EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER 7: BEHAVIORAL VIEWS OF LEARNING

Learning
process through which experience causes a relatively permanent change in
knowledge or behavior.
changes caused by maturation do not qualify as learning
temporary changes resulting from illness, fatigue or hunger are also excluded
Behavioral Learning Theories
explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in
observable behaviors.
earliest explanations of learning came from Aristotle: We remember things
together 1) when they are similar 2) when they contrast 3) when they are contiguous.
Contiguity
association of two events because of repeated pairing
whenever you see your particularly violent classmate, you keep expecting that you'll
get a broken finger or a rib or something
Stimulus
event that activates behavior; crush mo
Response
observable reaction to a stimulus; kilig
Respondents
responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli.
crush mo, kilig; stalker/secret admirer mo, diri
Classical Conditioning
association of automatic responses with new stimuli
focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or physiological responses such
as fear, increased muscle tension, salivation.
Ivan Pavlov
Neutral Stimulus
stimulus not connected to a response; an empty classroom
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response; the
sight of your crush and his/her partner (not you lel)

Unconditioned Response (UR)

naturally occurring emotional or physiological response; pain, hugot, iyak
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning; the
empty classroom where you saw them together
Conditioned Response (CR)
learned response to a previously neutral stimulus; whenever you pass by that
classroom, you remember the pain and the tears and the hugot
Operants
voluntary (and generally goal directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal;
reciting in class
Operant Conditioning
learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences
or antecedents.
B.F. Skinner
Antecedents
events that precede an action
Consequences
events that follow an action
* Antecedent Behavior Consequence (A-B-C)
** As behavior is ongoing, a given consequence becomes an antecedent for the next
ABC sequence.
Reinforcement
use of consequences to strengthen behavior
Reinforcer
any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will
occur again.
Types of reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement: strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus
after the behavior; Galing naman. Ang taba ng utak. Wow. Nosebleed sa
English.
Negative Reinforcement: strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus
when the behavior occurs; Di ka na tatanga-tanga.
* If a particular action leads to avoiding or escaping an aversive situation, the action is
less likely to be repeated in a similar situation.

Aversive
irritating or unpleasant
Punishment
process that weakens or suppresses behavior
* A behavior followed by a punisher is less likely to be repeated in similar situations
in the future.
Two Forms of Punishment
Type 1 Punishment or Presentation Punishment: decreasing the chances that a
behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the
behavior
Type 2 Punishment or Removal Punishment: decreasing the chances that a
behavior will occur again by removing a pleasant stimulus following the
behavior
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
presenting reinforcement after every appropriate response
Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule
presenting a reinforcement after some but not all responses
interval schedule: reinforcement based on length of time between responses
ratio schedule: reinforcement based on the number of responses
either may be fixed (predictable) or variable (unpredictable)i
Extinction
the disappearance of a learned response
Stimulus Control
capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors
Effective Instruction Delivery
instructions that are concise, clear, and specific and that communicate an expected
result; statements work better than questions.
Cueing
providing a stimulus that sets up a desired behavior; a to-do list (that you try to
follow but ultimately fail)
Prompt
a reminder that follows a cue to make sure that person reacts to a cue; working in
your pairs, unless your partner doesn't care and does all the work anyway
Applied Behavior Analysis
is the application of behavioral learning principles to change behavior.

Behavior Modification
systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior.
Methods for encouraging behaviors
reinforcing with teacher attention
differential reinforcement; praise students for good behavior, while ignoring
misbehavior; systematic application of praise and attention may be most
powerful motivational and classroom management tool available to teachers
Premack Principle: a principle stating that a more-preferred activity can serve as a
reinforcer for a less-preferred activity; if you did this first, I'll let you do that
later
shaping: reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior
* successive approximations: small components that make up a complex
behavior
* task analysis: system for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills
and sub-skills
Positive Practice
practicing correct responses immediately after errors
Negative Reinforcement
if an action stops or avoids something unpleasant, then that action is likely to
occur again in similar situations.
if consequence involves removing or subtracting a stimulus, the reinforcement is
negative.
Reprimands
criticisms for misbehavior; rebukes
soft, calm, private reprimands are more effective than loud, public reprimands in
decreasing disruptive behavior
students usually respond quickly to private reprimands
Response Cost
punishment by loss of reinforcers.
paying a fine.
Social Isolation
removal of a disruptive student for 5-10 minutes
one of the most controversial behavioral methods for decreasing undesirable
behavior

Time Out
technically, the removal of all reinforcement; in practice, isolation of a student
from the rest of the class for a brief time.
Good behavior game
arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit for
breaking agreed-upon rules of good behavior
Group Consequences
rewards or punishment given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules
of conduct
Contingency Contract
a contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do
to earn a particular reward or privilege.
Token Reinforcement System
system in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior
can be exchanged for some desired reward
should only be used in 3 situations:
* to motivate students who are completely uninterested in their work
* to encourage students who have consistently failed to make academic
progress
* to deal with class that is out of control.
Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)
procedures used to obtain information about antecedents, behaviors and
consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior.
Positive Behavior Supports (PBS)
interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve
the same purpose for the student.
Precorrection
tool for positive behavior support that involves identifying the context for a
students behavior, specifying the alternative expected behavior, modifying the
situation to make the problem behavior less likely, then rehearsing the
expected positive behaviors in the new context and providing powerful
reinforcers
Self Management
use of behavioral learning principles to change your own behavior
monitoring and evaluating are elements of self management
Self Evaluation
is more difficult than self-recording because it involves making a judgment about
the quality of your own work

Self-Reinforcement
controlling your own reinforcers; last step in self management
Social Learning Theory
theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others
Albert Bandura
Enactive Learning
learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions
Observational Learning
learning by observation and imitations of others; vicarious learning

CHAPTER 8: COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING

Cognitive View of Learning
a general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring,
remembering and using knowledge
Cognitive science
the interdisciplinary study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge, creation
and the brain.
Mirror System
areas of the brain that fire both during perception of an action by someone else
and when performing the action
Kinds of Knowledge
Domain Specific Knowledge: information that is useful in a particular situation or
that implies mainly to one specific topic.
General Knowledge: information that is useful in many different kind of tasks;
information that applies to many situations
Information Processing
the human minds activity of taking in, storing, and using information
Sensory Memory
system that holds sensory information very briefly
initial processing that transforms these incoming stimuli into information so we
can make sense of them
other names: sensory buffer, iconic memory (for images), and echoic memory (for
sounds)
capacity of sensory memory is very large.
lasts less than 3 seconds
Perception
interpretation of sensory information; the process of detecting a stimulus and
assigning meaning
Bottom-up processing (or Data Driven)
perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a
recognizable pattern
Gestalt
pattern, whole or configuration
German theorists hold that people organize their perceptions into coherent wholes

Top Down (or conceptually driven processing)

making sense of information by using context and what we already know about the
situation
Attention
focus on a stimulus
attention is selective
Automaticity
the ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort
Two types of Multitasking
sequential multitasking: you switch back and forth from one task to another, but
focus on only one at a time
simultaneous multitasking: there is overlapping focus on several tasks at a time
Tasks

resource-limited: allocates more resources

data-limited: depends on the amount and quality of the data available
automated: happens without much attention because it has been practiced
thoroughly

Working Memory
workbench of the memory system
the information that you are focusing on at a given moment
duration of information in the working memory is short, about 5-20 sec, unless
you keep rehearsing the information
Short-term Memory
component of memory system that holds information for about 20 seconds
4 Elements/Parts of Working Memory (page 290; figure 8.4)
Central executive
* responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental
resources
* the worker of working memory
Phonological loop
* a speech and sound related system for holding and rehearsing (refreshing)
words and sounds in a short term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds
Visuospatial Sketchpad
* a holding system for visual and spatial information
Episodic Buffers
* workbench of working memory

* the process that brings together and integrates information from the
phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long term memory under
the supervision of the central executive
Cognitive load
the volume of resources necessary to complete a tasks.
3 Kinds of Cognitive Load
Intrinsic Cognitive Load
* unavoidable
* amount of cognitive processing required to figure out the material
* the resources required by the task itself, regardless of other stimuli
* it is essential to the task; it cannot be eliminated
Extraneous cognitive Load
* avoidable or manageable
* the resources required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task
Germane Cognitive Load
* desirable
* deep processing of information related to the task, including the application
of prior knowledge to a new task or problem.
Retaining Information in Working Memory
Maintenance rehearsal
* keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself.
Elaborative rehearsal
* keeping information by working memory by associating it with something
else you already know
Chunking
* grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units
Loss of Information
interference: processing new info interferes or gets confused with old info
decay: the weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time
Basic Aspects of Memory
memory span or the amount of info that can be held in short or working memory
memory processing efficiency
speed of processing
Long Term Memory
permanent store of knowledge
the capacity of long term memory appears to be unlimited
-

Contents of Long Term Memory

Declarative Knowledge
* verbal information; facts
* knowing that
Procedural Knowledge
* knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task
* knowing how
Self Regulatory Knowledge
* knowing how to manage your learning or knowing how and when to use
your declarative and procedural knowledge
Categories of Long Term Memory
Explicit Memory: long term memory that involve deliberate or conscious recall
* Episodic memory: your own experiences and memories
* Semantic memory: memory of meaning, including words, facts, theories and
concepts; declarative memory
Implicit Memory: knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but that
influences our behavior or thought without our awareness
* Classical conditioning effects: ex. conditioned emotional reactions
* Procedural memory: motor skills, habits, tacit rules
* Priming: implicit activation of concepts in long term memory
Propositional network
set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long term knowledge is
held
Images
representations based on the physical attributes the appearance- of information.
Dual Coding Theory
suggests that information is stored in long-term memory as either visual images or
verbal units, or both
Allan Paivio
Concept
a category used to group similar events, ideas, objects or people
Defining Attributes
qualities that connect members of a group to a specific concept
Prototypes
best example or best representative of a category
Exemplars
an actual memory of a specific object

Theory based
an explanation for concept formation that suggests our classification are based on
ideas about the world that we create to make sense of things
Schemas (or Schemata)
basic structures for organizing information; concepts
Story grammar (also called a schema for text/story structure)
another type of schema; a typical structure or organization for a category of
stories
Flashbulb memories
clear, vivid memories of emotionally important events in your life
these memories are complete and vivid.
Implicit Memories
Procedural Memory: long memory for how to do things
Script

schema or expected plan for a sequence of steps in a common events such as

buying groceries or ordering pizza
Productions
the contents of procedural memory
rules about what actions to take, given certain condition
Storing and retrieving information in Long term memory
one important requirement is that new info is integrated with existing knowledge
as you construct understanding
Elaboration: adding and extending meaning by connecting new info to existing
knowledge
Organization: ordered and logical network of relations; second element of
processing that improves learning.
Imagery:
* Dual Coding: visual and verbal materials are processed in diff systems
* Limited Capacity: working memory for verbal and visual material is severely
limited
* Generative Learning: meaningful learning happens when students focus on
relevant info and generate or build connections
Context: the physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event
Levels of Processing Theory
theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed

Spreading activation
retrieval of pieces of info based on their relatedness to one another
remembering one bit of info activates recall of associated info
Retrieval
process of searching for and finding information in long-term memory
Reconstruction
recreating info by using memories, expectations, logic and existing knowledge
Mnemonics
systematic procedure for improving memory
techniques for remembering; the art of memory
Chain mnemonics
memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element
Acronym
form of abbreviation
a word formed from the 1st letter of each word in a phase
Keyword method
system of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding cue words and
images
3Rs (Recode, Relate, Retrieve)
Rote memorization
remembering info by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of
the information
Loci Method
Latin locus meaning place
technique of associating items with specific places
Serial-position effect
the tendency to remember the beginning and the end, but not the middle of a list
Distributed practice
practice in brief periods with rest intervals
Massed practice
practice for a single extended period
Part learning
breaking a list of items into shorter lists
Automated basic skills
skills that are applied without conscious thought

Three stages in the development of an automated skill

Cognitive stage: we rely on declarative knowledge and general problem-solving
strategies to accomplish our goal
Associative stage: individual steps of a procedure are combined or chunked into
larger units
Autonomous stage: where the whole procedure can be accomplished w/o much
attention
Productions
units of knowledge that combine conditions with actions in if this happens, do
that relationships that are often automatic
Domain-specific strategies
consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem
Types of Knowledge:
prior knowledge
domain specific
general knowledge
declarative knowledge
conditional/self-regulatory knowledge
procedural knowledge
Memory
encoding information
store
retrieve
Attention
selective
divided
sustained
multitasking

CHAPTER 9: COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Metacognition
knowledge or awareness of self as knower
literally means cognition about cognition or thinking about thinking; knowledge
about our own thinking processes
regulates thinking and learning through three essential skills: planning, monitoring,
evaluating
Individual differences in metacognition
metacognitive abilities begin to develop around ages 5 to 7 and improve
throughout school.
not all differences in metacognitive abilities have to do with age or maturation.
some individual differences in metacognitive abilities are probably caused by
differences in biology or learning experiences.
KWL

a strategy to guide reading and inquiry

the KWL frame encourages students to look within and identify what they bring
to each learning situation, where they want to go, and what they actually
achieve

Learning Strategies
are a special kind of procedural knowledge; knowing how to do something.
examples of learning strategies:
* Planning and focusing attention
* Organizing and remembering
* Comprehension
* Cognitive monitoring
* Practice
summaries; taking notes; underlining and highlighting; underlining & note-taking
are probably two of the most frequent but ineffectively used strategies among
college students
Visual Tools for Organizing
Concept map: a drawing that charts the relationships among ideas
-Cmaps: tools for concept mapping developed by the Institute for Human and
Machine Cognition that are connected to many knowledge maps and other
resources on the Internet.
Reading Strategies
READS: Review headings; Examine boldface words; Ask, What do I expect to

learn?; Do it Read; Summarize in your own words

CAPS: a strategy that can be used in reading literature: Characters, Aim of story,
Problem, Solution.
Applying Learning Strategies
production deficiency: happens when students learn problem-solving strategies, but
do not apply them when they could or should.
Learning strategies for struggling students
LINCS Vocabulary Strategy: uses stories and imagery to help students learn how to
identify, organize, define, and remember words and their meanings.
LINCS: List the parts; Identify a reminding word; Note a LINCing story; Create a
LINCing picture; Self-test
Problem Solving
problem: any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal and must find a
means to do so; has an initial state (the current situation), a goal (the desired
outcome) and a path for reaching the goal.
problem solving- formulating new answers, going beyond the simple application of
previously learned rules to achieve a goal.
general problem-solving strategies: identifying the problem, setting goals, exploring
possible solutions and consequences, acting, and finally evaluating the outcome.
Translation
interpretation of the problem
students with advanced knowledge improve when they solve new problems, not
when they focus on already worked out examples.
Expert reversal effect
worked examples can actually interfere with the learning of more expert students;
reflect all the stages of problem solving identifying the problem, setting
goals, exploring solutions, solving the problem, and finally evaluating the
outcome
Schema-driven problem solving
recognizing a problem as a disguised version of an old problem for which one
already has a solution.
Possible Solution Strategies
Algorithm: step-by-step procedure for solving a problem; usually domain specific;
that is, tied to a particular subject area; right answer is guaranteed.
Heuristic: general strategy used in attempting to solve problems.
* means-ends analysis: a goal is divided into subgoals
* working-backward strategy: one starts with the goal and moves backward to

solve the problem

* analogical thinking: in which one limits the search for solutions to situations
that are similar to the one at hand
* verbalization- putting your problem-solving plan and its logic into words
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving
response set: rigidity, the tendency to respond in the most familiar way
functional fixedness: inability to use objects or tools in a new way
Problems with heuristics
representativeness heuristic: judging the likelihood of an event based on how well
the events match your prototypeswhat you think is representative of the
category
availability heuristic: judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available
in your memory, assuming those easily remembered events are common
belief perseverance: the tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of
contradictory evidence
confirmation bias: seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, while
disconfirming evidence
Creativity and Creative Problem Solving
creativity: the ability to produce work that is original, but still appropriate and
useful
divergent thinking: the ability to propose many different ideas or answers
convergent thinking: the more common ability to identify only one answer
Sources of Creativity
domain-relevant skills: including talents and competencies that are valuable for
working in the domain
creativity-relevant processes: including work habits and personality traits
intrinsic task motivation: deep curiosity and fascination with the task
Restructuring
conceiving of a problem in a new or different way
Insight
sudden realization of a solution
Brainstorming
generating ideas without stopping to evaluate them
Critical Thinking and Argumentation
- critical thinking: evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining
the problem, the evidence, and the solution

 critical thinking skills:

* sourcing: looking at the source of the document before reading and using
that information to help interpret and make inferences about the
reading
corroboration: making connections between the information in different texts and
noting similarities and contradiction
contextualization: imaging the time, place, people, and culture that is the context
for the event, with all the political and social forces that might be operating.
Teaching for transfer
transfer: influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive
uses of cognitive tools and motivations
overlearning: practicing a skill past the point of mastery
types of transfer:
* Near (same learning situation) or Far (not similar situation)
* Low road (unconscious effort) or high road (purposeful or conscious effort)
* Forward reaching (storing information for future use) or backward reaching
(looking back at previous experiences)

CHAPTER 10: THE LEARNING SCIENCES AND CONSTRUCTIVISM

The Learning Sciences
interdisciplinary science of learning, based on research in psychology, education,
computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and
other fields that study learning.
basic assumptions of the Learning Sciences:
* experts have deep conceptual knowledge
* learning comes from the learner
* schools must create effective learning environments
* prior knowledge is key
* reflection is necessary to develop deep conceptual knowledge
Embodied cognition
theory stating that cognitive processes develop from real-time, goal-directed
interactions between humans and their environment
Cognitive and Social Constructivism
constructivism: view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building,
understanding and making sense of information
Psychological/ Individual/ Cognitive Constructivism
individuals construct their own cognitive structures as they interpret their
experiences in particular situations
individual constructivists or cognitive constructivists study individual knowledge,
beliefs, self-concept, or identity, focusing on the inner psychological life of
people
First wave constructivism
focus on the individual and psychological sources of knowing, as in Piagets theory
Radical constructivism
knowledge is assumed to be the individuals construction; it cannot be judged right
or wrong
Vygotskys Social Constructivism
appropriating: being able to internalize or take for yourself knowledge and skills
developed in interaction with others or with cultural tools
second wave constructivism: a focus on the social and cultural sources of knowing,
as in Vygotskys theory
constructionism: how public knowledge in disciplines such as science, math,
economics, or history is constructed

Community of Practice
social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true
Situated learning
the idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were
learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings
Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered Learning
Complex learning environments: problems and learning situations that mimic the
ill-structured nature of real life </3
Social Negotiation: aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with
others and respect for different perspectives
Intersubjective attitude: a commitment to build shared meaning with others by
finding common ground and exchanging interpretations
Multiple representations of content: considering problems using various analogies,
examples, and metaphors
Spiral Curriculum: Bruners design for teaching that introduces the fundamental
structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in
more and more complex forms over time
Application of Constructivist Perspectives
Scaffolding: teachers and students make meaningful connections between what the
teacher knows and what the students know and need in order to help the
students learn more
Contingency Support: the teacher is constantly adjusting, differentiating, and
tailoring responses to the student
Fading: the teacher gradually withdraws support as the students understanding and
skills deepen
Transferring responsibility: students assume more and more responsibility for their
own learning
Inquiry and Problem-based Learning
Inquiry learning: approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and
students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions
Problem-based learning: methods that provide students with realistic problems that
dont necessarily have right answers
Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching
Cognitive apprenticeship: a relationship in which a less experienced learner acquire
knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert
Reciprocal teaching: designed to help students understand and think deeply about
what they read
* Three guidelines: shift gradually, match demands to abilities, and diagnose

thinking
Collaboration and Cooperation
Collaboration: a philosophy about how to relate to others how to learn and work
Cooperation: way of working with others to attain a shared goal
Cooperative learning: situations in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation,
and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning
is supported by other individuals
Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning
five elements that define true cooperative learning groups: positive
interdependence, promotive interaction, individual accountability, collaborative
and social skills, group processing
Designs for cooperation
Reciprocal questioning: students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions
about lesson material
Jigsaw classroom: a learning process in which each student is part of a group and
each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole
group; students become experts on their piece and then teach it to the
others in their group
Structured controversy: students work in pairs within their four-person cooperative
groups to research a particular controversy
Service Learning
- combines academic learning with personal and social development for secondary
and college students, i.e. NSTP

CHAPTER 11: SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

Social learning theory
emphasizes learning through observation of others.
Social cognitive theory
theory that adds concern with cognitive factors
a dynamic system that explains human adaptation, learning and motivation
* cognitive factors: expectations (masakit yan), self perceptions, beliefs
* two key elements: observational learning and self-efficacy
Triarchic Reciprocal Causality
an explanation of behavior that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual
and the environment on each other
personal, environmental and behavioral
Modeling: learning by observing others
Attention: in order to learn through observation, we have to pay attention
Retention: in order to imitate the behavior of a model, you have to remember
Motivation and Reinforcement
reinforcement makes us more motivated to pay attention, remember and reproduce
the behavior. It is important in maintaining learning
Vicarious reinforcement: increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by
observing another person being reinforced for that behavior
Ex: Erik saw someone being complimented with his/her lab experiments, Erik
now then will work better on his lab experiments
Self-reinforcement: controlling your own reinforcement
Ripple effect
contagious spreading of behaviors through imitation
Self-Efficacy and Agency
Self-efficacy: a persons sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task
* peoples beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of
performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives
* is context specific which means it varies depending on the subject/task
* concerned with the judgments of personal competence
Human Agency: the capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation and emotions
to reach your goals
Self-concept: development as a result of external and internal comparisons, using
other people or other aspects of the self as frames of reference
Self-esteem: concerned with the judgment of self-worth

Sources of Self-Efficacy
Mastery experiences: our own direct experiences; the most powerful sources of
efficacy information
* Arousal: physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert,
excited or tense
Vicarious experiences: accomplishments that are modeled by someone else
* Modeling: changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through
observing another person
Social persuasion: a pep talk or specific performance feedback
Physiological Arousal
Teachers Sense of Efficacy
a teachers belief that he/she can reach even the most difficult students and help
them learn
Self Regulated Learning
self-regulated learners have a combination of academic learning skills and selfcontrol that makes learning easier, so they are more motivated
Self-regulation: process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors and
emotions in order to reach goals
Self-regulated Learning: a view of learning as skills and will applied in analyzing
learning task, applying skills and making adjustments in learning; 4 main
stages:
* Analyzing the learning task
* Setting goals and plans
* Enacting strategies
* Regulating learning
Factors influencing skill and will (self-regulation)
Knowledge
* self-regulated learners nee knowledge about themselves, the subject, the
strategies for learning, and the context in which they will apply their
learning
* expert students know about themselves and how they will learn best
* they also can apply the strategy needed
Motivation
* self regulated learners are motivated to learn and they believe in their own
intelligence and abilities
Volition
* will power; self-discipline; work styles that protect opportunities to reach
goals by applying self-regulated learning

 Social processes that support development of self-regulation:

* Co-regulation: a transitional phase during which students gradually
appropriate self-regulated learning and skill through modeling, direct
teaching, feedback, and coaching from others
* Shared regulation: students working together regulate each other
Cognitive Behavior Modification
procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing
your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction
Self- instruction
talking oneself through the steps of a task; steps:
* Cognitive modeling
* External guidance
* Overt, self-guidance
* Faded, overt self-guidance
* Covert, self-instruction
Emotional Self-regulation
Self-awareness: accurately assessing your feelings, interests, values and strengths;
maintaining a well-grounded self-confidence
Self-management: regulating emotions and persevering in overcoming obstacles
Social awareness: taking the perspective of and empathizing with others
Relationship skills: establishing and maintaining healthy relationships based on
cooperation; avoid social pressure, ask help when needed
Responsible decision-making: making decision based on ethical standards, safety
concerns, social norms, respect for others and consequences