equations (4.1) and (4.2) it follows that

and

L { y '(t )} = sY ( s) y (0)

(4.6)

L { y "(t )} = s 2Y ( s) sy (0) y '(0)

(4.7)

Equation (4.4) thus becomes

P1 ( s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y '(0) ) + P2 ( sY ( s ) y (0) ) + P3Y ( s ) = F ( s )

and substitution of the initial conditions gives
P1 ( s 2Y ( s ) sA B ) + P2 ( sY ( s ) A ) + P3Y ( s ) = F ( s )
This is an algebraic equation from which we can determine Y(s) that is.
MAT3700

55

Y ( s) =

F ( s ) + P1 ( As + B ) + P2 A
P1 s 2 + P2 s + P3

The required solution is then obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform to find

L 1{Y ( s)} = y (t )
The above method can be extended to differential equations of higher order.
And for first order differential equations P1 = 0 and so
Y ( s) =

F ( s ) + P2 A
P2 s + P3

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the differential equation

d2y
+ y = t given the initial conditions
dt 2

y (0) = 0 and y '(0) = 1

These conditions are also sometimes written as: y = 0 and

dy
= 1 when t = 0.
dt

SOLUTION
We take Laplace transforms of both sides of the given equation to obtain

L { y "(t )} + L { y (t )} = L {t}
On using equations (4.5) and (4.7) this becomes

s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y '(0) + Y ( s ) =

1
s2

(4.8)

where L{t} are found from the table of transforms.

Substitution of the initial values gives
1
s2
( s 2 + 1) Y (s) = s12 + 1
1 + s2
= 2
s
1 + s2
Y ( s) = 2
s (1 + s 2 )
1
= 2
s

s 2Y ( s ) 1 + Y ( s ) =

Thus the original differential equation has been transformed into the algebraic equation

MAT3700

56

Y (s) =

1
s2

We now take the inverse transform of each side, i.e.

L 1{Y (s)} = L 1 12
s

Using the table shows that y(t) = t

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation y '(t ) + 3 y (t ) = t given that y(0) = 1.

SOLUTION
On taking Laplace transforms of both sides we obtain

L { y '(t )} + 3L { y(t )} = L {t}

We now use equations (4.5) and (4.6) to get

sY ( s ) y (0) + 3Y ( s ) =

1
s2

Substitution of the initial values gives

1
s2
1
( s + 3)Y ( s ) = 2 + 1
s
1 + s2
= 2
s
1 + s2
Y (s) = 2
s ( s + 3)

sY ( s ) 1 + 3Y ( s ) =

Once again we have an algebraic equation giving Y(s) in terms of s, and the required solution
is obtained by taking the reverse transform of each side. In order to do this we express Y(s)
in partial fractions.
Let

1 + s2
A B
C
= + 2 +
2
s+3
s ( s + 3) s s

We multiply both sides of the equation by s2(s + 3) so that

MAT3700

57

1 + s 2 = As ( s + 3) + B ( s + 3) + Cs 2
= As 2 + 3 As + Bs + 3B + Cs 2
= ( A + C ) s 2 + (3 A + B ) s + 3B
Equating coefficients of like terms yields
constant terms:

1 = 3B
B=

s-terms:

1
3

0 = 3A + B
A=

s2-terms:

1
9

1=A+C
C=

10
9

1 + s2
s 2 ( s + 3)
1
1
10
= + 2 +
9 s 3s
9( s + 3)

Y (s) =

Thus

L 1 {Y (s)} = 1 L 1 1 + 1 L 1 12 + 10 L 1
9

s 3

s + 3

Referring to the table we find

L 1 1 = 1

s
L 1 12 = t
s

L 1

1
t
=e
s + 3

so that y (t ) =

10 3t t 1
e +
9
3 9

EXAMPLE 3
Solve the equation

MAT3700

d2y
dy
+ 2 + 3 y = e t sin t given y (0) = 0 and y '(0) = 1
2
dt
dt

58

SOLUTION
We take Laplace transforms of both sides of the given equation to obtain

L { y "(t )} + 2L { y '(t )} + 3L { y(t )} = L {et sin t}

Reference to the table shows that

L {sin t} =

1
s +1
2

so that by the first translation or shifting property

1
( s + 1) 2 + 1
1
= 2
s + 2s + 2

L {et sin t} =

Thus s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y '(0) + 2 sY ( s ) 2 y (0) + 3Y ( s ) =

1
s + 2s + 2
2

Using the given initial conditions we have

1
s + 2s + 2
( s 2 + 2s + 3) Y (s) = s 2 + 21s + 2 + 1
1 + s 2 + 2s + 2
= 2
s + 2s + 2
2
s + 2s + 3
= 2
s + 2s + 2
s 2 + 2s + 3
Y ( s) = 2
( s + 2s + 2 )( s 2 + 2s + 3)

s 2Y ( s ) 1 + 2 sY ( s ) + 3Y ( s ) =

=
=

1
s + 2s + 2
1
2

( s + 1)

+1

We now take the inverse transform of each side to obtain

2
( s + 1) + 1
1
= e t L 1 2

s + 1

L 1{Y (s)} = L 1

by the first translation property.

Using the table we find that the solution is

y (t ) = e t sin t

MAT3700

59

EXAMPLE 4
Solve the equation

d2 y
dy
+ 2 + y = e x
2
dx
dx

subject to the initial conditions y(0) = 0 and y '(0) = 0.

SOLUTION
In this example the independent variable is x, so we use x instead of t in defining the Laplace
transform, that is we put
Y ( s) =

e sx f ( x )dx

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the given equation we have

L { y "( x)} + 2L { y '( x)} + L { y( x)} = L {e x }

Thus s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y '(0) + 2 sY ( s ) 2 y (0) + Y ( s ) =

1
s +1

and substituting the initial values

1
s +1
( s 2 + 2s + 1) Y (s) = s 1+ 1

s 2Y ( s ) + 2 sY ( s ) + Y ( s ) =

Y (s) =
=

( s + 1) ( s

1
2

+ 2 s + 1)

1
( s + 1)3

We now take the inverse transform of each side to get

1
3
( s + 1)

L 1 {Y (s)} = L 1

The table shows that

x 2 e x
=
3
2
( s + 1)

L 1

and the required solution is y ( x) =

MAT3700

x 2 e x
2

60

EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equation y "(t ) 9 y (t ) = 6sinh 3t , given y (0) = 0 and y '(0) = 4 .

SOLUTION
We take Laplace transforms of both sides of the equation obtaining

L { y "(t )} 9L { y (t )} = 6L {sinh 3t}

3
s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y '(0) 9Y ( s ) = 6 2

s 9

from which we get

Substitution of the initial values gives

3
s 2Y ( s ) 4 9Y ( s ) = 6 2

s 9
( s 2 9 ) Y (s) = s 218 9 + 4
18 + 4 s 2 36
=
s2 9
4 s 2 18
Y ( s) =
2
( s2 9)
In order to take inverse transforms of this we shall have to rewrite the equation in a form
which appears in the table. Reference to the table shows that

s2 + 9
= t cosh 3t
2
2
( s 9 )

L 1

so we write the equation as

Y ( s) =

Thus

s 2 + 9 + 3s 2 27

(s

and

MAT3700

9)

s2 + 9

(s

L {Y ( s)} = L
1

9)

3( s2 9)

(s

9)

s +9
3
+ L 1 2
2

2
s 9
( s 9 )

y (t ) = t cosh 3t + sinh 3t

61

EXAMPLE 6
Solve the equation

d 2 y dy

2 y = t , given that y(0) = 0 and y '(0) = 0

dt 2 dt

SOLUTION
On taking Laplace transforms of each side we get

L { y "(t )} L { y '(t )} 2L { y(t )} = L {t}

s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y '(0) sY ( s ) + y (0) 2Y ( s ) =

1
s2

and we insert the given initial conditions to obtain

(s

s 2 ) Y ( s) =
Y ( s) =

1
s2
s

(s

1
2

s 2)

Since the denominator of Y(s) can be factorised we resolve it into partial fractions to enable
us to find the inverse transform.
Let

1
A B
C
D
= + 2 +
+
s +1 s 2
s ( s + 1)( s 2 ) s s
2

On multiplying both sides of the equation by s2(s +1) (s 2)

we obtain 1 = As ( s 2 s 2 ) + B ( s 2 s 2 ) + Cs 2 ( s 2) + Ds 2 ( s + 1)
= As 3 As 2 2 As + Bs 2 Bs 2 B + Cs 3 sCs 2 + Ds 3 + Ds 2
= ( A + C + D ) s 3 + ( A + B 2C + D ) s 2 + (2 A B ) s 2b

Equating coefficients of like terms gives:

s3-terms:

A+C+D=0

s2-terms:

A + B 2C + D = 0

s-terms:

2A B = 0

constant terms:

2B = 1

1
1
1
1
hence B = , A = , C = , D =
2
4
3
12
1
s ( s + 1)( s 2)
1
1
1
1
=
2
+
4s 2s
3( s + 1) 12( s 2)

Thus Y ( s ) =

MAT3700

62

and

L 1 {Y ( s)} = 1 L 1 1 1 L 1 12 1 L 1
4

s 3

1 1 1 1
+ L

s + 1 12
s 2

Reference to the table gives the solution:

y (t ) =

1 1
1
1
t e t + e 2t
4 2 3
12

EXAMPLE 7
Solve the equation y"(t) + 4y(t) = (t) , given y(0) = 0 and y'(0) = 1

SOLUTION
We have

L { y "(t )} + 4L { y(t )} = L {(t )}

Thus s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y '(0) + 4Y ( s ) = 1

and on substituting the initial conditions this becomes
s 2 Y(s) 1 + 4Y(s) = 1

so that ( s 2 + 4)Y ( s ) = 2
Y (s) =

Then

2
( s + 4)
2

L 1 {Y ( s)} = L 1

s + 4
2

y (t ) = sin 2t , t > 0

and

EXAMPLE 8
Solve the equation y "( x) 6 y '( x) + 9 y ( x) = 0 given that y(0) = 0 and y(1) = 1.

SOLUTION
Taking Laplace transforms of both sides we have

L { y "( x)} 6L { y '( x)} + 9L { y ( x)} = 0

Thus

s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y '(0) 6 sY ( s ) + 6 y (0) + 9Y ( s ) = 0

Since the value of y '(0) is not given, we write y '(0) = C and substitute for y(0) and y '(0) in
the above equation to get:

MAT3700

63

s 2Y ( s ) C 6 sY ( s ) + 9Y ( s ) = 0
( s 2 6 s + 9)Y ( s ) = C
C
s 6s + 9
C
=
( s 3) 2

Y ( s) =

Take the inverse transform of each side obtaining:

C
2
( s 3)

L 1 {Y ( s)} = L 1
Thus y ( x) = cxe3 x

To find the value of C we substitute the given initial condition y(1) = 1 in this equation to get:
1 = Ce3
C=

1
= e 3
3
e

The solution is therefore y ( x) = e3 e3 x

= xe3( x 1)

In all the examples so far worked out, initial or boundary conditions were supplied. These
enable us to find particular solutions of the given differential equations. However, you will
remember from earlier units that frequently initial conditions are not given, and we then have
to find the general solution of the equation. This solution contains arbitrary constants, equal
in number to the order of the equation.

EXAMPLE 9
Find the general solution of

d2 y
+ 16 y = 0
dt 2

SOLUTION
On taking Laplace transforms we get

L { y "(t )} + 16L { y (t )} = 0
Thus

s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y '(0) + 16Y ( s ) = 0

Let y(0) = a and y ' (0) = b

MAT3700

64

so that ( s 2 + 16 ) Y ( s ) = as + b

Y ( s) =
We therefore have

as + b
s 2 + 16

L 1 {Y ( s)} = L 1 as2 + b

If we put a = c1, and

s + 16
s b 1 4
= aL 1 2
+ L 2

s + 16 4
s + 16
b
= a cos 4t + sin 4t
4

b
= c2 , then the general solution of the given equation is
4
y (t ) = c1 cos 4t + c2 sin 4t

MAT3700

65

SELF-TEST: MODULE 2 (UNIT 4)

(Solutions on myUNISA)
Time: 75 minutes
1.

Marks: 51

Use Laplace transforms to solve the following differential equations:

(a)

d2 y
dy
+ 5 + 4 y = 0 given that y(0) = 0 and y '(0) = 2.
2
dt
dt

(b)

d2y
dy
+ 4 + 4 y = t 2 e 2t given that y (0) = 0 and y '(0) = 0.
2
dt
dt

(5)

(c)

y "(t ) y '(t ) 2 y (t ) = 4 given that y (0) = 1 and y '(0) = 6.

(12)

(d)

y "(t ) + y (t ) = t given that y (0) = 2 and y '(0) = 1.

(8)

(e)

y '( x) y ( x) = 1 given that y (0) = 0.

(8)

(f)

d2y
dy
+ 2 + 10 y = ( 25t 2 + 16t + 2 ) e3t given that y (0) = 0 and y '(0) = 0. (8)
2
dt
dt

(10)

[51]

MAT3700

66

MODULE 2
UNIT 5
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
CONTENTS
5.1

PAGE

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE LAPLACE

TRANSFORM

69

5.1.1

Application to electric circuits

69

5.1.2

Application to vibrating systems

73

5.1.3

Application to beams

77

MAT3700

67

Unit 5

OUTCOME
To solve practical problems
using Laplace transforms

MAT3700

68

5.1

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

In module 1 we studied some ways in which differential equations are used in engineering.
We discussed the solution of problems on electric circuits, vibrating systems and the
deflection of beams. We shall now see how the same type of problems can be solved using
Laplace transforms.
5.2.1

Application to electric circuits

The simple electric circuit shown below has an inductance L, resistance R and a capacitance
C, connected in series with an electromotive force E.
E

R
L

Figure 1
Let Q be the charge which flows to the capacitor plates when the switch is closed. Then by
Kirchoff`s second law
L

d 2Q
dQ 1
+R
+ Q=E
2
dt C
dt

By solving this equation, we can find the charge Q and also the current I, which is the rate of
flow of charge that is

I=

dQ
dt

EXAMPLE 1
An inductor of 1H, a resistor of 6 and a capacitor of 0,1F are connected in series with an
electromotive force of 20 sin2t volts. At t = 0 the charge on the capacitor and the current in
the circuit is zero. Find the charge and current at any time t > 0.

MAT3700

69

SOLUTION
We are required to solve the equation:
d 2Q
dQ
+6
+ 10 Q = 20sin 2t
2
dt
dt

given the initial values

Q(0) = 0 and Q '(0) = 0

Taking Laplace transforms on both sides of the equation we obtain

L{Q (t )} + 6L{Q (t )} + 10L{Q(t )} = 20L{sin 2t}

L{Q(t )} = q(s)
L{Q (t )} = 2q( s) Q(0)

Let
Then
and

L{Q (t )} = s 2 q( s) sQ(0) Q (0)

We therefore have

2
s 2 q ( s ) sQ(0) Q (0) + 6 sq ( s ) 6Q(0) + 10Q( s ) = 20 2

s +4
and substituting the given initial values leads to

( s 2 + 6 s + 10)q ( s ) =
q( s) =

so that

40
s +4
2

40
( s + 4)( s 2 + 6s + 10)
2

In order to find the inverse transform, we resolve q(s) into partial fractions.
Let

40
As + B
Cs + D
= 2
+ 2
2
( s + 4)( s + 6s + 10) s + 4 s + 6 s + 10
2

Multiplication of both sides by (s2 + 4) (s2 + 6s + 10) gives:

40 = ( As + B )( s 2 + 6 s + 10) + (Cs + D)( s 2 + 4)

= As 3 + 6 As 2 + 10 As + Bs 2 + 6 Bs + 10 B + Cs 3 + 4Cs + Ds 2 + 4 D
= ( A + C ) s 3 + (6 A + B + D) s 2 + (10 A = 6 B + 4C ) s + (10 B + 4 D)

MAT3700

70

We now equate coefficients of like terms to get:

s3-terms:

A+C=0

s2-terms:

6A + B + D = 0

s-terms:

10A + 6B + 4C = 0

Constant terms:

4
4
4
20
A = , B = , C = and D =
3
3
3
3

hence:

Thus

10B + 4D = 40

40
( s + 4)( s 2 + 6 s + 10)
4s + 4
4 s + 20
=
+
2
2
3( s + 4) 3( s + 6 s + 10)

q( s) =

4 s 2 2 4 ( s + 3) + 2
= 2

+
+
3 s + 4 3 s 2 + 4 3 ( s + 3) 2 + 1

and

s 2 1 2 4 1 ( s + 3) + 2
+ L 2
+ L

2
s + 4 3
s + 4 3
( s + 3) + 1

L1{q( s)} = 4 L1
3

4
2
4

1
s
1
= cos 2t + sin 2t + e 3t L 1 2
+ 2L 2

3
3
3
s + 1
s + 1

The solution is therefore

4
2
4
8
Q(t ) = cos 2t + sin 2t + e 3t cos t + e3t sin t
3
3
3
3
and

dQ
dt
8
4
4
28
= sin 2t + cos 2t e 3t cos t e 3t sin t
3
3
3
3

I (t ) =

For large values of t, those terms of Q and I which contain e-3t are negligible, and are called
the transient part of the solution. The remaining terms are called the steady-state part of the
solution. The transient terms of I, that is

4
28
e 3t cos t e3t sin t
3
3
vanish as t and the steady-state solution is

8
4
I = sin 2t + cos 2t
3
3
MAT3700

71

EXAMPLE 2
An inductor of 1H, a resistor of 4 and a capacitor of 0,5 F are connected in series with an
electromagnetic force of 100 volts.
At t = 0 the charge on the capacitor and the current in the circuit are zero. Find the charge
and the current at any time t > 0.

SOLUTION
Let Q and I be the instantaneous charge and current respectively at time t. By Kirchoff's
second law we have:
d 2Q
dQ
Q
+4
+
= 100
2
dt 0, 05
dt

or
d 2Q
dQ
+4
+ 20 Q = 100
2
dt
dt

with initial conditions

Q(0) = 0 and Q (0) = 0

Taking Laplace transforms, we find

L{Q (t )} + 4L{Q (t )} + 20L{Q(t )} = 100L{1}

Thus s 2 q ( s ) s Q(0) Q (0) + 4 s q( s ) 4 Q(0) + 20 q ( s ) =

100
s

which, on inserting the initial conditions, becomes

( s 2 + 4 s + 20)q ( s ) =

100
s

Q( s) =

so that
Let

100
A
Bs + C
= + 2
s ( s + 4 s + 20) s s + 4s + 20

Thus

100 = A( s 2 + 4 s + 20) + ( Bs + C ) s

100
s ( s + 4 s + 20)
2

= ( A + B ) s 2 + (4 A + C ) s + 20 A

MAT3700

72

Equating coefficients of like terms gives:

constant terms:

100 = 20A
A=5

s-terms:

0 = 4A + C
C = 20

s2-terms:

0=A+B
B = 5
q( s) =

Thus:

and

100
s ( s + 4 s + 20)
2

5
5s + 20
2
s s + 4 s + 20

5 5( s + 2) + 10

s ( s + 2) 2 + 16

L1{Q( s)} = 5L1 1 e2t L1 52s + 10

s + 16

s 5 1 4
= 5 e 2t 5L1 2
+ L 2

s + 16 2
s + 16

Thus

L1{Y (s)} = 1 L1
4

5
Q(t ) = 5 5e 2t cos 4t e 2t sin 4t
2

Thus
And

s 1 1 6
L 2

s + 36 3
s + 36
2

I (t ) = 10e 2t cos 4t + 20e2t sin 4t + 5e2t sin 4t 10e 2t cos 4t

= 25e 2t sin 4t

5.2.2

Application to vibrating systems

Suppose a mass m hangs in equilibrium from the lower end of a vertical spring. If it is given
a small vertical displacement, and then released, the mass will undergo vertical vibrations.
Let y(t) be the instantaneous displacement of m at time t.

MAT3700

73

Then the equation of motion of the system is:

m

where c

d2 y
dy
+ c + k y = f (t )
2
dt
dt

dy
is the damping force, proportional to the velocity of m and
dt

k y is the restoring force and f (t) is an external, variable force acting vertically on m.
Sometimes no damping and/or external forces are present, in which case

dy
= 0 and/or f (t ) = 0 .
dt

EXAMPLE 3
The equation of motion of a mass performing free vibrations is
if y =

d2 y
+ 36 y = 0
dt 2

dy
1
= 2 when t = 0.
and
dt
4

Determine the amplitude and period of the motion.

SOLUTION
The initial values are y (0) =
Note that c

1
and y (0) = 2 .
4

dy
= 0 and f (t) = 0, there are no damping and external forces acting on m, so the
dt

vibrations are said to be free.

Taking Laplace transforms of the equation we have

L{ y (t )} + 36L{ y (t )} = 0
Thus

s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y (0) + 36Y ( s ) = 0

Substitution of the initial conditions gives

s
( s 2 + 36)Y ( s ) = 2
4
Y ( s) =

so that
Thus

s 8
4( s 2 + 36)

L1 {Y (s)} = 1 L1

MAT3700

s 1 1 6
L 2

s + 36 3
s + 36
2

74

and

1
1
y (t ) = cos 6t sin 6t
4
3

The period of the motion is T =

2
=
6
3

5
1 1
and the amplitude is a = + =
4 3 12

EXAMPLE 4
A system vibrates according to the equation
If y = 0 at t = 0 and

d2 y
+ 4 y = 3sin t
dt 2

dy

= 1 at t = , find the displacement of the mass at any time t.

2
dt

SOLUTION
In this case we have an external force f (t) = 3sint acting on m, but no damping force. The
vibrations are said to be forced.
Take Laplace transforms on both sides of the equation:

L { y (t )} + 4L { y (t )} = 3L {sin t}
Thus

s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y (0) + 4Y ( s ) =

3
s +1
2

We are given y(0) = 0, but since we do not know the value of y (0) we put y (0) = c1.
Substituting these values into the equation gives

(s

+ 4 ) Y ( s) =
Y ( s) =

and

3
+ c1
s +1
2

3 + c1 s 2 + c1

(s

+ 1)( s 2 + 4 )

This must be expressed in partial fractions so that we can find the inverse transform.
Let

c1 s 2 + c1 + 3

(s

MAT3700

+ 1)( s + 4 )
2

As + B Ds + E
+ 2
s2 + 1
s +4

75

Then

c1 s 2 + c1 + 3 = ( As + B ) ( s 2 + 4 ) + ( Ds + E ) ( s 2 + 1)
= As 3 + 4 As + Bs 2 + 4 B + Ds 3 + Ds + Es 2 + E
= ( A + D) s3 + ( B + E ) s 2 + ( 4 A + D ) s + ( 4 B + E )

We equate coefficients of like terms to get:

s3-terms:

0=A+D

s2- terms:

c1 = B + E

s-terms:

0 = 4A + D

constant terms:

c1 + 3 = 4B + E

from which it follows that

A = D = 0, B = 1 and E = c1 1

Thus

Y (s) =
=

and

c1 s 2 + c1 + 3

(s

+ 1)( s 2 + 4 )

c 1
1
+ 21
s +1 s + 4
2

L 1{Y ( s)} = L 1

1 c1 1 2 1 1 2
+ L 2
L 2

s + 1 2
s + 4 2
s + 4

so that y (t ) = sin t +

c1
1
sin 2t sin 2t
2
2

To find the value of c1 we make use of the initial condition

y = 1 , that is y (t ) = 1 when t = .
2
2
Differentiate the equation of y(t) to get:

y (t ) = cos t + c1 cos 2t cos 2t

and then substitute the given values of y (t ) and t to get:

1 = cos
Since cos

+ c1 cos cos
2

= 0 and cos = 1 , this becomes

2

1 = c1 + 1
c1 = 0
Substituting this value for c1 we obtain
1
y (t ) = sin t sin 2t
2

MAT3700

76

5.2.3

Application to beams

Consider a transversely loaded beam, which is co-incident with the x-axis. Let the length of
the beam be b, and its load per unit length k. The axis of the beam has a transverse deflection
y(x) at any point x which satisfies the differential equation.
d4y
k
=
4
EI
dx

0<x<b

where E is the modulus of elasticity for the beam, and I is the moment of inertia of a small
cross section at x.
This transverse deflection is often called the curve of deflection of the beam, and is the shape
into which the axis of the beam is bent by gravity and other forces acting upon it.
Solution of the equation subject to given initial conditions will yield the equation of the curve
of deflection, from which we can find the deflection y(x) at any point. The initial conditions
associated with the equation depend on the manner in which the beam is supported. Most
commonly we find:
(a)

clamped, built-in or fixed

(b)

simply-supported or hinged

(c)

free end

MAT3700

77

EXAMPLE 5
A simply-supported beam of length b carries a uniform load k per unit length. Find the
deflection at any point, given the differential equation
d4y
k
=
4
EI
dx

0<x<b

and initial conditions y (0) = 0, y (0) = 0, y (b) = 0 and y (b) = 0

Figure 2

SOLUTION
Taking Laplace transforms of both sides of the equation gives:

L { y 4 ( x)} =
Thus

k
L{1}
EI

s 4Y ( s ) s 3 y (0) s 2 y (0) sy (0) y (0) =

k 1
EI s

Since we do not know the values of y (0) and y (0) we put y (0) = c1 and y (0) = c2. We
substitute these and the given initial values in the equation to get:

s 4Y ( s ) s 2 c1 c2 =

k
EIs

Thus

s 4Y ( s ) =

k
+ s 2 c1 + c2
EIs

and

Y (s) =

c
c
k
+ 12 + 24
EIs s
s

Taking the inverse transforms we get:

L 1{Y ( s)} =
MAT3700

K 1 1
L 5 + c1L 1 12 + c2L 1 14
EI
s
s
s
78

so that y ( x) =

x3
k x4
+ c1 x + c2
E I 4!
3!
4
c x3
kx
=
+ c1 x + 2
24 E I
6

To evaluate the constants c1 c2, we differentiate this equation twice.

Thus

y ( x) =

c x2
kx 3
+ c1 + 2
6E I
2

y ( x) =

kx 2
+ c2 x
2E I

We make use of the initial conditions to get:

0=

kb 2
+ c2 b
2E I

c2 =

kb
3E I

Substituting this and the initial values we get

Thus

y ( x) =
=

0=

kb 4
kb 4
+ c1b
24 E I
12 E I

c1 =

kb3
24 E I

kx 4
kb3 x kbx 3
+

24 E I 24 E I 12 E I
k
x 4 2bx 3 + b3 x )
(
24 E I

EXAMPLE 6
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end x = 0, and free at the other end x = b. It carries a load
per unit length given by

ko
k ( x) =
0

MAT3700

b
3

b
< x <b

3
0< x <

79

If the differential equation and initial conditions are

d 4 y k ( x)
=
given that y (0) = 0, y (0) = 0, y (b) = 0 and y (b) = 0
EI
dx 4

find the deflection at any point of the beam.

Figure 3

SOLUTION
Since the beam has a load uniformly distributed over one third of its length and no load on
the remainder, there is a step discontinuity of magnitude ko at x =

b
.
3

k(x) can therefore be written in terms of unit step functions as

k ( x) = koU ( x) koU x
3

Thus

d 4 y ko
b

=
U ( x) U x

4
3
EI
dx

Taking Laplace transforms we get:

L { y ( x)} =

ko
k
L {U ( x)} o L U x b
3
EI
EI
bs

Thus

k
ke 3
s Y ( s ) s y (0) s y (0) sy (0) y 0) = o o
EIs EIs
4

Let y (0) = c1 and y (0) = c2 and substitute these and the initial conditions to obtain
bs

k
ke 3
s Y ( s ) sc1 c2 = o o
EIs EIs
4

MAT3700

80

 bs

k
ke 3
Thus s Y ( s ) = sc1 + c2 + o o
EIs EIs
4

bs

k
ke 3
c
c
And Y ( s ) = 13 + 24 + o 5 o 5
s
s
EIs
EIs

ko 1 1 ko 1 e 3
1
1 1
L 5 L 5
3 + c2 L 4 +
s
s EI
s EI
s

bs

Thus

L {Y ( s)} = c1L
1

And y ( x) =

k
c1 x 2 c2 x 3 ko x 4
b
b
+
+
o x U x ...............( A)
2
6
24 E I 24 E I
3
3

where the inverse transform of

bs

s5

was obtained using the following:

L 1{F ( s)} = f ( x)
then L 1{e as F ( s )} =

If

In this example e as = e
Thus a =

bs
3

b
3

And F ( s ) =

1
s5

so that f ( x) =

x4
4!

1
b
and f ( x a ) =
x
24
3
e 3
5
s

bs

Thus

f ( x a )U ( x a )

4
1
b
b
=
x Ux
3
3
24

Equation (A) is equivalent to

c1 x3 c x3
k x4
+
+ o

6
24 E I
2
y ( x) =
4
4
2
3
c1 x + c2 x + ko x ko x b

2
6
24 E I 24 E I
3

MAT3700

b
x >
3

0< x <

81

Since we are given that y ( x) = 0 and y ( x) = 0 . When x = b, we differentiate y(x) three

times using the value for x >
y ( x) = c1 x +

b
.
3

k
c2 x 2 ko x3
b
+
o x
2
6EI 6EI
3

y ( x) = c1 + c2 x +

y ( x) = c2 +

ko x 2
k
b
o x ...................(B)
2EI 2E I
3

ko x ko
b

x
3
EI EI

On substituting y ( x) = 0 we get
0 = c2 +

Thus

c2 =

ko
b
b b +
3
EI

kob
3 EI

We now substitute this value and y (b) = 0 in equation (B) to obtain

0 = c1

c1 =

ko b 2 ko b 2
k 2b
+
o
3E I 2E I 2 E I 3

ko 6b 2 9b 2 + 4b 2

EI
18

ko b 2
=
18 E I
Thus the required equation of the curve of deflection of the given beam is

ko b 2 x 2 bx3 x 4

+

18 24
E I 36
y ( x) =
4
2 2
3
4
ko b x bx + x 1 x b

18 24 24
3
E I 36

MAT3700

b
x >
3

0 < x <

82

EXAMPLE 7
Show that a concentrated load W acting at a point x = a on a beam, can be expressed in terms
of the unit impulse or Dirac delta function as W (x a).

a+

Figure 4

SOLUTION
Let ko represent a uniform loading per unit length over a portion of the beam from a to .
Then the total loading for this portion is ko (a + a) = ko which must be equal to W.
Thus

ko = W
ko =

for a < x < a +

Since the loading is equal to zero, we can write

k
k ( x) = o
0

a < x < a +

otherwise

=
0

a < x < a +

otherwise

This represents a pulse of duration from x = a to x = a + and magnitude

strength of the pulse is, of course,

W
. The

W
=W .

In the limit as tends to zero, the portion from x = a to x = a + reduces to the point x = a.
An impulse of strength W at x = a is represented by
lim k ( x ) = W ( x a )
0

MAT3700

83

EXAMPLE 8
A beam of length b with its end built in has a concentrated load W acting at its centre.
Find the resulting deflection. The differential equation is:
d4y W
b
=
x
4
2
EI
dx

with initial conditions y (0) = 0, y (0) = 0, y (b) = 0 and y (b) = 0

b
2

b
x

Figure 5

SOLUTION
Take Laplace transforms of both sides of the given equation to get:

L { y ""( x)} = W L x b
EI

Thus s 4Y ( s ) s 3 y (0) s 2 y (0) sy (0) y (0) =

W bs2
e
EI

Using the initial conditions and writing y (0) = c1 and y (0) = c2 , we have

s 4Y ( s ) sc1 c2 =

W bs2
e
EI

s 4Y ( s ) = sc1 c2 +

W bs2
e
EI
bs

c c
We 2
Y ( s ) = 1 + 24 +
s3 s
E I s4

MAT3700

84

 2
W
1
1 1
1 e
c
+
L
+
L
3 2
4
4
s
s E I
s

bs

Thus

L {Y ( s)} = c1L
1

c x 2 c x3
W
b
b
and y ( x) = 1 + 2 +
x Ux
2
6
6 EI
2
2

We can also write y(x) as

c1 x 2 c2 x 3
+

6
2
y ( x) = 2
3
3
c1 x + c2 x + W x b

2
6
6 EI
2

b
x >
2

0 < x <

In order to use the initial conditions, we differentiate y(x) using the value for x >
y ( x) = c1 x +

c2 x 2
W
b
+
x
2
6 EI
2

b
.
2

We now substitute y(b) = 0 and y (b) = 0 in the equations for y(x) and y ( x) respectively,
obtaining

0=

c1b 2 c2 b3
W b
+
+

2
6
6 EI2

c b2
W b
0 = c1b + 2 +

2
2 EI2

Solving these simultaneous equations we find

Wb
8E I
W
c2 =
2E I
c1 =

The required equation of the curve of deflection is therefore

W bx 2 x3

E I 16 12
y ( x) =
3
2
3
W bx x + 1 x b

E I 16 12 6
2

0 < x <
x >

b
2

Examples 6 and 8 above may seem rather long and involved, but they have been included to
demonstrate the use of unit step and impulse functions in beam problems.

MAT3700

85

SELF-TEST: MODULE 2 (UNIT 5)

(Solutions on myUNISA)
Time: 70 minutes
1.

Marks: 49

An inductor of 1H, a resistor of 2 and a capacitor of 0,5F are connected in series

with an electromagnetic force of cos t volts. At t = 0 the charge on the capacitor and
the current in the circuit is zero. Find the current at any time t > 0 and discuss the
solution as t .

2.

(25)

A system vibrates according to the equation

d2 y
dy
6
+ 10 y = 0
2
dx
dx
where y is the displacement at time t. If the initial conditions are y(0) = 0 and
y (0) = 3 , find y in terms of t.

3.

(9)

A cantilever beam, clamped at x = 0 and free at x = b carries a uniform load k per unit
length. Given the differential equation
d4 y
k
=
4
EI
dx

0 < x < b

and initial conditions

y (0) = 0, y (0) = 0, y (b) = 0 and y (b) = 0

show that the equation of the curve of deflection of the beam is

y ( x) =

k
x 4 4bx 3 + 6b 2 x 2 )
(
24 E I

(16)

[49]

MAT3700

86

MODULE 3
UNIT 1
LINEAR ALGEBRA I

CONTENTS

PAGE

1.1

INTRODUCTION

89

1.2

EIGENVALUES

89

1.3

EIGENVECTORS

90

MAT3700

87

Unit 1

Outcome
To determine the eigenvalues
and eigenvectors of a matrix

MAT3700

88

1.1

INTRODUCTION

In many applications of matrices to technological problems involving coupled oscillations

and vibrations , equations of the form
A ix = x

occur, where A is a square matrix and is a number. Clearly, x = 0 is a solution for any
value of and is not normally useful. For non-trivial solutions, that is x 0 the values of
are called the eigenvalues of the matrix A and the corresponding solutions of the given
equation A ix = x are called the eigenvectors of A.
Before continuing:
- Refer to Tutorial letter 101.
- Refer to myUnisa to refresh your memory on determinants and matrices.
- Take your prescribed book and study the part on eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
Now study the following examples.

1.2

EIGENVALUES

EXAMPLE 1
4 1
Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A =
.
2 1

SOLUTION

( A I ) x = 0
Characteristic determinant: A I =

A I = 0

Characteristic equation:
Thus

4 1
2
1

=0

( 4 )(1 ) ( 1)( 2 ) = 0
4 5 + 2 + 2 = 0
2 5 + 6 = 0

( 3)( 2 ) = 0
1 = 3 and 2 = 2

MAT3700

89

EXAMPLE 2
2 3 2
Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A = 1 4 2 .
2 10 5

SOLUTION
2

The characteristic determinant is

1
2

4
2
10 5

Expanding along the first row we get:

= ( 2 ) {( 4 )( 5 ) ( 20 )} 3{(1)( 5 ) ( 2 )( 2 )} + ( 2 ) {(10 ) ( 4 )( 2 )}
= ( 2 ) {20 + + 2 + 20} 3{5 + 4} 2 {10 8 + 2}
= ( 2 ) { 2 + } 3{ 1} 2 {2 + 2}
= ( 2 ) .. ( + 1) + 3 ( + 1) 4 ( + 1)
= ( + 1) ( 2 ) . + 3 4
= ( + 1) 2 2 1
= ( + 1) 2 2 + 1
= ( + 1)( 1)

From the characteristic equation: ( + 1)( 1) = 0

2

It follows that 1 = 1, 2 = 1 and 3 = 1

1.3

EIGENVECTORS

The eigenvalues for a matrix is unique, however there is many possibilities for the
corresponding eigenvectors, as can be seen from the following example.

EXAMPLE 3
4 1
Find the eigenvectors for the matrix A =

3 2

MAT3700

90

SOLUTION
The characteristic equation is

4
1
=0
3
2

( 4 )( 2 ) 3 = 0
2 6 + 5 = 0

( 1)( 5) = 0
1 = 1 and 2 = 5
For 1 = 1 the equation A ix = x becomes

x1
4 1 x1
3 2 i x = 1i x

2
2
Use matrix multiplication rules to find a set of simultaneous equations:
4 x1 + x2 = x1
3 x1 + 2 x2 = x2

From either of these equations we can obtain the relationship x2 = 3 x1 .

So if we choose x2 = k, then the value of x1 will be 3k.
Depending on our choice we will get different answers which will all be correct eigenvectors.
We always try to make our choice as simple as possible.
1
Choose k = 1, then x = is an eigenvector corresponding to 1 = 1 .
3

For 2 = 5 the equation A ix = x becomes

x1
4 1 x1
3 2 i x = 5i x

2
2

Use matrix multiplication rules to find a set of simultaneous equations:

4 x1 + x2 = 5 x1
3 x1 + 2 x2 = 5 x2

From either of these equations we can obtain the relationship x2 = x1 .

So if we choose x2 = k, then the value of x1 will also be k.
We always try to make our choice as simple as possible.
1
Choose k =1, then x = is an eigenvector corresponding to 1 = 5 .
1

MAT3700

91

EXAMPLE 3
3 1 4
2 6 find the eigenvalues of A and the eigenvector that corresponds with one of the
0 0 5

If A = 0

eigenvalues = 5.

SOLUTION
The characteristic equation is

3
1
4
0
2
6 =0
0
0
5
Develop along the first column

( 3 )( 2 )( 5 ) = 0
1 = 3 , 2 = 2 and 3 = 5
It is often more convenient to use the form ( A I ) x = 0 instead of A ix = x .
For 3 = 5 the equation ( A I ) x = 0 becomes

1
4
3
0
2
6 x = 0

0
0
5
2 1 4 x1 0
0 3 6 x = 0

2
0 0 0 x3 0
Use matrix multiplication to obtain the set of simultaneous equations:

2 x1 + x2 + 4 x3 = 0
3x2 + 6 x3 = 0
0=0
From eq. (2)

x2 = 2 x3

(1)
( 2)
(the last one can be omitted as it does not lead to a solution)

(A)

into eq. (1) : 2 x1 + 2 x3 + 4 x3 = 0

2 x1 = 6 x3
x1 = 3 x3

( B)

A and B gives us the relationships between x1 , x2 and x3 .

3
Choose x3 = 1 and the eigenvector corresponding to 2 = 5 is x = 2 .
1

MAT3700

92

SELF TEST: MODULE 3 (UNIT 1)

(Solutions on myUNISA)
Time: 90 minutes

Marks: 60

For the coefficient matrix A given in each case, determine the eigenvalues and an eigenvector
corresponding to each eigenvalue:
1.

2 1 1
A = 1 3 2
1 1 2

(12)

2.

1 2 2
A = 1 3 1
2 2 1

(12)

3.

2 0 1
A = 1 4 1
1 2 0

(12)

4.

1 4 2
A = 0 3 1
1 2 4

(12)

5.

3 0 3
A = 0 3 3
2 3 1

(12)

[60]

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MODULE 3
UNIT 2
LINEAR ALGEBRA II

CONTENTS

PAGE

2.1

INTRODUCTION

96

2.2

GAUSS ELIMINATION

96

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Unit 2

Outcome
To solve simultaneous
equations using Gauss
elimination

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2.1

INTRODUCTION

Linear algebra involves the systematic solving of linear algebraic or differential equations
that arise during mathematical modelling of an electrical, mechanical or other engineering
system where two or more components are interacting with each other. In the first level
mathematics engineering course you used elimination, substitution and Cramers rule to solve
simultaneous equations. In the second level you used matrix multiplication and the inverse
of the coefficient matrix to solve simultaneous equations. We are now adding another
method called Gaussian elimination.

Before continuing:
- Refer to Tutorial letter 101.
- Refer to myUnisa to refresh your memory on other methods of solving simultaneous
equations.
- Take your prescribed book and study the part on Gauss elimination.
Now study the following example.

2.2

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION

EXAMPLE 1
Use Gaussian elimination to solve the following system of linear equations:
x 2 y + 3z = 9
x + 3 y = 4
2 x 5 y + 5 z = 17

SOLUTION
x 2 y + 3z = 9
x + 3y
= 4
2 x 5 y + 5 z = 17
x 2 y + 3z = 9
+ y + 3z = 5
y z = 1

MAT3700

Equation 1
Equation 2
Equation 3
Equation 1
Equation 4 = Equation 1+2
Equation 5 = Equation 3 - 2 times equation 1

96

x 2 y + 3z = 9
+ y + 3z = 5
2z = 4
x 2 y + 3z = 9
+ y + 3z = 5
z=2

Equation 1
Equation 4 = Equation 1+2
Equation 6 = Equation 5+Equation 4
Equation 1
Equation 4 = Equation 1+2
Equation 7 = Equation 6 divided by 2

We can now substitute backwards to find

z=2
y = 1
x =1

EXAMPLE 2
A simple pulley system gives the equations


x1 + 
x2 = 0
3
x1 + T = 3g
2 
x2 + T = 2 g

x1 , 
x2 represent acceleration, T is the tension in the rope and g is the acceleration due
where 
x1 , 
x2 and T using Gaussian elimination.
to gravity. Determine 

SOLUTION
x1 0
1 1 0 

In matrix form: 3 0 1 
x2 = 3 g
0 2 1 T 2 g

In augmented matrixform:

R1 1

R2 3
R3 0
1

0
0

0 0

1 3g
2 1 2 g
1 0 0

3 1 3 g R2 + 3R1 = *R 2
2 1 2 g
1
0

1 1 0 0

0 3 1 3g
0 0 5 4g R + 2 * R
3

3 3 2

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 from the last row 53 T = 4 g

T = 12
g
5
and into the second row 3
x2 + 12
g = 3g
5

x2 = 15 g
from the first row 
x1 + 
x2 = 0

x1 = 15 g

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SELF TEST: MODULE 3 (UNIT 2)

(Solutions on myUNISA)
Time: 60 minutes

Marks: 60

1.

Use Gaussian elimination to solve the following sets of simultaneous equations:

(a)

2x + y z = 2
x + 3y + 2z = 1

(10)

x+ y+z =2

10 x + y 5 z = 18

(b)

(10)

20 x + 3 y + 20 z = 14
5x + 3 y + 5z = 9

3.

By applying Kirchhoffs law and Ohms law to a circuit, we obtain the following
equations:
3I1 5 I 2 + 3I 3 = 7,5
2 I1 + I 2 7 I 3 = 17,5
10 I1 + 4 I 2 + 5 I 3 = 16

where I1 , I 2 and I 3 represent current. Find the values of I1 , I 2 and I 3 by using

(a)

Gaussian elimination

(10)

(b)

the inverse matrix method

(10)

(c)

Cramers rule

(10)
[60]

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99

MODULE 4
UNIT 1
FOURIER SERIES

CONTENTS

PAGE

1.1

INTRODUCTION

102

1.2

REVISION OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

102

1.3

FOURIER SERIES

106

MAT3700

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Unit 1

Outcome
To find Fourier Series
representation of functions

MAT3700

101

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Many functions can be expressed in the form of an infinite series. Problems involving
various forms of oscillations are common in all fields of modern technology and Fourier
series enable us to represent a periodic function as an infinite trigonometrical series in sine
and cosine terms. One important advantage of Fourier series is that it can represent a
function containing discontinuities, whereas Maclaurin and Taylors series require the
function to be continuous throughout.
We will be working with periodic functions. Periodic functions repeat themselves at regular
intervals.

Before continuing:
- Refer to Tutorial letter 101.
- Refer to myUnisa and revise integration by parts
- Take your prescribed book and study the part on Fourier series.
Now study the following examples.

1.2

REVISION OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

1.2.1

Even and Odd Functions

A function is said to be even if it is symmetrical around the y-axis. The easiest way to check
if a function is even is to make a sketch, fold on the y- axis and the two pieces is identical.
Mathematically f ( x) = f ( x ) . For example the parabola y = x2 :
y

25

20

15

10

0
-5

-2.5

2.5

5
x

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102

A function is said to be odd if it is symmetrical around the origin.

Mathematically f ( x) = f ( x ) . For example y = x3
y
100

50

0
-5

-2.5

2.5

5
x

-50

-100

Activity 1
Determine whether each of the following functions is odd, even or neither:
a)

f ( x ) = 2x + 3

(1)

b)

f ( x ) = cos x

(1)

c)

3 2 < t < 0
f (t ) =
3 0 < t <

(1)

See Solution on next page:

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103

Sketch the given functions:

(a) Straight line
y

10

0
-5

-2.5

2.5

5
x

-5

(b) cosine function

y

0.5

0
-5

-2.5

2.5

5
x

-0.5

-1

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104

(c)
y
2.5

1.25

0
-1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5
x

-1.25

-2.5

Answers

a) Neither 9
b) Even 9
c) Odd 9
1.2.1

Definition of piecewise functions

EXAMPLE 1
Define analytically the periodic function shown:
Y
5

10

14

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105

3 0 < x < 4

f ( x ) = 5 4 < x < 7
0 7 < x < 10

f ( x + 10 ) = f ( x )
Remember to indicate the period.
This function is neither odd nor even.

1.3

FOURIER SERIES

Definition:
a

n t
n t
+
f ( t ) = 0 + a cos
b sin

2 n =1 n
L n =1 n
L
1
where a = LL f ( t ) dt
0 L
1
n t
a = LL f ( t ) cos
dt
n L
L
1
n t
b = LL f ( t ) sin
dt
n L
L
Note L is defined as half the period of the function.
So if it is given that f (t ) = f (t + 2) it means that the function repeats itself over the length
2 . Thus the period is 2 and L =

Whichever book you use as reference make sure that you know the meaning of the symbols
in the formula.

EXAMPLE 2
A function f(x) is defined by:

x < x < 0
f ( x) =
0< x<
0

[ f ( x) =

f ( x + 2 )]

Determine the Fourier series of f (x).

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106

SOLUTION
Sketch the given Function
y

2.5

1.5

0.5
0
-2.5

-1.25

1.25

2.5
x

Repeat this function is being repeated over the given period.

(Check your answer on

myUNISA)
This function is neither odd nor even. All coefficients must be computed.
1
f ( x ) dx

integral must be split over the two pieces over which f is defined

1 0
= xdx + 0dx

a0 =

1 x2
=

+0

1
2
0 +
2

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107

1 0
an = x cos nx dx

Use integration by parts take u = x and dv = cos nxdx
dv = cos nxdx
v = 1 sin nx
n
=

0
1 x
1

+
sin
sin
nx
nx

n
n

1 x
1
= sin nx
cos nx
n
n2

1
1
1
sin n +
cos n
0

n2 n
n2

Remember n is a natural number.

Investigate the behaviour of the trigonometric functions for different values

of n. Do the same for ( 1)n .
n

sin n

cos n

( 1)

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

We see that we can say cos n = ( 1) .

Remember cos n = cos ( n )

1 1 ( 1)

+
Thus an =
n2
n2

1 + ( 1)n
=
n 2

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108

bn =

1 0
x sin nxdx

Integrate by parts: u = x and v = sin nx dx = cos nx

1 x
1

= cos nx cos nx
n
n

1 x
1

= cos nx 2 sin n
n
n

1

= 0 + cos n
n

( 1)
=

f ( x) =

1
1
1
2

cos x + cos3x + ..... sin x sin 2 x + sin3x + ......

4
9
2
3

Remember to always write the final answer

EXAMPLE 3
A function f ( t ) is defined by:

3 2 < t < 0
f (t ) =
3 0 < t <

[ f (t ) =

f (t + ) ]

Determine the Fourier expansion of f ( t ) .

SOLUTION
We already found the function to be odd in activity 1 thus a0 = an = 0 .

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109


1 2
2nt

bn =
f ( t ) sin
dt

2
2
=

2 0
2 3sin2ntdt
3sin2
ntdt

0
2

(No integration by parts necessary as 3 is a number)

0
2 3
3
2
cos 2nt
=
+ cos 2nt
2n
2n
0

2
2 3
3
3
3
cos n +
cos n
=
+
2n
2n
2n 2 n
=

2 6
6

+
( 1)n

2n 2 n

f (t ) =

12
1

sin 2t + sin 6t + ......

3
n

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110

SELF TEST: MODULE 4 (UNIT 1)

(Solutions on myUNISA)
Time: 90 minutes

Marks: 40

Find the Fourier series for the following functions:

1.

f ( x ) = f ( x + 2 )
f ( x) = 1

0 < x < 2

Up to and including the third harmonic.

2.

+ x < x < 0
f ( x) =
x 0 < x <

(10)

(10)

f ( x ) = f ( x + 2 )

3.

f ( x) = 0

0 < x < 2
2

<x<
3
3
2
<x<
3

(10)

f ( x ) = f ( x + )

4.

If f ( x ) is defined by
f ( x) = x ( x)

0< x<

express f ( x ) as a half-range cosine series.

(10)

[40]

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111