Research Article

Proceedings of the International Symposium on Passive

Sampling of Gaseous Air Pollutants in Ecological Effects
Research
TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513529
ISSN 1532-2246; DOI 10.1100/tsw.2001.82

Development and Types of Passive Samplers for

Monitoring Atmospheric NO2 and NH3
Concentrations
Y.S. Tang*, J.N. Cape, and M.A. Sutton
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Edinburgh Research Station, Bush Estate, Penicuik,
Midlothian EH26 0QB, UK
*

Email: YST@ceh.ac.uk , JNC@ceh.ac.uk, MS@ceh.ac.uk

Received July 25, 2001; Revised August 14, 2001; Accepted August 15, 2001; Published October 9, 2001

Numerous passive samplers based on the Palmes-tube have been developed for
ambient air monitoring. In each case, the diffusion path length and/or crosssectional area are modified to achieve the desired sampling rate. Tube-type
samplers are low sensitivity samplers suitable for long-term monitoring, whereas
the badge-type samplers have faster sampling rates suited to short-term
monitoring.
In the U.K., diffusion tubes are widely used for monitoring nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) and ammonia (NH3). The open-ended diffusion tubes are prone to positive
bias caused by incursion of wind eddies, leading to a shortening of the diffusion
path. By using a porous membrane at the inlet, wind incursion is prevented, but
an additional diffusion resistance is imposed and it is necessary to calibrate the
tubes against a reference method to obtain an effective sampling rate.
For NO2 sampling, positive bias also arises from the reaction of NO with O3
within the sampler. The interference from the chemical reaction is severe close to
NO sources, with errors up to 30% for curbside locations when using the tubetype sampler. In rural areas, where NO concentrations are small relative to NO2,
these errors are small. In some implementations, there is also a negative bias over
long sampling periods caused by the degradation of trapped NO2.
The low sampling rates of diffusion tubes make them too uncertain for use at
background NH3 concentrations (<1 g NH3 m-3) where they significantly
overestimate concentrations. Badge-type samplers such as the Willems badge
samplers permit accurate sampling at low ambient NH3 concentrations, but suffer
from saturation at high concentrations and sensitivity to wind speed. A passive
sampler optimised for monthly measurements of NH3 is reported here, together
with its application in the U.K. National Ammonia Monitoring Network.
KEY WORDS: passive diffusion sampling, diffusion tube, badge samplers, monitoring
methods, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3)
DOMAINS: atmospheric systems, ecosystems and communities, environmental
sciences, environmental chemistry, environmental technology, environmental monitoring

* Corresponding author
2001 with author.

513

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Passive Diffusion Sampling
Principles of Passive Diffusion Sampling
Types of Passive Diffusion Samplers
Effects of Wind Speed on Passive Sampling
Passive Sampling of NO2
Effects of Within-Tube Chemical Reaction on Passive Sampling for NO2
Effects of Exposure Time on Passive Sampling for NO2
Passive Sampling of NH3
Uncertainties in the Reported Application of NH3 Diffusion Tubes
Performance of Badge Samplers for NH3
Contamination / Operator-Specific Error
Discussion
Recommendations for NO2 and NH3 Sampling
Application of a Modified Passive Sampler for NH3
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References

INTRODUCTION
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ammonia (NH3) are important trace gas pollutants in the atmosphere,
which can acidify terrestrial ecosystems following dry deposition. Their reaction products can
also contribute to wet deposited acidity, whereas the formation of aerosols can impact visibility
and influence the transport characteristics of these gases[1]. For NO2, the main concern is adverse
effects on human health through the formation of photochemical oxidants. Within the U.K., local
authorities have a statutory requirement to monitor NO2 concentrations, where an annual mean
standard of 21 ppb NO2 has been introduced within the U.K. National Air Quality Strategy[2].
Deposition of atmospheric NH3 to ecosystems is also known to cause eutrophication effects[3,4],
and the measurement of NH3 concentration is important in allowing estimates of atmospheric N
deposition to ecosystems to be made.
Passive diffusion samplers are widely used in the monitoring of both NO2 and NH3.
Compared with conventional active monitoring methods (e.g., chemiluminescence analyzer for
NO2, active denuder method for NH3), they have many clear advantages. These advantages
include low cost and no requirement for power supply, in addition to simplicity and flexibility of
deployment and use. They can be used virtually anywhere and large numbers of them can be
deployed to provide detailed spatial and temporal surveys. Specialist training and maintenance
are also not required to deploy them in the field, further reducing the operational costs of
monitoring work with these samplers.
To obtain accurate and reliable monitoring data from passive diffusion samplers, an
understanding of the operating principles of diffusion sampling, in conjunction with knowledge
of the factors that may affect sampler performance, are essential.

514

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

PASSIVE DIFFUSION SAMPLING

Principles of Passive Diffusion Sampling
All passive samplers operate on the principle of diffusion of gases from the atmosphere along a
sampler of defined dimensions onto an absorbing medium, according to Ficks law. The
theoretical uptake rate of a sampler is a function of the length, L (m), and the cross-sectional area,
A (m2), of the stationary air layer within the sampler, and can be calculated provided that the
diffusion coefficient, D (m2 s-1), of the gas of interest is known. The diffusion path length is
nominally the distance from the mouth of the sampler to the reaction surface at the other end of
the tube. Disturbance to the stationary air layer, such as through the effect of wind turbulence, can
shorten the nominal path length (see reviews[5,6]). Conversely, the use of a turbulence-damping
membrane at the inlet can increase the effective path length due to a quasi-laminar layer of air
forming adjacent to the outside of the membrane[7].
The effective volume of air sampled (V, m3) is given by:
V = DAt/L

(1)

where t = time of exposure(s). For NO2, D = 0.154 10-4 m2 s-1 at 20C[8], while for NH3, D =
2.09 10-5 m2 s-1 at 20C[9].
The air concentration of a pollutant (, e.g., g m-3) can then be calculated as:

= (me mb) / V

(2)

where me = amount of a pollutant collected on an exposed sample (e.g., g) and mb = amount of a

pollutant in the blank sample (e.g., g).

Types of Passive Diffusion Samplers

Numerous samplers based on the original Palmes-tube[8] have been developed for ambient air
monitoring. In each case, the diffusion path length and/or cross-sectional areas are modified to
achieve the desired sampling rate. In particular, tube- and badge-type samplers are used
extensively to measure atmospheric NO2 and NH3. A summary of passive samplers described in
the literature for these pollutants is given in Table 1.
The tube-type samplers are usually hollow cylindrical tubes oriented vertically (Fig. 1). A cap at
the top end holds either a filter paper or stainless steel grid in place, which is coated with an absorbent
that collects the gas of interest. For NO2 sampling, the most commonly used absorbent is
triethanolamine (TEA)[8]. For NH3, a number of acids have been used, including citric, phosphoric,
sulphuric, and tartaric[20]. However, oxalic acid should be avoided because it is volatile and loss of
the oxalic acid coating can occur during sampling. The lower end of the tube is either left open as in
the case of the longer 7.1-cm open diffusion tube[22] or capped with a membrane in the case of the
3.5-cm membrane diffusion tube[12] and the badge-type samplers (Fig. 1)[7,15].

EFFECTS OF WIND SPEED ON PASSIVE SAMPLING

In windy conditions, air moving over the open end of a diffusion tube generates turbulence inside
that can lead to a reduction in the diffusion length, referred to as wind-shortening[6,9,11]. This
results in an increase in the effective sampling rate so that the air concentration is overestimated if
the theoretical rate is used. The increase is variable, depending on wind speed and location of the
samplers[15,23], because the angle of wind is also important[10]. Fig. 2 shows the relationship
between overestimation of NO2 concentration with increasing wind speed when open diffusion
tubes are used from a number of controlled experiments in a wind tunnel[10].

515

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

TABLE 1
Examples of Passive Diffusion Samplers Used in Monitoring of Atmospheric NO2 and NH3
Concentrations
Type

Dimensions
3
L(cm)xA(cm )

Inlet

Collection
surface

Collection
medium NO2

Collection
medium NH3

NO2
Uptake
Rate
3 -1 *
(m h )

Palmes-type
Diffusion
Tube

7.1 x 0.95

Open

Stainless steel
grids

Triethanolamine

Sulphuric
acid

7.17 x 10

Palmes-type
Diffusion
Tube

3.5 x 0.95

Membrane

Stainless steel
grids

Not reported

Sulphuric
acid

1.50 x 10

Blatter
Diffusion
Tube

0.7 x 0.64

Open

Absorbent
behind Teflon
membrane

Not reported

Ethylene
glycol /
HCl

Ferm Badge

1.0 x 3.14

Steel grid +
Teflon
membrane

Whatman 40

KI / NaAsO2
NaI / NaOH

Willems
Badge

0.2 x 5.31

PTFE
membrane

Glass fibre
filter

CEH
ALPHA

0.6 x 3.46

PTFE
membrane

Ogawa
Badge

0.6 x 0.79 (25

holes of 0.2
cm diameter)

CSPSS
Badge

Comment /
Reference

NH3
Uptake
Rate
3 -1 *
(m h )
-5

9.74 x 10

-5

Protective cover
recommended
for
outdoor
sampling.
[8,10,11,22]

-4

2.03 x 10-4

Not tested for

NO2.
Protective cover
used
for outdoor
sampling.
[12, 13]

5.04 x 10

-3

6.84 x 10-3

Protective cover
used
for outdoor
sampling. [14]

Citric acid

1.74 x 10-3

2.36 x 10

[15]

NaI / NaOH

Tartaric
acid

1.47 x 10-2

2.00 x 10-2

Additional 0.8
cm inlet in front
of membrane.
[7]

Schleicher &
Schuell 595

Under test

Citric acid

3.20 x 10

Open

Stainless steel
grid + Filter
Pad

Triethanolamine

8.0 x 17.35

PTFE
membrane

Absorbent
behind
PTFE
membrane

CHEMIX

Krochmal
Badge

1.0 x 4.91

Polypropylene
membrane

Whatman 1 or
Stainless steel
grids

Yanagisawa
Badge

UC Davis
Badge

1.03 x 8.50

Kasper &
Puxbaum

0.90 x 8.04

-3

-3

4.34 x 10

-3

Protective cover
used for outdoor
sampling.

7.26 x 10

-4

9.85 x 10

-4

Not tested for

NH3. Protective
cover used for
outdoor
sampling. [16]

1.20 x 10-2

1.63 x 10-2

Not tested for

NH3
Protective cover
used for outdoor
sampling. [17]

Triethanolamine

2.72 x 10

-3

3.69 x 10-3

Not tested for

NH3.
[18]

Triethanolamine

Not tested for

NH3.
[19]

Zefluor
membrane

Whatman 41

Not reported

Citric acid

4.58 x 10

-3

6.21 x 10-3

Not tested for

NO2.
[20]

Teflon
membrane

Stainless steel
grids

Not reported

Phosphoric
acid

4.95 x 10

-3

6.72 x 10-3

Protective cover
used for outdoor
sampling. [21]

TM

*
Calculated theoretical sampling rate, based on the reported dimensions of the samplers, using the sampling rate equation and diffusion coefficients of
NO2 and NH3 detailed in section 2.1.

516

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TUBE-TYPES

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

BADGE-TYPES
10 mm

2 mm

3.5 cm

7.1 cm

Willems
Badge
Sampler [7]

Swedish
Ferm Badge
Sampler [15]

3.5 cm
Membrane
Diffusion Tube [12]
7.1 cm
open Diffusion
Tube [22]

KEY
Impregnated filter / grid
Membrane

FIGURE 1. Some examples of tube-type and badge-type passive diffusion samplers.

FIGURE 2. Effect of wind speed on the over-estimation of NO2 concentration for 71 mm diffusion tubes (adapted from Hargreaves [10]).

An intercomparison study conducted by Campbell et al.[23] showed that the open diffusion tubes
overestimated NO2 by as much as 30% when compared against a reference chemiluminescence
analyzer. NO2 overestimation varied between different sites, with the largest errors reported at more
exposed locations. Their study attributed the NO2 overestimation to the wind-shortening effect on the
open-type diffusion tube. This finding is supported by other workers[12,24,25,26]. The windshortening effect can be minimised when using open diffusion tubes by the careful selection of
sampling sites where vertical movement of air is avoided[6,27], and in exposed windy locations, the
use of some form of wind shield can also reduce wind turbulence[6].
Provided that the general guidelines for the location and exposure of the open diffusion tube
are followed, wind speed has been considered to have minimal or negligible influence on its
sampling rate because of the large length-to-area ratio of the tube[6,27]. For example, a reduction
in the path length of 7.1 cm by 1 cm would only result in a 16% overestimation of air
concentration, compared with 40% for a tube that is half its length. Atkins and Lee[27] also
justified this conclusion on the basis that the largest air concentrations tend to occur in low wind
speed conditions. The shorter 3.5-cm diffusion tube and all badge-type samplers have a gas

517

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

permeable membrane placed at the inlet to establish a turbulent-free layer of air inside the
sampler[17,18,26,28,29]. The membrane does, however, impose an additional resistance against
gas diffusion, which needs to be taken into account when deriving a samplers effective sampling
rate. This may be achieved by applying a correction factor to the measured concentration using
the theoretical rate. This can be determined empirically from field calibration of the samplers
against a suitable reference method or from estimates made based on the theoretical resistance of
the membrane plus the estimated thickness of the quasi-laminar boundary layer on the outside of
the membrane[21], which depends on wind speed and sampler geometry.
Low wind speeds can also be a problem because this can lead to a depletion of the pollutant
in front of the sampler. This causes an increase in the depth of the boundary layer (Lb) between
the membrane and the moving air outside, which increases the effective diffusion length (L + Lb)
and can result in an underestimation of the air concentration. Badge-type samplers are affected
more than tube-type samplers due to a higher ratio of the boundary layer to effective diffusion
length (Lb / (L + Lb)). The Willems badge shows the greatest sensitivity to low wind speed, since
a large layer of stagnant air can also form in front of the membrane within the sampler (length = 8
mm). Willems[7] and Kasper and Puxbaum[21] use an equation derived from the relationship
between boundary layer resistance and wind speed to provide corrected estimates of air
concentrations.

PASSIVE SAMPLING OF NO2

In the U.K., open diffusion tubes are routinely used to provide large-scale monitoring and
assessment of NO2 to ensure compliance with set Air Quality Objectives[2]. They were used in
the Rural NO2 Network between 1987 and 1990[30] and continue to be operated across the U.K.
NO2 Tube Network with measurements at over 1,200 sites[31].
There are uncertainties, however, regarding the accuracy and reliability of the open diffusion
tubes for air quality assessment. Trials in rural areas have shown good agreement with the
European Community (EC) reference method (chemiluminescence analyzer)[22], whereas urban
studies have found significant overestimation of NO2 concentrations[23,32,33,34]. Within the
U.K. NO2 Network, a field intercomparison exercise carried out in 1998 to test the performance
of the NO2 diffusion tubes found that although 79% of the 38 participating laboratories performed
to the data quality objectives established in the EU Daughter Directive (25% compared with the
reference chemiluminescence method), the range in the average bias of 39% to +58% was
substantial[33]. The preparation technique for the NO2 diffusion tubes was identified as one of
the problems[34,40], and the protocol for the preparation of diffusion tubes was subsequently
standardised across the network, which recommends the pipetting of a 20% solution of TEA in
deionised water directly onto the grids.
Other major potential sampling artefacts associated with the use of the open diffusion tube
for NO2 sampling that have been identified include: (1) wind turbulence effects on sampling rate,
(2) in situ formation of additional NO2 between NO and O3 (ozone) inside sampler during
sampling, and (3) exposure-dependent loss of chemisorbed NO2.

Effects of Within-Tube Chemical Reaction on Passive Sampling for NO2

The acrylic bodies of open diffusion tubes are effective in blocking most of the UV wavelengths
that can photolyse NO2 during daytime[35]. The photolytic pathway that destroys NO2 is
therefore blocked, while reaction between NO and O3 molecules diffusing into the tube continues,
leading to the formation of additional NO2.

518

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

FIGURE 3: Sampling artefact due to within-tube chemical reaction leading to formation of additional NO2.

The extent of the chemical interference is governed by the local relative concentrations of
NO, O3, and NO2 and most crucially by the proportion of NOx (= NO + NO2), as shown in Fig. 3.
In the urban environment where NO is the predominant species in total NOx, NO measured as
NO2 due to chemical reaction can give rise to errors of up to 30% for curbside locations[35], and
the errors are likely to be greatest when the NO2:NOx ratio is about 0.5:1 at the monitoring
site[36]. In clean rural air, where NO concentrations are small relative to NO2 and considerably
lower than O3, these errors are small and the diffusion tubes will measure total NOx effectively.
Any attempt to correct the diffusion tube measurements for the chemical overestimation is
difficult, since the overestimation of NO2 due to chemistry is dictated by the temporal variations
in concentrations of ambient NO2, NO, and O3 during exposure. Close to NO sources, the
concentration of NO, NO2, and O3 do not achieve photochemical equilibrium on timescales
similar to the sampling rate. To assess the magnitude of the additional formation of NO2, Heal
and Cape[32] developed a diffusive transport chemical model to simulate the within-tube
chemistry. Predicted NO2 concentrations from the model agreed with measured NO2
concentrations in two independent studies in Edinburgh[35] and Cambridge[36], lending support
to the hypothesis that reduced NO2 photolysis accounted for most of the excess NO2 measured
with the passive samplers. Another simplified chemical model based on the model of Heal and
Cape[32] has also recently emerged[37] with similar conclusions. This revises the earlier
conclusions from another model developed by the same group[22] that the chemical interference
effect was negligible. This earlier view was suggested on the basis that the errors were thought to
be within the acceptable uncertainty limits of the measurements.
Residence times of NO and O3 during diffusion along the sampler also dictate the extent of
within-tube chemistry. For the 7.1-cm diffusion tube, the residence times of NO and O3 are of
the order of 2.8 min[35], which gives sufficient time for reaction. The residence times of NO and
O3 are considerably shorter in badge-type samplers and NO2 formation would therefore be
expected to be negligible. Indeed, good agreement was obtained between NO2 concentrations
measured using the Ferm sampler and an active reference method[29]. By increasing the diffusion
length of the same badge sampler, Ayers et al.[29] also demonstrated an increase in measured
NO2 concentrations with an increase in length of the samplers. Kirby et al.[34] provided
confirmation that the positive bias increased with tube length of tube-type samplers. They found
that the measured NO2 from diffusion tubes was in the order 120 mm > 71 mm 55 mm. This is
entirely in agreement with chemical bias where codiffusing NO and O3 molecules in longer tubes
have more time to react to form excess NO2, and shows the lack of a wind speed effect, which
would be expected to operate in the opposite direction.

519

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

Effects of Exposure Time on Passive Sampling for NO2

TEA is commonly used for the collection of NO2 in passive samplers, as it is an effective
absorbent for NO2[8,9]. NO2 is converted to nitrite ions after reaction with TEA, with conversion
assumed to be 100%[38]. There is, however, a lack of specificity of TEA towards NO2, since it is
also sensitive to sulphur dioxide (SO2). Where SO2 concentrations are high, this may lead to a
decrease in sampling efficiency, since the basicity of the TEA coating is affected by the collection
of both NO2 and SO2. There are various reports that NO2 diffusion tubes exposed for 1 month
consistently give lower NO2 concentrations than averaged NO2 concentrations from successive
samples exposed for 1- or 2-week periods[26,32,39,40].
The mechanism for this time-dependent loss of NO2 is not known. A reduction in sampling
efficiency, loss of chemisorbed NO2 on the TEA through in situ photolysis[35], or a combination
of both factors could be responsible. Smith et al.[41] identified a clear seasonal effect, with the
largest loss in NO2 occurring during the summer months. This would be consistent with increased
photodegradation of the TEA-NO2 complex in the warm sunny months.
Some workers use a potassium iodide (KI) and sodium arsenite (NaAsO2) mixture to trap
NO2[26,39]. The iodide ions catalyse the reduction of NO2 to nitrite, which is stabilised by the
alkaline condition provided by NaAsO2. Where NO2 concentrations are high, oxidation of
available arsenite to arsenate can lead to loss of alkalinity of the coating and to the loss of already
trapped NO2- as HNO2[39]. By substituting the arsenite with NaOH, alkaline conditions can be
maintained at the sorbent surface[29,39]. Since NaAsO2 is highly toxic, the use of NaOH is
preferable, and NO2 measurements using a sodium iodide (NaI) and NaOH mixture did not show
NO2 underestimation for long exposure times when compared to weekly sampling[39]. Recently,
ChemixTM, a new collection medium developed by Maxxam Analytics[17], was also reported to
give good quantitative measures of NO2 with their passive sampling system under all outdoor
conditions in Canada. However, the chemical composition of ChemixTM has not been published.

PASSIVE SAMPLING OF NH3

The measurement of atmospheric NH3 with passive diffusion samplers is notoriously problematic,
since it is a difficult gas to sample accurately and contamination is a major issue[10,42]. Positive
bias at low ambient NH3 concentrations with diffusion tube sampling is widely reported[1,10,13].
A number of attributable factors include: (1) wind-shortening effect on open diffusion tube, (2)
sampling of NH4+ aerosol, (3) uncertainty due to low sampling rates, and (4) uncertainty with
regards to field and laboratory tube blanks. Negative bias at higher ambient NH3 concentrations
encountered in the Netherlands has also been reported[28], which was thought to be due to either
the increased resistance of the membrane inlet of membrane diffusion tubes or loss of sampling
efficiency with time. Badge-type samplers such as the Willems badge samplers perform well at
low ambient NH3 concentrations, but can only be used for short-term sampling because the
samplers become saturated very quickly[43]. An intercomparison conducted by Kirchner et
al.[44] on ten tube- and badge-type samplers identified artefacts due to the effect of temperature
on different absorbents used, but was unable to draw further conclusions with regard to the
performance or recommendation of any of the samplers.
Uncertainties in the Reported Application of NH3 Diffusion Tubes
Diffusion tubes for the measurement of atmospheric NH3 concentrations have been used for many
years[1,9,10,28], but with very mixed success. Although Hargreaves and Atkins[9] found them to
perform satisfactorily in the range 1 to 20 g m-3 against an active denuder reference[45], other
authors have found them to substantially overestimate NH3 concentrations at ambient
levels[1,46]. In the U.K. during the 1980s and 1990s, an empirical correction factor of 0.45 was
applied to diffusion tube results for national mapping of monitoring data[1,11], although it was

520

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

acknowledged that this correction factor was very uncertain. The cause of the overestimation was
not certain, with possible explanations including wind enhancement, sampling of aerosol NH4+ by
open tubes, or migration of collected NH4+ along tube walls[42].
More recent tests have similarly shown variable results. Wyers et al.[43] tested diffusion
tubes at relatively high concentrations (2 to 20 g m-3) in the Netherlands and found wind
enhancement could lead to up to 19% overestimation in open tubes, but that otherwise the tubes
had good agreement with active sampling. A similar agreement using 3.5-cm membrane diffusion
tubes was found by Thijsse et al.[28] for concentrations mostly from the Netherlands in similar
conditions, and these authors concluded that the method was reliable for monthly sampling.
However, it should be noted that the data of Thijsse et al.[28] suggests an overestimation at low
concentrations, with an intercept of 0.5 to 1 g m-3 in the regression.
This finding is supported by extensive analysis of NH3 concentrations in the U.K., where
3.5-cm diffusion tubes have been compared against active denuder sampling[47]. Sutton et al.[13]
also showed that replacing the membrane after sampling had an effect, reducing the intercept
from around 1.5 to 0.8 g m-3. Lower blanks and detection limits were also achieved by capping
the membrane inlet with an extra protective cap prior to sampling[13].
Fig. 4 shows a comparison of 3.5-cm membrane diffusion tubes against denuder sampling
conducted by the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH). This indicates an intercept of 0.4 g
m-3, with a slope of slightly less than 1. The less than unity slope may be attributed to the extra
diffusion resistance of the membrane, whereas the nonzero intercept is probably due to the
difference between measured and actual blanks (Eq. 2).
The data of Thijsse et al.[28] and those presented in Fig. 4 show that diffusion tubes can
measure concentrations >1 g m-3 to obtain annual means, but must be calibrated against a
reference. The fact that different workers obtain varying relationships to active sampling, even for
the same diffusion tube design, underlies the importance of establishing a calibration against a
reference in applying diffusion tubes for NH3[44].
The conclusion is that although NH3 diffusion tubes can be shown to perform adequately,
any implementation must be supported by ongoing reference data by active sampling across the
full range of concentrations encountered. Indeed it may be noted that this was the purpose for
which the CEH data shown in Fig. 4 were collected.

FIGURE 4. Comparison of individual monthly NH3 concentrations from triplicate membrane diffusion tubes operated alongside an
active denuder system, as part of the ongoing methods validation at nine sites in the DETR U.K. National Ammonia Monitoring
Network.

521

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

Performance of Badge Samplers for NH3

Badge-type samplers have sampling rates that are 10 to 200 times greater than diffusion tubes
(Table 1). The most sensitive sampler is the Willems badge developed by Willems and
Hofschreuder, although it can become saturated very quickly at high concentrations or if used for
longer-term sampling[43]. The Willems badge was used to map NH3 concentration across
Southern Ireland in the late 1990s[48]. Monthly sampling would have been adequate to provide
the temporal and spatial details required, but weekly sampling was used to avoid saturation
problems with the sampler, which demanded greater effort and resources. The Willems badge is
also sensitive to the effect of wind speed (see Effects of Wind Speed on Passive Sampling),
which has to be corrected for in the derivation of an effective sampling rate for the sampler[7,21].
The Ferm badge[15] samples at a lower rate than the Willems badge and would therefore be
suitable for long-term sampling over a wider NH3 concentration range. However, the design of
the sampler means that the manipulation of the sampler is difficult in the field while the top cap
can also come off, accidentally exposing the coated filter inside during handling.
TABLE 2
Comparison of Atmospheric NH3 Concentrations from Different Laboratories
-3

Measured Air NH3 Concentration (g m )

Independent Laboratories
CEH Edinburgh

Cheshire (8 sites)

East Anglia (14 sites)

20 - 40
2-4

0 -1000
0.5 - 20

Note: Measurements were made using the same type of membrane diffusion tubes.

Contamination/Operator-Specific Error
NH3 is ubiquitous in the environment and high concentrations are often encountered in the
laboratory environment, with concentrations of up to 60 g NH3 m-3 being measured (CEH,
unpublished data). NH3 is readily adsorbed to surfaces and NH3 samplers are easily contaminated,
either through contamination with laboratory air if proper care is not exercised, or through
ammonium on the hands and fingers during handling and through NH3 present in human
breath[10]. Therefore, substantial errors in NH3 sampling with passive samplers can occur if a
proper protocol of cleaning, preparation, exposure, and storage of samplers is not strictly adhered
to. For this reason, there is serious concern that errors associated with NH3 passive samplers are
partly operator specific.
The derivation of a sound sampling protocol and the rigorous testing and validation of a
passive sampling methodology against a reference active sampling method is essential to ensure
that the passive samplers give accurate and reliable air measurements. Problems arise when
companies with little or no experience in the operation of passive diffusion samplers provide an
air monitoring service using commercially available diffusion samplers. The manufacturers, in
turn, are often unable to provide any details of sampling protocol or proper use of the samplers. A
comparison of measurements by independent laboratories and CEH highlights the problem very
clearly (Table 2).
The discrepancy in NH3 data in the Cheshire study, which varied by a factor of 10, suggests
a systematic error in the analysis and/or calculation of air NH3 concentrations by the laboratory.
The random concentrations of 0 to 1,000 g NH3 m-3 reported by a second company in the East
Anglia study, however, point to serious problems in the entire measurement process. The
laboratory in this instance used single samplers for determination at each sampling location. Good

522

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

practice requires replicate samplers to be exposed in parallel to test precision and to identify any
potential contamination problems for every sampling period.
A number of important factors in the preparation and subsequent treatment of exposed NH3
passive samplers have been identified, which produced more precise and accurate measurement
data. This includes the replacement of exposed membranes immediately after exposure (see
Passive Sampling of NH3 section), a precaution also supported by Ferm and Rodhe[39] for the
Ferm sampler. We have also found that the standard procedure where the membrane inlet is not
covered up after preparation gives high and variable blanks, despite being stored inside
polystyrene containers, which in turn are stored inside grip-seal bags. After 1 week of storage
following preparation, the coated grids of uncovered membrane diffusion tubes were found to be
contaminated with 0.25 0.06 g NH4+ (n = 12), compared with 0.05 0.01 g NH4+ (n = 18)
from diffusion tubes where the membrane inlets were covered with snug-fitting caps. The caps
were either sourced (diffusion tubes) or made specially (ALPHA [Adapted Low Cost Passive
High Absorption] samplers) to fit over the membrane inlet. This ensured that sampling does not
begin until the cap is removed.

DISCUSSION
Recommendations for NO2 and NH3 Sampling
Based on the above review, it is clear that passive samplers can be used with some success to
monitor ambient levels of NO2 and NH3, but that there are also a number of uncertainties and
pitfalls which need to be considered. With regard to the application of passive samplers for
ambient monitoring of NO2 and NH3 on a weekly or monthly timescales, the following
recommendations can be made:
1. Passive diffusion samplers should be tested and validated against reference active
sampling methods to ensure the reliability of data and where applicable, to obtain
correction functions that can be used to correct the measured NO2 and NH3 concentration
from the samplers using the theoretical diffusion rates. Tests should be carried out
according to expected environmental conditions, anticipated pollutant concentration
range, and exposure periods required.
2. Replicate samplers should be exposed in parallel to provide estimates of precision of the
method and to identify contamination artefacts.
3. Written protocols, including QC/QA procedures, should be established giving clear
guidelines on how to prepare, handle, expose, and analyse the passive samplers and how
to calculate air concentration.
4. To minimise wind effects, where open-type diffusion tubes are used, they should be
located away from the edges of buildings where there are likely to be large updrafts. In
exposed sites, wind shelters should be used to reduce wind turbulence and to protect the
samplers from rain.
5. Sampler types should be matched to measurement requirements. Badge-type samplers
can be used to monitor low concentrations of NO2 and NH3 in background areas, but may
not be suitable for monitoring in source regions or for long-term exposures (1 month or
more) due to potential saturation problems. Diffusion tubes are low-sensitivity samplers
and measurements for NH3 are rather uncertain at background areas with concentrations
below 2 g NH3 m-3 (see Uncertainties in the Reported Application of NH3 Diffusion

523

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

Tubes). However, NH3 diffusion tubes are useful for providing annual mean estimates
and for assessing spatial variability in source areas.
6. For NO2 sampling, the sampler body should not transmit UV light that can photolyse
NO2. Acrylic is a suitable material[35], whereas quartz[32] and transparent polythene[18]
are not. Badge-type samplers may also be preferred over tube-type samplers for NO2 in
urban and roadside locations to reduce interference from in-tube chemical reaction.
Where there is uncertainty with regard to exposure-dependent loss of measured NO2 (e.g.,
use of diffusion tubes with TEA coating), then short exposure periods (weekly) should be
adopted. Collocation with chemiluminescence analyzers at key locations is also necessary
to assess both positive bias due to chemical reaction and negative bias, which is related to
sampler exposure duration.
7. For NH3 sampling, contamination is a major problem and wearing disposable gloves in
the handling of the samplers at all stages is recommended. The inlet of all samplers
should be sealed off immediately after preparation to ensure that sampling does not begin
until the inlet is exposed. After exposure, the membranes should be removed and the
sampler should be sealed with a fresh, clean cap.

Application of a Modified Passive Sampler for NH3

From the considerations and recommendations above, a modified passive sampler for NH3 has
been developed. The new CEH ALPHA sampler (Fig. 5) was designed with an optimised
sampling rate for long-term sampling (1 or 2 monthly periods) and was sensitive enough to
resolve low concentrations (<1 g m-3 NH3 and <0.5 ppb NO2) in background areas. The
membrane inlet is placed directly at the mouth of the sampler, so that the formation of a boundary
layer in front of the membrane is minimised and a stable, turbulent-free diffusion path length is
achieved behind the membrane. To make handling easier, the sampler body was extended behind
the coated filter.
Results from an intercomparison between the ALPHA samplers and an active denuder (CEH
DELTA) system[47] at Monte Bondone in northern Italy are shown in Fig. 6. Even with a 9month average concentration of around 0.2 g m-3, the mean estimates agreed within 5%, while
the results show a very close agreement of individual monthly results.

FIGURE 5. The new CEH ALPHA sampler.

524

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

FIGURE 6. Intercomparison of NH3 measurement results by ALPHA sampler and active denuder system at Monte Bondone, Italy
(ECOMONT project). Each data point for the ALPHA sampler results represent the mean SD of replicate samples (n=3).

Membrane diffusion tubes, and more recently, the new ALPHA samplers, have been used at
key locations in the U.K. National Ammonia Monitoring Network[13]. The Monitoring Network
was set up in 1995 and is operated by CEH (formerly ITE) on behalf of the Department of
Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR). There are currently 90 sites being operated
across the U.K. At 59 of these sites, an active sampling methodology using the CEH DELTA
system[47] is used to provide the spatial and temporal patterns of NH3 across the U.K., whereas
ALPHA samplers are used to assess regional and local scale variability in air NH3 concentrations
in source regions. To provide an ongoing validation of the ALPHA sampler, the performance of
the new ALPHA Samplers is continuously assessed at 9 U.K. sites within the network, and has
also been tested within the EC ECOMONT project at several U.K. and European sites[49] against
the CEH DELTA system. The comparison shown in Fig. 7 demonstrates an order of magnitude
better precision with the ALPHA samplers compared with the diffusion tubes (Fig. 5), while the
intercept is also proportionately smaller (0.05 g NH3 m-3). The nonunity slope may again be
attributed to the additional resistance due to the membrane and boundary layer. This regression is
used to calibrate the ALPHA sampler data, which are mapped together with the data for active
denuder sampling.

FIGURE 7. Comparison of individual monthly NH3 concentrations from triplicate ALPHA samplers operated alongside an active
denuder system, as part of the ongoing methods validation at 9 sites in the DETR U.K. National Ammonia Monitoring Network.

525

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

FIGURE 8. Interpolated atmospheric NH3 concentrations from the U.K. National NH3 Monitoring network and map of East Anglia
showing (as colored points) the NH3 concentrations determined by the monitoring network on a background of the FRAME predicted
concentrations[50].

The results of this mapping at a U.K. and local scale are shown in Fig. 8. Data from the
network confirm the high spatial variability in NH3 concentration across the country, reflecting
the large regional variability in NH3 emissions[13]. The regional study in East Anglia shows a
gradient in concentrations along a transect (Fig. 8), in agreement with predicted concentrations
from an atmospheric transport model[50]. Work is now currently in progress for NO2 sampling.

CONCLUSIONS
Passive diffusion samplers can be used successfully to monitor NO2 and NH3 concentrations,
provided that the methods used have been rigorously tested, validated, and, where necessary,
calibrated against recognised reference methods. For NO2 sampling, the open diffusion tube used
in the U.K. is affected by wind speed, and care must be exercised in the selection of sampling
locations. Positive bias due to chemical reaction is difficult to correct, but may be minimised by
using badge- rather than tube-type samplers. Diffusion tube data from urban and curbside
locations where chemical interference is most pronounced must therefore be treated with caution.
On the other hand, negative bias reported for longer exposure times can lead to underestimation
of NO2 concentration, and more work is required to address the issue of sample stability. For NH3
sampling, errors in passive sampling are often due to contamination artefacts. Clear guidelines on

526

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

sampling protocol and careful handling of the samplers can reduce these errors, which are also
minimised by an appropriate sampler architecture to match the concentration sensitivity required.
Using the identified recommendations on sampler design, a new passive sampler for NH3 and
NO2 has been developed and applied at U.K. and European sites.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) for the
funding of the U.K. National Ammonia Monitoring Network, the EU for the funding of the EC
ECOMONT project, and for supporting funding from CEH Programmes. We would also like to
thank the local site operators in the U.K. network and the researchers within the EC ECOMONT
project, without whom the monitoring activity would not have been possible.

REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

13.

14.

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

RGAR (1997) Report of the Review Group on Acid Rain. Department of the Environment, London.
DETR (1997) The United Kingdom National Air Quality Strategy. CM 3587. Her Majesty's Stationery Office,
London.
Sutton, M.A. and Fowler, D. (1993) Estimating the Relative Contribution of SOx, NOy and NHx Inputs to
Effects of Atmospheric Deposition. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
INDITE (1994) Impacts of Nitrogen Deposition in Terrestrial Ecosystems. Report of a DOE Review Group.
Department of the Environment, London.
Krupa, S.V. and Legge, A.H. (2000) Passive sampling of ambient, gaseous air pollutants: an assessment from
an ecological perspective. Environ. Pollut. 107, 3145.
Brown, R.H. (2000) Monitoring the ambient environment with diffusive samplers: theory and practical
considerations. J. Environ. Monit. 2, 19.
Willems, J.J.H. (1993) Low-Cost Methods for Measuring Air Pollutants (a Training Program). Report R-635.
Wageningen (NI) Agricultural University, Department of Air Quality, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Palmes, E., Gunnison, A.F., Diamattio, J., and Tomczyk, C. (1976) Personal sampler for nitrogen dioxide. Am.
Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 37, 570577.
Hargreaves, K.J. and Atkins, D.H.F. (1987) The Measurement of Ammonia in the Outdoor Environment using
Passive Diffusion Tube Samplers. Report AERE-R-12568. Harwell Laboratory, Didcot, Oxon, U.K.
Hargreaves, K.J. (1989) The Development and Application of Diffusion Tubes for Air Pollution
Measurements [Ph.D. Thesis]. University of Nottingham, U.K.
Atkins, C.H.F. and Lee, D.S. (1992) The Distribution of Ammonia in the United Kingdom. Report AEA-EE0330. AEA Technology, Harwell Laboratory, Didcot, Oxon, U.K.
Thijsse, Th.R., Wyers, G.P., Duyzer, J.H., Verhagen, H.L.M., Wayers, A., and Mls, J.J. (1996) Measurement
of Ambient Ammonia with Diffusion Tube Samplers. Report TNO-MEP P95/041. TNO Institute of
Environmental Sciences, The Netherlands.
Sutton, M.A., Miners, B.P., Wyers, G.P., Duyzer, J.H., Milford, C., Cape, J.N., and Fowler, D. (1997)
National Ammonia Concentration Monitoring in the United Kingdom: Sampling Intercomparison, Network
Structure and Initial Network Results. Report to the Department of the Environment (EPG 1/3/58). Institute of
Terrestrial Ecology, Edinburgh.
Blatter, A., Fahrni, M., and Neftel, A. (1992) A new generation of NH3 passive samplers. In Development
of Analytical Techniques for Atmospheric Pollutants. EC Air Pollution Research Report 41. Allegrini, I.,
Ed.
Ferm, M. (1991) A Sensitive Diffusional Sampler. IVL Report L91172. Swedish Environmental Research
Institute, Gteborg, Sweden.
Mulik, J.D., Lewis, R.G., and McCleany, W.A. (1989) Modification of a high-efficiency passive sampler to
determine nitrogen dioxide or formaldehyde in air. Anal. Chem. 61, 187-189.
Tang, H., Lau, T., Brassard, B., and Cool, W. (1999) A new all-season passive sampling system for
monitoring NO2 in air. Field Anal. Chem. Tech. 3, 338345.
Krochmal, D. and Kalina, A. (1997) A method of nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide determination in
ambient air by use of passive samplers and ion chromatography. Atmos. Environ. 31, 34733479.
Yamada, E., Kimura, M., Tomozawa, K., and Fuse, Y. (1999) Simple analysis of atmospheric NO2, SO2 and
O3 in mountains by using passive samplers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 4141-4145.

527

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

20.

21.
22.

23.
24.

25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.

44.

45.
46.
47.
48.

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

Rabaud, N.E., James, T.A., Ashbaugh, L.L., and Flocchini, R.G. (2001) A passive sampler for the
determination of airborne ammonia concentrations near large-scale animal facilities. Environ. Sci. Technol.
35, 11901196.
Kasper, A. and Puxbaum, H. (1994) Badge-type passive sampler for monitoring ambient ammonia
concentrations. Fresenius' J. Anal. Chem. 350, 448453.
Atkins, C.H.F., Sandalls, J., Law, D.V., Hough, A.M., and Stevenson, K.J. (1986) The Measurement of
Nitrogen Dioxide in the Outdoor Environment using Passive Diffusion Tube Samplers. Report AERE-R
12133. Harwell Energy & Environment.
Campbell, G.W., Stedman, J.R., and Stevenson, K. (1994) A survey of nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the
United Kingdom using diffusion tubes, July-December 1991. Atmos. Environ. 28, 477486.
Gair, A.J., Penkett, S.A., and Oyola, P. (1991) Development of a simple passive technique for the
determination of nitrogen-dioxide in remote continental locations. Atmos. Environ. Part a-General Topics 25,
19271939.
Gair, A.J. and Penkett, S.A. (1995) The effects of wind speed and turbulence on the performance of diffusion
tube samplers. Atmos. Environ. 29, 25292533.
Ferm, M. and Svanberg, P.A. (1998) Cost-efficient techniques for urban- and background measurements of
SO2 and NO2. Atmos. Environ. 32, 13771381.
Atkins, C.H.F. and Lee, D.S. (1995) Spatial and temporal variations of rural nitrogen dioxide concentrations
across the United Kingdom. Atmos. Environ. 29, 223229.
Thijsse, Th.R., Duyzer, J.H., Verhagen, H.L.M., Wyers, G.P., Wayers, A., and Mls, J.J. (1998) Measurement
of ambient ammonia with diffusion tube samplers. Atmos. Environ. (Ammonia Special Issue) 32(3), 333337.
Ayers, G.P., Keywood, M.D., Gillett, R., Manins, P.C., Malfroy, H., and Bardsley, T. (1998) Validation of
passive diffusion samplers for SO2 and NO2. Atmos. Environ. 32, 35873592.
Campbell, G.W. (1988) A survey of nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the UK using diffusion tube samplers.
Atmos. Environ. 28, 477486.
Stevenson, K., Bush, T., and Mooney, D. (2001) Five years of nitrogen dioxide measurement with diffusion
tube samplers at over 1000 sites in the UK. Atmos. Environ. 35, 281287.
Heal, M.R. and Cape, J.N. (1997) A numerical evaluation of chemical interferences in the measurement of
ambient nitrogen dioxide by passive diffusion samplers. Atmos. Environ. 31, 19111923.
Bush, T. (1998) Summary Results from the UK NO2 Network Field Intercomparison Exercise.
http://www.aeat.co.uk/netcen/airqual/reports/home.html. AEA Technology.
Kirby, C., Fox, M., Waterhouse, J., and Drye, T. (2001) Influence of environmental parameters on the
accuracy of nitrogen dioxide passive diffusion tubes for ambient measurement. J. Environ. Monit. 3, 150158.
Heal, M.R., O'Donoghue, M.A., and Cape, J.N. (1999) Overestimation of urban nitrogen dioxide by passive
diffusion tubes: a comparative exposure and model study. Atmos. Environ. 33, 513524.
Heal, M.R., Kirby, C., and Cape, J.N. (2000) Systematic biases in measurement of urban nitrogen dioxide
using passive diffusion samplers. Environ. Monit. Assess. 62, 3954.
Bush, T., Jenkin, M., Banham, J., and Loader, A. (2001) Investigation of NO2 Diffusion Tube Over-read
Resulting from Reduced Photolysis by UV Light. Report AEAT/ENV/R/0562. AEA Technology.
Glasius, M., Carlsen, M.F., Hansen, T.S., and Lohse, C. (1999) Measurements of nitrogen dioxide on Funen
using diffusion tubes. Atmos. Environ. 33, 11771185.
Ferm, M. and Rodhe, H. (1997) Measurements of air concentrations of SO2, NO2 and NH3 at rural and
remote sites in Asia. J. Atmos. Chem. 27, 1729.
Bush, T., Smith, S., Stevenson, K., and Moorcroft, S. (2001) Validation of nitrogen dioxide diffusion tube
methodology in the UK. Atmos. Environ. 35, 289296.
Smith, S., Bush, T., Stevenson, K., and Moorcroft, S. (2001) Validation of Nitrogen Dioxide Diffusion Tube
Methodology. Report SSE/AQ/0209, Stanger Science & Environment.
Sutton, M.A. (1990) The Surface/Atmosphere Exchange of Ammonia [Ph.D. Thesis]. University of
Edinburgh.
Wyers, G.P., Wayers, A., Mls, J.J., Thijsse, Th.R., Duyzer, J.H., Verhagen, H.L.M., and Erisman, J.W.
(1996) Characterisation of the Regional Concentration Fields for Ammonia: Sampling and Monitoring
Strategy. Report: ECN-C-96-038. Netherlands Energy Foundation, Petten, The Netherlands.
Kirchner, M., Braeutigam, S., Ferm, M., Haas, M., Hangartner, M., Hofschreuder, P., Kasper-Giebl, A.,
Rommelt, H., Striedner, J., Terzer, W., Thoni, L., Werner, H., and Zimmerling, R. (1999) Field
intercomparison of diffusive samplers for measuring ammonia. J. Environ. Monit. 1, 259265.
Ferm, M. (1979) Method for determinaton of atmospheric ammonia. Atmos. Environ. 13, 13851393.
Andersen, H.V. and Hovmand, M.F. (1994) Measurement of ammonia and ammonium by denuder and filter
pack. Atmos. Environ. 28, 34953512.
Sutton, M.A., Tang, Y.S., Miners, B., and Fowler, D. (2001) A new diffusion denuder system for long-term,
regional monitoring of atmospheric ammonia and ammonium. WASP in press.
De Kluizenaar, Y. and Farrell, E.P. (2000) Ammonia Monitoring in Ireland Final Report. R & D Report
Series No. 8. Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland.

528

Y.S. Tang et al.: NO2 and NH3 Passive Sampling

49.

50.

TheScientificWorld (2001) 1, 513-529

Sutton, M.A., Tang, Y.S., Milford, C., Haria, M., Rosset, F., Fillat, G., Wohlfarht, E., Tasser, E., Bitterlich,
W., and Bayfield, N.G. (1999) Assessment of Ammonia Fluxes for European Mountain Ecosystems:
Application of a Bidirectional Inferential Model for the ECOMONT Transect. ECOMONT final report.
Cernusca, A., Tappeneier, U., and Bayfield, N.G., Eds. University of Innsbruck, Austria.
Singles, R., Sutton, M.A., and Weston, K.J. (1998) A multi-layer model to describe the atmospheric transport
and deposition of ammonia in Great Britain. Atmos. Environ. 32, 393399.

This article should be referenced as follows:

Tang, Y.S., Cape, J.N., and Sutton, M.A. (2001) Development and types of passive samplers for monitoring
atmospheric NO2 and NH3 concentrations. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Passive Sampling of
Gaseous Air Pollutants in Ecological Effects Research. TheScientificWorld 1, 513529.

529

International Journal of

Medicinal Chemistry
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

Photoenergy
International Journal of

Organic Chemistry
International
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation

http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

International Journal of

Analytical Chemistry
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

Advances in

Physical Chemistry
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

International Journal of

Carbohydrate
Chemistry
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Journal of

Quantum Chemistry
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

Volume 2014

Submit your manuscripts at

http://www.hindawi.com
Journal of

The Scientific
World Journal
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Journal of

International Journal of

Inorganic Chemistry
Volume 2014

Journal of

Theoretical Chemistry

Hindawi Publishing Corporation

http://www.hindawi.com

Hindawi Publishing Corporation

http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

Spectroscopy
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Analytical Methods
in Chemistry

Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation

http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

Chromatography
ResearchInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

International Journal of

Electrochemistry
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporation

http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

Journal of

Catalysts
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Journal of

Applied Chemistry

Hindawi Publishing Corporation

http://www.hindawi.com

Bioinorganic Chemistry
and Applications
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

International Journal of

Chemistry
Volume 2014

Volume 2014

Spectroscopy
Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation

http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014