1.

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS
Nozzles and diffusers interchange fluid velocity and fluid static pressure. In a subsonic
flow, a converging nozzle transforms a high-pressure, low-velocity flow into a high
velocity, low-pressure jet. A subsonic diffuser transforms a high-velocity, low-pressure jet
into a low-velocity, high-pressure flow. A venturi is the union of a nozzle and a
diffuser.
The basic assumptions employed in the analysis of nozzles and diffusers in this
chapter are:

1. The fluid is homogeneous and Newtonian; viscous shear stress is proportional to the
applied velocity gradient.
2. The nozzle and diffuser walls are rigid.
3. The flow is steady.
4. There is no heat transfer either through solid boundaries or within the fluid itself.
5. The boundary surfaces are uniform and smoothly convergent for nozzles and uniform
and smoothly divergent for diffusers. The change in flow area per unit axial distance
is a small fraction of the flow area.
6. The entrance flow velocity is less than the speed of sound. Mach numbers above 1 are
not considered.

The theoretical nozzle analysis in this chapter is based on adiabatic frictionless flow
through an ideal nozzle. Since the frictional losses are often no more than a few
percent of the flow energy in a smoothly rounded nozzle at Reynolds numbers in excess
of 104, this theoretical analysis can be an excellent approximation of the actual flow. The
theoretical estimates of the nozzle flow can be corrected to incorporate frictional losses
using experimentally)' measured coefficients.
Inviscid (i.e., frictionless) theoretical analysis is not generally adequate to predict
diffuser flow. Diffuser flow is often strongly three dimensional owing to the growth and
separation of boundary layers at the diffuser walls. Nonideal behavior such as separation,
unsteady flow, and stall limits the diffuser performance. As a result, most diffuser design
data are obtained experimentally, although advanced numerical viscous considerable
promise.
1.1 THEORETICAL NOZZLE
A nozzle is a converging duct. The nozzle is to convert the potential energy differential in
pressure between two points into the kinetic energy of fluid flow.
Nozzles consisting of smoothly rounded faces, such as shown in Fig. 1-1, can devices
with discharges as high as 99% ideal in a high-Reynolds-number.
The flow through a nozzle, such as shown in fig1-1, is driven from the high
pressure, the nozzle inlet toward the low static pressure at the minimum flow area of the
nozzle.

Maximum Flow Rate. The maximum flow velocity at the nozzle throat is Mach I, the
speed of sound. Decreases in pressure beyond the pressure at the nozzle exit required to
produce sonic flow at the throat serve only to establish shock waves in the nozzle exit .
Neither increases in the inlet pressure nor decreases in the outlet pressure can increase the
velocity in the throat of a converging nozzle beyond the speed of sound. The maximum
flow is limited by the speed of sound in the throat because pressure waves cannot be
transmitted upstream through the nozzle, to increase inlet flow, any faster than the speed
of sound. Once sonic velocity is established in the nozzle throat, all downstream
parameters such as downstream pressure or downstream nozzle geometry are completely
isolated from any influence on the nozzle inlet flow.
3

This can be seen by considering the mass flow rate through the nozzle,

(a)Trends are with axial distance in the direction of flow. Flow is adiabatic and
frictionless (isentropic). The trends for velocity, pressure, temperature, Mach number, and
density are reversed for supersonic flow. .
(b)Tends to limit of M =1

Application:. Nozzles can be used to compute the pressure, density, temperature, and
mass flow at any point along a frictionless subsonic nozzle in terms of the reference
isentropic stagnation values and one additional parameter to fix the flow rate. For
example, if the nozzle forms an inlet from a large reservoir of static fluid, then the
isentropic stagnation pressure is the static pressure in the reservoir p 0. The isentropic
stagnation density, temperature, and speed of sound are similarly the reservoir ambient
values. If the nozzle outlet static pressure p is known, or postulated, the ratio p / p o can be
computed and the Mach number at the nozzle outlet can be immediately read. The outlet
density, temperature, and velocity can be computed using the same line with the known
stagnation values:

The area ratio A/A. is read from the same line . The Mach number and property ratios at
any other nozzle area are found by the line corresponding to the area ratio

Since A*, like po, To, o and eo, will be constant through the nozzle. A is the outlet area, A1
is the nozzle area at the point of interest, and A* is the minimum nozzle area for
the mass flow at sonic velocity.

NOZZLE DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT

Definition. The actual flow rate through a nozzle seldom, if ever, equals the theoretical
flow rate. Dissipation due to viscous friction and blockage of flow area by the boundary
layer tend to reduce the flow rate below the theoretical ideal. A discharge coefficient,
denoted by the symbol C, is introduced to correct the isentropic, one-dimensional
theoretical flow rate:

Actual Mass Rate of Flow

C = ---------------------------------------Theoretical Mass Rate of Flow

1.2 THEORETICAL DIFFUSER PERFORMANCE

A diffuser is an expanding duct. The primary objective of a diffuser is to recover fluid

static pressure from a fluid stream while reducing the flow velocity. The fluid slows as it
passes through a diffuser, and a portion of the kinetic energy of the flow is converted into
the potential energy of pressure. An efficient diffuser is one which converts the highest
possible percentage of kinetic energy into pressure within a given restriction on diffuser
length or expansion ratio.

In a diffuser, the pressure gradient opposes the flow . As a result

the boundary layer in a diffuser decelerates and thickens rapidly, and it can separate from
the diffuser walls to form large unsteady eddies that block the diffuser flow. The
separation of flow from the diffuser walls is called diffuser stall, and it virtually always
degrades the diffuser pressure recovery. Thus, the limit of diffuser performance is largely
governed by boundary layer growth and the onset of stall.
Consider the control volume of figure ,which is bounded by the interior walls of the
diffuser. The flow is steady and incompressible. Conservation of mass for this control
volume with constant density,

UA= constant

Fig. Constant surface for a diffuser with a free discharge. The boundary layer is retarded
at the diffuser walls.

1.3 VENTURI TUBES

Venturi tubes are the union of nozzle and diffuser, as shown in figure, The purpose of the
venture tube is to create a region of low static pressure at the venture throat which cab be
used to draw in second fluid, as in a venture carburetor, or to generate a pressure
differential between the throat static pressure and the static pressure in the contiguous
pipe line, as in a venture flow meter.
The mass flow rate through a venture tube can be predicted
by the same formulae for nozzles that are developed. For compressible flow the mass rate
is

(1)

(2)

(3)
Three figures of venture tubes designs

Discharge Coefficients for Venturi Tube Flowmeters.

Notation: D = diameter of contiguous pipe; d = throat diameter of venturi; U = average
flow velocity through contiguous pipe; Ud = average velocity through throat;
v = kinematic viscosity

10

2.

LBS ACTUATOR

This actuator is the most powerful in our line. One version of this actuator can provide up
to 600 pounds of traverse force. The one half inch probe ball screw actuator is used where
a larger probe is required and when larger drive forces are needed on the probe. This
actuator is rugged and stands up well under vibration and elevated temperature. The
actuator can be fitted with a water cooled base for mounting in high temperature
locations.
Stepping motors, which have the advantage of being electrically noise free
and being able to operate over a wide range of speed, can also be provided with this
actuator.

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2.1 Typical Specifications: LBS ACTUATOR

TRAVERSE
Range:
Force:
Speed:
Hysteresis:
Linearity:
Motor:

6,12,16,20,24,30,36 inches
300 pounds (1334.40 N)
5 inches/minute (127 mm/minute)
0.002 inches (.05 mm)
0.1% of full scale
Globe 166AI00-9, 1/12 hp. (D.C.)
Superior M063-FD06 (Stepping Motor)

ANGLE
Range:
Torque:
Speed:
Hysteresis:
Linearity:
Motor:

180, 360 degrees

10 foot-pounds (13.50 Nm)
20 seconds for 180 degrees
0.2 degrees
0.1% of full scale
Globe 100AI08-8, 1/30 hp. (D.C.)
Superior M063-FD06 (Stepping Motor)

GENERAL
Probe Diameter:
Mounting:

1/2 inch maximum (12.70 mm)

1.75 inch (44.45 mm) tubular base for
mounting in socket mount
Ten turn, 1000 ohm, 0.1% linearity
Teflon
20 pounds (9.07 kg)

Potentiometers:
Wiring:
Weight:
.

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2.2 INSTALLATION:
The installation of the Actuator includes allotting mechanical space on the test rig
sufficient to mount the Actuator, heat avoidance problems, and getting the proper
electrical cables and transducers hooked up to the Actuator and probe.
It should be determined whether there is sufficient space to mount
the LBS Actuator to the test rig in the desired location. Outline diagrams of the Actuator
are shown in D5015 and D5016B. The first diagram shows the top view clearance of the
Actuator while the second shows the side views.
Sometimes the Actuator is attached directly to the test rig and at
other times it is mounted onto another Third Motion Actuator. If the latter is the case,
then the Actuator base mounting hole pattern should be compared with the mounting hole
pattern on the Third Motion Actuator for compatibility. The outline diagrams of the
Actuator and Third Motion Actuator should be viewed to determine any potential
mechanical interference between Actuator movement and test rig obstructions.
The LBS Actuator mounts to the test rig by way of a mounting
base. This base is shown in D5061. There is a clearance hole in the middle of the base
flange for a 1/2" diameter probe. This hole should mount over a similar clearance hole in
the test rig mounting surface. Four (4) 1/4" diameter mounting holes for the base are
spaced at 90 intervals around the probe hole on a 2.750" diameter circle. The test rig
mounting surface generally is drilled with four blind 1/4-20 or 1/4-28 tapped holes to
accept the Actuator base.

13

Actuator weight and mounting position might be a possible factor

in mounting if the mounting surface on the test rig is not substantial. The weight of the
LBS Actuator is 20 or more pounds. If the Actuator is mounted horizontally, the weight
of the Actuator, probe, and transducers might cause a distortion in the test rig case.
The installer should also check to make sure that the probe to be used
is long enough to fit the test rig conditions and the Actuator. The probe will be required to
go through the center of the LBS Actuator ball screw. Generally the probe length for an
LBS Actuator must be a minimum of the "0" dimension on 05016B.

2.3 Temperature Considerations for Installation

The LBS Actuator has a number of components built into it that are plastic, etc., in which
temperature considerations should be taken into account if too high or Iowan
environmental temperature is to be encountered. For temperature environments above
75 C, precautions will have to be taken to prevent high temperatures from effecting the
Actuator. The motors and readout devices should not be subjected to environments above
75 C. Temperatures can be reduced on an Actuator by using deflectors to eliminate
radiant heat buildup. If heat conduction from the test rig is a problem, a cooling spacer
can be mounted between the test rig and the Actuator base. Water can be run through the
spacer to carry away the excess heat. Water flow rates should be adjusted to keep the
temperature below 170 F or 75 C.

14

2.4 Electrical Installation

The model LBS Actuator has one electrical cable to connect the Actuator to its operating
control (or controls). This cable contains the traverse and angle motor drive and traverse
and angle position readout circuits. If an Automatic Angle control or a TAC control is
used, then a transducer extension cable and transducer valve extension cable are also
used.
The electrical cables should be routed from the control room to the Probe
Actuator location on the test rig. These cables can be up to 100 or 200 feet long without
causing any problems. Make sure the cables are not routed next to any hot surfaces on the
test rig. Also make sure the cables do not have any stress on the end connectors as the
Actuator motions move during a run.
Wiring diagrams in this manual show the standard
Actuator wiring diagrams. Extension cables for connection to controllers are shown in the
control operating manuals.

2.5 Probe Installation

The probe is installed by inserting the probe through the ball screw that is incorporated
into the vertical height of the Actuator. The probe tip exposed to the flow medium is
inserted through the collet and the length of the screw. It emerges out the bottom of the
Actuator by the base. The probe is held firmly in position by the probe collet. The probe
collet is a split clamp collet. It is shown in D5214. This collet is made for 1/2" diameter

15

probes. If a different diameter is to be used up to 1/2", then a special collet should be

ordered.

2.6 Calibration of the Actuator

Actuator calibration consists of checking the traverse and angle motion position verses
their respective electronic readouts at the control.
Actuator position readout is
usually picked up on the Actuator by a potentiometer or an encoder. Encoder devices are
digital and have no positive mechanical stops. Potentiometers have precision ten
mechanical turns. The ten turns are usually geared to the full scale motion of the Actuator
angle or traverse motion. Any movement beyond the full scale motion will result in
potentiometer damage.

WARNING: When calibrating the Actuator motions, any change in the potentiometer
mechanical settings should be done carefully to make sure that the potentiometer is not
driven beyond its end points. Adjustable limit switch settings should be checked to limit
range so that potentiometer damage cannot take place.

Many Actuator angle motions have either mechanical counters or vernier dials
to help calibrate the angle motion mechanical positions with the electrical. Standard angle
motion ranges are: 500, 1020, 1800, or 3600. Check the Model number of the Actuator to
see what the angle range is.

16

Calibration procedure for the Actuator angle motion is outlined in the control
manual.
Actuator traverse motions usually have mechanical counters to help calibrate
the Actuator mechanical and electrical readout. The traverse calibration procedure is
outlined in its control manual.
If the traverse gear box cover is disengaged from the
traverse gearbox, care must be taken in returning the gearbox cover to the Actuator. The
gearbox cover has the traverse limit switch assembly mounted on top of it. This limit
switch assembly is coupled to the gear on the traverse potentiometer by way of a drive
wheel with a pin extending from it. The pin engages a slot in the potentiometer drive
gear. If the drive wheel on the limit switch assembly is turned while the cover is
disengaged, or if the Actuator traverse motion has been moved while the cover is not in
place, the traverse limit switch setting will have been changed. Traverse limit switch
positions should then be checked and reset upon the replacement of the traverse gearbox
cover. Failure to do this may result in permanent damage to the potentiometer.

2.7 General Notes:

Actuator parts are made out of both aluminum and steel
components. Aluminum parts are made with a tempered alloy for machinability and
strength. Most aluminum parts incorporated into the Actuator have been anodized.
Steel parts are generally plated for protection against oxidation.
Gears are made of stainless steel alloys. Worms in the motor drive gear trains are
generally hardened steel to prevent excessive wear.

17

Ball bearing screws are not normally lubricated. Lubrication of the ball
screw will cause problems by attracting dirt. This will do more harm than nonlubrication. Actuator gearboxes are lubricated with a ROCOL MTS1000 grease. This
grease is good over a temperature range from -300 C to + 1800 C. It might be necessary
from time to time to clean old grease from the Actuator gearing and regrease. The time
between regreasing the Actuator gearing is dependent on the temperature environment the
Actuators are run in.

18

19

20

21

LBS Top View Clearance Installation - D5015

22

LBS Top View Clearance Installation ( Trav Only) - D5015A

23

LBS Side View Clearance Installation - D5016D

24

25

LBS Side View Clearance Installation ( Trav Only) - D5016A

26

LBS Actuator Mounting Base - D5061

27

LBS Actuator Standard Collet - D5214

28

3.0

WORK INSTRUCTIONS FOR CALIBRATION OF

VENTURIMETER

3.1 SCOPE:
This Work instructions details out the key processes, various procedure for
calibration for Venturimeters up to 500mm of upstream diameter for low speed air flow
applications.

This work instructions also addresses the various controls exercised and

the key measurement parameters involved in the calibration procedure.

3.2 PROCEDURE:

3.2.1 Input required:

Manufacturing drawing of the venturimeter.

Venturimeter to be tested.

Work order from Commercial department, if applicable.

Visual inspection of the sample venturimeter for deciding worthiness of

calibration as follows
Smoothness of surface and circularity of ducting.
Perpendicularity of surface pressure tapping nipples with respect to the
axis.

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3.2.2 Methodology Followed

This section covers the methodology followed for the calibration pf
venturimeter and can be categorized as follows;

Requirement of equipment.

Requirement of instrumentation and measurement parameters.

Calibration requirements of instrumentation.

Venturimeter Calibration set up preparation.

Venturimeter Calibration procedure.

Data recording and calculation details.

Report preparation.

Requirement of equipment
Calibration of the venturimeter is carried in the low speed calibration test rig situated
in Open Circuit Facility of Turbo machinery laboratory. The test rig includes a settling
chamber, contraction cone and ducting in which flow is uniform. The air supply to the
test rig is given by the centrifugal blower driven by a 50kw motor. Flow is controlled by
inlet guide vane mechanism. Venturimeter is fitted at the down stream of the ducting.
Suitable discharge ducting is fitted at the end of the venture meter for flow stabilization.

30

Requirement of instrumentation and measurement parameters

The following pre-calibrated instruments / items are required for the
calibration

RTD with display unit.

Micromanometer ( 0-2000 mmwc range with 0.1 mm resolution )

Selector box.

Traversing mechanism with controller.

Three holed cylindrical / wedge probe.

Dry and wet bulb temperature.

Absolute pressure transducer ( 0-1200 mbar )

Calibration requirements of instrumentation

All the instruments and measuring equipments listed in above are required to
calibrated in a setup where traceability is maintained to the national or international
standards.

Venturimeter Calibration set up preparation

Venturimeter is to be inspected for any burrs or rust which will be cleaned by

emery/filling.

Checking of pressure tap nipples at the upstream and venture throat for blockage
and cleaning as needed.

31

Connection of Venturimeter in the ducting as detailed.

Setting up of traversing mechanism along with aerodynamic probe for flow

measurement at the upstream of venturimeter.

Leak proof Connection of three pressure signals from the cylindrical probe and
one static tap at the same traverse plane to the selector box using tubing.

Leak proof Connection of pressure signals from venturimeter upstream and throat
to the selector box using tubing.

Leak proof Connection between selector box output port and micro manometer.

Setting up of RTD at Venturi up stream and connection to digital display.

Venturimeter Calibration procedure

Visual inspection of the pressure signal lines for leakage or blocks.

Start of blower for mechanical run and for system stabilization.

Run the blower at different speeds ( at least five ) by regulating the IGV and make
the following measurements:
Ambient pressure (Barometric pressure )
Dry and wet bulb temperatures.
Wall static pressure at the probe location.
Three pressure signals from the probe.
Venturi upstream and throat pressures.
Venturi upstream flow temperature.

Recording of primary data as above and data analysis

32

Preparation of the detailed report.

Data recording and calculation details

The primary data sheet is given and data shall be recorded in the format manually
at present. The calculation details are programmed in MS Excel and the raw data is fed
into the program for calculation.

Report preparation
The calibration report shall be issued as per the given format.

3.3 Test Verification and Validation

The following methodology will be followed to verify
the correctness of the test data:

The uncertainty will be calculated as per procedure.

The calibration constant K will be compared with previous data, if the size of the
venturimeter is same and variation of the order of 5% will be accepted
considering geometry variation and uncertainty. In case of non conformance, the
test will be repeated with through checking of primary signals for
leakage/blockage.

In case of new size of venturimeter , the test will be repeated three times and
repeatability should be within 2%. Nonconformance will be dealt in the same
manner as given above.
33

The validation of the calibration results will be achieved for a repeatability of

calibration factor within 2% and uncertainty within 2%.

3.4 Measure of Completion

The measure of completion would be the submission of the calibration report to

the commercial departments as per the schedule given in the work order. Internal measure
of the productivity shall be as per the procedure.

34

Fig.Calibration of Venturimeter with traverse mechanism

35

Test Results:

36

CALIBRATION OF VENTURIMETER

37

4.

TESTING PROCEDURE

4.1 The testing will be carried out as per the following steps:
1. The test-valve will be connected to the test setup.
2. The blower will be started with an IGV setting.
3. Checks will be made using liquid soap that no air leaks out of the gaskets or packings
between the flanges.
4. The setting angles of the guide vanes at blower inlet will be adjusted such that the
required air velocity is obtained at test valve inlet.
5. The pitot static probe shall be aligned with the flow. The measures with the probe shall
be made at 8 locations, at each diameter as per BS Standard; perpendicular to each
other across the section of measuring pipe.
6. The average of the measured values shall be calculated.
7. The pitot-static probe will be set to the average reading point~
8. The differential pressure across the test valve will be measured using a
micromanometer or water manometer as also the differential pressure of straight pipe
at 8D location by using micromanometer or water manometer.
9. The total and static pressures from the pitot static probe will be measured.
10. The static pressure at valve inlet (P1) will be measured
11. The temperature of the air inside the testing pipe at points near the pitot-static probe
and valve inlet will be measured.

38

12. Steps 4 through 11 will be repeated for dif ferent flap openings. Valve angle opening
will be adjusted with increments of 5 degrees up to maximum valve opening angle.
NOTE:
In case of disc fluttering, after opening the flap to obtain the required air flow
rate, the spindle of the test valve may be held to stop fluttering at the particular position.

4.2

CALCULATION OF VOLUME FLOW RATE OF AIR:

The measurements from the pitot-static probe shall be used for calculating the air flow
rate at each valve opening.
Calculation of air flow rate :

39

40

41

CONCLUSION:

The Calibration of Venturimeter has done by the traversing mechanism. In the traverse
mechanism with the help of probe and micromanometer the required parameters has
measured. The Dry and Wet bulb Temperatures are required in the calculation of density
and volume air flow.

42

BIBILOGRAPHY:

Olson. A.T. , Nozzle Discharge Coefficients Compressible flow J. fluid eng

Weber, H . E. , Boundary layer Calculation for Analysis and Design J. fluids

Engg.

Keith, T. G., and J.E.A.John, Calculated Orifice Plate Discharge Coefficients at

low Reynolds numbers J. fluids Engg.

Head ,V.P., Improved Expansion Factors for Nozzle, Orifices and Variable Area
Meters J. fluids Engg.

Jordon. D, and M.D. Mintz, Air tables. McGrew-Hill, New york, 1965.

43