Topic 3

DATA EFFICIENCY AND

SECURITY

DEPARTMENT

OF

ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

EP601 DATA

COMMUNICATION

TOPIC 3 :
At the end of this learning session, student must be able to;

Define data efficiency.

Describe data efficiency devices:

a. Front End Processor (FEP)

b. Multiplexer

Explain data efficiency techniques:

a. FDM

b. TDM

c. STDM

d. Data Compression: Run length encoding,LZW (Lempel-Ziv_Welch),

Huffman coding.

Define data security.

Explain the importance of data security.
Explain encryption and decryption techniques:

a. Caesar Cipher
b. Mapping
c. Data Encryptions Standard (DES)
d. Rivest-Shamir-Adelman (RSA)
2

Data efficiency will always be the objective of data

communication network that is
to transfer the
highest possible volume of accurate information
through the network with the lowest cost.
We have links with limited bandwidths. But wise use
of available bandwidth would result efficiency.
An efficient system maximizes the utilization of all
resources; bandwidth is the resources.
Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing.
Multiplexing allows several transmission sources to
share a larger transmission capacity.

What is data efficiency ?

3

Data efficiency
devices
a. Front End Processor (FEP)
b. Multiplexer

Data efficiency devices:

a) Front End Processor (FEP)

A front-end processor (FEP) is a type of computer

used in a network to help the main host computer
manage the other connected computers.

Why use FEP? - to keep the main computer from

having to perform all the processing, which
requires a lot of computer resources.

Purpose - takes over the process of managing the

data transmissions going from the host to the
nodes, back to the host and out to other places
and reports directly to the host.
6

FEP

Is typically a small computer that is closely

coupled to the central computer/host.
FEP is programmed to handle all the polling and
selection procedures, allowing the central
computer to devote its time to the main task of
application processing
Advantage FEP : central processor need to be
involved only when a data message has been
received or is to be sent.
All communication overhead associated
with each message transfer are handled by
FEP, central computer need only initiate the
transfer of each message to and from the FEP.
7

Polling and Selecting

The Polling and Selecting access method is not

very common because it requires the use of a
central controller to execute and monitor the
process

Polling:
Polling refers to the process of a host computer
asking an intelligent terminal if it has any
data to send to the host computer. This task is
typically accomplished by a front-end processor
(FEP),
which
handles
all
the
routine
communications procedures for the host computer.

Selecting:
Selecting occurs when a host computer or a
FEP sends data to a terminal after the terminal
indicates that it is ready to accept data.
8

Incoming
and outgoing
jobs

Job 1

Job 2

Job 3

Main
system

Front-end
processor
Job 4

Communications
link

Multiplexor

Front-end
processor

Host
computer

10

MULTIPLEXING

One of the most widely used devices for improving data

communication efficiency ; minimize the number of
transmission line required.
The aim of multiplexing is to share an expensive resource.
Allows several devices to share single communication
facility.
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneously transmission multiple signals across
a single data link and then recovering the separate
signals at the receiving end.
It is an efficient method of employing a single highbandwidth channel to transmit various separate lowbandwidth signals.

11

MULTIPLEXING

cont

Figure above illustrate the multiplexing as an efficiency

devices.
N inputs share the bandwidth of one link.
n inputs to the multiplexer (MUX) is connected by a
single data link to a demultiplexer (DEMUX).
The MUX combines data from the n input lines to a
single stream.
DEMUX accepts the multiplexed data stream, separates
the stream data into multiple output lines.
12

FIGURE : MULTIPLEXING

13

Data efficiency techniques

a. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

b. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
c. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(STDM) & Statistical Time Division
Multiplexing
(STDM)
d. Data Compression: Run length
encoding,
LZW
(Lempel-Ziv_Welch),
Huffman coding.
14

a. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

FDM is analog multiplexing technique that combine analog

signal
Multiple signals share the common bandwidth of a
single communication channel, each occupying a separate
portion of the bandwidth.
Each signal is allocated a different frequency band.
Modulation equipment is needed to move each signal to the
required frequency band (channel)
Multiple carriers are used, each is called sub-carrier
Multiplexing equipment is needed to combine the modulated
signals

15

a. Frequency Division Multiplexing

(FDM)

16

One of FDM's most common applications is

cable television. Only one cable reaches a
customer's home but the service provider can
send multiple television channels or signals
simultaneously over that cable to all subscribers
without interference. Receivers must tune to the
appropriate frequency (channel) to access the
desired signal

Example of FDM
17

FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
18

a. Frequency Division Multiplexing

(FDM) cont

FDM Transmitter

FDM Receiver

19

FDM Multiplexer
Multiple signals are each used to modulate a
separate carrier.
Each carrier is on a different frequency.
The modulated carriers are then added together
to form single complex signal which is
transmitted over the single channel.
This signal is then used to modulate a radio
transmitter.

FDM demultiplexer
The
demultiplexer uses a series of filters to
a.decompose
Frequency
Multiplexing
theDivision
multiplexed
signal into its
component signals.
(FDM)
cont
The individual signals are then passed to the
demodulator that separates them from their
carriers and pass them to the waiting receiver.
20

a. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

cont
Advantages of FDM
User can be added to the system by simply adding another
pair of transmitter modulator and receiver demodulators.
FDM system support full duplex information flow which is
required by most of application.
Noise problem for analog communication has lesser effect.
Disadvantages of FDM
In FDM system, the initial cost is high. This may include the
cable between the two ends and the associated connectors for
the cable.
In FDM system, a problem for one user can sometimes affect
others.
In FDM system, each user requires a precise carrier
frequency.

21

b. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Digital multiplexing technique for combining several lowrate channels into one high-rate channel.
Each signal occupy the entire bandwidth of the channel.
However, each signal is transmitted for only a brief
period of time.
The multiple signals take turns transmitting over a
single channel.
TDM may be used with both digital and analog signals.
The transmission between nodes must be digital and is
formatted into serial data words.
TDM assigns each terminal a dedicated time slot.

22

b. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Refer to the figure, the same link is used as in FDM,

however the link is shown sectioned by time rather than by
frequency
Signal 1, 2, 3 and 4 occupy the link sequentially
The time domain is divided into several recurrent time
slots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel.
A sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is
transmitted during time slot 1, sub-channel 2 during
time slot 2, etc.

23

TDM

(cont..)

Consider an application requiring four terminals at an airport to reach a

central computer. Each terminal communicated at 2400 bit/s, so rather
than acquire four individual circuits to carry such a low-speed
transmission, the airline has installed a pair of multiplexers. A pair of 9600
bit/s modems and one dedicated analog communications circuit from the
24
airport ticket desk back to the airline data center are also installed.

TDM

(cont..)

TDM has two different schemes:

a) Synchronous TDM
Time Slot and Frames
Interleaving
Empty Slots
Data Rate Management
Frame Synchronizing
Digital Signal Service
T Lines
E Lines

b)Statistical TDM
Addressing
Slot Size
No Synchronization Bit
Bandwidth

25

c. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

(STDM)

A data transmission technique in which several users make

use of a single channel by means of a system in which time
slots are allotted on a fixed basis, usually in round-robin
fashion.
STDM assign time slot of equal length to all packet
regardless whether or not anything is to be sent by each
station with an assigned time slot
Time slot X means it is assigned to user and cannot be
used by any other user .
In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times
faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.
Synchronous TDM is called synchronous as the time slots
are pre-assigned to sources and fixed.
The time slots for each source are transmitted whether or
not the source has data to send.
26

c. STDM

(cont)

Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one
output time slot.
However , the duration of output TS is n times shorter than the
duration of input TS.
If input TS is Ts, then the output TS is T/n s. Where n is the
number of connection. (unit in the output connection has a
shorter duration means travel faster)
As in the figure, n is 3 , the rate of the output link must be 3
times the data rate of a connection

27

Statistical TDM (STDM)

In statistical TDM (STDM), time slots are assigned to users
on a first come, first served basis (on-demand basis)
Any user can be assigned to any time slot at any time.
Since time slots are not dedicated to a particular user, then
each time slot must carry an explicit address that
identifies the user for that time slot.
The objective of STDM technology is efficient use of
bandwidth on the shared facility. If there is enough traffic
being generated by users, there will be no empty time slots
on the medium.
In addition, STDM tends to provide bandwidth to those users
who need it most (i.e., those users with a lot of traffic to
send), what is sometimes referred to as bandwidth on
demand.
28

Statistical TDM (STDM) cont

In synchronous TDM many slots are wasted.
Statistical TDM allocates time slots dynamically, on demand

29

Data Compression

Data compression implies sending or storing a smaller

number of bits.
Nowadays almost every multimedia data as audio or video
will be used in a compressed form.
Generally these methods can be divided into two broad
categories: lossless and lossy methods.

30

Data Compression
Lossless methods:
Run length encoding (RLE)
Lempel-Ziv_Welch (LZW )
Huffman coding.

31

Run length encoding (RLE)

Run Length Encoding is one of the oldest
compression methods.
Any sequence of identical symbols will
be replaced by a counter identifying
the number of repetitions and the
particular symbol or one occurrence of
the symbol followed by the number of
occurrences.
For instance, the original contents 'aaaa'
would be coded as '4a'.

32

Example of RLE

Original data : AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA ---15 byte

The compressed data : 15A
--2byte data

Assume that our 15-character string now

contains four different character :
AAAAAAbbbXXXXXt
The compressed data :
6A3b5X1t
----- four 2-byte
packets:
33

More example of RLE

Original Data :
WWWWWWWWWWWWBWWWWWWWWWWWWBBBWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWBWW
WWWWWWWWWWWW

If we apply the run-length encoding (RLE) data

compression to the above data , we get the
following:

12W1B12W3B24W1B14W

Interpreted as twelve Ws, one B, twelve Ws,

three Bs, etc.
The RLE code represents the original 67
characters in only 18
characters.
34

Lempel-Ziv Coding (LZ)

Lempel-Ziv Coding (LZ) is based on the fundamental work of
Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv.
Their original algorithms are generally denoted as LZ77 and LZ78.
Four types of LZ coding are :
Lempel-Ziv 77 (LZ77)
Lempel-Ziv- Storer - Szymanski (LZSS)
Lempel-Ziv 78 (LZ78)
Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW)

Lempel Ziv (LZ) encoding is an example of a category of algorithms

called dictionary-based encoding.
The idea is to create a dictionary (a table) of strings used during the
communication session.
LZW compression uses a code table, with 4096 as a common choice
for the number of table entries.
35

Lempel- Ziv-Welch (LZW) encoding cont..

The algorithm presented by Terry Welch defines

mechanisms to create the dictionary and to
ensure that it will be identical for both the
encoding and decoding process.

The LZW code is usually of size 12 bits, with 4096

possible codes.

Compression is achieved by using codes 256

through 4095 to represent sequences of bytes.

As the encoding continues, LZW identifies repeated

sequences in the data, and adds them to the
code table.

Decoding is achieved by taking each code from

the compressed file, and translating it through
the code table to find what character or characters
it represents.
36

COMPRESSION USING LZW

Example 1: Compression using LZW

Use the LZW algorithm to compress the string
BABAABAAA

37

38

DECOMPRESSION USING LZW

Example

2: Decompression using LZW

Use LZW to decompress the output sequence

of Example 1:
<66><65><256><257><65><260>

39

40

Example of LZW encoding

Input string is "^WED^WE^WEE^WEB^WET".

A 19-symbol input has been

reduced to 7-symbol plus 5code output.
41

Example of LZW decoding

Input string is
"^WED<256>E<260><261><257>B<260>T".

42

Huffman coding

The Huffman coding is a procedure to generate

a binary code tree.
Huffman coding assigns shorter codes to
symbols that occur more frequently and longer
codes to those that occur less frequently.
It is a variable length code, in which the
encoding depends on the frequency of letters
occurring in the data set.

43

Huffman coding

(cont)

Application

Both the .mp3 and .jpg file formats use Huffman

coding at one stage of the compression.
Alternative method that achieves higher
compression but is slower is patented by IBM,
making Huffman Codes attractive.

44

Huffman coding

(cont)

Step in Huffman encoding :

To each character, associate a binary tree consisting of just
one node. To each tree, assign the characters frequency,
which we call the trees weight.
Look for the two lightest-weight trees. If there were more
than two, choose any two. Merge the two into a single tree
with a new root node whose left and right subtrees are the two
we chose. Assign the sum of the weight of the merged trees
as the weight of the new tree.
Repeat the steps above until just one tree is left.
A characters code is found by starting at the root and
following the branches that lead to that character. The
code itself is the bit value of each branch on the path, taken in
sequence.
45

Huffman coding

(cont)

Example:

Letter Frequency
A

12

We build the tree from the

bottom up.
Start with singleton vertices,
labeled with their frequencies

A
A
4

B
B
4

C
5

D
6

E
12
46

sho/polisas

Huffman coding

(cont)

Find the two smallest frequencies, and

combine them into a new tree.
8
A
4

B
4

C
5

D
6

E
12

47

Huffman coding

(cont)

Now, we consider 8, 5, 6, and 12.

The two smallest are 5 and 6
Combine them as in the first step, yielding new
vertex with frequency label 11

A
4

B
4

11

C
5

D
6

E
12

Repeat
48

Huffman coding

(cont)

Now, we consider 8, 11, and 12.

The two smallest are 8 and 11
Combine them

19

Repeat

A
4

B
4

11
C
5

D
6

E
12
49

Huffman coding

(cont)

Finally, combine the two remaining vertices (12

and 19) to get a single tree.
31
19

11

8
A
4

B
4

C
5

D
6

E
12
50

Huffman coding

(cont)

The final code

0
1

0
A
A
4

1
B
B
4

C
C
5

D
D
6

E
E
12

Left branch is 0
Right branch is 1
Letter Code
A
000
B
001
C
010
D
011
E
1
51

Huffman coding

(cont)

Length of entire encoding of

text.
4 As, 4 Bs, 5 Cs, 6 Ds, and 12 Es
4x3 + 4x3 + 5x3 + 6x3 + 12x1
= 12 + 12 + 15 + 18 + 12
= 69 bits

Compare to fixed length code

5 characters: need 3 bits each
4x3 + 4x3 + 5x3 + 6x3 + 12x3
= 12 + 12 + 15 + 18 + 36
= 93 bits

Letter Code
A

000

001

010

011

A savings of 24 bits.
Longer text would mean more savings
52

Exercise 1:

53

54

55

56

Length of entire encoding of text.

Compare to fixed length code

A savings of bits.

57

Example of Huffman Coding 2nd example

58

Example of Huffman Coding 2nd example

Final tree and code

59

Encoding : refer to code generated in example 2

Let us see how to encode text using the code for our five characters.
Figure a below shows the original and the encoded text.

Figure a: Huffman encoding

60

Huffman Decoding
Figure b below shows how decoding takes place.

Figure b: Huffman decoding

61

Example of Huffman Coding 3rd example

62

WHAT IS DATA SECURITY?

Data Security means protecting a database
from destructive forces and the unwanted
actions of unauthorized users.
Data security is the practice of keeping data
protected from corruption and unauthorized
access. The focus behind data security is to
ensure privacy while protecting personal or
corporate data.

63

THE IMPORTANCE OF DATA

SECURITY
Determining who has access, as well as the
degree of access.
Protecting the data from unauthorized use
and sabotage.
Protecting the data from physical harm or
accident.

64

ENCRYPTION AND
DECRYPTION
Encryption
refers
to
the
coding
of
information in order to keep it secret.
Encryption is a process of converting a
plaintext into enciphered text or ciphertext,
also called cryptogram.
Decryption
is a deciphering process or
reversing the encrypting process to recover
the original information, which is to convert
ciphertext back to its original form of
plaintext.
65

ENCRYPTION AND
DECRYPTION TECHNIQUES
a. Caesar Cipher
b. Mapping
c. Data Encryptions Standard
(DES)
d. Rivest-Shamir-Adelman
(RSA)
66

CAESAR CIPHERS
What is cipher ? - put (a message) into secret
writing or encode the message.
Caesar Ciphers is a substitution cipher, in which
each character in the plaintext is substituted
by another character in the ciphertext.
The Caesar Cipher replaces each letter by the
letter that appears k positions later to the
right in the alphabet. k, is known as a key.
Also known as shift cipher.
Is named after Julius Caesar, who used it in his
private correspondence.
67

CAESAR CIPHERS ---EXAMPLE

In this example, if k=3 (shift 3 space or position
to the right)
The message (plain text) : "RETURN TO ROME
would be encrypted as (ciphertext) :
"UHWXUA WR URPH
In this example, 'R' is shifted to 'U', 'E' is shifted
to 'H', and so on.

68

Use Caesar cipher with key = 15 to encrypt the message

assalamualaikum.
Solution :
Plaintext :

assalamualaikum
mddmwmxfmwmuvfx

Ciphertext :

Plain:
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Cipher: MNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKL
69

DECRYPTING USING CAESAR

CIPHER
To decode the message, the receiver uses the
same key k and recovers the plaintext by
applying the inverse transformation, that is,
by traversing the ciphertext string and
replacing each character by the character k
positions earlier in the alphabet.

70

DECRYPTING USING CAESAR CIPHER

cont

Also known as transposition cipher.

There is no substitution, instead it changes the
location of the symbols.
Mapping cipher will reorders symbols in a block of
symbols.

Figure : Transposition or Mapping Cipher

71

EXAMPLE:
Ali needs to send the message Enemy attacks to
night to Lina.
The key used for encryption and decryption is a key
using a block of five characters :

Solution :
First remove the spaces in the message, then divide
the text into blocks of five characters. Then add a
bogus (palsu) character z at the end of the fourth
block.
enemy attac kston ightz

The result of the encryption is :

eemyn taact tkons hitzg

72

MAPPING CIPHER

cont..

Lets do this exercise ..

Amin needs to send the message
kelas ganti data com ditunda to Fatin.
The key used for encryption and decryption is key
using a block of four characters :

What is the result of encryption and decryption??

73

LETS TAKE A LOOK AT SOME SIMPLE

MODERN CIPHER.
Encryption methods can be SYMMETRIC in
which encryption and decryption keys are
the same, or ASYMMETRIC in which
encryption and decryption keys differ.
The traditional cipher we have studied so
far are character-oriented.
Modern cipher need to be bitorientedwhy?.. The information need to
be encrypted is not just text, it could be
number, graphics, audio and video data.
74

SIMPLE MODERN CIPHER cont

Types of

simple modern cipher :

XOR Cipher
Substitution Cipher, S-box
Transposition Cipher , P-box :
straight permutations
expansion permutation
Compression
permutation
75

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a

symmetric-key block cipher published by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST).
DES is a widely-used method of data encryption
in the world using a private (secret) key ,
developed in the 1970s
DES uses a 56-bit key and uses the block
cipher method, which breaks text into 64-bit
blocks and then encrypts them.

76

Data Encryption Standard (DES)continued

Figure : Encryption and decryption with DES

77

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

cont

The encryption process is made of two permutations (P-boxes),

which we call initial and final permutations, and sixteen Feistel
rounds.

78

Figure : General structure of DES

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

cont

Initial and final permutation

steps in DES

79

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

cont

Initial and final permutation tables

The initial and final permutations are straight P-boxes

that are inverses of each other

80

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

cont

Example :
Find the output of the initial permutation box when the input is
given in hexadecimal as:

0000 0080 0000 0002

Solution : refer to initial & final permutation table
Only bit 25 and bit 63 are 1s; the other bits are 0s. In the initial
permutation, bit 25 becomes bit 37 and bit 63 becomes bit 57.
The result is

0000 0000 0800 0080

81

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

cont

The heart of DES is the DES function. The DES function

applies a 48-bit key to the rightmost 32 bits to produce a
32-bit output.
This function is made up
of four operation: an
XOR, an expansion
permutation, a group of
S-boxes and a straight
permutation.

82

The round-key
generator creates
sixteen 48-bit
keys out of a 56bit cipher key.

83

We choose a random plaintext block and a random key, and

determine what the ciphertext block would be (all in
hexadecimal):

Table 6.15 Trace of data for Example 6.5

84

Example DES Cont .

Table 6.15 Trace of data for Example 6.5 (Conintued

85

RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adelman)

RSA is a Public-Key Cryptosystem.

Invented in 1977 by MIT professors Ronald L. Rivest,
Adi Shamir and Leonard M. Adleman.
The system is based on several mathematical principles in
number theory.
Public-key (or two-key) cryptography involves the use
of two keys:
1 - A public-key, which may be known by anybody, and
can be used to encrypt messages, and verify
signatures
2 - A private-key, known only to the recipient, used
to decrypt messages, and sign (create) signatures

digital signature is an electronic signature to

authenticate the identity of the sender of a message
86

RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adelman) cont

87

RSA Algorithm
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

6.
7.

Select two large prime numbers at random : p and

q
Compute their product (hasil darab), n n is also
called system modulus . n = p x q
Compute z = (p-1)(q-1) , also known as (n) ,
Eulers phi-function
Selecting at random the encryption key e ;
relatively prime to z or (n) . gcd(e, (n)) = 1 ,
e<n
Finally compute d , the decryption key, such that the
product of e and d is congruent (sepadan ) to 1 mod
(n). e*d 1 mod (n) , 0 <= d <= n
Publish their public encryption key: Kpub={e,n}
Keep secret private decryption key: Kpvt={d,n}
88

Encryption with RSA

To encrypt a plaintext message block m,

compute

C=Me mod n

To decrypt the block, compute

M=Cd mod n

Each plaintext block must be smaller than

the value of n.

89

Prime Numbers & Relatively Prime

A prime number, or prime, is a number that

is evenly divisible by only 1 and itself.
For instance 10 is not prime because it is
evenly divisible by 1, 2, 5 and 10. But 11 is
prime, since only 1 and 11 evenly divide it.
The numbers that evenly divide another
number are called factors. The process of
finding the factors of a number is called
factoring.
Relatively Prime : Two numbers are
relatively prime if they share only one
factor, namely 1.
90

Modular Arithmetic
a = b mod (m) means that when a is
divided by m the remainder is b.
Examples
11 = 1 mod (5)
20 = 2 mod (6)

91

RSA Example 1
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
?

Lets select prime ; p = 3 and q = 11

Then compute the modulus , n = p x q = 33
Compute Eulers phi-function,
(n) = (p-1) X (q -1)
(33) = (2) x (10) = 20
Select e : gcd(e,20)=1; lets choose e = 3
Compute d ; d x e = 1 mod 20 ; d < 20
3d = 1 mod 20 ; d = 7 , why
3 x 7= 1 mod 20
21 = 1 mod 20
( 21divide by 20, the remainder

is 1)
6.
Kpub= {e,n] ={3,33}
7.
Kpvt={d,n} = { 7,33}
C = Ped (mod n)
P = C (mod n)

; cyphertext
; plaintext
92

Try to solve this

What is the encryption and decryption

of M = 2 if Kpub= {3,33} and Kpvt= {
7,33} ?
C = ?? & P = ??

93

RSA Example

94

RSA Example 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Select primes: p=17 & q=11

Compute n = pq =1711=187
Compute (n)=(p1)(q-1)=1610=160
Select e : gcd(e,160)=1; choose e = 7
Determine d: de=1 mod 160 and d < 160
Value is d=23 since 237=161= 1 mod 160
161divide by 160, the
remainder is 1

6.
7.

Publish public key Kpub={7,187}

Keep secret private key Kpvt={23,187}
95

RSA Example cont...

sample RSA encryption/decryption is:
given message M = 88 (M < n , 88<187)
encryption:

C = 887 mod 187 = 11

decryption:
M = 1123 mod 187 = 88

96

RSA Example 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Select primes: p=7 & q=11

Compute n = pq =711=77
Compute (n)= (p1)(q-1)= 610 = 60
Select e : gcd(e,60)=1; if choose e = 13
Determine d: de=1 mod 60 and d < 60
Value is d=37 since 3713 =481= 1 mod 60
481divide by 60, the
remainder is 1

6.
7.

Publish public key Kpub= {e,n} ={13,77}

Keep secret private key Kpvt={d,n} =
{37,77}
97

Encrypt and decrypt

EXERCISE:

Upin sends the plaintext 5 to Ipin.

Using the above public and private key in
example 3, what is the cyphertext , C and
plaintext ,P?
Remember ; C = Pe (mod n)
= 513 mod 77
cyphertext

P = C37 mod 77

plaintext

98

REFERENCES:
Main:
Forouzan,
B.A.
(2012).
Data
Communications
and
Networking
(5th
edision). Mc Graw Hill. (ISBN: 978-0-07131586-9)
Additional:
William
Stallings.
(2011).
Data
And
Computer Communication (9th edition).
Prentice Hall. (ISBN-10: 0131392050)
99