Lecture Notes

CHEM 470a/570a

Introductory Quantum Chemistry

Prerequisites: CHEM 130 or 330 and Math 120a or b
Instructor: Prof. Victor S. Batista
Room: SCL 21

Schedule: TTh 9-10.15

Syllabus

The goal of this course is to introduce Quantum Theory and its application to the description
of atoms and molecules and their interactions with other molecular systems and electromagnetic
radiation. Quantum Theory involves a mathematical formulation and a physical interpretation.
The interpretation establishes the correspondence between the objects in the mathematical theory (e.g., functions and operators) and the elements of reality (e.g., observable properties of real
systems). Although there are several possible interpretations of the same mathematical theory,
this course will focus on the so-called Orthodox Interpretation developed in Copenhagen during
the first three decades of the 20th century.
The official textbook for this class is:
R1: Quantum Mechanics by Ire N. Levine (Prentice Hall).
However, the lectures will be heavily complemented with material from other textbooks including:
R2: Quantum Theory by David Bohm (Dover),
R3: Quantum Physics by Stephen Gasiorowicz (Wiley),
R4: Quantum Mechanics by Claude Cohen-Tannoudji (Wiley Interscience),
R5: Quantum Mechanics by E. Merzbacher (Wiley),

R6: Modern Quantum Mechanics by J. J. Sakurai (Addison Wesley),

Students are encouraged to read the book Thirty Years that Shook Physics by George Gamow
(Dover), during the first month of classes. The book greatly complements the lectures with an
entertaining laymans description of the historical development of Quantum Theory, including
the experiments that motivated the development of the theory and many personal anecdotes.
All these references are on reserve at the Kline library (KBT) to allow everyone equal usage.
The lecture notes are online at http://xbeams.chem.yale.edu/batista/vvv/index.html
References to specific pages of the textbooks listed above are indicated in the notes as follows:
R1(190) indicates for more information see Reference 1, Page 190.
Furthermore, a useful mathematical reference is R. Shankar, Basic Training in Mathematics. A
Fitness Program for Science Students, Plenum Press, New York 1995.
A useful search engine for mathematical and physical concepts can be found at
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/
Grading
There will be no final exam for this class.
The final grading evaluation is the same for both undergraduate and graduate students:
homework (25%),
three mid-terms (60%) on 10/02/03, 11/04/03, and 12/04/03,
three quizes during lecture hours on random dates (15%).
Homework includes exercises described in the lecture notes and computational assignments. Note
that some exercises are inserted in the description of the specific topics to facilitate finding
the relevant material in the lecture notes, while other exercises are outlined in problem sets
due 10/02/03, 10/16/03, and 10/28/03, respectively. Exercises inserted in the lecture notes
that precede a problem set are due the same date as the problem set. However, students are
encouraged to hand in their solutions as soon as they have them ready to avoid homework

accumulation.
Students are encouraged to read the lecture notes ahead of the lectures and solve the inserted
problems while studying the lecture notes.
Quizes on random lectures will include either material from previous lectures or general questions
about the material to be covered in that specific lecture.
Contact Information
Office hours will be held at SCL 239, Monday and Wednesday 4:00pm-5:00pm.
You can also send me email to victor.batista@yale.edu, or call me at (203)432-6672 if you have
any question.

Postulates of Quantum Theory

Quantum Theory can be formulated according to a few postulates (i.e., theoretical principles
based on experimental observations). The goal of this section is to introduce such principles,
together with some mathematical concepts that are necessary for that purpose.R1(190) To
keep the notation as simple as possible, expressions are written for a 1-dimensional system. The
generalization to many dimensions is usually straightforward.
P ostulate 1 : Any system can be described by a function (t, x), where t is a parameter representing the time and x represents the coordinates of the system. Function (t, x) must be
continuous, single valued and square integrable.R1(57)
Note 1: As a consequence of Postulate 4, we will see that P (t, x) = (t, x)(t, x)dx represents
the probability of finding the system between x and x + dx at time t.
P ostulate 2 : Any observable (i.e., any measurable property of the system) can be described by
an operator. The operator must be linear and hermitian.
What is an operator ? What is a linear operator ? What is a hermitian operator?
is a mathematical entity that transforms a function f (x) into
Definition 1: An operator O
another function g(x) as follows,R4(96)
(x ) = g(x ),
Of
where f and g are functions of x.
that represents an observable O is obtained by first
Definition 2: R1(190) An operator O
writing the classical expression of such observable in Cartesian coordinates (e.g., O = O(x, p))
and then substituting the coordinate x in such expression by the coordinate operator x as well
as the momentum p by the momentum operator p = i
h/x.
is linear if and only if (iff),
Definition 3: An operator O

(x) + bOg(x),

O(af
(x) + bg(x)) = aOf
4

where a and b are constants.

is hermitian iff,
Definition 4: An operator O
Z

m (x)
dxn (x)O

R1(164)
Z

n (x)
dxm
(x)O

where the asterisk represents the complex conjugate of the expression embraced by brackets.
iff,
Definition 5: A function n (x) is an eigenfunction of O
n (x) = On n (x),
O
where On is a number called eigenvalue.
Property 1: The eigenvalues of a hermitian operator are real.R1(166)(167)
Proof: Using Definition 4, we obtain
Z

n (x)
dxn (x)O

Z

n (x)
dxn (x)O

= 0,

therefore,
[On

On ]

dxn (x) n (x) = 0.

Since n (x) are square integrable functions, then,

On = On .
Property 2: Different eigenfunctions of a hermitian operator (i.e., eigenfunctions with different
eigenvalues) are orthogonal (i.e., the scalar product of two different eigenfunctions is equal to
R
n = On n , and O
m = Om m , with On 6= Om , then dx m = 0.
zero). Mathematically, if O
n
Proof:
Z

n
dxm O

Z

m
dxn O

and
Z
[On Om ]

dxm n = 0.
5

= 0,

Since On 6= Om , then

dxm n = 0.

P ostulate 3 :The only possible experimental results of a measurement of an observable are the
eigenvalues of the operator that corresponds to such observable.
P ostulate 4 : The average value of many measurements of an observable O, when the system is
which is defined as follows,
described by function (x), is equal to the expectation value O,
R

= Rdx(x) O(x) .
O
dx(x) (x)
Expansion P ostulate : R1(191), R5(15)), R4(97)
The eigenfunctions of a linear and hermitian operator form a complete basis set. Therefore,
any function (x) that is continuous, single valued, and square integrable can be expanded as a
linear combination of eigenfunctions n (x) of a linear and hermitian operator A as follows,
(x) =

Cj j (x),

where Cj are numbers (e.g., complex numbers) called expansion coefficients.

P
P
Exercise 1: Show that A = j Cj Cj aj , when (x) = j Cj j (x),
j (x) = aj j (x),
A

Z
and

dxj (x) k (x) = jk .

Note that (according to Postulate 3) eigenvalues aj are the only possible experimental re and that (according to Postulate 4) the expectation value A is
sults of measurements of A,
the average value of many measurements of A when the system is described by the expansion
P
(x) = j Cj j (x). Therefore, the product Cj Cj can be interpreted as the probability weight
associated with eigenvalue aj (i.e., the probability that the outcome of an observation of A will
be aj ).

Hilbert-Space
6

According to the Expansion Postulate (together with Postulate 1), the state of a system
described by the function (x) can be expanded as a linear combination of eigenfunctions j (x)
of a linear and hermitian operator (e.g., (x) = C1 1 (x) + C2 2 (x) + . . .). Usually, the space
defined by these eigenfunctions (i.e., functions that are continuous, single valued and square
integrable) has an infinite number of dimensions. Such space is called Hilbert-Space in honor to
the mathematician Hilbert who did pioneer work in spaces of infinite dimensionality.R4(94)
A representation of (x) in such space of functions corresponds to a vector-function,
2 (x)
6

C2

...................
(x) .....
...
....
.
C1

1 (x)

where C1 and C2 are the projections of (x) along 1 (x) and 2 (x), respectively. All other
components are omitted from the representation because they are orthogonal to the plane
defined by 1 (x) and 2 (x).

Continuous Representation
Certain operators have a continuous spectrum of eigenvalues. For example, the coordinate
operator is one such operator since it satisfies the equation x (x0 x) = x0 (x0 x), where the
eigenvalues x0 define a continuum. Delta functions (x0 x) define a continuum representation
and, therefore, an expansion of (x) in such representation becomes,
Z
(x) =

dx0 Cx0 (x0 x),

where Cx0 = (x0 ), since

Z

Z
dx(x )(x) =

Z
dx

dC (x )( x) = ().

According to postulates 3 and 4 (see Exercise 1), the probability of observing the system with
coordinate eigenvalues between x0 and x0 + dx0 is P (x0 ) = Cx0 Cx0 dx0 = (x0 )(x0 ) dx0 (see
Note 1).
In general, when the basis functions (, x) are not necessarily delta functions but nonetheless
define a continuum representation,
Z
(x) =
with C =

dC (, x),

dx(, x) (x).

Note 2: According to the Expansion Postulate, a function (x) is uniquely and completely
defined by the coefficients Cj , associated with its expansion in a complete set of eigenfunctions
j (x). However, the coefficients of such expansion would be different if the same basis functions
j depended on different coordinates (e.g., j (x0 ) with x0 6= x). In order to eliminate such
ambiguity in the description it is necessary to introduce the concept of vector-ket space.R4(108)

Vector-Ket Space
The vector-ket space is introduced to represent states in a convenient space of vectors |j >,
instead of working in the space of functions j (x). The main difference is that the coordinate
dependence does not need to be specified when working in the vector-ket space. According to
such representation, function (x) is the component of vector | > associated with index x (vide
P
infra) . Therefore, for any function (x) = j Cj j (x), we can define a ket-vector | > such
that,
| >=

X
j

Cj |j >.

The representation of | > in space is,

Ket-Space

|2 >
6

C2

........................
..
| > .....
...
....
...
.

C1

|1 >

Note that the expansion coefficients Cj depend only on the kets | j > and not on any specific
vector component. Therefore, the ambiguity mentioned above is removed.
In order to learn how to operate with kets we need to introduce the bra space and the concept of
linear functional. After doing so, this section will be concluded with the description of Postulate
5, and the Continuity Equation.
Linear functionals
A functional is a mathematical operation that transforms a function (x) into a number.
This concept is extended to the vector-ket space , as an operation that transforms a vector-ket
into a number as follows,
((x)) = n,

or

(| >) = n,

where n is a number. A linear functional satisfies the following equation,

(a(x) + bf (x)) = a((x)) + b(f (x)),
where a and b are constants.
Example: The scalar product,R4(110)
Z
n=

dx (x)(x),

is an example of a linear functional, since such an operation transforms a function (x) into a
number n. In order to introduce the scalar product of kets, we need to introduce the bra-space.

Bra Space
For every ket | > we define a linear functional < |, called bra-vector, as follows:
< |(| >) =

dx (x)(x).

Note that functional < | is linear because the scalar product is a linear functional. Therefore,
< |(a| > +b|f >) = a < |(| >) + b < |(|f >).

Note: For convenience, we will omit parenthesis so that the notation < |(| >) will be equivalent to < || >. Furthermore, whenever we find two bars next to each other we can merge
them into a single one without changing the meaning of the expression. Therefore,
< || >=< | > .
P
The space of bra-vectors is called dual space simply because given a ket | >= j Cj |j >,
P
the corresponding bra-vector is < | = j Cj < j |. In analogy to the ket-space, a bra-vector
< | is represented in space according to the following diagram:
Dual-Space

< 2 |
6

C2

........................
.
< | .....
...
...
...
...

C1

< 1 |

10

where Cj is the projection of < | along < j |.

Projection Operator and Closure Relation

Given a ket | > in a certain basis set |j >,
| >=

Cj |j >,

(1)

where < k |j >= kj ,

Cj =< j | > .

(2)

Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq.(1), we obtain

| >=

|j >< j | > .

(3)

From Eq.(3), it is obvious that

X

|j >< j | = 1,

Closure Relation

where 1 is the identity operator that transforms any ket, or function, into itself.
Note that Pj = |j >< j | is an operator that transforms any vector | > into a vector
pointing in the direction of |j > with magnitude < j | >. The operator Pj is called the
Projection Operator. It projects |j > according to,
Pj | >=< j | > |j > .
Note that Pj2 = Pj , where Pj2 = Pj Pj . This is true simply because < j |j >= 1.
P ostulate 5 : The evolution of (x, t) in time is described by the following equation:

i
h

(x, t)

= H(x,
t),
t

11

 = h2 22 + V (x), is the operator associated with the total energy of the system,
where H
2m x
E=

p2
2m

+ V (x).

Continuity Equation
Exercise 2: Prove that
( (x, t)(x, t))

+
j(x, t) = 0,
t
x
where
h

j(x, t) =
2mi

(x, t)
(x, t)
(x, t)
(x, t)
x
x


.

In general, for higher dimensional problems, the change in time of probability density, (x, t) =
(x, t)(x, t), is equal to minus the divergence of the probability flux j,
(x, t)
= j.
t
This is the so-called Continuity Equation.

Note: Remember that given a vector field j, e.g., j(x, y, z) = j1 (x, y, z)i+j2 (x, y, z)j+j3 (x, y, z)k,

the divergence of j is defined as the dot product of the del operator = ( x

, y
, z
) and vector

j as follows:
j=

j1 j2 j3
+
+
.
x
y
z

Stationary States

Stationary states are states for which the probability density (x, t) = (x, t)(x, t) is constant
at all times (i.e., states for which

(x,t)
t

= 0, and therefore j = 0). In this section we will show

that if (x, t) is factorizable according to (x, t) = (x)f (t), then (x, t) is a stationary state.
Substituting (x, t) in the time dependent Schrodinger equation we obtain:
f (t)
h
2 2 (x)
(x)i
h
= f (t)
+ f (t)V (x)(x),
t
2m x2
12

and dividing both sides by f (t)(x) we obtain:

i
h f (t)
h
2 2 (x)
=
+ V (x).
f (t) t
2m(x) x2

(4)

Since the right hand side (r.h.s) of Eq. (4) can only be a function of x and the l.h.s. can only
be a function of t for any x and t, and both functions have to be equal to each other, then such
function must be equal to a constant E. Mathematically,
i
h f (t)
i
= E f (t) = f (0)exp( Et),
f (t) t
h

h
2 2 (x)

+ V (x) = E H(x)
= E(x) .
2m(x) x2

The boxed equation is called the time independent Schr

odinger equation.

Furthermore, since f (0) is a constant, function (x)

= f (0)(x) also satisfies the time independent Schrodinger equation as follows,

(x)
H
= E (x)
,

(5)

and
i

(x, t) = (x)exp(
Et).
h

associated with the eigenfunction (x).

Eq. (5) indicates that E is the eigenvalue of H

is a Hermitian operator.
Exercise 3: Prove that H

Exercise 4: Prove that -i

h/x is a Hermitian operator.

and P satisfy the equation Q

P = P Q,
i.e.,
Exercise 5: Prove that if two hermitian operators Q
P is also hermitian.
if P and Q commute (vide infra), the product operator Q
13

 is hermitian, E is a real number E = E (see Property 1 of Hermitian operators),

Since H
then,

(x, t)(x, t) = (x)(x).

Since (x)
depends only on x,

( (x)(x))
t

= 0, then,

(x, t)(x, t)
t

= 0. This demonstration

proves that if (x, t) = (x)f (t), then (x, t) is a stationary function.

Particle in the Box

The particle in the box can be represented by the following diagram:R1(22)

V (x)

Box

V =

V =

V =0
r

0
Particle

The goal of this section is to show that a particle with energy E and mass m in the box-potential
V(x) defined as
V (x) =

0,

when 0 x a,
otherwise,

has stationary states and a discrete absorption spectrum (i.e., the particle absorbs only certain

(x)
discrete values of energy called quanta). To that end, we first solve the equation H
= E (x),
i

Et).
and then we obtain the stationary states (x, t) = (x)exp(
h

Since (x)
has to be continuous, single valued and square integrable (see Postulate 1), (0)
and

(a)
must satisfy the appropriate boundary conditions both inside and outside the box. The

14

boundary conditions inside the box lead to:

h
2
(x) = E(x),
2m x2

(x) = A Sin(K x).

(6)

Functions (x) determine the stationary states inside the box. The boundary conditions outside
the box are,
h
2
(x) + (x) = E(x),

2m x2

(x) = 0,

and determine the energy associated with (x) inside the box as follows. From Eq. (6), we
obtain:

h2

AK 2
2m

= EA,

and,

(a) = ASin(K a) = 0,

Ka = n, with n = 1, 2, ...

Note that the number of nodes of (i.e., the number of coordinates where (x) = 0), is equal
to n 1 for a given energy, and the energy levels are,
E=

h
2 n2 2
,
2m a2

with n = 1, 2, ...

e.g.,
h
2 2
,
2m a2
h
2 4 2
E(n = 2) =
, ...
2m a2
E(n = 1) =

Conclusion: The energy of the particle in the box is quantized! (i.e., the absorption spectrum
of the particle in the box is not continuous but discrete).

Exercise 6: (i) Using the particle in the box model for an electron in a quantum dot (e.g., a
nanometer size silicon material) explain why larger dots emit in the red end of the spectrum,
and smaller dots emit blue or ultraviolet.
(ii) Consider the molecule hexatriene CH2 = CH CH = CH CH = CH2 and assume that the
6 electrons move freely along the molecule. Approximate the energy levels using the particle
15

in the box model. The length of the box is the sum of bond lengths with C-C = 1.54
A, C=C =
1.35
A, and an extra 1.54
A, due to the ends of the molecule. Assume that only 2 electrons can
occupy each electronic state and compute:
(A) The energy of the highest occupied energy level.
(B) The energy of the lowest unoccupied energy level.
(C) The energy difference between the highest and the lowest energy levels, and compare such
energy difference with the energy of the peak in the absorption spectrum at M AX =268nm.
(D) Predict whether the peak of the absorption spectrum for CH2 = CH (CH = CH)n CH =
CH2 would be red- or blue-shifted relative to the absorption spectrum of hexatriene.

Commutator

B]
is defined as follows:R4(97)
The commutator [A,
B]
= AB
B
A.

[A,
are said to commute when [A,
B]
= 0.
Two operators A and B

Exercise 7: Prove that [

x, i
h x
] = i
h.

Hint: Prove that [

x, i
h x
](x) = i
h(x), where (x) is a function of x.

Uncertainty Relations
q

< A >)2 > and

The goal of this section is to show that the uncertainties A =
< (A
q
<B
>)2 >, of any pair of hermitian operators A and B,
satisfy the uncerB = < (B

16

tainty relation:R3(437)
(A)2 (B)2

1
< i[A, B] >2 .
4

(7)

= p, we obtain the Heisenberg uncertainty relation:

In particular, when A = x and B
x p

.
2

(8)

Proof:
< A >,
U A
< B >,
V B

Z
I() =

(, x) (U + iV )(x),
R
I() dx (, x)(, x) 0,

< A >)(x) + i(B

< B >)(x)] [(A
< A >)(x) + i(B
< B >)(x)],
dx[(A
I() =< U |U > +2 < V |V > i(< V |U > < U |V >),
I() =< |U 2 | > +2 < |V 2 | > i < |U V V U | > 0,

(9)

The minimum value of I(), as a function of , is reached when I/ = I/ = 0.

This condition implies that
2(B)2 = i < [A, B] >,

=>

i < [A, B] >

.
2(B)2

Substituting this expression for into Eq. (9), we obtain:

(A)2 +

i2 < A, B >2 i2 < A, B >2

0,
4(B)2
2(B)2

(A)2 (B)2

i2 < A, B >2
.
4

Exercise 8: Compute < X >, < P >, X and P for the particle in the box in its minimum
energy state and verify that X and P satisfy the uncertainty relation given by Eq. (8)?
17

With the exception of a few concepts (e.g., the Exclusion Principle that is introduced later in these
lectures), the previous sections have already introduced most of Quantum Theory. Furthermore,
we have shown how to solve the equations introduced by Quantum Theory for the simplest
possible problem, which is the particle in the box. There are a few other problems that can also
be solved analytically (e.g., the harmonic-oscillator and the rigid-rotor described later in these
lectures). However, most of the problems of interest in Chemistry have equations that are too
complicated to be solved analytically. This observation has been stated by Paul Dirac as follows:
The underlying physical laws necessary for the mathematical theory of a large part of Physics
and the whole of Chemistry are thus completed and the difficulty is only that exact application of
these laws leads to the equations much too complicated to be soluble. It is, therefore, essential, to
introduce approximate methods (e.g., perturbation methods and variational methods).

Time Independent Perturbation Theory

Consider the time independent Schrodinger equation,R2(453)

n (x) = En n (x),
H

(10)

= p2 /2m+V , and assume that all the eigenfunctions

for a system described by the Hamiltonian H
n (x) are known. The goal of this section is to show that these eigenfunctions n (x) can be used
to solve the time independent Schrodinger equation of a slightly different problem: a problem
+
described by the Hamiltonian H 0 = H
. This is accomplished by implementing the equations
of Perturbation Theory derived in this section.
Consider the equation
+
n (, x) = En ()
n (, x),
(H
)

(11)

n () and En () are well approximated by rapidly

where is a small parameter, so that both
18

convergent expansions in powers of (i.e., expansions where only the first few terms are important).
n () we obtain,
Expanding
n (, x) =

Cjn ()j (x).

Substituting this expression in the time independent Schrodinger equation we obtain,

X

j (x) +
Cjn ()[H
j (x)] = En ()

Ckn ()k (x).,

therefore,
Cln ()El +

Cjn () < l |
|j >= En ()Cln ().

(12)

Expanding Ckj and En in powers of we obtain,

(0)

(1)

(2)

Ckj () = Ckj + Ckj + Ckj 2 + ...,

and
(0)
(1)
(2)
En () = En + En + En 2 + ...

Substituting these expansions into Eq. (12) we obtain,

P (0)
(0) (1)
(1) (0)
(0)
(0) (0)
(1)
|j > En Cln En Cln ) +
(Cln El En Cln ) + (Cln El + j Cjn < l |
P (1)
(2)
(2) (0)
(0) (2)
(1) (1)
|j > En Cln En Cln En Cln ) + ... = 0.
2 (Cln El + j Cjn < l |
This equation must be valid for any . Therefore, each of the terms in between parenthesis must
be equal to zero.

(0)
(0)

Cln (El En ) = 0,

Zeroth order in if l 6= n, then C (0) = 0,

ln

(0)
(0)
if l = n, then Cnn
= 1, and El = En .

P (0)

(1)
(0)
(1) (0)

C
(E

E
)
=
E
C

|j >,
n
n
l

ln
ln
j Cjn < l |

(0)
First order in if l 6= n, then C (1) (El En(0) ) = Cnn
< l |
|n >,
ln

(0)
if l = n, then En(1) C (0) = Cnn
< n |
|n > .
ln
19

(1)

(1)

Note that Cnn is not specified by the equations listed above. Cnn is obtained by normalizing the
wave function
written to first order in .

(2) (0)
(1) (1)
C (2) (E En) + P C (1) < |

l
l |j >= En Cln + En Cln ,

ln
j jn

P
P
(1)
< |
| >< |
| >

if l = n, then En(2) = j6=n Cjn

< n |
|j > = j6=n n j (0)j n ,
(Ej En )
2nd order in

P (1)

(2)
(0)
|n >
l |

if
l
=
6
n,
then
C
(E

E
)
=

|j > <n ||n ><

=

n
l
(0)
ln
j Cjn < l |

(E
E
)
n
l

P < || >< || >

|n >
l |

= j j n (0)l j <n ||n ><

.
(0)
(Ej En )

(El En )

Exercise 9: Calculate the energy shifts to first order in for all excited states of the perturbed
particle in the box described by the following potential:

) to the particle in the

Assume that the potential is described by perturbation W (x) = Sin( x
a
box.

Time Dependent Perturbation Theory

Given an arbitary state,R2(410)

t) =
(x,

Cj j (x)e h Ej t ,

20

 for which H

j = Ej j
for the initially unperturbed system described by the Hamiltonian H,

let us obtain the solution of the time dependent Schrodinger equation:

,
and i
h t = H
i
h

+
= [H
(t)],
t

(13)

assuming that such solution can be written as a rapidly convergent expansion in powers of ,
(x, t) =

XX
j

Cjl (t)l j (x)e h Ej t .

(14)

l=0

Substituting Eq. (14) into Eq. (13) we obtain,

i
h


X
l=0

XX
i
i
i
C kl (t) + Ckl (t) ( Ek ) e h Ek t =
Cjl (t)l (< k |j > Ej + < k |
|j >) e h Ej t .
h

j l=0
l

Terms with 0 : (Zero-order time dependent perturbation theory)

X
i
i
i
i
i
+i
h[C k0 (t)e h Ek t + Ck0 (t)( Ek )e h Ek t ] =
Cj0 (t)kj Ej e h Ej t = Ck0 (t)Ek e h Ek t .
h

j
Since,
C k0 (t) = 0,

Ck0 (t) = Ck0 (0).

Therefore, the unperturbed wave function is correct to zeroth order in .

Terms with : (First-order time dependent perturbation theory)
i
i
i
i
h[C k1 (t)e h Ek t + Ck1 (t)( Ek )e h Ek t ] =
h

i
C k1 (t) =
h

X

Cj1 (t)kj Ej e h Ej t + Cj0 (t) < k |

|j > e h Ej t ,


i
Cj0 (0) < k |
|j > e h (Ej Ek )t .

Therefore,

i
C k1 (t) =
h

Cj0 (0) < k |e h Ek t

e h Ej t |j >=

21

i
i
iX
Cj0 (0) < k |e h Ht
e h Ht |j >, (15)
h
j

Eq. (15) was obtained by making the substitution e h Ht |j >= e h Ej t |j >, which is
justified in the note that follows this derivation. Integrating Eq. (15) we obtain,
i
Ck1 (t) =
h

dt0

Cj0 (0) < k |e h Ht

e h Ht |j > .

which can also be written as follows:

i
Ck1 (t) =
h

dt0 < k |e h Ht
e h Ht |0 > .

This expression gives the correction of the expansion coefficients to first order in .
Note: The substitution made in Eq. (15) can be justified as follows. The exponential function
is defined in powers series as follows,
A

e =

X
An
n=0

n!

=1+A+

1
AA + ....,
2!

R4(169)

h,
In particular, when A = iHt/
i
i
1
i
H
+ ....
e h Ht = 1 + ( Ht)
+ ( t)2 H
h

2! h

Furthermore, since
j >= Ej |j >,
H|
and,
H|
j >= Ej H|
j >= Ej2 |j >,
H
we obtain,
i
i
i
1
i
e h Ht |j >= [1 + ( Ej t) + ( t)2 Ej2 + ...]|j >= e h Ej t |j >,
h

2! h

which is the substitution implemented in Eq. (15).

Terms with 2 : (Second-order time dependent perturbation theory)
i
i
i
h[C k2 (t) + Ck2 (t)( Ek )]e h Ek t =
h

[Cj2 (t)kj Ej + Cj1 (t) < k |

|j >]e h Ej t ,

22

i
i
iX
C k2 (t) =
< k |e h Ht
e h Ht |j > Cj1 (t),
h
j

Z t
X
i 0
i 0
i
Ck2 (t) =
dt0
< k |e h Ht
e h Ht |j > Cj1 (t0 ),
h

j

2 X Z t
Z t0
i 0
i 0
i 00
i 00
i
Ck2 (t) =
dt0
dt00 < k |e h Ht
e h Ht |j >< j |e h Ht
e h Ht |0 > .
h

j
P
Since 1 = j |j >< j |,

2 Z t
Z t0
i 0
i 0
i 00
i
00
0
dt
dt00 < k |e h Ht
e h H(t t )
e h Ht |0 > .
Ck2 (t) =
h

This expression gives the correction of the expansion coefficients to second order in .

Limiting Cases
(1) Impulsive Perturbation:
The perturbation is abruptly switched on:R2(412)
w (t)
6

t
0
According to the equations for first order time dependent perturbation theory,
Z t
i
iX
0
Ck1 (t) =
< k |
|j > Cj0 (0)
dt0 e h (Ej Ek )t ,
h
j
0
therefore,
i
i X Cj0 (0) < k |
|j > h i (Ej Ek )t
h

1
.
e
Ck1 (t) = ( )
h
j
hi (Ej Ek )
Assuming that initially: Cj = lj ,

Ck1 (t) =

Cj0 = lj . Therefore,

i
< k |
|l >
[1 e h (El Ek )t ],
(El Ek )

23

when k 6= l. Note that Cl1 (t) must be obtained from the normalization of the wave function
expanded to first order in .

Exercise 10: Compare this expression of the first order correction to the expansion coefficients,
due to an impulsive perturbation, with the expression obtained according to the time-independent
perturbation theory.

(2) Adiabatic limit:

t
The perturbation is switched-on very slowly ( d
<< , with  arbitrarily small):R2(448)
dt

(t)

6
............................................................

i
Ck1 (t) = ( )
h

dt0 < k |(t0 )|l > e h (El Ek )t .

Integrating by parts we obtain,

t0 =t
i
0

i e h (El Ek )t

0
Ck1 (t) = ( )
<

|(t
)|
>

k
l
i
0
h
( h )(El Ek )

t =

dt0

< k |(t)|l > i (El Ek )t

e h
,
(El Ek )

24

w
e
< k | 0 |l > ,
i
t
( h )(El Ek )

and, since < k |w()|l >= 0,

Ck1 (t) =

i
h
(El Ek )t0

when k 6= l. Note that Cl1 (t) must be obtained from the normalization of the wave function
expanded to first order in .

Exercise 11: Compare this expression for the first order correction to the expansion coefficients,
due to an adiabatic perturbation, with the expression obtained according to the time-independent
perturbation theory.

(3) Sinusoidal Perturbation:

The sinusoidal perturbation is defined as follows,
(t, x) =
(x)Sin(t) when t 0 and
(t, x) =
0, otherwise.
(x, t)
6

(x)
-

It is, however, more conveniently defined in terms of exponentials,

(x) it
[e eit ].
2i

Therefore,
i
Ck1 (t) =
h

i 0
i 0
dt0 < k |e h Ht
(t0 )e h Ht |0 >,

(16)

P
j = Ej j . Substituting these expressions into Eq. (16) we
with |0 >= j Cj |j >, and H

25

obtain,
1 X
Ck1 (t) =
Cj < k |
|j >
2
h j

 i

i
dt0 e h [(Ek Ej )+h]t e h [(Ek Ej )h]t ,

and therefore,
#
"
i
i
[(Ek Ej )
h]t
[(Ek Ej )+
h]t
X
h

1e
1
1e

.
Cj
kj
Ck1 (t) =
Ek Ej
Ek Ej
i2
h j
+

Without lost of generality, let us assume that Cj = nj (i.e., initially only state n is occupied).
For k n we obtain,
|
kn |2
|Ck1 (t)|2 =
k
h2


2
(Ek En )
n)
 1 ei[ (Ek E
+]t
h

1 ei[ h ]t 

(E En )
 (Ek En )
 .
k

+

h

Factor |
|kn determines the intensity of the transition (e.g., the selection rules). The first term
(called anti-resonant) is responsible for emission. The second term is called resonant and is
responsible for absorption.
For k 6= n, Pk1 (t) = 2 |Ck1 (t)|2 is the probability of finding the system in state k at time t (to
first order in ).

t2 2 |
kn |2
4
h2

6
Pk1 (t)
..................................................
...
...
...
...
...
....
...

...
...
....
....
...
...
....
....
...
...
...
...

4
t

.
-

...
...
...
....
...
...

(Ek En )
h

It is important to note that Pk1 << 1 indicates that the system has been slightly perturbed. Such
26

condition is satisfied only when t <<

2
h
.
|
kn |

Therefore, the theory is useful only at sufficiently

short times.

Problem Set (due 10/02/03)

Exercise 11: Consider a distribution of charges Qi , with coordinates ri , interacting with plane
polarized radiation. Assume that the system is initially in the eigenstate j of the unperturbed
charge distribution.
(A) Write the expression of the sinusoidal perturbation in terms of Qi , ri , and the radiation
frequency and amplitude 0 .
(B) Expand the time dependent wave function of the charge distribution in terms of the
eigenfunctions k of the unperturbed charge distribution.
(C) Find the expansion coefficients, according to first order time dependent perturbation theory.
(D) What physical information is given by the square of the expansion coefficients?
(E) What frequency would be optimum to populate state k? Assume Ek Ej .
(F) Which other state could be populated with radiation of the optimum frequency found in
term (E)?
(G) When would the transition j k be forbidden?

Exercise 12: A particle in the ground state of a square box of length |a| is subject to a
2 /

perturbation (t) = axet

(A) What is the probability that the particle ends up in the first excited state after a long time
t >> ?
(B) How does that probability depend on ?
27

Exercise 13:

V0

Figure 1

(a) Compute the minimum energy stationary state for a particle in the square well (See Fig.1)
by solving the time independent Schrodinger equation.
(b) What would be the minimum energy absorbed by a particle in the potential well of Fig.1?
(c) What would be the minimum energy of the particle in the potential well of Fig.1?
(d) What would be the minimum energy absorbed by a particle in the potential well shown in
Fig.2? Assume that is a small parameter give the answer to first order in .
6

V0

..............................

.............................................

0.5
1
Figure 2

Exercise 14: (a) Prove that P = eH is a hermitian operator.

is a hermitian operator.
(b) Prove that P = Cos(H)

28

10

Adiabatic Approximation

The goal of this section is to solve the time dependent Schrodinger equation,
i
h

= H,
t

(17)

= h2 2 + V (x, t), where the potential V (x, t) undergoes

for a time dependent Hamiltonian, H
2m
significant changes but in a very large time scale (e.g., a time scale much larger than the time
associated with state transitions).R2(496)
Since V(x,t) changes very slowly, we can solve the time independent Schrodinger equation at a
specific time t,
0 )n (x, t0 ) = En (t0 )n (x, t0 ).
H(t
Assuming that

n
t

0, since V(x,t) changes very slowly, we find that the function,

i

n (x, t) = n (x, t)e h

Rt
0

En (t0 )dt0

is a good approximate solution to Eq. (17). In fact, it satisfies Eq. (17) exactly when

n
t

= 0.

Expanding the general solution (x, t) in the basis set n (x, t) we obtain:
(x, t) =

Cn (t)n (x, t)e h

Rt
0

En (t0 )dt0

and substituting this expression into Eq. (17) we obtain,

i
h

X
n

X
Rt
Rt
i
i
i
0
0
0
0
(C n n + Cn n En Cn n )e h 0 En (t )dt =
Cn En n e h 0 En (t )dt ,
h

where,
C k =

i
Cn < k | n > e h

Rt
0

dt0 (En (t0 )Ek (t0 ))

Note that,
H
En
n + H n =
n + En n ,
t
t
29

(18)

then,
< k |

H
Ek
|n > + < k |H| n >=
kn + En < k | n >,
t
t
since < k |H| n > = < n |H|k > .

Furthermore, if k 6= n then,
< k | H
|n >
t
< k | n >=
.
En Ek
Substituting this expression into Eq. (18) we obtain,
C k = Ck < k | k >

X
n6=k

Cn

< k | H
|n > i R t dt0 (En (t0 )Ek (t0 ))
t
e h 0
.
(En Ek )

Let us suppose that the system starts with Cn (0) = nj , then solving by successive approximations
we obtain that for k 6= j:
|j > i R t dt0 (Ej (t0 )Ek (t0 ))
< k | H
t

Ck =
e h 0
.
(Ek Ej )
Assuming that Ej (t) and Ek (t) are slowly varying functions in time:
< k | H
|j > i (Ej Ek )t
i
t
e h (Ej Ek )t0 ],
[e h
Ck i
2
(Ej Ek )
h

since

|e h (Ej Ek )t e h (Ej Ek )t0 |

2.

Therefore,
|Ck |2

4
h2 | < k | H
|j > |2
t
.
(Ej Ek )4

The system remains in the initially populated state at all times whenever


2


H
 < k |
 << (Ej Ek ) ,
|
>
j


t
h

H
t

is sufficiently small,
(19)

even when such state undergoes significant changes. This is the so-called adiabatic approximation.
It breaks down when Ej Ek because the inequality introduced by Eq. (19) can not be satisfied.
Mathematically, the condition that validates the adiabatic approximation can also be expressed
in terms of the frequency defined by the equation Ej Ek = h = h , (or the time period of
the light emitted with frequency ) as follows,
30


|
2

11

< k | H
|j > | << (Ej Ek ).
t

Variational Theorem

The expectation value of the Hamiltonian, computed with any trial wave function, is always higher
or equal than the energy of the ground state. Mathematically,
> E0 ,
< |H|
j = Ej j .
where H
Proof:
P

= j Cj j , where {j } is a basis set of orthonormal eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian H.

>=
< |H|

XX
j

XX

j >,
Ck Cj < k |H|
Ck Cj Ej kj ,

Cj Cj Ej

where,

E0

Cj Cj ,

Cj Cj = 1.

Variational Approach
(0)

Starting with an initial trial wave function defined by the expansion coefficients {Cj }, the
can be obtained by
optimum solution of an arbitrary problem described by the Hamiltonian H
> with respect to the expansion coefficients.
minimizing the expectation value < |H|

31

12

Heisenberg Representation

Consider the eigenvalue problem,R4(124) R3(240)

>= E| >,
H|

(20)

for an arbitrary system (e.g., an atom or molecule) described by a state | >, expanded in a
basis set {j } as follows,
| >=

Cj | >,

(21)

where Cj =< j | >, and < j |k >= jk .

Substituting Eq. (21) into Eq. (20) we obtain:
X

j > Cj =
H|

ECj |j > .

Applying functional < k | to both sides of this equation we obtain,

X

j > Cj =
< k |H|

E < k |j > Cj ,

(22)

where < k |j >= kj and k = 1, 2, ..., n.

j > we obtain,
Introducing the notation Hkj =< k |H|

H11 C1 + H12 C2 + H13 C3 + ... + H1n Cn = EC1 + 0C2 + ... + 0Cn ,

(k = 1)

(k = 2) H21 C1 + H22 C2 + H23 C3 + ... + H2n Cn = 0C1 + EC2 + ... + 0Cn ,

...

...

(k = n)

Hn1 C1 + Hn2 C2 + Hn3 C3 + ... + Hnn Cn = 0C1 + 0C2 + ... + ECn ,

that can be conveniently written in terms of matrices and vectors as follows,

32

(23)

H
H12 ... H1n
C
E 0 ... 0
C
11
1
1

H21 H22 ... H2n C2 0 E ... 0 C2

=
.

...
... ...
...

Hn1 Hn2 ... Hnn
Cn
0 0 ... E
Cn

(24)

This is the Heisenberg representation of the eigenvalue problem introduced by Eq. (20). According to the Heisenberg representation, also called matrix representation, the ket | > is represented
is repreby the vector C, with components Cj =< j | >, with j=1, ..., n, and the operator H
k >.
sented by the matrix H with elements Hjk =< j |H|
The expectation value of the Hamiltonian,
< |H| >=

XX
j

j > Cj ,
Ck < k |H|

can be written in the matrix representation as follows,

< |H| >= C HC = C1 C2

H11 H12 ... H1n

C1


H21 H22 ... H2n C2

.
... Cn

...
...

Hn1 Hn2 ... Hnn
Cn

Note:
(1) It is important to note that according to the matrix representation the ket-vector | > is
represented by a column vector with components Cj =< j | >, and the bra-vector < | is
represented by a row vector with components Cj .
it is represented by a hermitian matrix (i.e., a matrix
(2) If an operator is hermitian (e.g., H)
where any two elements which are symmetric with respect to the principal diagonal are complex conjugates of each other). The diagonal elements of a hermitian matrix are real numbers,
therefore, its eigenvalues are real.
33


(3) The eigenvalue problem has a non-trivial solution only when the determinant det[H 1E]
vanishes:
= 0, where 1
is the unity matrix.
det[H 1E]
This equation has n roots, which are the eigenvalues of H.

13

Two-Level Systems

There are many problems in Quantum Chemistry that can be modeled in terms of the two-level
Hamiltonian (i.e., a state-space with only two dimensions). Examples include electron transfer,
proton transfer, and isomerization reactions.
Consider two states |1 > and |2 >, of a system. Assume that these states have similar
energies, E1 and E2 , both of them well separated from all of the other energy levels of the system,
0 |1 >= E1 |1 >,
H
0 |2 >= E2 |2 > .
H
In the presence of a perturbation,

0
W =
,
0
the total Hamiltonian becomes H = H0 + W . Therefore, states |1 > and |2 > are no longer
eigenstates of the system.
The goal of this section is to compute the eigenstates of the system in the presence of the
perturbation W. The eigenvalue problem,

H11 H12 C1 E 0 C1

,
H21 H22
C2
0 E
C2

34

is solved by finding the roots of the characteristic equation, (H11 E)(H22 E) H12 H21 = 0.
The values of E that satisfy such equation are,
s
2
E1 E2
(E1 + E2 )
E =

+ 2 .
2
2
These eigenvalues E can be represented as a function of the energy difference (E1 E2 ), according to the following diagram:

E+

 E1


HH
H

HH

HH
Em + .......................................................

Em = 12 (E1 + E2 )

Em










HH
H
HH
H
HH
E1 E2

0
H
HH


H
HH
.......................................................


H

HH


H

HH

H

E
E2
?

Note that E1 and E2 cross each other, but E and E+ repel each other. Having found the
eigenvalues E , we can obtain the eigenstates | >= C1 |1 > +C2 |2 > by solving for C1
and C2 from the following equations:
C1 (H11 E ) + C2 H12 = 0,
P2

j=1 Cj Cj = 1.
35

We see that in the presence of the perturbation the minimum energy state | > is always more
stable than the minimum energy state of the unperturbed system.
Example 1. Resonance Structure

@
@
@
@

@
@

*
)

E1 = E2 = Em
@
@
@
@

@
@

The coupling between the two states makes the linear combination of the two more stable
than the minimum energy state of the unperturbed system.
Example 2. Chemical Bond

H+

H+

|1 >

er
u

H+

|2 >

The state of the system that involves a linear combination of these two states is more stable
than Em because < 1 |H|2 >6= 0.

Time Evolution
Consider a two level system described by the Hamiltonian H = H0 + W , with H0 | 1 >= E1 |
36

1 >. Assume that the system is initially prepared in state | (0) >=| 1 >. Due to the presence
of the perturbation W , state | 1 > is not a stationary state. Therefore, the initial state evolves
in time according to the time-dependent Schrodinger Equation,
i
h

| >
= (H0 + W ) | >,
t

and becomes a linear superposition of states |1 > and |2 >,

|(t) >= C1 (t)|1 > +C2 (t)|2 > .
State | (t) > can be expanded in terms of the eigenstates | > as follows,
|(t) >= C+ (t)|+ > +C (t)| >,
where the expansion coefficients C (t) evolve in time according to the following equations,
i
h

C+ (t)
= E+ C+ (t),
t

i
h

C (t)
= E C (t).
t

Therefore, state |(t) > can be written in terms of | > as follows,

i

|(t) >= C+ (0)e h E+ t |+ > +C (0)e h E t | > .

The probability amplitude of finding the system in state |2 > at time t is,
P12 (t) = | < 2 |(t) > |2 = C2 (t) C2 (t),
which can also be written as follows,
i

P12 (t) = |C2+ C+ (0)|2 + |C2 C (0)|2 + 2Re[C2+

C+ (0)C2 C (0)e h (E E+ )t ],

where C2 =< 2 | >. The following diagram represents P12 (t) as a function of time:
37

P12 (t)

Rabi Oscillations

h
E+ E

The frequency = (E+ E )/(

h) is called Rabi Frequency. It is observed, e.g., in the
absorption spectrum of H2+ (see Example 2). It corresponds to the frequency of the oscillating
dipole moment which fluctuates according to the electronic configurations of |1 > and |2 >,
respectively. The oscillating dipole moment exchanges energy with an external electromagnetic
field of its own characteristic frequency and, therefore, it is observed in the absorption spectrum
of the system.

14

Harmonic Oscillator

Many physical systems, including molecules with configurations near their equilibrium positions,
can be described (at least approximately) by the Hamiltonian of the harmonic oscillator:R4(483)
R1(62)
2
= P + 1 m 2 x2 .
H
2m 2
we introduce two operators called creation a
In order to find the eigenfunctions of H
+ and
annihilation a
, which are defined as follows:
a
+

1 (
x
2

i
p), and a

1 (
x
2

+ i
p), where x = x

p m
h

, and p =

as follows,
Using these definitions of a
+ and a
, we can write H

38

p .
m
h

 = (
H
a+ a
+ 12 )
h.
, defined in terms of a
Introducing the number operator N
+ and a
as follows,
a
N
+ a
,
we obtain that the Hamiltonian of the Harmonic Oscillator can be written as follows,
= (N
+ 1/2)
H
h.

with eigenvalue E , then is an

Exercise 15: Show that if is an eigenfunction of H
with eigenvalue =
eigenfunction of N
| >= | >, with =
N

E
h

E
h

>= E | >, then

12 . Mathematically, if H|

12 .

Theorem I:
are greater or equal to zero, i.e., 0.
The eigenvalues of N
Proof:
R
dx| < x|
a| > |2 0,
< |
a+ a
| > 0,
< | > 0.
As a consequence: a
|0 >= 0,
p m
p
1 [
x
+ i m
]|0 >= 0,
h

2
h

p = i
h x
,

x0 (x) +

h 0 (x)

m x

= 0,

xx,
ln0 (x) = m
h

0 (x) = A exp(
where A =

p
4 m

m 2
x ),
h
2

with = 0 (i.e., the ground

. The wave function 0 (x) is the eigenfunction of N

state wave function because 0).

39

Theorem II:
with eigenvalue equal to ( -1).
If > 0, state a
| > is an eigenstate of N
Proof:
In order to prove this theorem we need to show that,

a
N
| >= ( 1)
a| > .

(25)

We first observe that,

, a
[N
] =
a.
Therefore,
, a
[N
] = a
+ a
a
a
a
+ a
,
, a
[N
] = [
a+ , a
]
a,
, a
[N
] = 1
a,

because [
a+ , a
] = 1,

[
a+ , a
] =

1
(
xx
2
h

[
a+ , a
] =

i
2[
x, p]
2
h

+ i
xp i
px + pp (
xx i
xp + i
px + pp)),
= 1,

since [
x, p] = i
h.

Applying the operator

a to state | > we obtain,
a
)| >=
(N
a
N
a| >,
and, therefore,
a
N
| >
a| >=
a| >, which proves the theorem.
A natural consequence of theorems I and II is that is an integer number greater or equal to
is therefore discrete and consists of integer numbers that are 0. In
zero. The spectrum of N
order to demonstrate such consequence we first prove that,

a
N
p | >= ( p)
ap | > .

40

(26)

In order to prove Eq. (26) we apply a

to both sides of Eq. (25):
a
a
N
| >= ( 1)
a2 | >,
, a
and since [N
] =
a we obtain,
a
(
a+N
)
a| >= ( 1)
a2 | >,
and
a
N
2 | >= ( 2)
a2 | > .

(27)

Applying a
to Eq. (27) we obtain,
a
a
N
2 | >= ( 2)
a3 | >,
by a
a
and substituting a
N
+N
we obtain,
a
N
3 | >= ( 3)
a3 | > .
Repeating this procedure p times we obtain Eq. (26).

Having proved Eq. (26) we now realize that if = n, with n an integer number,
a
p |n >= 0,
with eigenvalue equal to zero,
when p > n. This is because state a
n |n > is the eigenstate of N
i.e., a
n |n >= |0 >. Therefore a
|0 >= a
p |n >= 0, when p > n. Note that (Eq. 26) would
contradict Theorem I if was not an integer, because starting with a nonzero function | > it
would be possible to obtain a function a
p | > different from zero with a negative eigenvalue.

Eigenfunctions of N
41

 consider that,
In order to obtain eigenfunctions of N
| >= | >,
N
and
a
N
|+1 >=
a|+1 > .
Therefore, a
|+1 > is proportional to | >,

a
|+1 >= C+1 | >
Applying a
+ to Eq. (28) we obtain,
|+1 >= C+1 a
N
+ | >,
|+1 >=

C+1 +
a
| >,
( + 1)

2
C+1
+ 1| >,
< |N
( + 1)2

C+1 = + 1.

< +1 |+1 >= 1 =

Therefore,
|+1 >=

1
(
a+ )+1
a
+ | >= p
|0 >
+1
( + 1)!

can be generated from |0 > as follows,

The eigenfunctions of N

 r
1
m
p
|0 >,
x
i
| >=
h

h
m
!

 r

1
m
h

0 (x).
(x) =
x

h
m x
!
For example,
r
1 (x) =

m
+
h

42

!
m 2
h
m
x Ae 2h x ,
m h

(28)

r
1 (x) = 2x
|

m
h

{z

r
4

m m x2
e 2h .

h
}

The pre-exponential factor is the Hermite polynomial for = 1.

Time Evolution of Expectation Values

In order to compute a time-dependent expectation value,
t >,
At =< t |A|
it is necessary to compute |t > by solving the time dependent Schrodinger equation, i
h|t >
t >. This can be accomplished by first finding all eigenstates of H,
n , with eigenvalues
/t = H|
En , and then computing |t > as follows,
< x|t >=

Cn e h En t < x|n >,

where the expansion coefficients Cn are determined by the initial state < x|0 >. The time
t > is, therefore,
dependent expectation value < t |A|
At =

n>.
Cm
Cn e h h(nm)t < m |A|

nm

Note that this approach might give you the wrong impression that the computational task necessary to solve the time dependent Schrodinger equation can always be reduced to finding the
by solving the time independent Schrodinger equation. While
eigenstates and eigenvalues of H
this is possible in principle, it can only be implemented in practice for very simple problems
(e.g., systems with very few degrees of freedom). Most of the problems of interest in Chemical Dynamics, however, require solving the time dependent Schrodinger equation explicitly by
implementing other numerical techniques.

43

15

Problem Set (due 10/16/03)

Exercise 16: (A) Show that, < |x|n >= 2m

[ n + 1n0 ,n+1 + nn0 ,n1 ].
q

(B) Show that, < n0 |p|n >= i m2h [ n + 1n0 ,n+1 nn0 ,n1 ].

(C) Show that, a

+ | >= + 1|+1 >; a
| >= |1 >.
q

n0

(D) Compute the ratio between the minimum vibrational energies for bonds C-H and C-D,
assuming that the force constant k = m 2 is the same for both bonds.
(E) Estimate the energy of the first excited vibrational state for a Morse oscillator defined as
follows: V (R) = De (1 exp(a(R Req )))2 .

Exercise 17: Prove that < k | tH |n >= (En Ek ) < k | t

|n >, when n 6= k and <

k |n >= n , with

H(t)
j (x, t) = Ej (t)j (x, t).

Exercise 18: Prove that j = 0, where j

(
2mi
x

) and = R(x)e h Et .
x

Exercise 19: Consider a harmonic oscillator described by the following Hamiltonian,

0 = 1 p2 + 1 m 2 x2 .
H
2m
2
Consider that the system is initially in the ground state 0 , with
0 k = Ek k ,
H

with

1
Ek = h
( + k).
2

Compute the probability of finding the system in state 2 at time t after suddenly changing the
frequency of the oscillator to 0 .

44

16

Angular Momentum

The angular momentum operator L is obtained by substituting r and p by their corresponding

quantum mechanical operators r and i
hr in the classical expression of the angular momentum
L = r p. The Cartesian components of L are:
Lx = i
h(y

z ) = ypz zpy ,
z
y

x ) = zpx xpz ,
x
z

Lz = i
h(x
y ) = xpy ypx .
y
x
Ly = i
h(z

These components satisfy the following commutation relations:

[Lx , Ly ] = [ypz zpy , zpx xpz ],
= [ypz , zpx ] [ypz , xpz ] [zpy , zpx ] + [zpy , xpz ],
= y[pz , z]px x[pz , z]py ,
= i
h(ypx xpy ),
= i
hLz .

Exercise 20:
Show that,
L L = i
hL .
Hint: Show that, i
hLx = [Ly , Lz ]. Note, that this expression corresponds to the cyclic permutation where y is substituted by z, x by y, and z by x, in the commutation relation i
hLx = [Ly , Lz ].
Cyclic permutations can be represented by the following diagram:

45

x
=

[Ly , Lz ] = i
hLx ,
[Lz , Lx ] = i
hLy .

Having obtained the commutation relations we can show that L2 commutes with the Cartesian
components of L, e.g.,
[L2 , Lx ] = 0.
We consider that,
[L2 , Lx ] = [L2x + L2y + L2z , Lx ],
[L2 , Lx ] = [L2y , Lx ] + [L2z , Lx ],
[L2 , Lx ] = Ly [Ly , Lx ] + [Ly , Lx ]Ly + Lz [Lz , Lx ] + [Lz , Lx ]Lz ,

and

since [Ly , Lx ] = i
hLz , [Ly , Lx ] = i
hLz , [Lz , Lx ] = i
hLy , then,
[L2 , Lx ] = 0.
Due to the cyclic permutations we can also conclude that,
[L2 , Ly ] = 0,

and

[L2 , Lz ] = 0.

According to these equations both the magnitude of the angular momentum and one (any) of its
components can be simultaneously determined, since there is always a set of eigenfunctions that
is common to L2 and any of the three Cartesian components. Remember, however, that none of
the individual components commute with each other. Therefore, if one component is determined
the other two are completely undetermined.
46

Eigenvalues of L2 and Lz : Ladder Operators

In order to find eigenfunctions Y that are common to L2 and Lz ,

L2 Y = aY,

(29)

Lz Y = bY,

(30)

and

we define the ladder operators,

L+ = Lx + iLy ,
L = Lx iLy ,
where L+ is the raising operator, and L is the lowering operator.
In order to show the origin of these names, we operate Eq. (30) with L+ and we obtain,
L+ Lz Y = bL+ Y.
Then, we substitute L+ Lz by [L+ , Lz ] + Lz L+ , where
[L+ , Lz ] = [Lx + iLy , Lz ] = [Lx , Lz ] + i[Ly , Lz ].
Since,

[Lx , Lz ] = i
hLy ,

and

[Ly , Lz ] = i
hLx , then

L+ Lz Lz L+ = i
h(Ly iLx ) =
hL+ .
Consequently,
(
hL+ + Lz L+ )Y = bL+ Y,
and,
Lz (L+ Y ) = (b + h
)(L+ Y ).
Thus the ladder operator L+ generates a new eigenfunction of Lz (e.g., L+ Y ) with eigenvalue
(b + h
) when such operator is applied to the eigenfunction of Lz with eigenvalue b (e.g., Y). The
operator L+ is therefore called the raising operator.

47

Applying p times the raising operation to Y, we obtain:

LZ Lp+ Y = (b + h
p)Lp+ Y.

Exercise 21: Show that:

p)Lp Y.
LZ Lp Y = (b h

Therefore L+ and L generate the following ladder of eigenvalues:

... b 3
h

b 2
h

bh

b+h

b + 2
h

b + 3
h ...

Note that all functions Lp Y generated by the ladder operators are eigenfunctions of L2 with
eigenvalue equal to a (see Eq. (29)).
Proof:
L2 Lp Y = Lp L2 Y = Lp aY,
since [L2 , Lx ] = [L2 , Ly ] = [L2 , L ] = 0, and therefore, [L2 , Lp ] = 0.
Note that the ladder of eigenvalues must be bounded:
L z Yk = b k Yk ,
h.
with Yk = Lk Y , and bk = b k
Therefore,
L2z Yk = b2k Yk ,
L2 Yk = aYk ,
(L2x + L2y )Yk = (a b2k )Yk .
{z
}
|
non-negative physical quantity = (a b2k ) has to be positive:
1

a b2k , = a 2 |bk |,
48

a 2 bk a 2
In order to avoid contradictions,
L+ Ymax = 0,

and

L Ymin = 0.

L+ L Ymin = 0,
L+ L = (Lx + iLy )(Lx iLy ),
L+ L = L2x i(Lx Ly Ly Lx ) + L2y ,
|
{z
}
i
hLz
L+ L = L2x + L2y + h
Lz = L2 L2z + h
Lz .
Therefore,

a b2min + h
bmin = 0,

(31)

because,
L2z Ymin = b2min Ymin , L2 Ymin = aYmin , Lz Ymin = bmin Ymin .
Analogously,
L L+ Ymax = 0.

(L2 L2z h
Lz )Ymax = 0, and

a b2max h
bmax = 0.

(32)

Eqs. (31) and (32) provide the following result:

(b2min b2max ) h
(bmin + bmax ) = 0 bmin = bmax .
Furthermore, we know that bmax = bmin + n
h, because all eigenvalues of Lz are separated by
units of h
. Therefore,
49

2bmax = n
h = bmax = n2 h
= j
h, where j = n2 ,
a = b2min h
bmin = j 2 h
2 + h
2j = h
2 j(j + 1),

and

b = j
h, (j + 1)
h, (j + 2)
h, ..., j
h.

Note that these quantization rules do not rule out the possibility that j might have halfinteger values. In the next section we will see that such possibility is, however, ruled out by the
requirement that the eigenfunctions of L2 must be 2-periodic.
Spherical Coordinates
Spherical coordinates are defined as follows,
z = rCos,
y = rSinSin,
x = rSinCos,
where , and are defined by the following diagram,

z ....
...
...
...
..
........
.
.
..... .....
..
....
.....
...
...
.
... .....
... ...

......
.

Exercise 22: Write the Cartesian components of the linear momentum operator p: px , py and
pz in spherical coordinates.
Hint:
g
x

!
=
y,z

!
y,z

!
+
,r

x
50

!
y,z

!
+
,r

r
x

!
y,z

f
r

!
,
,

where g = g(x, y, z), and f = f (r(x, y, z), (x, y, z), (x, y, z)).
p
r = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ),
y
x

= tan,

Cos =

z
r

Cos
x

z
1

(x2 +y 2 +z 2 ) 2

!
y,z

=
x

tan
x

!
y,z

!
y,z

1
z 2x
Sin =

2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 32
!

y
=
= 2
2
x
Cos x
y,z
!
!
r
1 2x
r
=

x
2 r
x
y,z

y,z

x
=

!
y,z

!
=+
y,z

rSinSinCos2
= 2 2
,
r Sin Cos2

rSinCos
.
r

Exercise 23: Show that,



Cos

Lx = i
h Sin +
Cos
,

Sin




Cos

Ly = i
h Cos
Sin
,

Sin

and
Lz = i
h

Squaring Lx , Ly and Lz we obtain,

2

L =
h

2
Cos
1 2
+
+
2
Sin Sin2 2

Eigenfunctions of L2

51

r2 CosSinCos
,
r3 Sin


.

Since L2 does not depend on r, Y = Y (, ). Furthermore, if Y is an eigenfunction of Lz then,

Lz Y = bY.
Y
= bY



ib
.
Y = A exp
h

Since Y ( + 2) = Y (), we must have

i
h

ei

2b
h

= 1,

lnY
1 Y
b
=
= .

Y
i
h

b
= 2m,
h

with

m = 0, 1, 2, ...

Therefore, b = m
h , where m is an integer.
In order to find eigenfunctions that are common to Lz and L2 we assume A to be a function of
theta, A = A():
2

L Y =
h

 2 




2 A Cos A
1
b
ib
ib
+
+
2 A exp
= aA()exp
,
2
Sin
h

Sin2
h



2
A b2
2
2 A

h Sin 2 + SinCos
2 A = aA()Sin2 .

(33)

Making the substitution x = Cos we obtain,

d2 A
dA
(1 x ) 2 2x
+
dx
dx
2

a
m2

h
2 1 x2


A = 0.

(34)

Exercise 24: Obtain Eq. (34) from Eq. (33).

Eq. (34) is the associated Legendre equation, whose solutions exist only for a = h
2 l(l + 1), and
b = l
h, (l + 1)
h, ..., l
h (i.e., the quantum number l is an integer greater or equal to zero,
with |m| l). The solutions of the associated Legendre equations are the associated Legendre
|m|

polynomials, A(l, m) = Pl (Cos),

52

For example, the normalized polynomials for various values of l and m are:

A(0, 0) = 1/ 2,
p
A(1, 0) = 3/2Cos,
p
A(1, 1) = 3/4Sin,
...
The eigenstates that are common to L2 and Lz are called spherical harmonics and are defined
as follows,
|m|

Ylm (, ) = Pl (Cos)eim .
The spherical harmonics are normalized as follows,

d
0

dCos Ylm
(, )Ylm (, ) = ll0 mm0 .
0

Rotations and Angular Momentum

A coordinate transformation that corresponds to a rotation can be represented by the following
diagram:
y
6
y 0 AK
A

.............
. ... .
.
.
.
r... ..
.
.
A.
.. .
A
 .... ..
x0
A
 ...
.
*
.. 
A
 ....


.

A  ..
A  ....
x
.
A

-

z z0

This diagram shows that vector ~r can be specified either relative to the axes (x, y, z), or relative

53

to the axes (x, y, z), where these two sets of coordinates are defined relative to each other as
follows,
r0 = R(, z)
r,

(35)

where, r0 is the same vector r but with components expressed in the primed coordinate system.

: Angle,

z : Rotation axis

x = rCos,
y = rSin,
x0 = rCos( ) = r(CosCos + SinSin),
y 0 = rSin( ) = r(SinCos CosSin),
z 0 = z,
x0 = xCos + ySin,
y 0 = yCos xSin.
Therefore, the coordinate transformation can be written in matrix representation as follows,

0
x Cos Sin 0 x

y 0 = Sin Cos 0 y .

0
z
0
0
1
z
The operator associated with the coordinate transformation is PR (), defined as follows:
PR (, z)f (
r) = f [R1 (, z)
r],

Cos Sin 0

.
where R1 is the transpose of R, i.e., R1 =
Sin
Cos
0

0
0
1
Therefore, PR (, z)f (
r) = f (xCos ySin, xSin + yCos, z).
An infinitesimal rotation is defined as follows,
54

PR (, z)f (
r) = f (x y, x + y, z),
PR (, z)f (
r) = f (x, y, z) y f
+ x f
,
x
y

PR (, z)f (
r) = f (x, y, z) + (x y
y x
)f (x, y, z)

recall that, i
h(x y
y x
) = Lz , therefore,

PR (, z)f (
r) = (1 + hi Lz )f (
r).
A finite rotation through an angle can be defined according to n infinitesimal rotations, after
subdividing into n angle increments, = n, and taking the limit n , and 0.

PR (, z) =


lim

n0

1 + i Lz
h

n

= e h Lz .

In general, a finite rotation through an angle around an arbitrary axis specified by a unit vector
n
is defined as follows,
i
PR (, n
) = e h nL .

This equation establishes the connection between the operator associated with a coordinate
transformation and the angular momentum operator.
Note:
It is important to note that if coordinates are transformed according to r0 = R
r, the Hamiltonian
is transformed according to a similarity transformation, which is defined as follows:
0 = PR H
P 1 .
H
R
Proof:

Consider, f (r) H(r)(r)

= E(r),
PR f (r) = PR H(r)PR1 PR (r) = E(R1 r),
PR H(r)PR1 (R1 r) = E(R1 r) = H(R1 r)(R1 r).
Therefore, H(R1 r) = PR H(r)PR1 .

55

It is, therefore, evident that the Hamiltonian is an invariant operator (i.e., H(r) = H(R1 r)) under a coordinate transformation, r0 = R
r, whenever the operator associated with the coordinate
transformation commutes with the Hamiltonian, [PR , H] = 0.

17

Spin Angular Momentum

The goal of this section is to introduce the spin angular momentum S, as a generalized angular
momentum operator that satisfies the general commutation relations S S = i
hS . The main
difference between the angular momenta S, and L, is that S can have half-integer quantum
numbers.
Note: Remember that the quantization rules established by the commutation relations did not
rule out the possibility of half-integer values for j (see page 46). However, such possibility was
ruled out by the periodicity requirement, Y ( + 2) = Y (), associated with the eigenfunctions of
Lz and L2 . Since the spin eigenfunctions (i.e., the spinors) do not depend on spatial coordinates,
they do not have to satisfy any periodicity condition and therefore their eigenvalues can be
half-integer.
Electron Spin:
A particular case of half-integer spin is the spin angular momentum of an electron with l =
1/2 (see http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/spin/goudsmit.html, for Goudsmits historical
recount of the discovery of the electron spin). In discussing the spin properties of a particle we
adopt the notation l = S, and m = ms .
and 12 h
, respectively.
The spin functions and are eigenfunctions of Sz with eigenvalues + 21 h
These eigenfunctions are normalized according to,
1/2
X

1/2
X

|(ms )| = 1,

ms =1/2

ms =1/2

56

|(ms )|2 = 1,

(36)

since ms can be either 21 , or 12 . Also, since the eigenfunctions and correspond to different
eigenvalues of Sz , they must be orthogonal:
1/2
X

(ms )(ms ) = 0.

(37)

ms =1/2

In order to satisfy the conditions imposed by Eqs. (36) and (37),

(ms ) = ms ,1/2 ,

and,

(ms ) = ms ,1/2 .

It is useful to define the spin angular momentum ladder operators, S+ = Sx + iSy and S = Sx iSy .
Here, we prove that the raising operator S+ satisfies the following equation:
S+ = h
.
Proof:
Using the normalization condition introduced by Eq. (36) we obtain,
1/2
X

1/2
X

(ms )(ms ) =

ms =1/2

ms =1/2

(S+ ) (S+ ) = 1,
c
c

and
|c|2 =

(S+ ) (Sx + iSy ).

ms

Now, using the hermitian property of Sx and Sy we obtain,

X

f Sx g =

ms

Sx (S+ ) + iSy (S+ ) ,

|c|2 =

Sx S+ i Sy S+ ,

|c|2 =

S S+ ,

|c|2 =

(S 2 Sz2 h
Sz ),

|c|2 =

ms

ms

where,
ms
ms
ms

57

gSx f ,

|c|2 =

ms

( 34 h
2

2
h
4

2
h
),
2

|c|2 = h
2.
Since the phase of c is arbitrary, we can choose c=
h.
.
Similarly, we obtain S = h
Since is the eigenfunction with highest eigenvalue, the operator S+ acting on it must annihilate
it as follows,
S+ = 0,

and

S = 0.

1
Sx = h
.
2
1

h.
Sy = (S+ S ) 2i
= h2 ,

Sy = i
2
1
1
Similarly, we find Sx = h
, and Sy = i
h .
2
2
Sx = (S+ + S ) 2 = h2 ,

< |Sx | >

< |Sy | >

< |Sz | >

h
/2

i
h/2

h
/2

h
/2

+i
h/2

h/2

, where are the Pauli matrices defined as follows,

Therefore, S = 12 h

0 1
x =
,
1 0

0 i
y =
,
i 0

1 0
z =
,
0 1

where, x2 = y2 = z2 = 1.

58

Exercise 25: Prove that the Pauli matrices anti-commute with each other, i.e.,
i j + j i = 0,
where i 6= j, and i, j = (x, y, z).

In order to find the eigenfunctions of Sz , called eigenspinors, consider the following eigenvalue
problem:

u
u
=
,

v
v

h
u
u
Sz
=
,
2
v
v

1 0 u
u

=
,
0 1
v
v

u+ u+

=
,
v+
v+

v+ = 0 ,

u+ = 1 .

Similarly we obtain, u = 0 , and v = 1 . Therefore, electron eigenspinors satisfy the eigenvalue problem,
h

Sz = ,
2
with,

0
1
= , and + = .
0
1
Any spinor can be expanded in the complete set of eigenspinors as follows,

+
1
0

= + + ,

0
1
, and
where |+ |2 , and | |2 , are the probabilities that a measurement
of Sz yields the value + 12 h

+
12 h
, respectively, when the system is described by state
.

59

Exercise 26: Prove that, S 2 + =

2 1
h
(
2 2

+ 1)+ .

Exercise 27: Consider an electron localized at a crystal site. Assume that the spin is the only
degree of freedom of the system and that due to the spin the electron has a magnetic moment,
M =

eg
S,
2mc

where g 2, m is the electron mass, e is the electric charge and c is the speed of light. Therefore,
in the presence of an external magnetic field B the Hamiltonian of the system is,
H = M B.
Assume that B points in the z direction and that the state of the system is,

+
(t) = eit
.

Consider that initially (i.e., at time t = 0) the spin points in the x direction (i.e., the spinor is
an eigenstate of x with eigenvalue 12 h
).
Compute the expectation values of Sx and Sy at time t.

Addition of Angular Momenta

Since L depends on spatial coordinates and S does not, then the two operators commute (i.e.,
[L, S] = 0). It is, therefore, evident that the components of the total angular momentum,
J = L + S,
satisfy the commutation relations,
J J = i
hJ.
60

Eigenfunctions of J 2 and Jz are obtained from the individual eigenfunctions of two angular
momentum operators L1 and L2 with quantum numbers (l1 , m1 ) and (l2 , m2 ), respectively, as
follows:
jm =

X
l1 ,m1 ,l2 ,m2

1 m2
C(jm, l1 m1 l2 m2 ) m
,
|
{z
} l1 l2

Clebsch-Gordan Coefficients
where,
J 2 jm = h
2 j(j + 1)jm ,
Jz jm = h
mjm .
m+1/2

Exercise 28: Show that, j

= C1 Ylm + + C2 Ylm+1 , is a common eigenfunction of J 2 and
q
q
q
q
lm
lm
l+m+1
Jz when, C1 = l+m+1
,
and
C
=
,
or
when,
C
=
,
and
C
=

.
2
1
2
2l+1
2l+1
2l+1
2l+1
Hint: Analyze the particular case j = l 1/2, and j = l + 1/2. Note that,
J 2 = L2 + S 2 + 2LS = L2 + S 2 + 2Lz Sz + L+ S + L S+ ,
Jz = L z + Sz ,

18

Central Potential

Consider a two-particle system represented by the following diagram,R1(123) R3(168)

z 6
z1 ....
...
...
...m
1
..u
... X ~r
X
XXX
~r1  .....
z
X
: u m2

... 
..  ~r

2
 ...
.
...
..
.
.
...
...
... y1
.
.
... ... ...
... ... ...
.......
x1 ...............................
x

61

where x, y and z represent distances between the two particles along the three Cartesian axes,
where ~r = (x, y, z) = ~r2 ~r1 , with ~r1 and ~r2 the position vectors of particles 1 and 2, respectively.
p
The central potential V (x, y, z) is a function of |
r| = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , rather than a function of the
individual Cartesian components. Assuming that such function defines the interaction between
the two particles, the Hamiltonian of the system has the form,
H=
where, T =

m1 2
|~r1 |
2

P2
P12
+ 2 + V (|~r2 ~r1 |) = T + V (|~r2 ~r1 |),
2m1 2m2

m2 2
|~r2 | ,
2

with |~r1 |2 = ~r1 ~r1 .

~ and the relative coordinates,

Changing variables ~r1 , and ~r2 , by the center-of-mass coordinates R,
~r = ~r2 ~r1 , where,
~ m1~r1 + m2~r2 ;
R
m1 + m2

~r = ~r2 ~r1 ,

we obtain,
~
~r1 = R

m2
~r,
m1 + m2

~+
~r2 = R

m1
~r.
m1 + m2

Therefore,
m1
T =
2

~
R

m2
~r
m1 + m2


~
R





m2
m1
m1

~r + m2 R
~r

~ +
~
R+
~r ,
m1 + m2
2
m1 + m2
m1 + m2

or,
T =

m1 + m2 ~ 2 1 m1 m2 2 1
~ 2 + 1 |~r |2 ,
|R| +
|~r| = M |R|
2
2 m1 + m2
2
2

where M = m1 + m2 is the total mass of the system, and

m1 m2
m1 +m2

is the reduced mass of the

two-particle system. Therefore, the total Hamiltonian of the system can be written as follows,
~2
P~ 2
1
~ 2 + 1 |~r |2 + V (|~r|) = PM + + V (|~r|),
H = M |R|
2
2
2M
2
where the first term corresponds to the kinetic energy of a particle of mass M , and the second
and third terms constitute the Hamiltonian of a single particle with coordinates r. Therefore,

62

the time-independent Schrodinger equation for the system is,

#
"
2
2
~
~
P
PM

~ ~r) = E(R,
~ ~r).
+
+ V (|~r|) (R,
2M
2
Trying a factorizable solution, by separation of variables,
~ = (~r)M (R),
~
(~r, R)
we obtain,
h
2 R 2 M h
2 M r 2 M
M

+
V (|~r|) = E
.
M 2M
M 2
M
M
|
{z
} |
{z
}
depends on R
depends on r
Therefore, each one of the parts of the Hamiltonian have to be equal to a constant,
h
2 1
R 2 M = EM ,

2M M

h
2 1
r 2 + V (|~r|) = E ,
2

with

(38)
EM + E = E.

(39)

Eq. (38) is the Schrodinger equation for a free particle with mass M . The solution of such
equation is,

M (R) = (2
h)3/2 eikR ,

where

2h
|k|
2
= EM .
2M

According to Eq. (39), the energy E is found by solving the equation,

h
2 2
r + V (|
r|) = E .
2

(40)

Eqs. (38) and (39) have separated the problem of two particles interacting according to a central
potential V (|
r2 r1 |) into two separate one-particle problems that include:
(1) The translational motion of the entire system of mass M.
(2) The relative (e.g., internal) motion.
These results apply to any problem described by a central potential (e.g., the hydrogen atom,
the two-particle rigid rotor, and the isotropic multidimensional harmonic-oscillator).
63

Consider Eq. (40), with 2

2
x2

+ y
r|) a spherically-symmetric potential, i.e.,
2 + z 2 , and V (|

a function of the distance r = |

r|. It is natural to work in spherical coordinates.

Exercise 29: Prove that the Laplacian 2 can written in spherical coordinates as follows,

 2
2
2
1 2

Cos
1 2
2
2
2

= 2+

L , where L =
h
+
+
.
r
r r r2 h
2
sin sin2 2
2

It is important to note that the commutator

 2
 


2 2
1 2 2
2
2
[ , L ] =
+
, L 2 2 L , L = 0,
r2 r r
r h

2 does not involve r, but only and . Also, since L

2 does not involve r, and V is a
because L
function of r,
[V, L2 ] = 0.
Consequently,
[H, L2 ] = 0,
whenever the potential energy of the system is defined by a central potential. Furthermore,

z = i
[H, Lz ] = 0, because L
h
.

Conclusion: A system described by a central-potential has eigenfunctions that are common to

the operators H, L2 and LZ :
= E ,
H
2 = h
L
2 l(l + 1) ,
z = h
L
m ,

l = 0, 1, 2, ...

m = l, l + 1, ..., l.

Substituting these results into Eq. (40) we obtain,

h
2

2
2
+
2
r
r r


+

h
2 h
2
l(l + 1) + V (|
r|) = E .
2 r2 h
2
64

 2 are spherical harmonics Y m (, ), we consider the solution,

Since the eigenfunctions of L
l
= R(r)Ylm (, ),
and we find that R(r) must satisfy the equation,
h
2

19

2 R 2 R
+
r2
r r

h
2
+
l(l + 1)R + V (|
r|)R = E R.
2r2

(41)

Two-Particle Rigid-Rotor

The rigid-rotor is a system of two particles for which the distance between them |
r| = d is
constant. The Hamiltonian of the system is described by Eq. (41), where the first two terms are
h2

l(l
2d2

+ 1) + V (d), with = Ylm (, ).

P
The moment of inertia of a system of particles is I 2i=1 mi ri2 , where mi is the mass of particle
equal to zero, and E =

i and ri is the particle distance to the axis.

Exercise 30: Prove that I = d2 for the two-particle rigid rotor, where =

m1 m2
,
m1 +m2

d = r2 r1 ,

and is an axis with the center of mass of the system and is perpendicular to the axis that
has the center of mass of both particles. Assume that the center of mass lies at the origin of
coordinates, and that the x axis has the center of mass of both particles in the system.

The rotational energy levels of the rigid rotor are:

E =

h
2
l(l + 1), with l = 0, 1, 2, ...
2I

(42)

These energy levels usually give a good approximation of the rotational energy levels of
diatomic molecules (e.g., the HCl molecule).
65

20

Problem Set (due 10/28/03)

Exercise 31: Solve problems 6.5 and 6.6 of reference 1.

Exercise 32: Prove that the angular momentum operator L = r p is hermitian.
Exercise 33: Prove that,
(x + a) = e(i/h)ap (x),
where p = i
h/x, and a is a finite displacement.
be the Hamiltonian operator of a system. Denote k the eigenfunctions of
Exercise 34: Let H
with eigenvalues Ek . Prove that < n |[Q,
H]|
k >= 0, for any arbitrary operator Q,
when
H
n = k.
Exercise 35: Prove that,
[x, H] = i
hp/m,
where, H = p2 /(2m) + V (x).
Exercise 36: Prove that,
p
L Yl m = h
(l + m)(l m + 1)Ylm1 ,
where Lz Ylm = m
hYlm , and L2 Ylm = h
2 l(l + 1)Ylm .
Exercise 37: Consider a system described by the Hamiltonian matrix,

E0
H=
,
E0

66

 k >. Consider that the system is initially prepared in

where the matrix elements Hjk =< j |H|
the ground state, and is then influenced by the perturbation W (t) defined as follows,

t2 / 2 it
0
e

W (t) =
.
2
2
et / +it
0
Calculate the probability of finding the system in the excited state at time t >> .

21

Hydrogen Atom

Consider the hydrogen atom, or hydrogen-like ions (e.g., He+ , Li2+ , ... etc.), with nuclear charge
+ze, and mass M , and the electron with charge e, and mass m. The potential energy of the
system is a central potential (e.g., the Coulombic potential),
V =

where r is the electron-nucleus distance and k =

ze2 k
,
r

1 in a.u.

1/40 in SI units

The total Hamiltonian is,

=
H
where =

me mn
.
mn +me

h
2
h
2 2
2R
+ V (r),
2(me + mn )
2 r

Note that me , since me << mn . The Hamiltonian that includes only

is represented by the symbol H

el and is called the electronic
the second and third terms of H
Hamiltonian because it depends only on the electronic coordinate r. In order to find the electronic
eigenvalues, we must solve the equation,
el el = Eel el .
H

(43)

Eq. (43) is the eigenvalue problem of a one particle central-potential. We consider the factorizable
solution,
el = R(r)Ylm (, ),

with,
67

l = 0, 1, 2, ...

|m| < l,

where R(r) satisfies the equation,



h
2 2 R 2 R
Ze2 R
h
2

l(l
+
1)R

= ER.
2 r2
r r
r
h
2 r2

(44)

This equation could be solved by first transforming it into the associated Laguerre equation, for
which solutions are well-known. Here, however, we limit the presentation to note that Eq. (44)
has solutions that are finite, single valued and square integrable only when
E=
where n = 1, 2, 3, ..., and a =

h2

e2

Z 2 e4
Z 2 e2
,
or
E
=

,
2an2
2
h2 n2

(45)

is the Bohr radius.

These are the bound-state energy levels of hydrogen-like atoms responsible for the discrete nature
of the absorption spectrum. In particular, the wavenumbers of the spectral lines are
E2 E1
Z 2 e4

=
=
hc
hc2
h2

1
1
2
2
n2 n1


.

The eigenvalues can be represented by the following diagram:

E
6
-

n=4
n=3
n=2

n=1

Degeneracy: Since the energy E depends only on the principal quantum number n, and the
wave function el depends on n, l and m, there are n2 possible states with the same energy.
68

States with the same energy are called degenerate states. The number of states with the same
energy is the degeneracy of the energy level.
n=1, 2, 3, ...
l=0, 1, 2, ... n-1

} these are n states

} these are 2 l + 1 states

m=-l, -l+1, ..., 0, 1, 2, ...l

Exercise 38: Prove that the degeneracy of the energy level En is n2 .

The complete hydrogen-like bound-state wave functions with quantum numbers n, l and m are,
1
nlm (r, , ) = Rnl (r)Plm () eim ,
2
where Plm () are the associated Legendre polynomials (introduced in page 49), and Rnl (r) are the
Laguerre associated polynomials,
zr

Rnl (r) = rl e na

nl1
X

bj r j ,

where a

j=0

h
2
= 0.529177
A,
e2

and,
bj+1 =

2z j + l + 1 n
bj .
na (j + 1)(j + 2l + 2)

Example 1: Consider the ground state wave function of the H atom with n = 1, l = 0, m = 0 :
z

R10 (r) = e a r b0 ,
where, b20 = 1/

R
0

drr2 e

2zr
a

, and b0 = 2( az )3/2 .

Therefore,
z
z
1 1
100 (r, , ) = 2( )3/2 e a r .
a
2 2

Note: An alternative notation for wave functions with orbital quantum number l = 0, 1, 2, ... is
69

g...

4...

Example 2: The possible wave functions with n = 2 are:

2s
200

2p0

2p1

210 ,

2p1 ,
211

211 ,

Exercise 39: Show that,

1 z
zr
2s = ( )3/2 (1 )ezr/2a ,
2a
2a
1 z
2p0 = ( )5/2 rezr/2a Cos,
2a

1 z
2p1 = ( )5/2 rezr/2a sinei ,
8 a
1 z
2p1 = ( )5/2 rezr/2a sinei .
8 a

Exercise 40: Compute the ionization energy of He+ .

Exercise 41: Use perturbation theory to first order to compute the energies of states 210 ,
~ = B z, according to
211 , and 211 when a hydrogen atom is perturbed by a magnetic field B
~ B,
~ where =
= L.

e
h
.
2mc

(The splitting of spectroscopic lines, due to the perturbation of a

magnetic field, is called Zeeman effect).

Radial Distribution Functions

The probability of finding the electron in the region of space where r is between r to r + dr,
70

between to + d and between and + d is,

P = R (r)R(r)Ylm () Ylm ()r2 sindrdd.
Therefore, the total probability of finding the electron with r between r and r + dr is,

Z

P (r) =

Z
d

where

R
0

R 2
0

dYl () Yl ()sin R (r)R(r)r2 dr,

m

dYlm () Ylm ()sin = 1.

Real Hydrogen-like Functions

Any linear combination of degenerate eigenfunctions of energy E is also an eigenfunction
of the Hamiltonian with the same eigenvalue E. Certain linear combinations of hydrogen-like
wavefunctions generate real eigenfunctions. For example, when l = 1,
1
(n11 + n11 ) = Rn1 (r)sinCos P2x ,
2
1
(n11 n11 ) = Rn1 (r)sinSin P2y ,
2i
210 2Pz ,
are real and mutually orthogonal eigenfunctions.
Function 2Pz is zero in the xy plane, positive above such plane, and negative below it.
Functions 2Px and 2Py are zero at the zy and xz planes, respectively. 2P1 and 2P1 are
2 with eigenvalue 2
eigenfunctions of L
h2 . However, since 2P1 and 2P1 are eigenfunctions of
z with different eigenvalues (e.g., with eigenvalues h
L
and
h, respectively), linear combinations
2 but not eigenfunctions of Lz .
2Px , and 2Py , are eigenfunctions of L

Exercise 42: (A) What is the most probable value of r, for the ground state of a hydrogen
atom? Such value is represented by rM .
71

(B) What is the total probability of finding the electron at a distance r rM ?

(C) Verify the orthogonality of functions 2Px , 2Py , and 2Pz .
but that such state
(D) Verify that the ground state of the hydrogen atom is an eigenstate of H,
is not an eigenstate of T, or V .

22

Helium Atom

The helium atom is represented by the following diagram,

r12

rH
r
H

HH


r2 HHu
 r1

2e+

This diagram represents two electrons with charge e, and a nucleus with charge +2.
The Hamiltonian of the Helium atom is,
2 2
2e2
h
2 2
2e2
e2
= h
H
r1

r2
+
.
2
r1
2
r2
r12
Note that the term

e2
r12

couples two one-electron hydrogenlike Hamiltonians. In order to find a

solution to the eigenvalue problem,

= E,
H
we implement an approximate method. We first solve the problem by neglecting the coupling
term. Then we consider such term to be a small perturbation, and we correct the initially
zeroth-order eigenfunctions and eigenvalues by using perturbation theory.
Neglecting the coupling term, the Hamiltonian becomes,
2 2
h
2 2
2e2 2e2
(0) = h
H
r1
r2

,
2
2
r1
r2
72

the sum of two independent one-electron Hamiltonians. The eigenfunctions of such Hamiltonian
are,
1
1
= Rnl (r1 )Plm (1 ) eim1 Rnl (r2 )Plm (2 ) eim2 ,
2
2
and the eigenvalues are,
En(0)
=
1 n2

z 2 e4
z 2 e4

.
2
h2 n21 2
h2 n2

Exercise 43: Prove that,

< 100 |

e2
5 z
|100 >= e2 .
r12
8 a

In order to illustrate how to correct the zeroth order solutions by implementing perturbation
theory, we compute the first order correction to the ground state energy as follows,
(0)

E = E11 + < 100 |

e2
z 2 e4 5 z
|100 >= 2 + e2 .
r12
8 a
h

Alternatively, the variational method could be implemented to obtain better results with simple
e.g., products of hydrogenlike orbitals with an effective nuclear charge z 0 :
functions ,
0

z
= A2 e a (r1 +r2 ) .

H|
> is always higher than
According to the variational theorem, the expectation value < |
the ground state energy. Therefore, the optimum coefficient z 0 minimizes the expectation value,
H|
0 ) =< |
>,
E(z

where

h
2 2
z 0 e2
h
2 2
z 0 e2 (2 z 0 )e2 (2 z 0 )e2
e2

H = r1

r2

+
.
2
r1
2
r2
r1
r2
r12
analytically we obtain,
Computing the expectation value of H
Z
Z
Z
2z 0
0
0
z 02 e2
e a (r1 +r2 ) r22 e2 r12
0
2
z a2r 2 (2 z ) 2
2

r
E(z ) =
2A
dre
e +A
dr1 dr2
,
a
r
r1 r2
73

0
2
02 2
0 ) = z e 2z 0 (2 z ) e2 + 5 z 0 e .
E(z
a
a
8 a

Therefore, the optimum parameter z 0 is obtained as follows,

0)
5
E(z
0
0 )=
= 0, zopt
= 2 , E(z
opt
0
z
16

23

5
2
16

2


 2

2 2
e2
5
e
5
5
e
2 2
2 +
2
.
a
16
a
8
16
a

Spin-Atom Wavefunctions

The description of atoms can be formulated to a very good approximation under the assumption
that the total Hamiltonian depends only on spatial coordinates (and derivatives with respect to
spatial coordinates), but not on spin variables. We can, therefore, separate the stationary-state
wave function according to a product of spatial and spin wavefunctions.
Example 1: The spin-atom wavefunction of the hydrogen atom can be approximated as follows,
el = (x, y, z)g(ms ),
where g(ms ) = , , when mS = 1/2, 1/2, respectively. Since the Hamiltonian operator is
assumed to be independent of spin variables, it does not affect the spin function, and the eigenvalues of the system are the same as the energies found with a wave function that did not involve
spin coordinates. Mathematically,

H[(x,
y, z)g(ms )] = g(ms )H(x,
y, z) = Eg(ms )(x, y, z).
The only consequence of modeling the hydrogen atom according to a spin-atom wavefunction is
that the degeneracy of the energy levels is increased.
Example 2: The ground electronic state energy of the helium atom has been modeled according
to the zeroth-order wave function 1S(1) 1S(2). In order to take spin into account we must
74

multiply such spatial wavefunction by a spin eigenfunction. Since each electron has two possible
spin states, there are in principle four possible spin functions:
(1)(2),

(1)(2),

(1)(2),

and

(1)(2).

Functions (1)(2), and (1)(2), however, are not invariant under an electron permutation (i.e.,
these functions make a distinction between electron 1 and electron 2). Therefore, such functions
are inadequate to describe the state of a system of indistinguishable quantum particles, such as
electrons. Instead of working with functions (1)(2) and (1)(2), it is necessary to construct
linear combinations of such functions, e.g.,
1
[(1)(2) (1)(2)] ,
2
with correct exchange properties associated with indistinguishable particles,
P12 (1,2) = (2,1) .
The two linear combinations, together with functions (1)(2) and (1)(2), form the basis of
four normalized two-electron spin eigenfunctions of the helium atom.

24

Pauli Exclusion Principle

Pauli observed that relativistic quantum field theory requires that particles with half-integer
spin (s=1/2, 3/2, ...) must have antisymmetric wave functions and particles with integer spin
(s=0, 1, ...) must have symmetric wave functions. Such observation is usually introduced as an
additional postulate of quantum mechanics: The wave function of a system of electrons must be
antisymmetric with respect to interchange of any two electrons.
As a consequence of such principle is that two electrons with the same spin cannot have the
75

same coordinates, since the wavefunction must satisfy the following condition:
(x1 ,x2 ) = (x2 ,x1 ) ,
and, therefore, (x1 ,x1 ) = 0. For this reason the principle is known as the Pauli Exclusion
Principle.
Another consequence of the Pauli Principle is that since the ground state wave function of
the He atom must also be anti-symmetric, and since the spatial part of the zeroth order wave
function is symmetric, = 1S(1)1S(2), then the spin wave function must be anti-symmetric,




1 (1) (1)
= 
,
2 (2) (2)
and the overall zeroth-order wave function becomes,
1
= 1S(1)1S(2) [(1)(2) (1)(2)] .
2

(46)

Note that this anti-symmetric spin-atom wave function can be written in the form of the Slater
determinant,




1 1S(1)(1) 1S(2)(1)
= 
.
2 1S(1)(2) 1S(2)(2)

25

Lithium Atom

The spin factor affects primarily the degeneracy of the energy levels associated with the hydrogen
and helium atoms. To a good approximation, the spin factors do not affect the energy levels of
such atoms.
The lithium atom, however, has three electrons. An antisymmetric spin wave function of
three electrons could in principle be written as the Slater determinant,
76





(1) (1) (1)



1 
= (2) (2) (2) .
6



(3) (3) (3)

(47)

Such Slater determinant, however, is equal to zero because two of the columns are equal to
each other. This fact rules out the possibility of having a zero order wave function that is the
Fock product of three hydrogenlike functions:

(0) = 1S(1) 1S(2) 1S(3)

(48)

Only if the construction of an antisymmetric spin wave function was possible, we could
proceed in analogy to the Helium atom and compute the perturbation due to repulsive coupling
terms as follows,
E (1) =< |

e2
e2
e2
| > + < | | > + < | | >
r12
r23
r13

where is the product of hydrogenlike functions of Eq. (48).

Having ruled out such possibility, we construct the zeroth order ground-state wave function
for lithium in terms of a determinant similar to Eq. (47), but where each element is a spin-orbital
(i.e., a product of a one electron spatial orbital and one-electron spin function),

(0)





1S(1)(1) 1S(1)(1) 2S(1)(1)



1 
= 1S(2)(2) 1S(2)(2) 2S(2)(2) ,
6



1S(3)(3) 1S(3)(3) 2S(3)(3)

(49)

where the third column includes the spatial orbital 2S, instead of the orbital 1S, because the
Pauli exclusion principle rules out the possibility of having two electrons in the same spin-orbital.
It is important to note that Eq. (49) is not simply a product of spatial and spin parts as for the
H and He atoms. In contrast, the wave function of Li involves a linear combination of terms
which are products of non-factorizable spatial and spin wavefunctions.
77

Exercise 44: Show that for the lithium atom, treating the electron-electron repulsion interaction
rep as a perturbation,
H
(0)

(0)

(0)

E (0) = E1S + E1S + E2S ,

and,
e2
e2
|1S(1)2S(2) > + < 1S(1)1S(2)| |1S(1)1S(2) >
r12
r12
2
e
< 1S(1)2S(2)| |2S(1)1S(2) > .
r12

E (1) = 2 < 1S(1)2S(2)|

26

Spin-Orbit Interaction

Although neglected up to this lecture, the interaction between the electron-spin and the orbital angular momentum must also be included in the atomic Hamiltonian. Such interaction is
described according to the spin-orbit Hamiltonian defined as follows,
!
1
1
V
SO =
S = L
S,

H
L
2me c2 r r

(50)

where V is the Coulombic potential of the electron in the field of the atom. Note that the spin S.
A proper derivation of Eq. (50) requires a relativistic
orbit interaction is proportional to L
treatment of the electron which is beyond the scope of these lectures.

S.

Note: A classical description of such interaction also gives a perturbation proportional to L

This is because from the reference frame of the electron, the nucleus is a moving charge that
Such magnetic field interacts with the spin
generates a magnetic field B, proportional to L.
Therefore, the interaction between B and ms is proportional
magnetic moment ms = e/me S.
S.
Unfortunately, however, the proportionality constant predicted by such classical model
to L
is incorrect, and a proper derivation requires a relativistic treatment of the electron as mentioned
earlier in this section.
78

In order to compute the spin-orbit Hamiltonian of a many-electron atom, it is necessary to

compute first an approximate effective potential Vi of each electron i in the total electric field of
electrons and nuclear charges. Then, we can compute the sum over all electrons as follows,
SO
H

X
1 X 1 Vi
i Si .
L

S
=
i L
i
i
2me c2 i ri ri
i

(51)

The correction of eigenfunctions and eigenvalues, due to the spin-orbit coupling, is usually
computed according to perturbation theory after solving the atomic eigenvalue problem in the
absence of the spin-orbit interaction. For example, the spin-orbit correction to the eigenvalue of
state | i for a one-electron atom is,
(1)
S | i.
ES.O. h | L

(52)

Note that the L S product can be written in terms of J 2 , L2 and S 2 as follows,L S = 12 (J 2

L2 S 2 ), because, J 2 = J J = (L + S)(L + S) = L2 + S 2 + 2L S, and, since the unperturbed
wave function is an eigenfunction of L2 , S 2 and J 2 ,
1 2
L S| >= h
(J(J + 1) L(L + 1) S(S + 1))| > .
2
Therefore,
1 2
< > [J(J + 1) L(L + 1) S(S + 1)] .
ES.O. h
2
It is important to note that, due to the spin-orbit coupling, the total energy of a state depends
on the value of the total angular momentum quantum number J. Furthermore, each of the energy
levels is (2J+1) times degenerate, as determined by the possible values of MJ . For example, when
L=1, and S=1/2, then the possible values of J are 1/2 and 3/2, since (J=L+S, L+S-1, ..., L-S).
It is possible to remove the degeneracy of energy levels by applying an external magnetic field
that perturbs the system as follows, HB = m B, where m = mL + mS , with mL = 2me e L, and
mS = mee S. The external perturbation is, therefore, described by the following Hamiltonian,
HB =

e
e
(L + 2S) B =
(J + S) B.
2me
2me
79

The energy correction according to first-order perturbation theory is:

EB =

e
B(
hMJ + < Sz >) = ABMJ ,
2me

where < Sz >= h

MJ J(J+1)L(L+1)+S(S+1)
and A is a proportionality constant. Therefore, the
2J(J+1)
perturbation of an external magnetic field splits energy level characterized by quantum number
J into 2J+1 energy sub-levels. These sub-levels correspond to different possible values of MJ , as
described by the following diagram:
2S + 1
1

States

J Levels
1P
1

MJ
1
0
1

(S = 0)
3P
0

0
3

1
0
1
2
1
0
1
2

3P
1

(S = 1)
3P
2

1s2p

0
H

0 + H
rep
H

0 + H
rep + H
so
H

0 + H
rep + H
so + H
B
H

Exercise 45: (A). Calculate the energy of the spectroscopic lines associated with transitions 3S
3P for Na in the absence of an external magnetic field. (B). Calculate the spectroscopic lines
associated with transitions 3S 3P for Na atoms perturbed by an external magnetic field Bz
as follows:
B = m
H
B = e B
h1 (Jz + Sz ),
B | >= e BMJ g, with g = 1 +
and EB =< |H

J(J+1)L(L+1)+S(S+1)
.
2J(J+1)

80

27

Periodic Table

Previous sections of these lectures have discussed the electronic structure of H, He and Li atoms.
The general approach implemented in those sections is summarized as follows. First, we neglect
the repulsive interaction between electrons and write the zeroth order ground state wave functions
as antisymmetrized products of spin-orbitals (Slater determinants), e.g.,




1S(1)(1) 1S(1)(1)
1
1


gr
= 
He
 = 1S(1)1S(2) [(1)(2) (1)(2)] ,
2 1S(2)(2) 1S(2)(2)
2




1S(1)(1) 1S(1)(1) 2S(1)(1)



1 
gr
Li = 1S(2)(2) 1S(2)(2) 2S(2)(2) ,
6



1S(3)(3) 1S(3)(3) 2S(3)(3)
with zeroth order energies,
(0)

EHe = 2E(1S),

(0)

and

ELi = 2E(1S) + E(2S),

represented by the following diagram:

Energy 6

Energy 6

2S

2S

1S

1S
Helium

Lithium

It is important to note that these approximate wave functions are found by assuming that the
electrons do not interact with each other. This is, of course, a very crude approximation. It is,
81

nonetheless, very useful because it is the underlying approximation for the construction of the
periodic table. Approximate zeroth order wave functions can be systematically constructed for
all atoms in the periodic table by considering the energy order of hydrogenlike atomic orbitals
in conjunction with Hunds Rules.
Hunds First Rule: Other things being equal, the state of highest multiplicity is the most stable.
Hunds Second Rule: Among levels of equal electronic configuration and spin multiplicity, the
most stable level is the one with the largest angular momentum.
These rules establish a distinction between the zeroth order wave functions of ground and excited
electronic state configurations. For example, according to Hunds rules the lithium ground state
wave function is,

gr





1S(1)(1) 1S(1)(1) 2S(1)(1)



1 
= 1S(2)(2) 1S(2)(2) 2S(2)(2) ,
6



1S(3)(3) 1S(3)(3) 2S(3)(3)

(53)

and the first excited state wave function is,





1S(1)(1) 1S(1)(1) 2P (1)(1)



1 
exc
= 1S(2)(2) 1S(2)(2) 2P (2)(2) .
6



1S(3)(3) 1S(3)(3) 2P (3)(3)
2 2

z e
Note that the energy order of hydrogenlike atomic orbitals, En = 2an
2 , is not sufficient to

distinguish between the two electronic configurations. According to such expression, orbitals 2p
and 2s have the same energy E2 . However, Hunds second rule distinguishes the ground electronic
state as the one with higher angular momentum. This is verified by first order perturbation
theory, since the perturbation energy of exc is higher than the perturbation energy computed
with gr .

Exercise 46: Prove that according to first order perturbation theory, the energy difference E
82

between the two states is

E( gr exc ) = 2(J1S,2P J1S,2S ) (K1S,2P K1S,2S ),
(i) (j)

(i) (j)

where J1 ,2 =< 1 2 | reij |1 2 > Coulomb Intergral,

(i) (j)

(i) (j)

and K1 ,2 =< 1 2 | reij |2 1 > Exchange Integral.

Exercise 47: Use Hunds Rules to predict that the ground states of nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine
atoms are 4 S, 3 P and 2 P , respectively.

28

Problem Set (11/27/03)

Exercise 48: Use the variational approach to compute the ground state energy of a particle of
mass m in the potential energy surface defined as follows, V (x) = X 4 .
Hint: Use a Gaussian trial wave-function,
r
(x) =

exp 2 x .

From tables,
Z

4 x2

dxx e

3
= 2
4

dxe

x2

r
=

2 x2

dxx e

1
=
2

Exercise 49: Compute the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of = y + z , where,

0 i
1 0
y =
z =
;
.
i 0
0 1

Exercise 50: Construct two excited state wavefunctions of He that obey the Pauli Exclusion
83

principle, with one electron in a 1S orbital and the other electron in the 2S orbital. Explain the
symmetry of spin and orbital wave-functions?

Exercise 51: Consider a spin 1/2 represented by the spinor,

Cos

=
.
i
sin e
What is the probability that a measurement of Sy would yield the value h2 when the spin is
described by ?

29

Hartree Self-Consistent Field Method

The Hartree Self-Consistent Field (SCF) Method is a variational approach for computing the
Fock product,
= g1 (r1 , 1 , 1 )g2 (r2 , 2 , 2 )...gn (rn , n , n ),
that minimizes the variational integral,
I=

>
< |H|
.
< | >

Functions gi (ri , i , i ) are one electron functions characterized by a set of variational parameters
(e.g., the effective nuclear charge, when such functions are defined as hydrogenlike orbitals). The
initial guess of the n-electron product function,
= S1 (r1 , 1 , 1 )S2 (r2 , 2 , 2 )...Sn (rn , n , n ),

(Fock Product),

is used to compute the potential energy,

V1 (r1 , 1 , 1 ) =

n
X

Z
Q1

j=2

84

j
ze2
dj
,
r1j
r1

where Q1 = e and j = e|Sj |2 . Then, it is assumed that the effective potential acting on an
electron can be adequately described by the average of the potential V1 (r1 , 1 , 1 ) over angles
and ,
1
V1 (r1 ) =
4

Z
d1

d1 sin1 V1 (r1 , 1 , 1 ).

Such potential function is used to solve the one-electron Schrodinger equation,



h
2 2

+ V1 (r1 ) t1 (1) = 1 t1 (1),

2m i
according to the variational approach. The eigenfunctions t1 (1) are improved version of the
initially guessed functions S1 . The procedure is then repeated, after replacing the initial trial
function by the improved trial wavefunction = t1 S2 ...Sn , and t2 is obtained as an improved
version of S2 . The procedure is repeated to obtain t3 , etc., until Sn is replaced by tn . The whole
procedure is iterated (i.e., starting with t1 ..., etc.) until there is no further change from one
iteration to the next one. The converged wave function gives the Hartree SCF solution of the
eigenvalue problem with energy,
E=

i

XX

Jij .

j>i

The last term in this equation involves the Coulombic integrals Jij and discounts all of the
interactions that have been counted twice.

30

Hartree-Fock Self-Consistent Field Method

The Hartree-Fock Self-Consistent Field Method is similar to the Hartree SCF Method, but takes
the antisymmetry property into account by writing the trial wave function as a Slater determinant
of variational spin-orbitals,

85





 1S(1)(1) 1S(1)(1) ...



1 
= 
...
...
... ,
n! 



1S(n)(n) 1S(n)(n) ...
where typical basis functions for the spatial orbitals 1S, 2S, ..., etc., are linear combinations of
Gaussians, or Slater type orbitals rn1 er/a0 Ylm .
Configuration Interaction
Improvement over the one-determinant trial wave function can be achieved by using a trial
wave function that involves a linear combination of Slater determinants. This method is known
as configuration interaction. The energy correction over the Hartree-Fock energy,
Ecor = E EHF ,
is known as correlation energy.

31

LCAO Method: H+
2 Molecule

The H+
2 molecule can be represented by the following diagram:

6
r e, m

rB
MB

u
I
@
@





rA

@
@
@

@ RAB
@
@
@
 RB
R
@
:u



MA






RA

 





86

where A and B represent two hydrogen nuclei and e represents the electron. The Hamiltonian
of the system is,R1(376)
2
h
2
= h
H
2RA
2 + Hel ,
2MA
2MB RB

(54)

h
2 2 e2
e2
e2

Hel =
r

+
.
2m
rA rB RAB

(55)

where,

This is another three-body Hamiltonian, similar to the Helium atom Hamiltonian, where instead
of having two electrons and one nucleus we have two nuclei and one electron. In order to compute
the eigenstates, we assume that the kinetic energy of the nuclei can be neglected when compared
to the other terms in the Hamiltonian (Born-Oppenheimer approximation). The electronic energy
is computed at various internuclear distances RAB , by considering that the term

e2
,
RAB

in Eq.

(55) is a constant factor parametrized by RAB . (In practice, this constant factor is ignored when
solving the eigenvalue problem, since it can be added at the end of the calculation).
According to the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) method, a convenient trial
state for H2+ can be written as follows,
| >= CA | A > +CB | B >, (compare this equation with Eq. (21))
where | A >, and | B >, are 1S atomic orbitals of atoms A and B, respectively.
According to the variational theorem, the optimum coefficients CA and CB can be found by
minimizing the expectation value of the energy,
< E >=

< |H 0 el | >
C 2 HAA + 2CA CB HAB + CB2 HBB
= A2
,
< | >
CA SAA + 2CA CB SAB + CB2 SBB

with respect to CA and CB . Here, Hjk =< j |H 0 el |k >, Sjk =< j |k >, and
h
2 2 e2
e2
0

H el =

.
2m r rA rB
87

Exercise 52:
! Show that the condition,
<E>
CA

= 0 implies CA (HAA < E >) + CB (HAB SAB < E >) = 0, and

!CB

<E>
CB

= 0 implies CA (HAB SAB < E >)+CB (HBB < E >) = 0, when < j |j >= 1.
CA

These equations are called secular equations and have a nontrivial solution (i.e., a solution different from the trivial solution CA = 0, CB = 0), when the determinant of the expansion coefficients
vanishes, i.e.,




 HAA < E >
HAB SAB < E >


 = 0,


H

S
<
E
>
H

<
E
>
 BA

BA
BB
This determinant is called the secular determinant.
Since | A > and | B > are 1S orbitals, HAA = HBB , and SAB = SBA = S. Therefore,
(HAA < E >)2 (HAB S < E >)2 = 0,
and
E =

HAA HAB
.
1S

Substituting < E >+ in the secular equations we obtain,

CA = CB .
Therefore,
+ = CA+ (A + B ), where CA+ =

1
,
2+2S

= CA (A B ), where CA =

1
.
22S

The strategy followed in this section for solving the eigenvalue problem of H2+ can be summarized
as follows:
1. Expand the solution | > according to a linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO).
2. Obtain a set of n secular equations according to the variational approach.
88

3. Solve the secular determinant by finding the roots of the characteristic equation, a polynomial
of degree n in E.
4. Substitute each root into the secular equations and find the eigenvectors (e.g., the expansion
coefficients in the LCAO) that correspond to such root.
The energies < E > are functions of HAA , HAB and S. The integral HAA is defined as the
sum of the energy of an electron in a 1S orbital and the attractive energy of the other nucleus:
Z
HAA =

d A



Z
h
2 2 e2
e2
e2
r

A = E1S (H) d A A .

2m
rA rB
rB

(56)

As the nuclei A and B are brought closer together, the second term in Eq. (56) (i.e., the term
R
2
d A reB A ) tends to make the energy of H2+ more negative, increasing the stability of the
molecule. The term

e2
RAB

is responsible for the repulsion between nuclei and increases mono2

tonically as the two nuclei get closer together, counteracting the stabilization caused by reB .
2

Therefore, the sum HAA + ReAB is not responsible for the stabilization of the system as the nuclei
are brought closer together.
The integral HAB defined as follows,
Z
HAB =

d A

h
2 2 e2
e2

2m
r A rB


B ,

(57)

is called resonance integral and takes into account the fact that the electron is not restricted to
any of the two 1S atomic orbitals, but it can rather be exchanged between the two orbitals.
At large values of RAB , the resonance integral HAB goes to zero. Decreasing RAB , HAB becomes
more negative and stabilizes the molecule relative to the asymptotically separated atoms. The
eigenvalues < E > can be represented as a function of RAB by the following diagram:

89

Energy
6

< E >

E(A) + E(B)

RAB

< E >+


< E >+ is always larger or equal than E0

{z

Exact answer for E0

At short distances RAB the internuclear repulsion

e2
RAB

dominates

Note that < E >+ is lower than < E > because HAA and HAB are negative.
In analogy to the variational approach implemented to study the Helium atom, one could further
improve the variational solution of H2+ by optimizing the exponents (e.g., effective nuclear
charges) in the functions that represent A and B ,
A/B

3/2
rA/B
)
( 2a
= e 2a .

(58)

Such variational correction of the effective nuclear charge is known as scaling.

Exercise 53: According to the quantum mechanical description of H2+ explain:

(1) Why do molecules form? What is a chemical bond?
(2) Consider state + = (2 + 2S)1/2 (A + B ) where nucleus A is at RA = ( R2 , 0, 0) and nucleus
B is at RB = ( R2 , 0, 0). Compute at the coordinate (0,0,0), and compare such probability
density to the sum of probability amplitudes due to A and B .

90

32

H2 Molecule

The H2 molecule can be represented by the following diagram:

z
6

e1
r12
e2
r............................................................
.... .
. r.....
... . .
.
...
...
. .
. .
...
...
.
r.B2
rA1.
...
...
.
.
...
. . . .
....
...
.
.
... r
.
rA2 ..
. . .
...
.... B1
.
.
.
...
...
.
. .
.
....
....
. .
... . . .
. . .....
.u... .
..u
A
RAB
B

The diagram includes two electrons, represented by e1 and e2 , and two protons A and B. The
Hamiltonian of the system is,
h
2
h
2
2
el ,

RA
2RB + H
H=
2MA
2MB
where
2 2
e2
e2
h
2 2
e2
e2
e2
e2
el = h
H
1

+
+
.
2m
rA1 rB1 2m
rA2 rB2 r12 RAB
In analogy to the He atom, it is possible to identify one-electron Hamiltonians (i.e., associated
with electrons 1 and 2),
H2+ (1)

h
2 2
e2
e2
=
1

,
2m
rA1 rB1

and,
H2+ (2) =

h
2 2
e2
e2
2

.
2m
rA2 rB2
91

A zeroth order solution is obtained by neglecting the repulsion between electrons. Since

e2
RAB

contributes only with a constant value to the energy (e.g., a constant parametrized by RAB ), we
can make use of the theorem of separation of variables and obtain the solution of the eigenvalue
problem,
| >= E | >,
H
as the product
| >= A | 1 >| 2 >,

(59)

where | 1 > and | 2 > are eigenstates of the H2+ Hamiltonian and A is the anti-symmetrizing
spin wave function,
A=

1
[(1)(2) (1)(2)] .
N 2

Note that the hydrogen molecule occupies the same place in the theory of molecular electronic
structure as the helium atom in the theory of atomic electronic structure. Therefore, the correction due to electronic repulsion can be calculated according to first order perturbation theory as
follows,
E = 2EH2+ (RAB )+ < |

e2
e2
| >
.
r12
RAB

(60)

Note that the last term discounts the repulsion between nuclei that has been over-counted.
(eq)

The equilibrium distance, RAB , is obtained by minimizing E with respect to RAB . Substituting
such value into Eq. (60), we obtain the minimum energy of the H2 molecule.
The complete ground state of H2 is described as follows,
=

1
[(1)(2) (1)(2)] [1SA (1)1SA (2) + 1SA (1)1SB (2) + 1SB (1)1SA (2) + 1SB (1)1SB (2)] ,
N 2
(61)

where N is a normalization factor, obtained by substituting | 1 > and | 2 > in Eq. (59), by
the ground state wave function of H2+ ,
1
j = [1SA (j) + 1SB (j)] .
N
92

According to Eq. (61), the probability of finding both electrons close to nucleus A (i.e., the
probability of finding the electronic configuration HA HB+ ), is determined by the square of the
expansion coefficient associated with the term 1SA (1)1SA (2). Analogously, the probability of
finding both electrons close to nucleus B is proportional to the square of the expansion coefficient
associated with the term 1SB (1)1SB (2). Therefore, terms 1SA (1)1SA (2), 1SB (1)1SB (2) describe
ionic configurations, while terms 1SA (1)1SB (2) and 1SB (1)1SA (2) describe covalent structures.
Unfortunately, the LCAO wavefunction, introduced by Eq. (61), predicts the same probability
for ionic and covalent configurations, HA+ HB , HA HB+ , and HA HB , respectively. This is quite
unsatisfactory since it is contrary to the chemical experience. The LCAO model predicts that
upon dissociation half of the H2 molecules break into ions H and H + . Contrary to such
prediction, the H2 molecule dissociates almost always into two hydrogen atoms.

Heitler-London(HL) Method:
The Heitler-London approach aims to correct the shortcomings of the LCAO description by
neglecting the ionic terms altogether. Therefore, the HL wave function of H2 includes only
covalent terms as follows,
HL =

1
[(1)(2) (1)(2)] [1SA (1)1SB (2) + 1SB (1)1SA (2)] .
N0 2

This wave function gives a better description of the energy as a function of RAB and predicts
the proper asymptotic behavior at large internuclear distances.

Exercise 54: Prove that, according to the HL approach,

E=

J +K
,
1 + S2
93

with
J =< 1SA (1)1SB (2)|H|1SA (1)1SB (2) >,
and
K =< 1SA (1)1SB (2)|H|1SB (1)1SA (2) > .

33

Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules

Other homonuclear diatomic molecules (e.g., Li2 , O2 , He2 , F2 , N2 , ...) can be described according to the LCAO approach introduced with the study of the H2+ molecule. A general feature
of the LCAO method is that a combination of two atomic orbitals on different centers gives two
molecular orbitals (MO). One of these molecular orbitals is called bonding and the other one
is called antibonding. The bonding state is more stable than the system of infinitely separated
atomic orbitals. On the other hand, the antibonding state is less stable than the isolated atomic
orbitals. The description of the H2+ molecule discussed in previous sections can be summarized
by the following diagram:
'$
'$

u 1S

&%
 &%
'$
'$

1SA

1SB

@
&%
&%
@

+@
@
R
@

'$
'$

&%
&%

94

g 1S

This diagram introduces the nomenclature of states of homonuclear diatomic molecules, which
is determined by the following aspects:
1. Nature of the atomic orbitals in the linear combination (e.g., 1S orbitals in the study of
the H2+ molecules).
z , with z the internuclear axis (e.g., such eigenvalue is zero for the H2+
2. Eigenvalue of L
molecule and, therefore, the orbital is called ).
3. Eigenvalue of the inversion operator through the center of the molecule (e.g., g when the
eigenvalue is 1, and u when the eigenvalue is -1).
4. Stability with respect to the isolated atoms (e.g., an asterisk indicates that the state is
unstable relative to the isolated atoms).
Other homonuclear diatomic molecules involve linear combinations of p orbitals. Such linear
combinations give rise to type orbitals when there is no component of the angular momentum
in the bond axis (e.g., we choose the bond axis to be the z axis). An example of such linear
combination is represented by the following diagram:

 

u 2P

 

+ 









@
@
2P0 (A)
2P0 (B) @

@
R
@



g 2P



95

 z , we make linear combinations

In order to classify molecular states according to eigenvalues of L
z with common eigenvalues. There are four possible states:
of eigenfunctions of L

z }| { z }| {

m= 1:
2P+1 (A) 2P+1 (B),
u 2P+1 , g 2P+1 ,
m=-1:

2P1 (A) 2P1 (B),

u 2P1 , g 2P1 .

All of these linear combinations are states, because = |m| = 1 for all of them. In order to
justify their symmetry properties with respect to inversion we analyze the following particular
case,
zrA
zrB
1 z
u 2P+1 = 2P+1 (A) + 2P+1 (B) = ( )5/2 (eiA e 2a rA sinA + eiB e 2a rB sinB ),
8 a

which is represented by the following diagram:

u 2P+1

orbital

(x, y,
z)
r
rA

rB

B
A0

z nodal line

B 0

0
rB

rA0
r

(x, y, z)

This diagram shows that under inversion through the origin, coordinates are transformed as
follows,
rA rB ,

A B ,

rB r A ,

B A ,
96

A = B = ,
+ ,
ei(+) = ei ei = ei , because

ei = Cos
| {z } +i Sin
|{z} .
1

The states constructed with orbitals P1 differ, relative to those constructed with orbitals p+1 ,
only in the sign of phase introduced by the following expression,
zrA
zrB
1 z
g 2P+1 = ( )5/2 ei (e 2a rA sinA + e 2a rB sinB ).
8 a

This function has a nodal xy plane and is described by the following diagram:
nodal xy plane
'$

...
...
...
.
&%...
...
...
A
u
...
....
'$...
....
...
...
.
&%

'$

&%

'$

&%

Since atomic orbitals 2px , and 2py are linear combinations of atomic orbitals 2p+1 and 2p1
molecular orbitals u 2p+1 and u 2p1 can be combined to construct molecular orbitals u 2px ,
and u 2py as follows,
u 2px = 2px (A) + 2px (B),
u 2py = 2py (A) + 2py (B).
z.
Note, however, that molecular orbitals u 2px , and u 2py are not eigenfunctions of L
The order of increasing energy for homonuclear diatomic orbitals is described by the following
diagram:

97

2p

@
J
@
J

u 2s
2s

@
@ g 2s

u 2p
J 2p
@
@
J g

g 2p

u 2p

2p

@
@

2s

@
@

1s

u 1s
1s

1s
@
@ g

The electronic structure of homonuclear diatomic molecules can be approximated to zeroth order
by filling up the unperturbed states according to the Pauli exclusion principle. However, we
should always keep in mind that we are using the H2+ molecular orbitals (i.e., the unperturbed
states) and, therefore, we are neglecting the repulsive interaction between electrons.
This is the same kind of approximation implemented in the construction of zeroth order wave
functions of atoms according to hydrogenlike atomic orbitals, where the repulsion energy between electrons was disregarded and the electronic configuration was constructed by filling up
hydrogenlike atomic orbitals according to the Pauli exclusion principle.

Exercise 55:
(A) Predict the multiplicity of the ground state of O2 .
(B) Show that the ground electronic state of C2 is a singlet.

98

34

Conjugated Systems: Organic Molecules

The Hamiltonian of a molecule containing n electrons and N nuclei can be described according
to the Born-Oppenheimer approximation as follows,
el =
H

n
X
i=1

h
2 2 X zj e2

2mi ri j=1 rji

n X
n
X
e2
+
.
r
i k>i ik

This Hamiltonian includes terms that describe both and electrons. However, the distinctive
chemistry of conjugated organic molecules is usually relatively independently of -bonds, and
rather correlated with the electronic structure of -electrons. For example, the spectroscopy of
conjugated organic molecules, as well as ionization potentials, dipole moments and reactivity, can
be described at least qualitatively by the electronic structure of the -electron model. Therefore,
we make the approximation that the solution of the eigenvalue problem of a conjugated system
can be factorized as follows,
,
= A
where A is an antisymmetrization operator upon exchange of and electrons.
The potential due to the nuclei and the average field due to electrons, can be described by the
following Hamiltonian:
=
H

n
X

core (i) +
h

i=1

n X
n
X
e2
,
r
ik
i=1 k>i

(62)

core includes kinetic energy of electrons, interaction of electrons with electrons,

where h
and shielding of nuclear charges. An approximate solution can be obtained by disregarding the
repulsion between electrons in Eq. (62), and by approximating the Hamiltonian of the system
as follows,
(0)
H

n
X
i=1

Heff (i),

where

X z 0 e2
2 2
k
eff (j) = h
H
rj
.
2mj
r
kj
k=1

(63)

The effective nuclear charge zk0 incorporates the average screening of nuclear charges due to
and electrons.
99

 eff (j) depends only on coordinates of electron j, we can implement the separation of
Since H
variables method and solve the eigenvalue problem,
(0) | >= E | >,
H

according to the factorizable solution | >=

Qn

j=1

|j >, where,

eff (j) | j >= j | j > .

H

(64)

The energy E is obtained by using the Pauli exclusion principle to fill up the molecular orbitals,
after finding the eigenvalues j .
Eq. (63) is solved by implementing the variational method, assuming that | j > can be written
according to a linear combination of atomic orbitals,
|j >=

N
X

Cjk |k >,

k=1

where |k > represents a 2pz orbital localized in atom k and the sum extends over all atoms in
the conjugated system.
Example:
Consider the ethylene molecule represented by the following diagram:

'$
'$

&%
&%

C
C
'$
'$
H

H
&%
&%

The diagram shows bonds in the equatorial plane of the molecule, and orbitals 1 and 2 that
are perpendicular to such plane.
100

The LCAO for ethylene is,

| j >= cj1 | 1 > +cj2 | 2 > .

(65)

Therefore, the secular equations can be written as follows,

(H11 S11 j ) cj1 + (H12 S12 j ) cj2 = 0,
(H21 S21 j ) cj1 + (H22 S22 j ) cj2 = 0.

H
uckel Method:
The H
uckel Method is a semi-empirical approach for solving the secular equations. The method
involves making the following assumptions:
1. Hkk = , where is an empirical parameter (vide infra).
2. Hjk = , when j = k 1; and Hjk = 0, otherwise. The constant is also an empirical
parameter (vide infra).
3. Sjk = 1, when k = j 1; and Sjk = 0, otherwise.
According to the H
uckel model, the secular determinant becomes,




 j



 = 0.


j 


Therefore, the eigenvalues of the secular determinant are j = and can be represented by
the following diagram:

101

Energy 6
E2 = ,

| 2 >=

1
2

(| 1 > | 2 >)

E1 = + ,

| 1 >=

1
2

(| 1 > + | 2 >)

...........................

E = 2E1 = 2 + 2,

| >=

1
2

| 1 (1) >| 1 (2) > ( ) .

The energy difference between ground and excited states is E = E2 E1 = 2. Parameter

is usually chosen to make E coincide with the peak of the experimental absorption band of
the molecule.

35

Empirical Parameterization of Diatomic Molecules

The main features of chemical bonding by electron pairs are properly described by the HL model
of H2 (see page 91). According to such model, the covalent bond is described by a singlet state,
1

HL = N1 [(1)(2) (1)(2)][A (1)B (2) + A (2)B (1)],

with energy
1

E+ =<1 HL |H|1 HL >=

J +K
,
1 + S2

where H = h(1) + h(2) + e2 /r12 , with

2

e2
r1A

e2
,
r1B

e2
r2A

e2
,
r2B

h(1) = 2m
21
h

22
h(2) = 2m

J =< A (1)B (2)|H|A (1)B (2) >

Coulomb integral

K =< A (1)B (2)|H|A (2)B (1) >

Exchange integral
102

S 2 =< A (1)B (2)|A (2)B (1) > .

Similarly, the triplet state is described as follows,

HL = N3 [A (1)B (2) B (1)A (2)]

[(1)(2) + (1)(2)]

(1)(2)

(1)(2)

and has energy

3

E =

(J K)
.
(1 S 2 )

The energies of the singlet and triplet states are parametrized by the internuclear H-H distance
and can be represented by the following diagram,

Energy

E+

..........................................................................................................................

R0

H-H bond length

The energies 1 E and 3 E can be approximated by the following analytical functions:

1



E+ D e2a(RR0 ) 2ea(RR0 ) M (R),
103


D  2a(RR0 )
e
+ 2ea(RR0 ) M (R).
2

Parameters D and a can be obtained by fitting M(R) to the actual (experimental or ab-initio)
ground state potential energy surface. Such parametrization allows us to express the Coulombic
and Resonance integrals J and K in terms of available experimental (or ab initio) data as follows,
1
J [(M + M ) + S 2 (M M )],
2
1
K [(M M ) + S 2 (M + M )].
2
This parametrization of Hamiltonian matrix elements illustrates another example of semi-empirical
parametrization that can be implemented by using readily available experimental information
(remember that in the previous section we described the semiempirical parametrization of the
H
uckel model according to the absorption spectrum of the molecule).
The covalent nature of the chemical bond significantly changes when one of the two atoms in
the molecule is substituted by an atom of different electronegativity. Under those circumstances,
the wave function should include ionic terms, e.g.,
1

A (1)A (2)[(1)(2) (1)(2)],

Aion = N

and
1

B (1)B (2)[(1)(2) (1)(2)].

Bion = N

The complete wave function (with both covalent and ionic terms) can be described as follows,
= C1 1 + C2 2 , where the covalent wave function is
1 = [(1)(2) (1)(2)](A (1)B (2) + A (2)B ),
and the ionic wave function is
2 = [(1)(2) (1)(2)][A (1)A (2)1 + B (1)B (2)(1 1 )],
where the parameter 1 is determined by the relative electronegativity of the two atoms. For
example, consider the HF molecule. For such molecule 1 =1, A represents the F atom, and B
represents the H atom (i.e., due to the electronegativity difference between the two atoms, the
104

predominant ionic configuration is H + F ). Therefore, the ground state energy Eg is obtained as

the lowest eigenvalue of the secular equation,




H11 E

H
12



 = 0.


H22 E 
 H12

(66)

Here we have neglected S12 , assuming that such approximation can be partially corrected according to the parametrization of H12 . The semiempirical parametrization strategy can be represented
by the following diagram:

Energy
H +F

6
6

H22
H .F .
.....................................................................................................?
...................
0
6
6
H11
HF
D
Eg
DHF
?
...................................................................
..................................................................?
.

RHF

This diagram represents the following curves:

= D[e
2a(RR0 ) 2ea(RR0 ) ] is a covalent state represented by a Morse potential
H11 = M
.
M
+ AebR + CR9 , is the potential energy surface of the ionic state, where
H22 = I EA 332
R
the difference between the H ionization energy and the F electron affinity, I-EA, corresponds to
the energy of forming the ion pair H + F . The term 332
is the Coulombic interaction and
R
AebR + CR9 is the short range repulsive potential.
105

The ground state potential energy surface Eg = M = D[e2a(RR0 ) 2ea(RR0 ) ] is represented

by a Morse potential M . Parameters D and R0 can be obtained from the experimental bondenergy and bond-length. The parameter a can be adjusted to reproduce the vibrational frequency

HF = DHH DF F and = 0.05

of the diatomic molecule. The parameter D
A. Parameters A and
C are adjusted so that the minimum energy of H22 corresponds to the H-F bond-length (i.e., the
sum of ionic radii of H and F). This empirical parametrization allows us to solve Eq. (66) for
H12 ,
H12 =

(H11 M )(H22 M ),

and obtain the Hamiltonian matrix elements in terms of empirical parameters.

Conclusion: Potential energy surfaces parametrized by a few empirical parameters are able to
describe bonding properties of molecules associated with atoms of different electronegativity.

Dipole Moment
The dipole moment is one of the most important properties of molecules and can be computed
as follows,
g =< g |
|g >,
where

eri +

ezj Rj .

The first term of this equation involves electronic coordinates ri and the second term involves
nuclear coordinates Rj .
For example, the dipole moment of HF can be computed as follows,

g = C12 < 1 |
| > +C22 < 2 |
| > +2C1 C2 < 1 |
| >,
|
{z 1 }
|
{z 2 }
|
{z 2 }
0

eR0

since 1 represents a covalent state and the overlap between 1 and 2 is assumed to be negligible.
106

The dipole moment is usually reported in Debye units, where 4.803 Debye is the dipole
moment of two charges of 1 a.u. with opposite sign and separated by 1
A, from each other.

Exercise 56: Evaluate the dipole moment for HF using the following parameters for the semiempirical model of HF potential energy surfaces (energies are expressed in kcal/mol, and distances
in
A),
D=134;

D=61;

R0 =0.92;

A=640;

b=2.5;

C=20;

a=2.27;
I=313;

EA=83.

Polarization
The electric field of an external charge z located at coordinate R0 along the axis of the
molecule does not affect the energy of the covalent state H11 , but affects the energy of the ionic
state H22 as follows,
ze

0
H22
= H22 +

RH + C

ze
.
RF C

Therefore, the presence of an external charge perturbs the ground state energy of the molecule.
0
Such perturbation can be computed by re-diagonalizing Eq. (66), using H22
instead of H22 .

Solving for the ground state energy we obtain,

Eg0 =


1 0
0
2 1/2
(H22 + H11 ) ((H22
H11 ) + 4H12
)
.
2

Exercise 57:
(1) Plot Eg , as a function of the internuclear distance R, for the HF molecule in the presence
of an external charge located in the axis of the molecule at 10
A, to the left of the F atom.
107

(2) Compare your results with the analog Gaussian98 calculation by using the scan keyword.
Hint: The Gaussian98 input file necessary to scan the ground state potential energy surface of
H2 is described as follows,

#hf/6-31G scan

potential scan for H2

H
H 1

R 0.9 5

0.1

This input file scans the potential energy of H2 by performing single point calculations at 5
internuclear distances. The output energies are represented by the following diagram:
Energy
6

x
x

x
x

x
-

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3
108

R(H-H)