VCE 2 Worksheets

unit
Molecules
of life
signatures of life
area of study 01
outcome 1
Analyse and evaluate evidence from practical
investigations related to biochemical processes.
essential knowledge
The chemical nature of the cell:
Synthesis of biomacromolecules: polysaccharides,
nucleic acids and proteins
The structure and function of lipids
The structure and function of DNA and RNA
The structure and functional diversity of proteins; the
proteome.
The role of organelles and plasma membranes in the
packaging and transport of biomolecules.
The nature of biochemical processes:
Enzymes as organic catalysts
Energy requirements of cells; catabolic and anabolic
reactions
Energy transformations, including main stages in
and sites of photosynthesis and cellular respiration;
ATPADP cycle; factors affecting rate of energy
transformations.
Applications of molecular biology in medicine, including
the design of drugs, and in medical diagnosis.
essential knowledge
Unit 3 Area of Study 01
Cells and the cell theory

Cell theory
The cell theory is a foundation stone in the study of
Biology. The cell theory states that:
All organisms are made up of cells.
New cells are produced from existing cells.
The cell is the smallest organisational unit of a
living thing.
There are two different kinds of cellsprokaryotic

and eukaryotic.
Differences also occur within the group of
eukaryotic organisms. A typical plant cell has cellulose
cell walls that provide structural support, chloroplasts
that are the site of photosynthesis, and large vacuoles.
These features are not present in animal cells.
Table 3.1 Cells and their features

Type of cell
Feature
Example
Eukaryote
Distinct organelles such as ribosomes as well as

membrane-bound organelles including nucleus,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles
Organisms in Kingdoms Protista,

Fungi, Plantae, Animalia, but not
Monera (bacteria, cyanobacteria)
Prokaryote
Lack membrane-bound organelles; nuclear material

present as a single, circular thread of DNA; cell
membrane surrounded by cell wall of protein and
complex carbohydrate; relatively small cells
Organisms in Kingdom Monera, i.e.

bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae), archaeobacteria
plant cell
animal cell
RIBOSOMES
NUCLEUS
PLASMA
MEMBRANE
CYTOPLASM
GOLGI
APPARATUS
CELL WALL
MITOCHONDRIA
(a)
VACUOLE
CHLOROPLAST
(b)
Figure 3.1
(a) Plant cell and (b) animal cell.
2
Biology 2 Student Workbook
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essential knowledge
Organelles
These are subcellular structures with specialised functions:
Table 3.2 Organelles and their functions

Organelle
Function
Nucleus
Cell reproduction and control of cellular activities
Ribosomes
Protein production
Mitochondria
Aerobic respiration
Endoplasmic reticulum
Transport of materials within cell
Golgi apparatus
Protein production completed; proteins packaged for dispatch from cell
Cell wall
Structural support in plants
Plasma membrane
Encloses cell contents; regulates passage of materials into and out of cell
Cytoplasm
Reservoir containing cell contents, including water, ions, dissolved nutrients, enzymes and
organelles
Lysosomes
Contain enzymes responsible for breakdown of debris
Vacuole
Storage facility for uid, enzymes, nutrients
Chloroplast
Photosynthesis
Biological molecules
The cells that make up living organisms are themselves
composed of key chemical elements. Those which
occur in greatest proportion include carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen. These elements combine to form
a variety of important biomacromolecules. Biologically

important molecules can be grouped into two types
organic and inorganic.
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
INORGANIC
ORGANIC
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
C, H, O
energy rich
cellular/respiration
structure role
eg. cellulose/cell
wall in plants
building blocks:
carbohydrate
polysaccharide
composed of
simple sugars
(monosaccharides)
WATER
C, H, O
fatty acids
and glycerol
cell membrane
structure
omega-3
fatty acids
building blocks:
fatty acids
and glycerol
PROTEIN
C, H, O, N
enzymes
structural
carrier
molecules
eg. haemoglobin,
protein channels
in cell membranes
MINERALS
CARBON
DIOXIDE
site of
chemical
reactions
enzyme
ultra
structure
photosynthesis
OXYGEN
NITROGEN
cellular
respiration
(aerobic)
protein
nucleic
acids
NUCLEIC
ACIDS
C, H, O, N, P
DNA and RNA
contain genetic
information
cell reproduction
protein production
building blocks:
nucleotides
Figure 3.2
Chart of biological molecules.

Molecules of life
essential knowledge
Plasma membranes
Key roles
Enclose cell contentsmaintain structure of cell
Regulate the movement of materials into and
out of the cellmaintain a different composition
within the cell compared with cells external
environment.
Membrane features
Protein receptors allow communication between
cells, for example, by hormones, nerves, direct cellto-cell contact; and allow cell recognition.
Membrane composition
The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid
bilayer (two layers of phospholipid molecules)
embedded with molecules of protein and cholesterol.
Phospholipid molecules have their hydrophobic

tails directed into the centre of the plasma membrane
and their hydrophilic heads directed towards the uid
medium on either side of the membrane.
Protein molecules serve as channels for facilitated
diffusion and active transport.
Cholesterol molecules provide stability for the
membrane.
Carbohydrate molecules associated with proteins
are involved in cell recognition.
The model of the plasma membrane is referred
to as uid-mosaic because of the uid nature of the
phospholipid molecules which are free to move about
within the structure of each layer; mosaic refers to
the proteins scattered throughout the phospholipid
layers.
protein
carbohydrate
phospholipid
molecule
phospholipid
bilayer
hydrophobic end
hydrophilic end
protein channel
Figure 3.3
3D uid-mosaic model of the plasma membrane.
4
essential knowledge
Movement across the membrane

The exchange of materials between cells and their external environment occurs through the processes of:
diffusion
osmosis
facilitated diffusion, or
active transport.
Table 3.3 Movement across the cell membrane

Process
Description
Active or
passive
Diffusion
Movement of particles
from an area of high
concentration to an area of
low concentration, along a
concentration gradient
Passive
(does not
require
energy)
Osmosis
Special type of diffusion

Passive
that involves movement of
water molecules across
a partially permeable
membrane; water moves
from an area of high
concentration of free water
molecules to an area of
low concentration of free
water molecules, i.e. low
solute concentration to
high solute concentration
Facilitated
diffusion
from high to low
concentration through
protein channel in cell
membrane
Diagram
Oxygen enters body

cells (low in O2 since
continually using O2 in
cellular respiration) from
the capillaries where it is
in high concentration (O2
replenished at lungs)
starch
molecule
from an area of relatively
low concentration to an
area of high concentration,
against a concentration
gradient
Passive
Active
(requires
input of
energy)
Cells in kidney medulla

absorb water by osmosis
due to osmotic gradient
between ion concentration
in tissue uid and the
kidney tubules
water
molecule
protein
channel
outside
cell
Active
transport
Example in organism
outside
cell
inside
cell
Small molecules such as

amino acids and glucose
enter cell via protein
channel
protein
inside
cell
ion
Uptake of ions by root

hair cells of plants and
uptake of nutrients by
gut epithelium cells
of animals, so that
concentration within cells
exceeds concentration in
external medium
5
Molecules of life
essential knowledge
Metabolism and enzymes

The metabolism of an organism is the sum of all the
chemical reactions that occur within its cells. This
includes the energy-transforming reactions of cells
such as production of organic molecules, breakdown,
recycling and excretory processes. Such biochemical
processes are universal, that is, they occur in the cells
of all living organisms to ensure the survival of the
individual.
Enzymes are biological catalyststhey increase
the rate of biochemical reactions in cells, e.g. the
chemical reactions involved in cellular respiration and
photosynthesis.
Rate of
enzyme
activity
Properties of enzymes
Temperature C
composed of protein
substrate speciccatalyse a chemical reaction
involving a particular substrate molecule, and not
any other; referred to as lock-and-key to illustrate
specicity between a key tting a particular lock
only
substrate
molecules
Figure 3.5
Rate of enzyme activity continues to increase with increasing

temperature. Excessive temperature denatures enzymes and activity
ceases.
product
active site
Rate of
enzyme
activity
enzyme
enzyme
substrate
complex
Figure 3.4
Enzyme concentration
Model of enzyme lock-and-key operation.

Figure 3.6
take part in chemical reactions but are not used up

or changed by the process; released at the end of a
reaction and so are available to be used over and
over again
have optimal conditions under which they work
most effectively; will catalyse a reaction so that
maximum product is produced per unit of time,
e.g. optimal temperature for digestive enzymes in
duodenum of humans is 37oC and pH 8
sensitive to factors such as temperature and pH
when these conditions are not optimal, the
activity of enzymes is reduced; extremes of such
factors may lead to enzymes becoming denatured;
when this happens the enzyme cannot recover its
function because the shape of its active site has
been permanently altered.
Rate of enzyme activity increases with increasing enzyme

concentration.
Enzymes are usually denoted by the sufx ase, e.g.

maltase, lactase, protease, amylase, lipase.
The rate of enzyme activity is also dependent upon
the:
concentration of substratethe higher the
concentration of the substrate, the greater the rate
of interaction between substrate molecules and
enzymes, leading to increased rate of reaction
concentration of enzymethe more enzyme
available to catalyse a reaction, the more rapidly it
will proceed until all enzymes are fully engaged in
the reaction.
6
essential knowledge
Activation energy: energy expended to initiate

enzyme-catalysed reaction; even catabolic reactions
require an initial input of energy to start reaction
Coenzymes: small organic molecules important to
the normal functioning of enzymes, e.g. vitamins
Cofactors: inorganic ions important to the normal
functioning of enzymes, e.g. Mg++
Energy transformations
Living organisms require energy for growth, movement,
repair of damaged tissue and reproduction. Energy is
obtained by the production of energy-rich organic
compounds in autotrophic organisms such as plants,
and by the consumption of plants and/or other animals
by heterotrophic organisms. Different kinds of energy
transformations are involved.
Accessing energy-rich molecules: making ATP

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the immediate source
of energy for cells. It is produced in a series of chemical
reactions that involves the breakdown of organic
molecules. The useable energy of ATP is contained in
the phosphate bonds of the molecule. The cycling of
ATP and ADP (adenosine diphosphate) means that
energy continues to be available for use in the cell.
Glycolysis
Figure 3.7
ATP/ADP cycle.
Cells access the energy available in organic molecules

through glycolysis (anaerobic) and either cellular
respiration (aerobic) or fermentation (anaerobic).
Cellular respiration is the process in which complex
organic compounds are broken down to release energy
(ATP). Water is a by-product.
C6H12O6 6O2 m6CO2 6H2O + energy (3638 ATP)
cytosol
in cytosol
glucose
2 pyruvate
2 ATP
mitochondrion
Cell
Krebs cycle
inner compartment
of mitochondria
2 pyruvates
6 CO2
(each pyruvate
3 CO2)
2 ATP
Electron transfer
inner membrane
of mitochondria
32 ATP
Figure 3.8
Energy release in presence of oxygen: glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transfer.
7
Copyright @ Pearson Education Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) Molecules of life
essential knowledge
Cytochromes are proteins involved in the process

of electron transport on the inner membrane of
mitochondria during cellular respiration.
lactic acid + 2 ATP
ls
a
nim
a
Glucose
pla
nts
an
dy
ea
st
alcohol + CO2 + 2 ATP
CO2 + 12H2O
light
chlorophyll
C6H12O6 +6O2 + 6H2O
Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts and

occurs in steps called the light-dependent reaction and
the light-independent reaction.
In contrast, respiration involves the chemical
breakdown of glucose in cells for the release of energy.
This results in the uptake of O2 and the release of
CO2.
Figure 3.9
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
CO2 carbohydrates produced
O2
Energy release in absence of oxygen.
Since these processes involve the release of energy,

they are called exergonic reactions. The release
of energy is the result of the breakdown of organic
compounds. These reactions are catabolic.
H 2O
energy
O2
Building energy-rich molecules: photosynthesis

The ultimate source of energy for living things is the
sun. Photosynthesis is the process in which green
plants use chlorophyll to trap light energy and use
it to combine water and carbon dioxide to produce
energy-rich organic compounds (glucose). Oxygen is a
by-product (Figure 3.10).
Photosynthesis involves the synthesis of biomacromolecules and is therefore described as anabolic. Since
this process requires an input of energy, it is an endergonic
reaction.
H 2O
CO2
RESPIRATION
carbohydrates used
H2O
Figure 3.10
Summary of photosynthesis and respiration.
Some autotrophic bacteria use inorganic materials

to build organic compounds without the involvement
of sunlight. This is called chemosynthesis.
Grana light-dependent reaction
12 H2O
24 H+ + 6CO2
Stroma light-independent reaction
24 H+ + 6CO2
C6 H12 O6 + 6H2O
(Calvin cycle)
Figure 3.11
Chloroplastlight-dependent and light-independent reactions.
8
o
Cpyright @ Pearson Education Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd)
essential knowledge
contains four carbon atoms (hence C4 photosynthesis).
CAM plants, such as pineapple, only have their stomata
open during the night. The carbon dioxide they collect
is converted to crassulacean acid (called crassulacean
acid metabolism CAM) which is stored during the
night. During the day when the stomata are closed, the
carbon dioxide is released from storage and is available
to take part in normal C3 photosynthesis.
The factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis are
summarised in Figure 3.13 and Table 3.4.
C4 and CAM photosynthesis

Some species of plants adapted to hot environments
have different photosynthetic pathways. These are
solutions for plants that must have their stomata
closed for much of the day to avoid excessive water
loss and so have less time to acquire carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis. C4 plants, such as sugar cane, are more
efcient at xing carbon dioxide than C3 plantsthey
capture more carbon dioxide per unit time (Figure
3.12). The rst stable carbon compound produced
C3 Plant
CO2 taken up/unit light energy absorbed
Temperature limits rate
C4 Plant
10
20
30
e
rat
its
ht
lim
Low temperature
Lig
Rate of photosynthesis
High temperature
40
Light intensity
heat temp C
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13
Comparison of CO2 take up as measure of photosynthesis in C3 and

C4 plants at increasing temperature.
Effect of temperature and light intensity on rate of photosynthesis.
Table 3.4 Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis in green plants
Factor
Effect
Carbon dioxide
concentration
The higher the concentration gradient between the intercellular spaces and the external environment,
the greater the diffusion rate of carbon dioxide into leaves via stomata, and, therefore, the greater the
rate of photosynthesis
Light intensity
The greater the light intensity, the greater the rate of photosynthesis, until the point at which other
factors limit the process, e.g. high temperatures result in closed stomata
Temperature
Increasing temperature results in increasing rate of photosynthesis, until optimal temperature

for photosynthetic enzymes is reached; further increases in temperature result in decrease in
photosynthetic rate
Water
Water is a reactant in photosynthesis; it is also important in the turgidity of guard cells, keeping
stomata open for entry of carbon dioxide. Reduced water availability decreases rate of photosynthesis
Chlorophyll
Light-trapping pigment; larger amounts of chlorophyll mean more sunlight is harnessed, thereby
increasing rate of photosynthesis
Oxygen
Not directly involved in photosynthesis; however, high oxygen concentrations reduce rate of carbon
xation in photosynthesis
9
Molecules of life
essential knowledge
DNA, proteomes and

proteomics
Common to all living things on Earth is the presence
of the genetic material, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Its structure and function are universal.
The structural unit of DNA is the nucleotide.
Nucleotides are named according to the base each
includes. The bases in DNA occur in complementary
pairs:
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)
The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA is signicant
because of its role in protein production. A specic
DNA sequence that codes for a particular protein is
called a gene. The genome is the total complement of
all of the genes in an individual organism.
P S P S P S P S P
I
I
I
I
T
G
C
A
Figure 3.14
The DNA in the nucleus of cells unravels to reveal double helix.
T T C
C T G
G G A
DNA template strand

Transcription
A A G
G A C
C C U
mRNA strand
Translation
LYS
ASP
PRO
amino acids forming polypeptide chain
Figure 3.15
Protein production begins with transcription in the nucleus and translation at the ribosomes.
10
essential knowledge
Polypeptide formation
primary protein
structure
Polypeptide becomes coiled

or pleated
secondary
structure
Coiled polypeptide folds

into 3-dimensional form
tertiary structure
Two or more 3-dimensional

polypeptide molecules
bonded together
quaternary
structure
Proteins are key components of cells. There are

many different kinds of proteins, each with a different
function, and all are vital to the normal functioning of
the organism.
The proteome is the total complement of all of

the proteins in an individual organism. An organisms
proteome is determined by the DNA sequence of its
genome. Proteomics (the study of proteins, including
their structure and function) is an expanding eld of
biology that has enormous potential for increasing
our understanding of how organisms function and of
diseases and their treatment and management, for the
development of pharmaceuticals, and for shedding
light on evolutionary relationships.
Bioinformatics (the use of computers and databases
to manage biological information) is a vital tool in
collecting and analysing biological information as
well as making data accessible and manageable. For
example, generating the DNA sequence of the human
genome and making the data accessible are results of
this technology.
Once polypeptide production is complete, the nal

formation of the protein can occur.
Channels in cell membranes
rt
spo
tran
Enzymes
ys
tal
ca
Haemoglobin
carrier molecules
PROTEINS
str
co
mm
un
ica
tio
n
uct
ura
l
Muscle tissue
cell membranes
Hormones
Figure 3.16
Proteins have many roles in living organisms.
11
Molecules of life
worksheet
01
Cellscrossword
Complete the crossword puzzle
to help you check your
knowledge and understanding
of key terms and processes
from Heinemann Biology 2 4th
Edition Chapter 1.

Across
3 Bilayer that encloses cell contents as well as cellular
organelles [8]
4 Passive movement of molecules along a concentration
gradient [9]
5 Chemical complex which forms the main structure of
biological membranes [12]
10 Cellular apparatus characterised by at, membranous
sacs involved in the packaging of proteins for secretion
from cells [5]
13 Organelle with folded inner membrane that is concerned
with energy transformations in cells [12]
18 Type of complex compound containing carbon and
hydrogen [7]
20 Energy-rich complex organic compound [12]
21 Kind of molecule transport across plasma membranes
that requires the expenditure of energy [6]
Down
1 Fluid-lled storage organelle that also has a structural
role in plant cells [7]
2 Organic compound composed of fatty acids and glycerol
[5]
5 Cell characterised by the absence of distinct, membranebound organelles [10]

6 Kind of essential fatty acid linked to reduced incidence of
diseases such as cardiovascular disease [6]
7 Complex organic compound with many functions,
including structural roles and catalysing chemical
reactions in cells [7]
8 Compound composed of protein and complex
carbohydrate that makes up the cell wall of bacteria [6]
9 Passive movement of water molecules across a partially
permeable membrane along a concentration gradient
[7]
11 Organelle dedicated to the process of photosynthesis
[11]
12 Passive form of molecule transport across plasma
membranes through protein channels [11]
14 Site of protein production in cells [8]
15 Organism whose cells feature a distinct nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles [9]
16 Subcellular structure that has a specic function [9]
17 Organelle containing genetic material and concerned
with controlling cell activities [7]
19 Kind of acid of which DNA and RNA are composed [7]
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worksheet
02
Gadget gallerycell organelles

1 Study the diagrams of the plant and animal cells shown. Identify the organelles indicated in the spaces provided.
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Figure 3.17
Organelles of plant and animal cells.
2 Examine the electron micrographs of each of the different cell organelles in the table. Use the diagrams above to help you
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identify each. Complete the details in the table to provide a summary of the structure and function of each organelle.
Name of organelle: nucleus
Description:
Function:
Name of organelle:
Description:
Name of organelle A:
Description:
Function:
Name of organelle B:
Description:
Function:
Function:
Name of organelle: Golgi

apparatus
Description:
Name of organelle: chloroplast

Description:
Function:
Function:
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Molecules of life
worksheet
03
Model membranes
1 The diagram represents a uid-mosaic model of a plasma membrane. Complete the diagram by adding labels and
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functions where indicated.
CHOLESTEROL
PHOSPHOLIPID MOLECULE
STRUCTURE:
FUNCTION:
PROTEIN
Figure 3.18
Fluid-mosaic model of a plasma membrane.
2 Outline the features of plasma membranes that have led to their description as uid-mosaic.
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3 Describe the role of the following molecules in plasma membranes:

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a cholesterol:
b carbohydrate:
4 Plasma membranes play an important role in exchange of materials into and out of cells. Complete the table outlining
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these processes and identify the components of plasma membranes involved in each.
Process
Description of process
Example of material
exchanged
Component of plasma
membrane involved
Simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Active transport
14
worksheet
04
Enzyme ABCamazing biological catalysts

1 Make a selection from the list below to ll in the missing words. This will give you a complete summary of enzymes and
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their functions.
biomolecules
denatured
protein
metabolism
deciency
catabolic
active site
anabolic
Enzymes are biological
substrate-specic
catalysts
photosynthesis
coenzymes
optimal
temperature
cellular respiration
. They increase the rate at which chemical reactions occur in living cells.
They are organic compounds composed of
. Enzymes are important facilitators of energy-
transforming reactions, recycling processes, synthesis of some compounds and breakdown of othersall of the
processes that make up the
of cells.
Enzymes are involved in both the construction and breakdown of
. Chemical reactions in which
larger molecules are constructed from smaller ones are called
reactions.
an example that typically occurs in plant cells.
reactions involve the breakdown of large molecules
into smaller ones.

Enzymes are
is
is an example of such a reaction in cells.

-
, that is, they have an active site that ts a particular
substrate molecule only. This feature of enzymes is sometimes referred to as lock-and-key.

Enzymes have
conditions, that is, they operate most efciently under particular conditions.
Enzymes are sensitive to factors such as
and pH. Their rate of activity can also be inuenced
by the concentration of substrate or enzyme. Cofactors and

The
of an enzyme can be
also affect enzyme action.

by excessive
temperatures or pH.
Enzyme
can result in disease.
2 Circle the word(s) that make the following statements about enzymes correct.
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Enzymes are needed in small/large amounts.
Enzymes are used up/not used up in chemical reactions.
Enzymes can/cannot be used over and over again.
Enzymes do/do not affect the nal amount of product in a reaction.
Enzymes increase/decrease the activation energy required to initiate reactions.
15
Molecules of life
worksheet
05
Active enzymes
Enzyme action
Enzymes catalyse chemical reactions in cells in two directions, that is, the reactions are reversible. The example below
illustrates an enzyme catalysing the production of the disaccharide (two sugar) sucrose from the simple sugars glucose (G)
and fructose (F).
1 Complete the diagram by inserting the glucose and fructose molecules into the active site of the enzyme. Then draw
the newly constructed molecule of sucrose after it is released from the enzyme.
Use coloured pencils to colour-code your diagram. Use different colours for each of the different kinds of sugar molecule
and for the enzyme.
ENZYME
Figure 3.19
Active site of enzyme.
2 Explain why the relationship between enzymes and their substrates is described as lock-and-key.
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3 Name two factors that can affect the active site of enzymes.
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4 Describe what happens to the active site of an enzyme if it is denatured. What are the consequences for enzyme activity
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when this occurs?
16
worksheet
Activation energy
Chemical reactions need a minimum energy input to kick start them. This is called the activation energy of the reaction.
Enzymes reduce the amount of energy needed to provide this kick start.
In the reaction in Figure 3.19, a more complex molecule is being constructed from two simpler ones. This involves a change
in energy ($G) from an initial low level of energy to a nal higher state. That is, there has been an overall input of energy into
this reaction to construct the larger molecule. The energy that has been channelled into the reaction is contained within the
chemical bonds that hold the two sugar subunits together. This reaction is called an endergonic reaction.
5 Graph A shows the activation energy for the sucrose-building reaction.
The same enzyme catalyses the breakdown of sucrose into glucose and fructose in an exergonic reaction.
Complete graph B to illustrate the activation energy for this reaction.
FINAL
STATE
Total
energy
Total
energy
INITIAL
STATE
COURSE OF REACTION
Graph A: Endergonic
COURSE OF REACTION
Graph B: Exergonic
Figure 3.20
Activation energy
6 Why is the reaction in Graph B described as exergonic?

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17
Molecules of life
worksheet
06
Energy transformationsmatchmaker
1 Read the denitions listed in the boxes on the right side of the page. Choose the correct term from the list below to match
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each denition. Write each term in the box corresponding to its denition.
exergonic reaction
Krebs cycle
chloroplast
anaerobic respiration
electron transport
endergonic reaction
ATP
mitochondrion
energy
lactic acid
organellesite of cellular respiration in cells

compound produced during anaerobic respiration in animal cells
series of energy-releasing reactions during cellular respiration in
which electrons are transferred by cytochromes
chemical reaction in which energy is released
organellesite of photosynthesis
energy-releasing reaction in cellular respirationpyruvate
molecules converted to carbon dioxide and water
chemical reaction in which energy is consumed
capacity to do work
energy-rich molecule generated in cellular respirationimmediate
source of energy for cells
process in which organic compounds are broken down by cells in
the absence of oxygen to release energy
2 Examine each of the diagrams below carefully. Write a couple of sentences about each to explain the process involved.
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6CO2 + 12H2O
c
c
glycolysis c
c
c
c + 2ATP
c
light
chlorophyll
c
C6H2O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
on.
18
worksheet
07
Mighty mitochondria
1 Dene cellular respiration.
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2 Write a balanced equation for cellular respiration in the box below.
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3 Cellular respiration occurs in three stages. These are glycolysis,

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and
occurs in the cytoplasm.

The Krebs cycle and
occur in the
.
4 Complete the pictograph of the cell and mitochondria to build a summary of the different steps involved in the process
of cellular respiration and the sites where each step occurs within the cell.
M
AS
PL
E
AN
BR
EM
M
GLYCOLYSIS OCCURS IN
GLUCOSE
+ ENERGY YIELD:
ED
LD
FO E
ER RAN
INNEMB
M
INNER COMPARTMENT
KREBS
ENERGY YIELD:
2
+6CO2
CYCLE
CONTAINS CYTOCHROME MOLECULES

THAT ARE INVOLVED IN
MITOCHONDRION
ENERGY YIELD:
Figure 3.22
Process of cellular respiration.
5 Mitochondria are sometimes referred to as the powerhouse of cells. Suggest the reason for this.
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19
Molecules of life
worksheet
08
Zooming in on photosynthesis
In photosynthesis, green plants manufacture their own organic compounds using the raw materials of carbon dioxide and
water. The process requires the input of light energy harnessed from sunlight. The pigment responsible for photosynthesis is
chlorophyll. In green plants, the chlorophyll is contained in organelles called chloroplasts.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the rst in the presence of light, called the light-dependent reaction; the second in the
absence of light, called the light-independent reaction.
1 Complete the sentences below that summarise key structures and reactions in the process of photosynthesis.
Electron microscopy allows us to zoom in on the structure of chloroplasts. This technology reveals a complex network of
stacked membranes that contain the chlorophyll. These membranous stacks are surrounded by a uid matrix.
The chlorophyll-lled membranous stacks are called the
.
These membrane stacks are the site of the
reaction.
The uid matrix that surrounds these membranous stacks is called the
.
The uid matrix is the site of the
reaction.
Figure 3.23
Electron micrograph of chloroplast.
2 Fill in the spaces to complete the diagram.

L
LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTION
LIGHT
REACTION: WATER
12H2O
LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTION
CALVIN
CYCLE
CHLOROPHYLL
EQUATION:
REACTION:
occurs in the
HYDROGEN:
EQUATION:
24H+
occurs in the
WATER
WATER
Figure 3.24
Ultra-structure of chloroplast.
3 Name two factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis. Outline the effect in each case.
L
Factor 1:
Factor 2:
20
worksheet
09
Energy transformations in cells: cellular respiration and

photosynthesisa concept map
SUMMARISED
BY EQUATION
A concept map is a map of ideas related to a particular topic. The ideas in the concept map are linked together by lines that
include a brief explanation of how the ideas are linked. When the concept map is complete you will have a one-page summary
of all of the key ideas related to your topic. Use trigger words to help you get started. Trigger words are useful in triggering
or suggesting other words or terms related to the topic. For example, trigger words related to energy transformations in cells
might include:
Cellular respiration, which triggers mitochondria 3 stages
Photosynthesis chloroplasts
Add to the concept map below until you have covered all of the key ideas. Use your text book as a reference for words and
explanations.
CYTOSOL + glycolysis
MITOCHONDRIA
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
US
ES
O2
RELE
AS
ES
O
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Figure 3.25
Concept mapcellular respiration and photosynthesis.
21
Molecules of life
worksheet
10
Cells user manuala concept map

An organisms genome and its corresponding proteome can be likened to a dictionary in which the genome represents
all of the words and the proteome outlines the meanings of those words. The genome includes all of the genes that are the
instructions for building all of the proteins in the body. In this concept map you begin with the genome and follow the steps to
nally reach the cells functional destinationits proteome.
Use the boxes to write in the denition of terms. Add your own branches and words to the concept map to build a word picture
of the key structures and processes that occur as the cell follows its genetic instructions to build its proteins.
GENOME:
FULL COMPLEMENT OF GENES IN AN INDIVIDUAL ORGANISM

individual genes a read-out of genome
GENES
composed of
deoxyribonucleic acid
nucleotide building blocks
DNA
in nucleus
TRANSCRIPTION
mRNA
leaves nucleus for
RIBOSOMES
mRNA codons code for

Building blocks of
AMINO ACIDS
CHAIN
primary protein structure
COILS
FOLDS
PROTEINS
Functions
PROTEOME:
Figure 3.26
Concept mapcells user manual.
22
worksheet
11
AGGTT
AGGTTCAGACTGTCGATAT
AGGTTCAGACTGTCGATATCG
AGGTTCAGACTGTCGATATCGT
AGGTTCAGACTGTCGATATCGT
AGGTTCAGACTGTCGATATCGTT
AGGTT
A G CGATATCG
GG T GA GTCGA
GGT
CT
TC
CT
GA
AG
TT
CA
GA
TGT
ATA
GTT
TCG
ACTG
Nuclear puzzlesame pieces, different picture!

A
G
AGGTTC GACTGT
CGATATCGA
TCGATATCGAGA
CGATATCGAGGTTCAG
TTCAG
GTTCAGACTGTCGATATCGT
TCG
ATATCGAGGTTCAGACTGTCG
AG
CAGGTTCAGACTGTCGATATCGT
CAG
CGAGGTTCAGACTGTCTCGAGGTT
TCAG
ATATCGAGGTTCAGACTGTCGATATCG
AGGTTCAGACTGTCGATATCGAGGTTCAGACTGTCGAT
AGACTGTCGATATCGAGGTTCAGACTGTCGATATCGT
TCAGACTGTCGATATCGAGGTTCAGACTGTCGATAT
AGGTTCAGACTGTCGATATCGAGGTTCAGAC
CGATATCGAGGTTCAGACTGTCGAT
TCGATATCGAGGTTCA
AG
Millions of different species of organisms have evolved on Earthplants, animals,

algae, fungi, protists, bacteria and more. Within a single species there is also
enormous diversity. And yet, we account for every individual using the same
fundamental threads of genetic materialDNA. Not only this, the DNA that codes
for the staggering number of different organisms and the features that make each
one unique comes in only four different forms. The pieces of the DNA puzzle, the
nucleotides, are characterised by a different base moleculeadenine, thymine,
cytosine or guanine. It is the innite number of combinations that gives us such a
titanic degree of variety.
1 Nucleotides are composed of the same three components. Name the molecule
represented by
P:
S:
A, T, C, G:
2 The nucleotide sequence in Figure 3.27 is part of the human B-haemoglobin
gene.
Use coloured pencils to colour-code the nucleotide bases in the legend.
Follow your code to colour the different bases along the base sequence.
3 Use appropriate symbols and colour-coding to draw the complementary DNA
strand against this template strand.
4 Look carefully at the details of your double-stranded DNA. Describe two features
L
of DNA that ensure complementary base-pairing occurs.
Feature 1:
Feature 2:
S
5 Add another symbol to the base legend above that will allow the construction of
L
an RNA molecule.
3
LEGEND
6 Use the space at the right of the DNA template strand in Figure 3.27 to draw in
L
the complementary RNA strand.
T
C
G
Figure 3.27
Sequence of nucleotide bases in the human

haemoglobin gene.
23
Molecules of life
worksheet
12
Hypothetical halitosisa proteomics simulation

You are a science graduate recently employed at a pathology clinic that specialises in proteomics. Your rst assignment is to
process saliva samples from volunteers taking part in trials designed to diagnose and treat individuals with chronic halitosis
(bad breath).
It is found that degrees of bad breath are inuenced by the presence of particular proteins in body uids. A sample of sweat
or saliva can be used to determine the presence of these proteins. Six subjects have volunteered their services and saliva.
Testing procedure: A drop of saliva is placed in each well of a SPIT card (Salivary Protein Indicator Test). Each well contains
an indicator that tests for the presence of a specic protein.
The proteins that have been identied in saliva are:
JMlinked to strong, unsavoury odour
PUlinked to strong, unsavoury odour
TPfresh smelling odour, so named due to its similarity to
toothpaste
NSa neutral protein linked to no smell
The effect of the different proteins is cumulative, so that
JM
PU
TP
NS
the presence of more than one protein in the saliva of an
STANDARD
individual increases the magnitude of the halitosis. On the
other hand, protein TP appears to proportionally negate
SUBJECT 1
or cancel out the effect of an undesirable protein, e.g. TP
cancels effect of PU.
The SPIT results for the six volunteers are shown in Figure
SUBJECT 2
3.28, together with a standard against which the test cards
are assessed.
SUBJECT 3
Shaded wells indicated the presence of the protein in
question.
SUBJECT 4
Unshaded wells indicate the protein is not present.
SUBJECT 5
SUBJECT 6
Figure 3.28
Salivary protein testcards and standard.
1 a
L
Two individuals share the ranking of most acute halitosis. List these individuals.
b These two individuals have different SPIT results. Explain how the degree of halitosis can be the same.
2 Subject 4 tests positive for three salivary proteins but has more pleasant breath than subject 1. Explain these results.
L
3 Subjects 3 and 6 are competing for the same date. Based on SPIT results alone, decide which subject is more likely to
L
be successful. Explain your choice.
4 Rank the subjects in order from highest to lowest degree of halitosis.
L
24
practical activity
01
purpose
To investigate the effect of a partially permeable membrane on the movement of
particles in solution.
background information
To test for the presence of starch, add a few drops of iodine/potassium iodide solution
to the test solution. If starch is present the solution will change to a blue-black colour.
To test for the presence of glucose, dip a piece of testape into the test solution. If
glucose is present, the tape will change from yellow to green.
Partially permeable membranes

materials
dialysis tubing
iodine/potassium iodide
testape
5% starch solution
glucose solution
thistle funnel
2 gas jars
retort stand and clamp
test tubes
test tube rack
rubber bands
50 mL beaker
Presenting partial permeability

procedure
1 Pour glucose solution into a 50 mL beaker to a depth of about 1 cm. Dip in one end
of a piece of testape.
1 Describe your observations.
2 Fill a gas jar with water until it is about three-quarters full. Test the water in the same
way with a piece of testape.
2 a Note the result.
b Explain why you have tested the water in the gas jar with testape.
3 Use the equipment listed to construct an experimental set-up similar to the one
shown in Figure 3.29.
Set up the retort stand to support the thistle funnel rst. Then secure the dialysis
tubing. Moistening the dialysis tubing will help to open the ends. Tie one end rmly
closed with a rubber band. Tie the other end so that it is securely fastened to the
thistle funnel. Gently pour glucose solution into the thistle funnel until the level rises
about 2 cm up the stem of the funnel. Place the gas jar beneath the thistle funnel.
Use the clamp to lower the dialysis tubing completely into the water/testape solution.
Leave the set-up undisturbed for 30 minutes (longer if possible).
3 a Use the testape to once again test the solution in the gas jar. Describe your
observations.
thistle
funnel
level of glucose soln
in thistle funnel
retort stand
and clamp
cellulose bag
fastened to
thistle funnel
with rubber
band
gas jar or
measuring
cylinder
cellulose bag filled
with glucose solution
Figure 3.29
Equipment set-up for experiment.
b Explain what has happened.
25
Molecules of life
practical activity
B
Modelling osmosis
Procedure
procedure
1 Pour starch solution into a test tube to a depth of about 1 cm. Add a few
drops of iodine/potassium iodide solution.
4 Describe any colour change that occurs.
2 Fill the second gas jar with water until it is about three-quarters full. Add
several drops of iodine/potassium iodide solution.
5 a What colour is the solution?
b What does the colour of the solution indicate about the presence of
starch?
3 Use the equipment listed to construct an experimental set-up similar to the one
shown in Figure 3.30(a).
Prepare the set-up in the same way as you did for Part A, except that this time
you will pour starch solution into the thistle funnel/dialysis tubing. Place the gas
jar beneath the thistle funnel. Lower the dialysis tubing completely into the water
and iodine/potassium iodide solution. Leave the set-up undisturbed for 30 minutes
(longer if possible).
level of
starch
in thistle
funnel
30 minutes later
iodine/
potassium
iodide and
water
(a)
cellulose bag
filled with
starch solution
(b)
Figure 3.30
Equipment set-up(a) before, (b) after.
26
practical activity
6 Use coloured pencils to colour Figures 3.30(a) and 3.30(b) to reect your observations
L
at the start of the activity and again after 30 minutes.
7 Describe any changes you observe.
L
8 Account for the colour changes you have observed. Where did the molecules of
L
water, iodine/potassium iodide and starch begin and where did they move to?
conclusions
In this activity, you considered evidence that indicates some kinds of molecules move across partially permeable membranes
while others do not.
Write the denition for:
9 a
L
osmosis
b diffusion
10 Explain why some kinds of molecules are able to pass through partially permeable membranes and others are not.
L
Use specic examples.
27
Molecules of life
practical activity
02
materials
water baths set at 5C,
20C and 40C
2 clean test tubes
test tube rack
thermometer
2 10 mL measuring
cylinders
dropping pipette
white spotting tile with at
least 10 wells
iodine solution
1% starch solution
class stock
1% diastase solution
class stock
toothpicks
Factory facilitatorsinvestigating enzyme

activity
introduction
The cells of living organisms are like tiny factories, each the centre of a great deal of
activity, including biochemical reactions that involve the breakdown of some molecules
and the construction of others. Enzymes are the biological catalysts that facilitate these
biochemical reactions. Without them, critical chemical reactions cannot occur or occur
too slowly to maintain the wellbeing of cells, and the cells would die. As well as cellular
respiration and photosynthesis, many other life-sustaining biochemical pathways occur
in cells. In plant cells, the carbohydrate-reducing enzyme diastase (an amylase) is an
important enzyme involved in converting starch in storage organs to simple sugars that
can be transported to growing tissue.
purpose
To investigate the activity of the plant enzyme diastase.
To investigate the effect of temperature on enzyme activity.
Starch is a complex carbohydrate molecule made up of many glucose molecules (single
sugars) joined together by chemical bonds. Starch stains a deep blue-black colour
when mixed with iodine solution. Glucose and other simple sugars are not affected by
iodine solution and so remain the brown colour of the iodine solution.
Diastase is a plant amylase, an enzyme that hydrolyses (breaks by the addition of water)
the chemical bonds between the glucose units in starch (Figure 3.31).
This activity makes the best use of the time available when working in groups, with
each group selecting a different temperature to test the diastase activity. Results for
the different groups then can be shared and collated at the end of the experiment. Your
teacher will help you organise your groups.
It will be useful to have the water baths set at the required temperatures prior to the
commencement of class.
diastase
diastase
part of starch molecules

separate glucose molecules
Figure 3.31
Effect of diastase on starch.
procedure
1 Use the measuring cylinder to collect 5 mL of starch solution and pour it into one
of the clean test tubes. Place the test tube in the test tube rack. Use the second
measuring cylinder to collect 5 mL of diastase solution. Pour this into the other test
tube and place the test tube in the test tube rack.
28
practical activity
Table 3.5 Colour results

Solution
Iodine
2 Check the temperature of the water in your water bath using the thermometer. Record
the water temperature assigned to your group at the top of Table 3.6. If the water is
at the required temperature, place the test tube rack in water. Allow 5 minutes for the
solutions to adjust to the temperature of the water bath. While you are waiting, go on
to the next step.
3 Use the marker pen to label the wells on the spotting tile. Mark the rst two wells with
the letters D (diastase) and S (starch) respectively. Then mark the remaining wells
with the numbers 1 to 8. Place a drop of iodine solution into each well.
4 Use the dropping pipette to take a sample of the diastase solution. Place a drop into
the rst well. Record the colour observed in Table 3.5. Thoroughly rinse the pipette
before repeating this procedure with the starch solution in the second well. Be sure
to thoroughly rinse the pipette each time you use it.
5 After 5 minutes, quickly pour the contents of one test tube into the other, shake
to mix and then return the tube to the water bath. Note the time, and then use the
pipette to pick some of the starch/diastase mixture and place a drop into well no. 1
on your spotting tile. Use a toothpick to mix the solutions in the well. Record your
observations in Table 3.6.
6 After 60 seconds, take another drop of the starch/diastase solution and place it in
well no. 2. Use a fresh toothpick to mix the solutions. Record your results. Repeat this
procedure every minute until no further colour changes are observed.
7 Dispose of the solutions and equipment as directed by your teacher.
8 Use an overhead projector to pool the class data. Enter the data from the different
groups in your class into Table 3.7.
1 Suggest why it is important to test the starch solution and the diastase solution with
the iodine at the start of this activity.
Starch
Diastase
Table 3.6 Observation of
colour changes at __oC
Starch/diastase solution
with iodine
Time
Colour
(min)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Table 3.7 Class data
Group
Start
End
2 Why is it important to use a fresh pipette each time you test the starch/diastase
mixture?
0oC
20oC
40oC
3 Suggest a hypothesis being tested in this activity.

L
4 Look carefully at the class data. Use your knowledge and understanding of enzymes
L
to explain the results obtained at:
a 0oC
b 20oC
c 40oC
29
Molecules of life
practical activity
conclusions
5 Write a sentence that summarises the action of the enzyme diastase.
L
6 Referring to the experimental data in this activity, outline an environmental factor that appears to affect enzyme activity.
L
Describe the evidence that supports your conclusion.
30
practical activity
03
Tracking photosynthesisenergy
conversions in plants
materials
introduction
Green plants are remarkable for their ability to harness light energy and then use it
to convert simple inorganic compounds into energy-rich organic compounds. They
do this using the process of photosynthesis (photo: light; synthesis: to make). The
products of photosynthesis are utilised in different ways by plants. Some of the glucose
formed may be converted to starch for storage; some is transported to other parts
of the plant, e.g. growing tissue, where energy is required. Oxygen produced as a
by-product of photosynthesis is recycled in the process of cellular respiration. Excess
oxygen is released to the atmosphere via the stomata, where it becomes available to
other organisms that also need oxygen for cellular respiration.
Iodine solution is a standard indicator used to test for the presence of starch. Iodine,
typically a dark yellow/brown, colour turns blue-black in the presence of starch.
small pot plant with broad

green leaves,
e.g. geranium
light source
tin foil
iodine solution
paper towel
ne scissors
ne forceps
purpose
To design and carry out a simple experiment to test the hypothesis that green plant
tissue produces starch when exposed to light.
A
Experimental design
procedure
Use the materials listed to write your own recipe that other students could easily follow, to
test the hypothesis that green plant tissue produces starch when exposed to light.
1 Write your experimental procedure in step-by-step format with clear instructions.
2 When you have completed your experimental design, check it with your teacher
before setting out to follow your own instructions to undertake the activity.
31
Molecules of life
practical activity
B
Running the recipe
procedure
1
2
3
1
Collect the materials you need to set up this activity.

Carry out your experiment.
Evaluate the experimental method you designed.
a Discuss the limitations you encountered.
b How would you rene your procedure?
2 a
L
Describe the results of your experiment. Use diagrams of leaves to illustrate your
results.
b Account for the results that you obtained.
conclusion
3 Explain whether your experimental results support or negate the hypothesis.
L
32
sample assessment task
01
outcomes
Analyse and evaluate evidence from practical investigations
related to biochemical processes.
assessment task
A summary report of a practical activity related to a
biochemical process.
An average of one in 12 000 Australians has
phenylketonuria (PKU). PKU is a genetic condition caused
by the absence of an important biomolecule, phenylalanine
hydroxylase. This enzyme has a critical role to play in
the metabolism of proteinsconverting the amino acid
phenylalanine to tyrosine. In the absence of phenylalanine
hydroxylase, tyrosine is not formed. Instead, phenylalanine
accumulates in the blood and tissues of the body. Too
much phenylalanine interferes with normal development
from birth to adolescence, resulting in brain damage. All
babies in Australia are routinely screened for PKU a few
days after birth using the Guthrie test, more commonly
called the heel prick test. In this test, a sample of blood is
taken from the baby, usually from the heel, and tested for
the levels of the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine,
using a technique called Tandem Mass Spectroscopy

(TMS). Infants diagnosed with PKU are placed on a special
diet free of phenylalanine, usually for the rest of their lives,
and most importantly, throughout childhood to puberty
when brain development is still occurring. This means
a strictly vegetarian dietno meat or animal products
including milk, butter, yoghurt, cheese or eggs, as these
are sources of phenylalanine. Since many food items
such as bread and pasta are processed using animal
products such as milk and eggs, PKU patients must have
specially prepared foods to ensure no dietary intake of
phenylalanine.
The amino acid tyrosine is further metabolised in the body
through a biochemical pathway that involves the enzyme
tyrosinase. Tyrosinase acts on tyrosine to produce melanin,
the pigment that gives skin its varying degrees of colour.
When no melanin is produced, the skin, hair and eyes are
characteristically pale.
purpose
To investigate the use of mass spectroscopy in the
diagnosis of a medical condition.
To explore the implications of enzyme deciencies in
protein metabolism.
PROTEOMIC PATTERN
PROTEIN CHIP
SERUM LEVEL OF AMINO ACID
SERUM AMINO ACIDS
1
MASS SPECTROSCOPY
array of amino acids
in serum binds to
specific recognition
sites on protein chip
Absent enzymesphenylketonuria and albinism
AMINO
ACIDS
relative proportions
of various amino acids
converted to
graphical data
Figure 3.32
Preparation of blood sample for mass spectroscopy analysis.
33
Molecules of life
Proteomics is the study of the proteins produced by an

organism and includes the structure, function and interactions
of the proteins. Tandem Mass Spectroscopy, one of the
techniques available to analyse these proteins, is used to
sort different kinds of molecules according to their weight. In
this case, the resulting proteomic pattern reveals differences
between the levels of the amino acids phenylalanine and
tyrosine.
In the Guthrie test, a blood sample to be analysed by
TMS is the sample data. The proteomic pattern for the
sample data is compared to standard data for normal blood
proteins.
The pattern of proteins present can be presented
graphically. Analysis of the pattern of peaks provides
information useful in making a diagnosis. During TMS, all
the different amino acids present in the blood serum are
separated according to weight. Bioinformatic software is
used to manipulate the data into graphical form. The graphs
below include only the data relevant to phenylalanine and
tyrosine.
protein production.
2 How does the sample data shown compare with the

L
standard in this case?
3 What does the data reveal about the infant to whom the
L
sample data belongs?
4 Use the graphical data and your understanding of

L
enzymes to account for the different blood serum levels
of the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine in:
a the individual represented by the standard.
b the individual identied with PKU.
BLOOD
SERUM
LEVEL
OF AMINO
ACIDS
AMINO ACIDS
EN
TY
R
SI
N
IN
YL
AL
AN
AMINO ACIDS
PH
PH
EN
TY
R
YL
AL
AN
SI
N
IN
BLOOD
SERUM
LEVEL
OF AMINO
ACIDS
1 Describe the proteomic pattern for the amino acids

L
phenylalanine and tyrosine for an individual with normal
Proteomic patterns and disease

diagnosisTandem Mass
Spectroscopy (TMS)
Graph A: Standard data
Graph B: Sample data
Figure 3.33
Graphs comparing standard data and sample data for amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine.
34
Look carefully at the owchart illustrating the biochemical

pathways involved in the metabolism of the amino acids
phenylalanine and tyrosine.
7 The owchart clearly indicates that PKU patients do

L
not convert phenylalanine to tyrosine. Despite this, PKU
Double-take enzymes
patients are not necessarily albino. Explain why this

is so.
5 What kind of biomolecule is:

L
a phenylalanine:
b phenylalanine hydroxylase:
c tyrosine:
d tyrosinase:
6 Outline the importance of these biomolecules in normal
body functioning.
8 Outline the health implications for a person born with

L
albinism.
9 Suggest lifestyle strategies that will be important

L
to an albino to minimise health risks related to their
condition.
DIETARY PROTEIN
digested to
PHENYLALANINE
no phenylalanine
hydroxylase
phenylalanine
hydroxylase
produced
TYROSINE
accumulation
of phenylalanine
or phenylpyruvic
acid
no
tyrosinase
tyrosinase
produced
PHENYLKETONURIA
ALBINISM
MELANIN
brain damage
if not under
dietary management
lack of
pigment in
skin, eyes,
hair | pale
appearance
variations
in depth / shade
of skin, hair, eye
colour
Figure 3.34
Flowchart of biochemical pathwaysphenylalanine, tyrosine.
35
Molecules of life
summary report
10 Write a report summarising the key points addressed in this activity. Include a discussion of the following in your
L
report:
a The metabolic pathways important in the normal functioning of the body in relation to the amino acids phenylalanine
and tyrosine, including:
the enzymes that catalyse the various reactions
the consequences of enzyme deciencies
technologies used to make diagnoses
management strategies for affected individuals.
b The importance of proteomic pattern analysis in disease diagnostics.
36
02
outcome
Porous potatoesosmosis in living cells

procedure
Analyse and evaluate evidence from practical investigations

related to biochemical processes.
1 Set out six sample cups and label them in the following
way: 0% NaCl, 0.5% NaCl, 1% NaCl, 2% NaCl, 5% NaCl
and 10% NaCl.
2 Cut a number of cores from a fresh potato using a no.6
(or bigger) cork borer. Push the cores out of the borer
using the blunt end of a pencil. Trim the ends square
and cut twelve 2 cm-long cylinders.
3 Weigh two cylinders using a top-loading balance.
1 Record the mass for the potato cylinders in Table 3.8.
4 Place the rst two potato cylinders in the sample cup
labelled 0% NaCl.
5 Repeat this process for each of the sample cups in
order.
6 Note the time, then ll each cup to the same depth with
the respective NaCl solutions.
7 After 30 minutes, remove the potato cylinders from the
0% NaCl solution using a dissecting needle. Place them
on paper towel. Gently roll the potato cylinders against
the paper towel to absorb excess surface water, then
quickly move them to the balance for weighing. After
weighing the cylinders, return them to the cup.
2 Record their nal mass.
8 Repeat this drying and weighing process for the
cylinders in each of the different NaCl solutions. You will
need to work rather quickly to minimise the difference
in time that the cylinders are exposed to the different
solutions.
3 Complete the calculations in Table 3.8 using the formula
provided. Note: The change in mass may be negative in
some cases.
assessment task
A written report of a practical activity on the movement of
substances across membranes.
purpose
To investigate osmosis in living cells.
materials
6 30 mL disposable drink sample cups or 100 mL

beakers
marking pen
dissecting board and scalpel
dissecting needle
paper towel and tissues
cork borer no. 6 (6 mm) or bigger
centimetre ruler
stock solutions of distilled water, and 0.5%, 1%, 2%,
5% and 10% sodium chloride
access to top-loading electronic balance accurate to
two decimal places (0.01 g)
millimetre graph paper
potatoes
% change in mass =
mass change (ve or ve) 100

initial mass
Table 3.8 Change in mass of potato cylinders

% NaCl
0
0.5
10
Initial mass (g)

Final mass (g)
Change in mass (g)
% change in mass
37
Molecules of life
4 Remove a potato cylinder from each cup in turn. L

7 Use your knowledge of osmosis and cell membranes
L
together with the observations made in this activity to
Observe the appearance and feel of each. Describe
explain what has occurred in the potato cells in each of
the sample solutions grouped in 6 . Use diagrams to
complement your explanations.
your observations.
5 Use the millimetre paper provided to graph the

L
percentage change in mass of the potato cylinders
against the concentration of NaCl. Be sure to label the
axes fully and accurately.
6 Which of the cups contained solutions that were:

L
a
less concentrated than the solution in the cells?
8 Describe two control measures taken in this experimental

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procedure.
b more concentrated than the solution in the cells?

c about the same concentration as the solution in the
cells?
9 What is the variable in this activity?

L
10 Outline two limitations related to this activity.

L
38

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unit

Unit 3 Area of Study 01

Cells and the cell theory

There are two different kinds of cellsprokaryotic

Table 3.1 Cells and their features

Distinct organelles such as ribosomes as well as

Organisms in Kingdoms Protista,

Lack membrane-bound organelles; nuclear material

Organisms in Kingdom Monera, i.e.

(a) Plant cell and (b) animal cell.

Unit 3 Area of Study 01

Table 3.2 Organelles and their functions

Cell reproduction and control of cellular activities

Transport of materials within cell

Protein production completed; proteins packaged for dispatch from cell

Structural support in plants

Contain enzymes responsible for breakdown of debris

Storage facility for uid, enzymes, nutrients

a variety of important biomacromolecules. Biologically

Chart of biological molecules.

Unit 3 Area of Study 01

Phospholipid molecules have their hydrophobic

3D uid-mosaic model of the plasma membrane.

Unit 3 Area of Study 01

Movement across the membrane

Table 3.3 Movement across the cell membrane

Special type of diffusion

Oxygen enters body

Cells in kidney medulla

Small molecules such as

Uptake of ions by root

Unit 3 Area of Study 01

Metabolism and enzymes

Rate of enzyme activity continues to increase with increasing

Model of enzyme lock-and-key operation.

take part in chemical reactions but are not used up

Rate of enzyme activity increases with increasing enzyme

Enzymes are usually denoted by the sufx ase, e.g.

Unit 3 Area of Study 01

Activation energy: energy expended to initiate

Accessing energy-rich molecules: making ATP

Cells access the energy available in organic molecules

Unit 3 Area of Study 01

Cytochromes are proteins involved in the process

alcohol + CO2 + 2 ATP

C6H12O6 +6O2 + 6H2O

Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts and

Energy release in absence of oxygen.

Since these processes involve the release of energy,

Building energy-rich molecules: photosynthesis

Summary of photosynthesis and respiration.

Some autotrophic bacteria use inorganic materials

Grana light-dependent reaction

Stroma light-independent reaction

Chloroplastlight-dependent and light-independent reactions.

Unit 3 Area of Study 01

C4 and CAM photosynthesis

Temperature limits rate

Comparison of CO2 take up as measure of photosynthesis in C3 and

Effect of temperature and light intensity on rate of photosynthesis.