C++

Paradigm(s)

C++

Multi-paradigm:[1]procedural, functional,object-

C++ (pronounced "see plus plus") is

oriented, generic

a programming language that is general

purpose, statically typed, free-form, multi-

Appeared in

1983

Designed by

Bjarne Stroustrup

paradigm and compiled. It is regarded as an

intermediate-level language, as it comprises
both high-level and low-level language
features.[3] Developed by Bjarne

Stable release

ISO/IEC 14882:2011 (2011)

Typing discipline

Static, Nominative

Major

LLVM Clang, GCC,Microsoft Visual C++,Intel C++

implementations

Compiler,Comeau C/C++, Sun Studio

Dialects

Embedded C++,Managed C++, C++/CLI,C++/CX

Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell Labs, C++

was originally named C with Classes,
adding object oriented features, such as
classes, and other enhancements to the C
programming language. The language was
renamed C++ in 1983,[4] as a pun involving
the increment operator.
C++ is one of the most popular programming

Influenced

Perl, LPC, Lua, Pike, Ada 95, Java, PHP, D, C99,C#,

languages[5][6] and is implemented on a wide

[2]

variety of hardware and operating system

Falcon, Seed7

platforms. As an efficient compiler to native

Implementation

C, C++

language

code, its application domains include systems

software, application software, device drivers,
embedded software, high-performance server

OS

Cross-platform (multi-platform)

and client applications, and entertainment

software such as video games.[7] Several

Usual filename

.h .hh .hpp .hxx .h++ .cc .cpp .cxx .c++

extensions

groups provide both free and proprietary C+

+compiler software, including the GNU
Project, LLVM, Microsoft and Intel. C++ has

Website

News, status & discussion about Standard C++

C++ Programming at Wikibooks

greatly influenced many other popular

programming languages, most
notably C#[2] and Java.

C++ is also used for hardware design, where the design is initially described in C++, then analyzed,
architecturally constrained, and scheduled to create a register-transfer level hardware description
language via high-level synthesis.[8]
The language began as enhancements to C, first adding classes, then virtual functions, operator
overloading, multiple inheritance, templates andexception handling, among other features. After years of
development, the C++ programming language standard was ratified in 1998 as ISO/IEC 14882:1998. The
standard was amended by the 2003 technical corrigendum, ISO/IEC 14882:2003. The current standard
extending C++ with new features was ratified and published by ISO in September 2011 as ISO/IEC
14882:2011 (informally known as C++11).[9]
Contents
[hide]

1 History

1.1 Etymology

1.2 Philosophy

1.3 Standardization

2 Language

2.1 Operators and operator overloading

2.2 Memory management

2.3 Templates

2.4 Objects

2.5 Polymorphism

3 Standard library

4 Parsing and processing C++ source code

5 Compatibility

5.1 Exported templates

5.2 With C

6 Criticism

7 See also

8 Further reading

9 References

10 External links

History

Bjarne Stroustrup, creator of C++

Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish and British trained computer scientist, began his work on "C with Classes" in 1979.
[4]

The idea of creating a new language originated from Stroustrup's experience in programming for his Ph.D.

thesis. Stroustrup found that Simula had features that were very helpful for large software development, but the
language was too slow for practical use, while BCPL was fast but too low-level to be suitable for large software
development. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing
the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing. Remembering his Ph.D. experience, Stroustrup set out
to enhance the C language with Simula-like features.[10] C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast,
portable and widely used. Besides C and Simula, some other languages that inspired him were ALGOL
68, Ada, CLU andML. At first, the class, derived class, strong typing, inlining, and default argument features
were added to C via Stroustrup's "C with Classes" to C compiler, Cpre. [11]
In 1983, the name of the language was changed from C with Classes to C++ (++ being the increment
operator in C). New features were added includingvirtual functions, function name and operator overloading,
references, constants, user-controlled free-store memory control, improved type checking, and BCPL style

single-line comments with two forward slashes (//), as well as the development of a proper compiler for C+
+, Cfront. In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, providing an important
reference to the language, as there was not yet an official standard. [12]The first commercial implementation of
C++ was released in October of the same year.[13] Release 2.0 of C++ came in 1989 and the updated second
edition of The C++ Programming Languagewas released in 1991.[14] New features included multiple
inheritance, abstract classes, static member functions, const member functions, and protected members. In
1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published. This work became the basis for the future
standard. Late feature additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, and a Boolean type.
As the C++ language evolved, the standard library evolved with it. The first addition to the C++ standard library
was the stream I/O library which provided facilities to replace the traditional C functions such
as printf and scanf. Later, among the most significant additions to the standard library, was a large amount of
the Standard Template Library.
It is possible to write object oriented or procedural code in the same program in C++. This has caused some
concern that some C++ programmers are still writing procedural code, but are under the impression that it is
object oriented, simply because they are using C++. Often it is an amalgamation of the two. This usually
causes most problems when the code is revisited or the task is taken over by another coder. [15]
C++ continues to be used and is one of the preferred programming languages to develop professional
applications.[16]

Etymology
According to Stroustrup: "the name signifies the evolutionary nature of the changes from C". [17] During C++'s
development period, the language had been referred to as "new C", then "C with Classes". The final name is
credited to Rick Mascitti (mid-1983) and was first used in December 1983. When Mascitti was questioned
informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit. It stems from C's
"++" operator (which increments the value of a variable) and a common naming convention of using "+" to
indicate an enhanced computer program. A joke goes that the name itself has a bug: due to the use of postincrement, which increments the value of the variable but evaluates to the unincremented value, C++ is no
better than C, and the pre-increment ++C form should have been used instead. [18] There is no language called
"C plus". ABCL/c+ was the name of an earlier, unrelated programming language. A few other languages have
been named similarly to C++, most notably C-- and C#.

Philosophy
Throughout C++'s life, its development and evolution has been informally governed by a set of rules that its
evolution should follow:[10]

It must be driven by actual problems and its features should be useful immediately in real world
programmes.

Every feature should be implementable (with a reasonably obvious way to do so).

Programmers should be free to pick their own programming style, and that style should be fully
supported by C++.

Allowing a useful feature is more important than preventing every possible misuse of C++.

It should provide facilities for organising programmes into well defined separate parts, and provide
facilities for combining separately developed parts.

No implicit violations of the type system (but allow explicit violations that have been explicitly asked for
by the programmer).

Make user created types have equal support and performance to built in types.

Any features that you do not use you do not pay for (e.g. in performance).

There should be no language beneath C++ (except assembly language).

C++ should work alongside other pre-existing programming languages, rather than being part of its
own separate and incompatible programming environment.

If what the programmer wants to do is unknown, allow the programmer to specify (provide manual
control).

Standardization
Year

C++ Standard

Informal name

1998

ISO/IEC 14882:1998[19]

C++98

2003

ISO/IEC 14882:2003[20]

C++03

2007

ISO/IEC TR 19768:2007[21]

C++TR1

2011

ISO/IEC 14882:2011[22]

C++11

In 1998, the C++ standards committee (the ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG21 working group) standardized C++ and
published the international standard ISO/IEC 14882:1998 (informally known asC++98). For some years after
the official release of the standard, the committee processed defect reports, and in 2003 published a corrected
version of the C++ standard, ISO/IEC 14882:2003. In 2005, a technical report, called the "Library Technical
Report 1" (often known as TR1 for short), was released. While not an official part of the standard, it specified a
number of extensions to the standard library, which were expected to be included in the next version of C++.
The latest major revision of the C++ standard, C++11, (formerly known as C++0x) was approved by ISO/IEC on
12 August 2011.[23] It has been published as 14882:2011.[24] There are plans for a minor (C++14) and a major
revision (C++17) in the future.[25]
C++14 is the name being used for the next revision. C++14 is planned to be a small extension over C++11,
featuring mainly bug fixes and small improvements, similarly to how C++03 was a small extension to C++98.
While the name 'C++14' implies a release in 2014, this date is not fixed.

Language
C++ inherits most of C's syntax. The following is Bjarne Stroustrup's version of the Hello world program that
uses the C++ Standard Library stream facility to write a message to standard output:[26][27]
# include <iostream>
int main()
{
std::cout << "Hello, world!\n";
}
Within functions that define a non-void return type, failure to return a value before control reaches the end of
the function results in undefined behaviour (compilers typically provide the means to issue a diagnostic in such
a case).[28] The sole exception to this rule is the main function, which implicitly returns a value of zero. [29]

Operators and operator overloading

Operators that cannot be overloaded

Operator

Scope resolution operator

Symbol

::

Conditional operator

?:

dot operator

Member selection operator

.*

"sizeof" operator

sizeof

"typeid" operator

typeid

C++ provides more than 35 operators, covering basic arithmetic, bit manipulation, indirection, comparisons,
logical operations and others. Almost all operators can be overloaded for user-defined types, with a few notable
exceptions such as member access (. and .*) as well as the conditional operator. The rich set of overloadable
operators is central to using user created types in C++ as well and as easily as built in types (so that the user
using them cannot tell the difference). The overloadable operators are also an essential part of many advanced
C++ programming techniques, such as smart pointers. Overloading an operator does not change the
precedence of calculations involving the operator, nor does it change the number of operands that the operator
uses (any operand may however be ignored by the operator, though it will be evaluated prior to execution).
Overloaded "&&" and "||" operators lose their short-circuit evaluation property.

Memory management
C++ supports four types of memory management:

Static memory allocation. A static variable is assigned a value at compile-time, and allocated storage
in a fixed location along with the executable code. These are declared with the "static" keyword (in the
sense of static storage, not in the sense of declaring a class variable).

Automatic memory allocation. An automatic variable is simply declared with its class name, and
storage is allocated on the stack when the value is assigned. The constructor is called when the
declaration is executed, the destructor is called when the variable goes out of scope, and after the
destructor the allocated memory is automatically freed.

Dynamic memory allocation. Storage can be dynamically allocated on the heap using manual memory
management - normally calls to new and delete (though old-style C calls such as malloc() and free() are
still supported).

With the use of a library, garbage collection is possible. The Boehm garbage collector is commonly
used for this purpose.

The fine control over memory management is similar to C, but in contrast with languages that intend to hide
such details from the programmer, such as Java, Perl, PHP, and Ruby.

Templates
See also: Template metaprogramming and Generic programming
C++ templates enable generic programming. C++ supports both function and class templates. Templates may
be parameterized by types, compile-time constants, and other templates. Templates are implemented
by instantiation at compile-time. To instantiate a template, compilers substitute specific arguments for a
template's parameters to generate a concrete function or class instance. Some substitutions are not possible;
these are eliminated by an overload resolution policy described by the phrase "Substitution failure is not an
error" (SFINAE). Templates are a powerful tool that can be used for generic programming, template
metaprogramming, and code optimization, but this power implies a cost. Template use may increase code size,
because each template instantiation produces a copy of the template code: one for each set of template
arguments, however, this is the same amount of code that would be generated, or less, that if the code was
written by hand.[30] This is in contrast to run-time generics seen in other languages (e.g., Java) where at
compile-time the type is erased and a single template body is preserved.
Templates are different from macros: while both of these compile-time language features enable conditional
compilation, templates are not restricted to lexical substitution. Templates are aware of the semantics and type
system of their companion language, as well as all compile-time type definitions, and can perform high-level
operations including programmatic flow control based on evaluation of strictly type-checked parameters.
Macros are capable of conditional control over compilation based on predetermined criteria, but cannot
instantiate new types, recurse, or perform type evaluation and in effect are limited to pre-compilation textsubstitution and text-inclusion/exclusion. In other words, macros can control compilation flow based on predefined symbols but cannot, unlike templates, independently instantiate new symbols. Templates are a tool for
static polymorphism (see below) and generic programming.
In addition, templates are a compile time mechanism in C++ that is Turing-complete, meaning that any
computation expressible by a computer program can be computed, in some form, by atemplate
metaprogram prior to runtime.
In summary, a template is a compile-time parameterized function or class written without knowledge of the
specific arguments used to instantiate it. After instantiation, the resulting code is equivalent to code written
specifically for the passed arguments. In this manner, templates provide a way to decouple generic, broadly

applicable aspects of functions and classes (encoded in templates) from specific aspects (encoded in template
parameters) without sacrificing performance due to abstraction.

Objects
Main article: C++ classes
C++ introduces object-oriented programming (OOP) features to C. It offers classes, which provide the four
features commonly present in OOP (and some non-OOP) languages: abstraction,encapsulation, inheritance,
and polymorphism. One distinguishing feature of C++ classes compared to classes in other programming
languages is support for deterministic destructors, which in turn provide support for the Resource Acquisition is
Initialization (RAII) concept.

Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the hiding of information to ensure that data structures and operators are used as intended
and to make the usage model more obvious to the developer. C++ provides the ability to define classes and
functions as its primary encapsulation mechanisms. Within a class, members can be declared as either public,
protected, or private to explicitly enforce encapsulation. A public member of the class is accessible to any
function. A private member is accessible only to functions that are members of that class and to functions and
classes explicitly granted access permission by the class ("friends"). A protected member is accessible to
members of classes that inherit from the class in addition to the class itself and any friends.
The OO principle is that all of the functions (and only the functions) that access the internal representation of a
type should be encapsulated within the type definition. C++ supports this (via member functions and friend
functions), but does not enforce it: the programmer can declare parts or all of the representation of a type to be
public, and is allowed to make public entities that are not part of the representation of the type. Therefore, C++
supports not just OO programming, but other weaker decomposition paradigms, like modular programming.
It is generally considered good practice to make all data private or protected, and to make public only those
functions that are part of a minimal interface for users of the class. This can hide the details of data
implementation, allowing the designer to later fundamentally change the implementation without changing the
interface in any way.[31][32]

Inheritance
Inheritance allows one data type to acquire properties of other data types. Inheritance from a base class may
be declared as public, protected, or private. This access specifier determines whether unrelated and derived
classes can access the inherited public and protected members of the base class. Only public inheritance
corresponds to what is usually meant by "inheritance". The other two forms are much less frequently used. If
the access specifier is omitted, a "class" inherits privately, while a "struct" inherits publicly. Base classes may

be declared as virtual; this is calledvirtual inheritance. Virtual inheritance ensures that only one instance of a
base class exists in the inheritance graph, avoiding some of the ambiguity problems of multiple inheritance.
Multiple inheritance is a C++ feature not found in most other languages, allowing a class to be derived from
more than one base classes; this allows for more elaborate inheritance relationships. For example, a "Flying
Cat" class can inherit from both "Cat" and "Flying Mammal". Some other languages, such as C# or Java,
accomplish something similar (although more limited) by allowing inheritance of multiple interfaces while
restricting the number of base classes to one (interfaces, unlike classes, provide only declarations of member
functions, no implementation or member data). An interface as in C# and Java can be defined in C++ as a
class containing only pure virtual functions, often known as an abstract base class or "ABC". The member
functions of such an abstract base class are normally explicitly defined in the derived class, not inherited
implicitly. C++ virtual inheritance exhibits an ambiguity resolution feature called dominance.

Polymorphism
See also: Polymorphism in object-oriented programming
Polymorphism enables one common interface for many implementations, and for objects to act differently
under different circumstances.
C++ supports several kinds of static (compile-time) and dynamic (run-time) polymorphisms. Compile-time
polymorphism does not allow for certain run-time decisions, while run-time polymorphism typically incurs a
performance penalty.

Static polymorphism
Function overloading allows programs to declare multiple functions having the same name (but with different
arguments). The functions are distinguished by the number or types of their formal parameters. Thus, the same
function name can refer to different functions depending on the context in which it is used. The type returned by
the function is not used to distinguish overloaded functions and would result in a compile-time error message.
When declaring a function, a programmer can specify for one or more parameters a default value. Doing so
allows the parameters with defaults to optionally be omitted when the function is called, in which case the
default arguments will be used. When a function is called with fewer arguments than there are declared
parameters, explicit arguments are matched to parameters in left-to-right order, with any unmatched
parameters at the end of the parameter list being assigned their default arguments. In many cases, specifying
default arguments in a single function declaration is preferable to providing overloaded function definitions with
different numbers of parameters.
Templates in C++ provide a sophisticated mechanism for writing generic, polymorphic code. In particular,
through the Curiously Recurring Template Pattern, it's possible to implement a form of static polymorphism that
closely mimics the syntax for overriding virtual functions. Because C++ templates are type-aware and Turing-

complete, they can also be used to let the compiler resolve recursive conditionals and generate substantial
programs through template metaprogramming. Contrary to some opinion, template code will not generate a
bulk code after compilation with the proper compiler settings.[30]

Dynamic polymorphism
Inheritance
Variable pointers (and references) to a base class type in C++ can refer to objects of any derived classes of
that type in addition to objects exactly matching the variable type. This allows arrays and other kinds of
containers to hold pointers to objects of differing types. Because assignment of values to variables usually
occurs at run-time, this is necessarily a run-time phenomenon.
C++ also provides a dynamic_cast operator, which allows the program to safely attempt conversion of an
object into an object of a more specific object type (as opposed to conversion to a more general type, which is
always allowed). This feature relies on run-time type information (RTTI). Objects known to be of a certain
specific type can also be cast to that type with static_cast, a purely compile-time construct that has no
runtime overhead and does not require RTTI.

Virtual member functions

Ordinarily, when a function in a derived class overrides a function in a base class, the function to call is
determined by the type of the object. A given function is overridden when there exists no difference in the
number or type of parameters between two or more definitions of that function. Hence, at compile time, it may
not be possible to determine the type of the object and therefore the correct function to call, given only a base
class pointer; the decision is therefore put off until runtime. This is called dynamic dispatch. Virtual member
functions or methods[33] allow the most specific implementation of the function to be called, according to the
actual run-time type of the object. In C++ implementations, this is commonly done using virtual function tables.
If the object type is known, this may be bypassed by prepending a fully qualified class name before the function
call, but in general calls to virtual functions are resolved at run time.
In addition to standard member functions, operator overloads and destructors can be virtual. A general rule of
thumb is that if any functions in the class are virtual, the destructor should be as well. As the type of an object
at its creation is known at compile time, constructors, and by extension copy constructors, cannot be virtual.
Nonetheless a situation may arise where a copy of an object needs to be created when a pointer to a derived
object is passed as a pointer to a base object. In such a case, a common solution is to create a clone() (or
similar) virtual function that creates and returns a copy of the derived class when called.
A member function can also be made "pure virtual" by appending it with = 0 after the closing parenthesis and
before the semicolon. A class containing a pure virtual function is called an abstract data type. Objects cannot
be created from abstract data types; they can only be derived from. Any derived class inherits the virtual

function as pure and must provide a non-pure definition of it (and all other pure virtual functions) before objects
of the derived class can be created. A program that attempts to create an object of a class with a pure virtual
member function or inherited pure virtual member function is ill-formed.

Standard library
The C++ standard consists of two parts: the core language and the C++ Standard Library; which C++
programmers expect on every major implementation of C++, it includes vectors, lists, maps,algorithms (find,
for_each, binary_search, random_shuffle, etc.), sets, queues, stacks, arrays, tuples, input/output facilities
(iostream; reading from the console input, reading/writing from files),smart pointers for automatic memory
management, regular expression support, multi-threading library, atomics support (allowing a variable to be
read or written to be at most one thread at a time without any external synchronisation), time utilities
(measurement, getting current time, etc.), a system for converting error reporting that doesn't use C+
+ exceptions into C++ exceptions, arandom number generator and a slightly modified version of the C standard
library (to make it comply with the C++ type system).
A large part of the C++ library is based on the STL. This provides useful tools as containers (for
example vectors and lists), iterators to provide these containers with array-like access andalgorithms to perform
operations such as searching and sorting. Furthermore (multi)maps (associative arrays) and (multi)sets are
provided, all of which export compatible interfaces. Therefore it is possible, using templates, to write generic
algorithms that work with any container or on any sequence defined by iterators. As in C, the features of
the library are accessed by using the#include directive to include a standard header. C++ provides
105 standard headers, of which 27 are deprecated.
The standard incorporates the STL was originally designed by Alexander Stepanov, who experimented with
generic algorithms and containers for many years. When he started with C++, he finally found a language
where it was possible to create generic algorithms (e.g., STL sort) that perform even better than, for example,
the C standard library qsort, thanks to C++ features like using inlining and compile-time binding instead of
function pointers. The standard does not refer to it as "STL", as it is merely a part of the standard library, but the
term is still widely used to distinguish it from the rest of the standard library (input/output streams,
internationalization, diagnostics, the C library subset, etc.).
Most C++ compilers, and all major ones, provide a standards conforming implementation of the C++ standard
library.

Parsing and processing C++ source code

It is relatively difficult to write a good C++ parser with classic parsing algorithms such as LALR(1).[34] This is
partly the result of the C++ grammar not being LALR. Because of this, there are very few tools for analyzing or
performing non-trivial transformations (e.g., refactoring) of existing code. One way to handle this difficulty is to

choose a different syntax. More powerful parsers, such asGLR parsers, can be substantially simpler (though
slower).
Parsing (in the literal sense of producing a syntax tree) is not the most difficult problem in building a C++
processing tool. Such tools must also have the same understanding of the meaning of the identifiers in the
program as a compiler might have. Practical systems for processing C++ must then not only parse the source
text, but be able to resolve for each identifier precisely which definition applies (e.g., they must correctly handle
C++'s complex scoping rules) and what its type is, as well as the types of larger expressions.
Finally, a practical C++ processing tool must be able to handle the variety of C++ dialects used in practice
(such as that supported by the GNU Compiler Collection and that of Microsoft's Visual C++) and implement
appropriate analyzers, source code transformers, and regenerate source text. Combining advanced parsing
algorithms such as GLR with symbol table construction andprogram transformation machinery can enable the
construction of arbitrary C++ tools.
Parsers do exist in all major compilers. Despite that only one compiler provides the parser in a format suitable
for tool integration, Clang,[35] the parser is usable as a C++ (or C) library which is ready for integration into, i.e.
an IDE.

Compatibility
Producing a reasonably standards-compliant C++ compiler has proven to be a difficult task for compiler
vendors in general. For many years, different C++ compilers implemented the C++ language to different levels
of compliance to the standard, and their implementations varied widely in some areas such as partial template
specialization. Recent releases of most popular C++ compilers support almost all of the C++ 1998 standard. [36]
To give compiler vendors greater freedom, the C++ standards committee decided not to dictate the
implementation of name mangling, exception handling, and other implementation-specific features. The
downside of this decision is that object code produced by different compilers is expected to be incompatible.
There were, however, attempts to standardize compilers for particular machines or operating systems (for
example C++ ABI),[37] though they seem to be largely abandoned now.

Exported templates
One particular point of contention is the export keyword, intended to allow template definitions to be
separated from their declarations. The first widely available compiler to implement exportwas Comeau C/C+
+, in early 2003 (five years after the release of the standard); in 2004, the beta compiler of Borland C++ Builder
X was also released with export. Both of these compilers are based on the EDG C++ front end. Other
compilers such as GCC do not support it at all. Beginning ANSI C++ by Ivor Horton provides example code
with the keyword that will not compile in most compilers, without reference to this problem. Herb Sutter, former
convener of the C++ standards committee, recommended that export be removed from future versions of the

C++ standard.[38]During the March 2010 ISO C++ standards meeting, the C++ standards committee voted to
remove exported templates entirely from C++11, but reserve the keyword for future use. [39]

With C
For more details on this topic, see Compatibility of C and C++.

This section's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please
update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2011)
C++ is often considered to be a superset of C, but this is not strictly true.[40] Most C code can easily be made to
compile correctly in C++, but there are a few differences that cause some valid C code to be invalid or behave
differently in C++.
One commonly encountered difference is that C allows implicit conversion from void* to other pointer types,
but C++ does not (for type safety reasons). Another common portability issue is that C++ defines many new
keywords, such as new and class, which may be used as identifiers (e.g. variable names) in a C program.
Some incompatibilities have been removed by the 1999 revision of the C standard (C99), which now supports
C++ features such as line comments (//), and declarations mixed with code. On the other hand, C99
introduced a number of new features that C++ did not support, were incompatible or redundant in C++
(e.g. complex, use the complex class in the standard library instead), such as variable-length arrays, native
complex-number types, designated initializers, compound literals, the boolean typedef (in C++ it is a
fundamental type) and the restrict keyword.[41]Some of the C99-introduced features were included in the
subsequent version of the C++ standard, C++11:[42][43][44]

C99 preprocessor (including variadic macros, wide/narrow literal concatenation, wider integer
arithmetic)

_Pragma()

long long

__func__

Headers:

cstdbool (stdbool.h)

cstdint (stdint.h)

cinttypes (inttypes.h).

To intermix C and C++ code, any function declaration or definition that is to be called from/used both in C and
C++ must be declared with C linkage by placing it within an extern "C" {/*...*/} block. Such a function
may not rely on features depending on name mangling (i.e., function overloading).

Criticism
C++ is sometimes compared unfavorably with more strictly object-oriented languages on the basis that it
enables programmers to "mix and match" declarative, functional, generic, modular, andprocedural
programming styles with object-oriented programming, rather than strictly enforcing a single style, although C+
+ is intentionally a multi-paradigm language.