UNIT I METAL CASTING

PROCESSES
Sand casting Sand moulds - Type of patterns Pattern materials Pattern
allowances Types of Moulding sand Properties Core making Methods of
Sand testing Moulding machines Types of moulding machines - Melting
furnaces Working principle of Special casting processes Shell, investment
casting Ceramic mould Lost Wax process Pressure die casting
Centrifugal casting CO2 process Defects in Casting Inspection methods

Introduction to Manufacturing Processes

Definition of Manufacturing
The word manufacturing is derived from Latin:
manus = hand, factus = made
Manufacturing is the economic term for making goods and services available to satisfy
human wants.
Mens Material Welfare (MMW) in all respects covering housing, clothing, medicine,
education, transport, communication and also entertainment.

The successful creation of mens material welfare (MMW) depends mainly on

Availability of natural resources (NR)
Exertion of human effort (HE); both physical and mental
Development and use of power tools and machines (Tools),

The materials are then shaped and formed into different useful components through
different manufacturing processes to fulfil the needs of day-to-day work. Manufacturing
implies creating value to a raw material by applying useful mental and physical labour.
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Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing processes is a very fundamental subject since it is of interest not only to
mechanical engineers but also to engineers from other discipline of engineering.
There are various manufacturing processes by which a product can be made.
Each process however has its own limitation and restriction and due to this reason a
particular process is adopted to certain specific applications.
Thus while a product can be manufactured by two or more processes, the real problem
is to select the most economical out of them.
A detailed understanding of various manufacturing processes is thus very essential for
every engineer. This helps in designing the proper product required for him.

He would be able to assess the feasibility of manufacturing from his designs.

Proper choice of the process which would require lowest manufacturing cost.
3

CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Manufacturing processes can be grouped as:

Casting, foundry or moulding processes.
Forming or metal working processes.

Machining (metal removal) processes.

Joining and assembly
Surface treatments (finishing).

Heat treating
These groups are not mutually exclusive. For example, some finishing
processes involve a small amount of metal removal or metal forming. A
laser can be used for joining/metal removal/heat treating.
4

CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Casting, foundry or
moulding processes
Sand casting
Investment casting
Die casting
Centrifugal Casting
Continuous Casting

Forming or metal working processes

Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Drawing
Sheet metal works

Joining processes
Welding (SMAW, TIG, MIG, PLASMA,
LBW, EBW etc.)
Soldering
Brazing
Adhesive bonding
Riveting
6

Conventional Machining
processes

Turning
Milling
Drilling
Shaping
Grinding
Broaching

Nonconventional Machining processes

Electro chemical Machining (ECM)

Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
Wire Electro Discharge Machining(WEDM)
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
Liquid Jet Machining (LJM)
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)

Manufacturing Processes and

Manufacturing system
Manufacturing system:
A collection of operations and processes used to obtain a desired
product(s) or component(s) is called a manufacturing system.

The manufacturing system is therefore the design or arrangement

of the manufacturing processes..

Production system:
A production system includes people, money, equipment, materials
and supplies, markets, management and the manufacturing system
8

Production System

Raw materials

Manufacturing
Process

Manufacturing
Process

Finished
product

Manufacturing System
People, Money, Equipment, Materials and Supplies, Markets,
Management
9

TECHNOLOGY - Means
Application of science to provide society those things
that are needed or desired
Technology help to live better
In the broadest sense it is a of converting raw material
into useful product

DEFINITION OF MANUFACTURINIG

INPUT

CONVERSION

OUTPUT

BASIC CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS

METAL
CASTING

METAL
MACHINING

BASIC MANUFACTURING
PROCESS

FABRICATION
TECHNOLOGY

METAL
FORMING

TYPICAL COMPONENTS MADE BY VARIOUS

MANUFACTURING

METAL CASTING

METAL MACHINING

METAL FORMING

FABRICATION TECHNOLOGY

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CASTING

Earliest casting : high bronze statue
Mohango daro Civilizaation -3000-3500 BC

Harappan Civilization contained- Kiln (oven ) for melting , copper , gold

Fine art , hand craft-idols of made by chola dynasty of 9th centurytechnology for making -intricate casting
Casting tech transferred from India to middle east to Europe through
Portuguese in 14th century
First cast iron tripot object weighing 270kg by Chinese technology-600BC
Iron pillar in Delhi -QUTIPMINAR weighs 6 tones speaks about the
Casting Technology in the earliest Indian Civilization during Chandragupta
dynasty that dates back 5AD
Colossal statue of Buddha 1252AD in Jaipur speaks about Marvels of
Casting Technology existed in India

Casting
It is the process of making metal parts, by pouring molten metal into
the cavity of the required shape and allowing it to solidify.
OR
Casting may be defined as metal shaping obtained by the
solidification of molten alloy in the mould cavity of a required
shape.

Refractory mold pour liquid metal solidify, remove finish

Why casting preferred?

Size- Few grams to several ton
Shape Simple to complex
Production Quantity One number to
multiple
Accuracy Close dimensional accuracy
with special casting features
Finish- Rough to fine

REQUIREMENTS OF CASTING PROCESS

CASTING PROCESS SEQUENCE

PATTERN DEVELOPMENT
MOULD PREPARTION
MELTING & POURING
FETLING & CLEANING

Sequence of mould making

Sequence of Casting operation

SEQUENCE OF MAKING CASTING

Cleaning
Machining

Major applications
Transport- Automobile, aerospace, railways, shipping,
space application
Heavy Equipment Farming, mining, construction
Defence- vehicles, artillery
Electrical machine- Motor casing, pump base,
compressor
Municipal castings- pipe fittings, manhole cover,
sewage pipe, sanitary fittings
Home appliance- kitchen ware, furniture
Handi craft- sculptures, jewelry , idols, lamp stand,
decorative items.

TYPICAL CASTING
COMPONENTS

TYPICAL CAST COMPONENTS

COMMON CAST METALS

METAL

USAGE

TYPICAL APPLICATION

Grey Iron

54%

Engine Block, brake drum,

Machine tool bed, housing

Ductile Iron

20%

Crank shaft, Camshaft, Valves,

brackets

Aluminium

12%

Piston, Oil& fuel pump, Clutch,

housing, Carburetor

Steel

9%

Machine parts, Gears

Copper base

2%

Hydraulic Pump parts, Impellers

Zinc base

1%

Handle, Grills, Toys

ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS OF CASTINGS

ADVANTAGES

LIMITATIONS

Intricate shape both external Poor finish of sand cast parts

internal can be cast on single
piece
Hollow & large parts be made
Sand casting labour intensive
Any metals which can be melted Cast parts bulky & brittle
Ferrous & Non Ferrous metal
Uniform
cooling,
better Some casting require machining
properties & damping capacity
to get fine finish

No limitation of size, shape & Surface defects, porosity, cracks

product complexity
on casting,

SAND CASTING OR SAND MOULD CASTING

Permanent or Removable pattern process

The pattern is removed from the mould cavity,
before the molten metal is poured into the
mould cavity.
Expendable or Disposable pattern process
The pattern is not removed from the mould
cavity, before the molten metal is poured into
the mould cavity.

 Pattern : It is the replica or facsimile of the product to be

made in respect of shape.
Generally used in making Sand mould
Number of casting to be produced
Size and complexity of the shape of casting
Type of moulding method.
PATTERN MATERIAL
Wood
Metal
Plastic
Wax
Thermocole

ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS OF DIFFERENT PATTERN MATERIALS

MATERIAL

ADVANTAGES

LIMITATIONS

WOOD

Light weight & inexpensive Inherently non uniform structure

Good workability
Poor wear & abrasive resistance
Easy to repair
Absorbs moisture tends to warp

METAL

More durable & accurate

Provide smooth finish
Do not deform on storage
Wear, abrasion, corrosion
resistance

Relatively expensive than wood

Not easily repaired
Heavier than wooden pattern
Ferrous metal gets rusted

PLASTICS

More economical in cost

High
resistance
to
corrosion
Lighter than wood/metal
Moulding sand stick less in
plastics than wood
No moisture absorption
strong & dimensionally stable

Tends to bend on heavy

ramming force
Additional equipment is needed
for making pattern
Difficult to repair or rework

EXHAUST MANIFOLD

WOODERN PATTERN

ALUMINIUM PATTERN

TYPES OF PATTERN

TYPES OF PATTERN
TYPE

ADVANTAGES

One piece Pattern made of one

or Solid
Pattern or piece
loose
Simple in shape

Split or
Parted
pattern

DISADVANTAGES
Low quantity of
production
Determining the

Generally made of

location of parting line

wood

between the two halves

In expensive

of the mould

Two piece pattern

Complicated shape
can be produced

SKETCH

TYPES OF PATTERN
TYPE
Match
plate

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Higher production

The gate and runners

Split pattern having

are also mounted on the

cope and drag

match plate but small

Holes in the plate

manual work is required

allow the top and

bottom sections of the
mould to be aligned
accurately

SKETCH

TYPES OF PATTERN
TYPE
Cope and
drag
pattern

ADVANTAGES
Separate match plates
One operator working
on the cope part of the
mould and the other
operator working on the
drag part.

SKETCH

TYPES OF PATTERN

TYPE
Sweep
pattern or Pit
or Floor
moulding

DEFINITION

ADVANTAGES

Sweep is a section of proper

Casting of large size is to be

contour that is rotated about one

produced in short time.

edge to shape mould cavities

having shapes of rotational
symmetry.
large circular moulds of
symmetric kind by revolving a
sweep attached to a spindle

SKETCH

TYPES OF PATTERN

TYPE
Skeleton
Pattern

ADVANTAGES
Large casting having simple
geometrical shape.

SKETCH

TYPES OF PATTERN

TYPE

ADVANTAGES

Gated Pattern One or more loose pattern

attached gates and runners

Pattern are used for producing

small casting in mass production
system and on moulding machine
SKETCH

TYPES OF PATTERN

TYPE
Follow board
pattern:

PRINCIPLE
A follow board is not a pattern
but is a device (wooden board)

used for various purposes

SKETCH

PATTERN ALLOWANCE
To compensate for any dimensional and structural changes
which will happen during the casting or patterning process,
allowances are usually made in the pattern

TYPES OF
ALLOWANCE

1.SHRINKAGE
ALLOWANCE

PURPOSE

To compensate for volumetric contraction

during freezing of metal, this allowance is added
Shrinkage though volumetric, allowance
linearly expressed as % of mass or length
Pattern made larger applying shrink rule
depending metal / product

TYPES OF ALLOWANCE
2. DRAFT ALLOWANCE

PURPOSE
The allowance which facilitate easy withdrawal
of pattern from mould walls
Slight taper or draft is provided to vertical side
of mould walls all around
Drat allowance is additive: 1 1.5 % of length

TYPES OF
ALLOWANCE

PURPOSE

3.MACHINING
ALLOWANCE

To remove rough surface exhibited in

casting especially sand casting by
subsequent machining
Allowance is added to pattern to
provide compensation during machining
Depends on finish requirement,
product complexity and type of material
to be cast

4.DISTORATION

Thin section or abnormal change in

size of the product restrained in mould
which tend to distort upon cooling
U or V shaped section tends to distort
more while cooling in mould
1-2 is given as allowance inwardly

Diagram

TYPES OF
ALLOWANCE
5.SHAKE or
RAPPING

PURPOSE
Cavity enlarge while pattern is withdrawn
due to tapping
Cavity made smaller. tapping of pattern
results original dimension It is a subtractive
allowance
Added to parting surface or parallel to
parting surface

Size of the final pattern

MOULDING SAND
Aggregate of sand (Moist) , clay and additives
Moulding Sand Consists of
1.Sand Silicon oxide, Zirconium, olivine, chromites
Silica sand upto 2% clay
Weak sand upto 10% clay
Strong sand upto 30% clay

2. Clay
Bentonite (Formed on ignous rock creamy white powder Temp 1300oC)
Kalonite (Decomposition and slow weathering of granite China fire clay Temp
1700oC)

3. Additives- organic additives

Sea coal By add 8% to increase strength of mould

Cereals By add 2% to increase the green and dry strength mould
Saw dust By add 6% to increases the gas permeability and deformability
Silica Flour Improve the surface finish of the casting

MOULDING SAND REQUIREMENTS

Good refractiveness - Ability to with stand high temperature without

fusing or charing

Good permeability- Ability of the sand to permit gases to escape through

sand mould. Hard ramming - poor permeability
Chosiveness- (good bonding of grain size of silica ability of mould
sand to retain the shape when packed into mould without crack
Collapsibility- Ability of moulding sand to disintegrate from casting

easily . Improved by the addition of material like cellulose

Strength- Retain the mould shape under molten metal pressure (Hydro
stastic) - Must resist penetration of
(Green strength (Moist) ; Dry Strength)

molten metal into mould .

Types of Moulding sand

Green

sand
Dry sand

Loam sand
CO2 mould sand

TYPES OF MOULDING SAND

TYPE
Green
sand
mould
Silica
Sand 1830% Clay
and 6-8%
moisture

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Least expensive

It is weak sand and

Less distortion than

can't store for a longer

in dry sand mould

period
Erosion of mould is
more common
production of large
castings

Dry sand
mould

Stronger than green Distortion is greater

than for green sand
sand mould
moulds
because
of
Surface finish of baking
Production rate is
casting is better
slower than for green
Overall dimensional sans mould
accuracy is better

APPLICATION
Manufacturing of
large and heavy
casting

TYPE

ADVANTAGES

Loam sand mould Making heavy

(Sand + fine
and large
refractories +
graphite + clay
components
+fibrous
reinforcement)
Clay 30-50% and
18% water
CO2 sand mould

DISADVANTAGES

APPLICATION
Engine body,
Machine bed
etc.
large grey iron
castings.

free Sand must be used Aluminum

immediately
cylinder
flowing ramming is
Impeller
Sands

are

(Sodium silicate
+water + binder + eliminated.
CO2 (instead of
Tensile strength
clay) CO2
mould sand (with of
mould
is
in 1 min)
increased
Production rate is
high

Core
A core is a body made of refractory material
which is set in to the prepared mould before
closing and pouring it, for forming through holes,
recesses, projections and internal cavities.

1. Conventional Method
Hand curing method
Core blowing machine
Extrusion machine

2. Hot core mould box method

3. Synthetic resin cold curing core sand method
4.Cold curing CO2 process

MOULD & CORE ASSEMBLY

Purpose of core
To produce hallow casting with the use of core/ core print

CASTING

MOULD &
CORE
ASSEMBLY

CHAPLET

MOULD SAND TESTING

Purpose:
To ensure consistent quality of moulding sand in respect of their properties
TYPES OF TEST

Grain size: Seiving dry sand downward through a set of parallel

standard seives of decreasing mesh size - Sand in weighed after seving .
Grain size is expressed in grain fines number.
Moisture content: 50g sample sand specimen is heated to 100C and
difference in weight is estimated and expressed as % moisture.
Clay constant: 50g moulding sand is washed with sodium hydroxide
solution. & weighed. Difference is expressed as percentage of clay.
Permeability test: Standard test specimen placed in permeability meter
and flow of air is maintained. Pressure drop is determined. Pressure
drop indicate measure of permeability.
Hardness strength: Using standard specimen of moulding sand in
Hardness tester , strength is evaluated in wet & dry stage to evaluate
green and dry strength

TYPES OF MOULDING PROCESS

Hand moulding
Machine moulding
1. Jolt machine
2. Jolt & square
3. Slinger

TYPES OF MOULDING PROCESS

Hand moulding
Machine Moulding
1. Jolt machine
2. Jolt & squeeze
3. Slinger
ADVANTAGES OF MACHINE MOULDING
Offers high production rates in making mould
Produces uniform and quality casting
Lesser labour cost & less skilled labour can be employed
Establishes most suitable gating system- runner , riser etc mounted on match
plate pattern itself
Pattern offers longer life
Lesser machining allowance are required
Greater accuracy is secured in core assembly
LIMITATIONS
Moulding large and complex and intricate shape are difficult
Moulding Machine is not flexible as sand moulding
Expensive equipment
Not suitable for small production

JOLT MACHINE and JOLT & SQUEEZE

ADVANTAGE
Jolting offers better consolidation of moulding sand with uniform properties
Higher production rate in making sand moulds
Large size casting economically produce by this method
Lesser cost of mould making
LIMITATION
Variation of sand density from bottom to top the moulding box
Jolting produces noise pollution
Doesn't ram properly at deep pocket and narrow places between vertical surfaces

JOLT & SQUEEZE MACHINE

SAND SLINGER

Sand slinger consists of impeller rotating at desire rotation speed.

Moulding sand from the hopper is feed into the gravity
Rotating Impeller throw the moulding sand downward into moulding cost
as contiously
The Rotating impeller to the moulding sand create necessary force that fills
the moulding box with sand.
Produces uniform density packing through out the mould

ADVANTAGES OF SAND SLINGER

Mould filling and ramming are done at the same time
Mould hardness can be controlled by regulating by impeller speed
Delivers large quantity of sand that is suitable for ramming big moulds
Irrespective of the size and shape of the mould , mould produce are of uniform
density.
Total automation of sand handling can be done
LIMITATIONS
Expensive equipment
Skilled operator to regulate the machine
Not suitable for small volume production

RUNNER
Ingate for feeding molten metal into cavity
Suitably designed to admit the metal easily & permit filling of mould
cavity
For large size casting , more ingate may be provided
RISER
Passage through which metal rises to ensure the molten metal in filled
fully
Provides feeder head to compensate for shrink

PURPOSE
To feed the molten metal to solidifying casting so that shrink cavities
are avoid
To ensure proper mould filling
To permit gas, vapour to scrange to atmosphere

MELTING PRACTICES
Melting is an equally important parameter for obtaining a quality castings.
A number of furnaces can be used for melting the metal, to be used, to

make a metal casting.

The choice of furnace depends on the type of metal to be melted.
TYPES OF FURNACES
Crucible furnaces
Cupola

Induction furnace
Reverberatory furnace

CRUCIBLE FURNACE
Small capacity furnace typically used for small melting applications.
Suitable for the batch type intermittent production and suited for small
foundaries
The metal is placed in a crucible which is made of clay and graphite.

The energy is applied indirectly to the metal by heating the crucible by fuel
like coke, oil or gas.

(i) Pit type furnace.

(ii) Tilting type furnace.

COKE FIRED CRUCIBLE

FURNACE

Pit type crucible furnace:

These are fixed wholly or party in the ground from which the crucible must
be lifted when the metal is ready.
The furnace is usually fired with sufficient coke being packed round and
above the crucible pots to melt and superheat the charge without re-coking.

Tilting type crucible furnace

This type of furnace is built above the ground level, and contains a firmly fixed crucible.
The furnace is fired with coke, oil or gas and the forced draught is used.

When the metal charge is ready for pouring, the whole furnace is tilted and the crucible
emptied by operating a geared trunnion.

For the metals of high melting points, clay or plumbago crucibles are used; for the lowmelting-point metals, such as zinc-base or aluminium, cast iron or steel crucibles are suitable

Reverberatory or Air Furnace

This is used for melting in one heat large quantities of metal, those most suited being all
grades of cast-iron and the alloys of brasses and bronzes.
It may have either a sloping roof, or a double arched roof which forms a dip in the centre.
A chimney is provided at one end and a fire grate or burners at the other end. A hearth
or well is provided in the centre for holding the metal.
It employs natural draught, which is controlled by dampers.
The fuel can be either small lumpy coal, which is used on the fire grate, or powdered
fuel, which is supplied through burners. The object is to create a long flame which
reverberates or strikes back from the furnace roof on to the metal to be melted in the
hearth.

Electric Furnace

This is used especially where rigid control over temperature and analysis is required. It is
suitable for all types of metals and alloys.
(i) Direct-arc furnace :
It consists of a round, bowl-shaped carbon hearth with a domeshaped roof supporting one or more
carbon electrodes through which passes the current which strikes arcs with the metal in the
hearth, thus giving heat direct to the metal.
This type of furnace can be either stationary or made to tilt. The roof is usually so made that it
can be removed for charging purposes.
The capacity of these furnaces for production work varies from 3 to 10 tonnes. These are best
suited for laboratory work where very small quantity of a few kg is needed for research work.
These furnaces give high melting rate, high pouring temperature and excellent-control of metal
analysis and temperature.
(ii) Indirect-arc furnace:
This furnace is used for melting all types of metallic alloys but especially useful in
production of copper-base alloys.
It consists of a horizontal cylinder lined with a refractory material with two electrode on the
horizontal axis. An arc is struck between the electrodes in the centre of the furnace. The arc does
not come in contact with the metal to be melted, the heat given to the charge by radiation from the
arc and reflection from the walls of the furnace. The furnace is designed to give a rocking motion
as the melting proceeds, that quickening up the melt by distributing the heat more rapidly. The
charging, tapping and slagging are done through an opening in the side of the furnace.

Induction furnace
Induction furnace:
An induction furnace is a tilting furnace used chiefly for the melting of
nonferrous metals. Heat is generated by the resistance offered to an induced
current set up with the metal in the furnace.
The design of the furnace is such that a small channel is formed inside at its
base; this channel is filled with metal, which should never be allowed to
solidify owing to the amount of damage it would do to the lining.
When working, an alternating current is supplied to the primary coil of a
transformer , which is built with the furnace.

CUPOLA
Cupola furnace is employed for melting scrap metal
or pig iron for production of various cast irons
Tall, cylindrical furnace used to melt iron and ferrous
alloys.
Alternating layers of metal and ferrous alloys, coke,
and limestone are fed into the furnace from the top.
Cupola is lined with refractory bricks
The molten metal flows out of a spout at the bottom
of the cupola. .

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF CUPOLA

DESCRIPTION OF CUPOLA
The cupola consists of a vertical cylindrical steel sheet and lined inside with
acid refractory bricks.
The lining is generally thicker in the lower portion of the cupola as the
temperature are higher than in upper portion
There is a charging door through which coke, pig iron, steel scrap and flux
is charged
The air blast is blown through the tuyeres
These tuyeres are arranged in one or more row around the periphery of
cupola
Hot gases which ascends from the bottom (combustion zone) preheats the
iron in the preheating zone
Cupolas are provided with a drop bottom door through which waste
materials consisting of coke, slag etc. can be taken out after melt
A slag hole is provided to remove the slag from the melt
Through the tap hole molten metal is poured into the ladle
At the top conical cap called the spark arrest is provided to prevent the spark
emerging to outside

1. Well
The space between the bottom of the tuyeres and the sand bed inside the cylindrical
shell of the cupola is called as well of the cupola. As the melting occurs, the molten
metal is get collected in this portion before tapping out.
2. Combustion zone (also called as oxidizing zone)
The total height of this zone is normally from 15 cm. to 30 cm
Consuming the free oxygen completely from the air blast and generating tremendous
heat.
A temperature of about 1540C to 1870C is achieved in this zone

C + O2
2Mn + O2
Si+ O2
3Fe + 2CO

CO2 + Heat
MnO2 + Heat
SiO2 + Heat
Fe3C + CO2

3. Reducing zone
CO2 is changed to CO through an endothermic reaction, as a result of which the
temperature falls from combustion zone temperature to about 1200C at the top of this
zone

C O2

+ C (coke)

2CO + Heat

4. Melting zone
The metal charge starts melting in this zone and trickles down through coke bed and
gets collected in the well.

3Fe + 2CO

Fe3C + CO2

5. Preheating zone
Preheating zone starts from the upper end of the melting zone and continues up to the
bottom level of the charging door
The main objective of this zone is to preheat the charges from room temperature to
about 1090C before entering the metal charge to the melting zone
the metal charge in solid form picks up some sulphur content in this zone
6. Stack
The empty portion of cupola above the preheating zone is called as stack. It provides
the
passage to hot gases to go to atmosphere from the cupola furnace.

ADVANTAGES OF CUPOLA
Simple design and easier construction
Low initial cost as compared to other furnaces of same capacity

Simple to operate and maintain in good condition

Economy in operation and maintenance
Less floor space requirements as compared to those of other furnaces of
capacity
Cupola can be continuously operated for many hours.

LIMITATIONS
Close temperature is difficult to maintain.

Since molten iron and coke come in contact with each other, certain
elements (like Si, Mn) are lost which others (like sulphur) are picked
up. This changes analysis of molten iron.

Special Casting Processes

Types:
Gravity / Permanent mold casting
Die casting
Low pressure die casting
High pressure die casting
Hot chamber
Cold chamber

Shell molding
Investment casting
CO2 process
Centrifugal casting
True centrifugal casting
Semi centrifugal casting
Centrifuge casting

PERMANENT MOLD OR GRAVITY DIE CASTING

A permanent mold casting makes use of a mold or metallic die which is
permanent
Molten metal is poured into the mold under gravity only and no external
pressure is applied to force the liquid metal into the mold cavity.
However, the liquid metal solidifies under pressure of metal in the risers, etc.
The metallic mold can be reused many times before it is discarded or rebuilt.
These molds are made of dense, fine grained, heat resistant cast iron, steel,
bronze, anodized aluminum, graphite or other suitable refractoriness.
The mold is made in two halves in order to facilitate the removal of casting
from the mold. It may be designed with a vertical parting line or with a
horizontal parting line as in conventional sand molds.
The mold walls of a permanent mold have thickness from 15 mm to 50 mm.
The thicker mold walls can remove greater amount of heat from the casting. For
faster cooling, fins or projections may be provided on the outside of the
permanent mold. This provides the desirable chilling effect.

PERMANENT MOLD CASTING AND TYPICAL

PRODUCTS

Advantages
(i) Fine and dense grained structure is achieved in the casting.
(ii) No blow holes exist in castings produced by this method.
(iii) The process is economical for mass production.
(iv) Because of rapid rate of cooling, the castings possess fine grain structure.
(v) Close dimensional tolerance and Good surface finish and surface details are
obtained.
(vi) Casting defects observed in sand castings are eliminated.
(vii) Fast rate of production and less labor.
Disadvantages
(i) The cost of metallic mold is higher than the sand mold. The process is impractical
for large castings.
(ii) The surface of casting becomes hard due to chilling effect.
(iii) Refractoriness of the high melting point alloys.
Applications
(i) This method is suitable for small and medium sized casting such as carburetor
bodies, oil pump bodies, connecting rods, pistons etc.
(ii) It is widely suitable for non-ferrous casting.

DIE CASTING
Gravity die casting or permanent mould casting

FEATURES
Uses preshaped cavity called dies
Dies are split type with runner, riser, gates to feed metal
Split dies enables easy extraction of casting from dies
Dies made of cast iron
Metal dies are better heat conditions & faster rate of cooling
Metal mould resist high temp & can be used repeatedly
METAL SUITABLE
Aluminium alloys, copper alloys, magnesium & low melting point
methods
Typical parts made
Automobile piston, cylinder heads, gear blank for appliance and
kitchen ware

ADVANTAGES

LIMITATION

1. Good surface finish, close dimensional

tolerance

1. Metal dies are expensive

2. Better mechanical properties

2. Not economical for low production runs

3. High production rate

3. Intricate shapes cannot be cast

Die Casting Machines

Designed to hold and accurately close two

mold halves and keep them closed while
liquid metal is forced into cavity
Molten metal is forced into metallic mold or
die under pressure in pressure die casting
The pressure varies from 70 to 5000 kg/cm2
and is maintained while the casting solidifies
Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

Die Casting

A permanent mold casting process in which

molten metal is injected into mold cavity under
high pressure
Pressure is maintained during solidification,
then mold is opened and part is removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die
cavity is what distinguishes this from other
permanent mold processes

ADVANTAGES OF PRESSURE DIE CASTING

Used for mass production resulting low unit cost

Thin and dense structure of metals with finer details as the
solidification is under external pressure
Extremely fine finishes can be obtained elementary subsequent
machining operation

Components can be produced to very close dimensional tolerance

and with precise reproduction
Die casting operations permit automation of the process
Mechanical properties are usually superior to sand cavity
More economic use of metal- minimum waste

Inserts can be incorporated

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston

injects liquid metal under high pressure into
the die
High production rates - 500 parts per hour
Applications limited to low melting-point
metals that do not chemically attack plunger
and other mechanical components
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed

and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (2) plunger

forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.

Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from
external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
Mold material : Tool steel and Mold steel.
Tungsten and molybdenum with good refractory
qualities
Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on
low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die

closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into
the chamber

Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to

flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages

Economical for large production quantities

Good accuracy and surface finish
Thin sections are possible
Rapid cooling provides small grain size and
good strength to casting

Disadvantages
Generally limited to metals with low metal
points
Part geometry must allow removal from die

HOT CHAMBER DIE CASTING & COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING

HOT CHAMBER METHOD

COLD CHAMBER METHOD

Melting furnace integral part of machine

Melting furnace in away from die

casting machine

Metered quantity of melt is injected by a plunger

Required melt quantity is ladled to

machine and pushed to die cavity

Generally suited low melting non ferrous metals

Metals used in non ferrous with

relatively high melting point

Faster production cycle

Low volume production

Shell Moulding
Recent invention casting techniques for mass production and smooth surface
finish at low cost.
It is also called as Carning or C process.
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand held together by
thermosetting resin binder.

Step 1 : A match-plate or cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated (170 to 370o C)

and placed over a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin.

Step2: Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing
a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell;
Step3: Box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away.

Step 4: Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing.
Step 5: Shell mold is stripped from the pattern;

Step 6: Two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or metal
shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished.
Step 7: The finished casting with sprue removed.

Advantages :
A very smooth surface is generally obtained.
The shell cast parts can be produced with dimensional tolerance of 0.2 mm.
Reduced cleaning and machining costs.
Gives rapid production rate.
Uniform grain structure.
Minimum finishing operations.
The moulds can be stored until required.
Complex shapes can be produced with less labour.
The process can be automated fairly easily. Less skilled labour is required.
Disadvantages :
The resin binder is more expensive than other binders.
The initial cost of metal patterns and other specialised equipment is high.
Dimensional limitations.
Limited to some specific metals.
The minimum thickness of section that can be cast is 4 nun.
Applications:
Shell-mould casting applications include small mechanical parts that require high
levels of precision, such as gear housings, cylinder heads, and connecting rods.
Shell moulding is also widely used in producing high-precision moulding cores,
such engine block water jackets.

CERAMIC MOULD CASTING

The ceramic-mold casting process (also called cope-and-drag investment

casting) is similar to the plaster-mold process, except that it uses refractory mold
materials suitable for high-temperature applications.
Typical parts made are impellers, cutters for machining operations, dies for
metalworking, and molds for making plastic and rubber Components. Parts
weighing as much as 700 kg have been cast by this process.

 The slurry is a mixture of fine-grained zircon (ZrSiO4), aluminum oxide,

and fused silica, which are mixed with bonding agents and poured over the
pattern, which has been placed in a flask.

The pattern may be made of wood or metal. After setting, the molds
(ceramic facings) are removed, dried, ignited to burn off volatile matter,
and baked. The molds are clamped firmly and used as all-ceramic molds.
In the Shaw process, the ceramic facings are backed by fireclay (which
resists high temperatures) to give strength to the mold. The facings then
are assembled into a complete mold, ready to be poured.
The high-temperature resistance of the refractory molding materials allows
these molds to be used for casting ferrous and other high-temperature

alloys, stainless steels, and tool steels. Although the process is somewhat
expensive, the castings have good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
over a wide range of sizes and intricate shapes.

Ceramic Mould Casting

Advantages:
Intricate detail, close tolerances, smooth finish
Limitations:
Mold material is expensive and not reusable
Common metals:
Ferrous and high-temperature nonferrous metals are
most common; can be used with alloys of aluminum,
copper, magnesium, titanium and zinc

Investment casting (lost wax casting)

(a) Wax pattern
(injection molding)

(d) dry ceramic

melt out the wax
fire ceramic (burn
wax)

(e) Pour molten metal (gravity)

cool, solidify
[Hollow casting:
pouring excess metal before
solidification

(b) Multiple patterns

assembled to wax
sprue

(c) Shell built

immerse into ceramic
slurry
immerse into fine sand
(few layers)

(f) Break ceramic shell

(vibration or water
blasting)

(g) Cut off parts

(high-speed friction
saw)
finishing (polish)

Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a
thin layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by covering
the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid

Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted
position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity,
(6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is
poured, and it solidifies

Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken

away from the finished casting and the parts are separated
from the sprue

Investment Casting

Figure 11 9 A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils made by

investment casting (photo courtesy of Howmet Corp.).

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of investment casting:

Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast

Close dimensional control and good surface finish
Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
Additional machining is not normally
required - this is a net shape process

Disadvantages
Many processing steps are required
Relatively expensive process

Vacuum casting
Similar to investment casting, except: fill mold by reverse gravity

Easier to make hollow casting: early pour out

 Vacuum molding, also called the V-process, counter gravity low pressure (CL)
process
In the vacuum-casting process, a mixture of fine sand and urethane is molded
over metal dies and cured with amine vapor. The mold is then held with a robot
arm and immersed partially into molten metal held in an induction furnace.
The metal may be melted in air (CLA process) or in a vacuum (CLV process).
The vacuum reduces the air pressure inside the mold to about two-thirds of
atmospheric pressure, thus drawing the molten metal into the mold cavities
through a gate in the bottom of the mold.
The metal in the furnace is usually at a temperature of 55C above the liquidus
temperature of the alloy. Consequently, it begins to solidify within a very short
time. After the mold is filled, it is withdrawn from the molten metal.
The process can be automated, and production costs are similar to those for
green-sand casting. Carbon, low- and high-alloy steel, and stainless steel parts
weighing as much as 70 kg have been vacuum cast by this method.
CLA parts are made easily at high volume and relatively low cost. CLV parts
usually involve reactive metals, such as aluminum, titanium, zirconium, and
hafnium.

Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the
mould is rotated at high speed so centrifugal
force distributes molten metal to outer regions
of die cavity
The group includes:
True centrifugal casting
Semicentrifugal casting
Centrifuge casting

True Centrifugal Casting

In true centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into a rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
Examples of parts made by this process include pipes, tubes, bushings, and
rings.
The high-speed rotation results in centrifugal forces that cause themetal to
take the shape of the mold cavity. Thus, the outside shape of the casting
can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, and so on.

Setup for true centrifugal casting.

Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts
Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal
Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at center of
rotation
Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined away, thus
eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
Examples: wheels and pulleys

Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located
away from axis of rotation, so that molten
metal poured into mold is distributed to these
cavities by centrifugal force
Used for smaller parts
Radial symmetry of part is not required as in
other centrifugal casting methods

Centrifuge Casting

CO2 Process
Basically a hardening process
CO2 passed through the sand mix containing
sodium silicate, the sand becomes strong by
sodium silicate gel
Na2O, (x)SiO2 + (x)H2O + CO2
Na2CO3 + SiO2.
(x)H2O

Comparison of Casting Processes

Cleaning and Finishing

1.
2.

3.

4.
5.

Casting is taken out of the mould by shaking and the Moulding

sand is recycled often with suitable additions.
The remaining sand, some of which may be embedded in the
casting, is removed by means of Shot blasting.
The excess material in the form of sprue, runners, gates etc.,
along with the flashes formed due to flow of molten metal into
the gaps is broken manually in case of brittle casting or
removed by sawing and grinding in case of ductile grinding.
The entire casting is then cleaned by either shot blasting or
chemical pickling.
Sometimes castings are heat treated to achieve better
mechanical properties.

CASTING DEFECTS
Any unwanted deviation from the desired requirements
in a cast product results in a defect.
Some defects in the cast products are tolerable while
others can be rectified.
MAJOR DEFECTS IN SAND CASTINGS:
1. Gas defects
2. Shrinkage cavities
3. Moulding material defects
4. Pouring metal defects
5. Metallurgical defects

CASTING DEFECTS
TYPE OF
DEFECT

CAUSES

REMIDAL REMARKS

Blow
holes

Spherical /
flattened cavities
present inside or
surface of casting
caused due to
entrapment of gasvoid space

Proper moisture
control in sand mould
Improve venting
systems
Mould hardness

Pin hole
porosity

Caused due to
dissolved H2 gas, in
molten metal when
metal gets solidified,
expels the gas leaving
long, small diameter
holes

Controlling
the
pouring temp
Use of additives while
pouring

Shrinkage Volumetric
contraction of metal
Insufficient
allowance

Allowance
verified

to

be

SKETCH

CASTING DEFECTS
TYPE
CAUSES
OF
DEFECT

REMIDAL
REMARKS

Hot tear

External cracks
Fillet & rounding
causing tearing due to corner, design of
thermal stress.
modification
Abrupt change in
section of casting

Could
shut

Differential rate of Improve runner &

flow cooling
gate design
Lack of complete
fusion of metal

Rat tail

Penetration
molten metal
mould walls

Scab

Rough, thin layer of

metal
protruding
above cast surface

of Proper ramming
into

SKETCH

Hot tear

CASTING DEFECTS
TYPE
OF
DEFEC
T

CAUSES

REMIDAL
REMARKS

Mould
shift

Due to misalignment
of cope and drag
Shift of the mould
while pouring molten
metal

Check the
alignment of the cope
and drag
Check the axis of
the mould cavity in
cope and drag and
the axis must be
aligned correctly

Misrun

Metal start freezing

before reaching the
farthest point of the
mould cavity due to
insufficient superheat

Improve runner &

gate design
Check the fluidity
of the metal

SKETCH

GAS DEFECTS
These defects are due to lower gas passing tendency of the
mould.
Caused due to lower venting , lower permeability of the
mould and improper design of the casting.
The lower permeability of the mould is due to use of
finer size grains of sand, higher percentage of clay &
moisture and excessive ramming of the mould.
Pin hole porosity: As the molten metal gets solidified
it loses the temperature which decreases the solubility of
gases and thereby expelling the dissolved gases.

Various Gas Defects

Moulding Material Defects

These defects are originated due to some specific characteristics of the
moulding materials like insufficient strength, improper ramming etc.
The various defects under this category are discussed in detail.
Cuts and Washes: These appear as rough spots and areas of excess
metal and are caused by the erosion of the moulding sand by the
flowing molten metal. This may be due to insufficient strength of
mould material or the high velocity of the molten metal.
Remedies
The proper choice of moulding sand
appropriate moulding method
Improve the design of gating
To reduces turbulence
Provide multiple ingates.

Moulding Material Defects

Metal Penetration: When molten metal enters
the gaps between the sand grains, the result
would be a rough casting surface.
Caused due to use of coarse sand grains in mould
material.
Caused due to higher pouring temperature.
Remedies
Choosing appropriate grain size of sand with proper mould wash

Moulding materials Defects

Moulding Material Defects

Fusion: Fusion of sand grains with molten metal.
Caused due to lower refractoriness of the binder.
very high pouring temperature.

Remedies
The choice of an appropriate type and amount of binder(Bentonite)

Run out: Caused due to leak of molten metal in the sand mould.
Remedies
Verify the mould design and alignment

Buckles: Long, broad, vee-shaped depression occurring on the surface

of a flat casting.
Mould expansion due to high temperature

Remedies
Verify the mould design with proper venting
Proper testing of moulding sand

Moulding Material Defects

Rat tail: Long shallow angular depression normally
found in a thin casting.
Caused due to compression of moulding sand.
Remedies
Check the constancy and properties of moulding sand

Scab: Thin layer of a metal, protruding above the

casting surface.
Due to removal of the moulding sand due to flow of the
mould cavity.
Sand erosion
Remedies
Verify the properties of the moulding sand
Check the gating design

Moulding Material Defects

Swell:
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mould wall may move
back causing a swell in the dimensions of the casting.
Caused due to improper ramming of the mould.

Drop:
An irregularly shaped projection on the cope surface of a
casting is called a drop.
Caused due to dropping of sand from the cope or other
overhanging projections into the mould.
Remedies
Adequate strength and hardness of the moulding sand
Provide gaggers if necessary.

Other Defects
Mould and Core shift: A misalignment
between two halves of a mould or of a core
may give rise to a defective casting

 Misrun:

Pouring Metal Defects

Metal start freezing before reaching the farthest point of the mould cavity due
to insufficient superheat.

Cold shut:
Caused due to non fusion of two streams of metal resulting in a discontinuity
or weak spot in casting.

Remedies
Due to lower fluidity of the molten metal or small thickness of the casting.
The fluidity of the metal can be improved by changing the composition of
molten metal or raising the pouring temperature.
The surface area to volume ratio of the mould can be reduced.
Improve the venting to minize the back pressure in the mould cavity

Pictorial Representation of Defects

Metallurgical Defects
Hot tears:
Caused due to differential rate of cooling causing rupture in the
casting when its hot
Remedies
Improve the casting design
Hard spots: Caused by chilling of the casting excessively at
particular spot.

Causes of Blow Holes

Blow Holes

Defect

Causes

Blow
Holes

Blow holes and Open blows:

These are spherical, flattened or
elongated cavities present inside
the casting or on the surface. When
present inside the casting it is
called blow hole while it is termed
as open blow if it appears on the
surface of the casting. These
defects are caused by the moisture
left in the mould and the core. Due
to heat of the molten metal the
moisture is converted into steam,
part of which when entrapped in
the casting ends up as blow hole or
ends up as open blow when it
reaches the surface. Thus in green
sand mould it is very difficult to
get rid of the blow holes, unless
properly vented.

Casting Defects

Casting Defects

Casting Defects

Casting Defects

Casting Defects

Inspection Methods

Visual inspection
Dimensional Inspection
Mechanical testing
Flaw detection by NDT
Metallurgical inspection

White light inspection, pressure test, magnetic particle inspection,

radiographic test, ultrasonic inspection etc. are used