DIVISION S-6NOTES

ters to characterize both agricultural and rangeland

soils, however, has been limited by concerns about (i)
instrument cost, (ii) measurement repeatability, (iii)
limited ranges of soil resistance that can be measured by
a single penetrometer, and (iv) difficulties in comparing
data collected using penetrometers designed for different soil resistance ranges (Fritton, 1990; Vyn and Raimbault, 1993). The dynamic penetrometer design described addresses these concerns.

A DYNAMIC CONE PENETROMETER

FOR MEASURING SOIL
PENETRATION RESISTANCE
Jeffrey E. Herrick* and Tim L. Jones
Abstract
Recognition of the importance of soil compaction is increasing,
but instrument cost, measurement repeatability, and data interpretation limit its measurement on agricultural and rangelands. The dynamic penetrometer described here follows American Society of Agricutlural Engineers standards, but replaces the proving ring with a
strike plate, a shaft extension, and a sliding hammer. The penetrometer
cone is pushed into the soil by successive hammer blows. Penetration
resistance is calculated as the work by the soil needed to stop cone
movement divided by the penetration distance. The work by the soil
is defined as the kinetic energy of the hammer when it impacts the
strike plate. Construction cost is approximately $100 to $150. The
standard drop height and hammer mass ensure measurements are
consistent between operators.

Static Penetrometers
A number of static designs are commercially available. Most
consist of a rigid, cone-tipped rod attached to a pressure measuring device. The measuring device is usually a load cell or
strain gauge coupled with an analog dial or pressure transducer
for readout. The force exerted by the operator (either average
or maximum) is normalized to the basal area of the cone to
form a parameter called the cone index (i.e., pressure applied
to the cone), usually reported in kilopascals (American Society
of Agricutlural Engineers, 1992). A manually operated, static
penetrometer developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
WES (Waterways Experiment Station, 1948) is endorsed by
the ASAE (American Society of Agricutlural Engineers, 1992)
and is commonly referred to as the Corps of Engineers or
COE penetrometer (Bradford, 1986). This design is widely
used in agricultural soils (Radcliffe et al., 1989; Clark et al.,
1993; Vyn and Raimbault, 1993; Mullins et al., 1994). A variation on this design, found in pocket penetrometers, uses a blunt
tip and nonrecessed shaft to measure unconfined compressive
strength (Bradford, 1986).
Manually operated static penetrometers suffer from several
limitations. They (i) are relatively expensive, (ii) must be
moved through the soil at a constant velocity, (iii) must be
recalibrated on a regular basis in order to generate consistent,
repeatable measurements, and (iv) are designed for a relatively limited range of soil resistance. The cost for a standard
Corps of Engineers instrument equipped with a strain gauge
is $600. While not unreasonable when compared with other
research tools, this puts the instruments out of range of most
extension workers and crop consultants who are seeking a
rapid, reliable indicator of soil compaction. More recently,
lower-priced strain gauge-based instruments have become
available, but these appear to be less durable and lack a recalibration option. Manually operated penetrometers often yield
variable results when used by the same operator and especially
when used by different operators because of differences in the
rate of insertion. Correct interpretation of static penetrometer
data also requires insertion into the soil at a constant velocity
(i.e., probe acceleration equal to zero), so that the soil resistive
force can be assumed equal to the total force applied to the
penetrometer. If penetrometer velocity changes, then the soil
resistive force will be either more (negative probe acceleration) or less (positive probe acceleration) than measured by
the operator. Constant probe velocity is difficult to maintain
in manually operated penetrometers.
In addition to variable penetration velocity within a single
measurement, different operators generally develop different
average penetrometer velocities because of different physical
strength and leverage. Laboratory studies have demonstrated
that differences in average penetrometer velocities alone

ncreased interest in the effects of soil compaction

on soil quality has created a demand for tools which
measure soil penetrability or penetration resistance on
a routine basis (Romig et al., 1995). It has long been
recognized that compaction affects both root growth
and soil water and air availability to roots, and that
increased penetrometer resistance is correlated with
compaction when all other factors are held constant
(Baver et al., 1972). The most common method for measuring compaction is to determine cone index values
using static penetrometers. Static penetrometers are designed to measure the force required to push a probe
(usually a cone or blunt tip) through the soil at a constant
(static) velocity. Dynamic penetrometers form a second
general class (Perumpral, 1987). These probes rely on
one or more discrete applications of kinetic energy to
advance the probe (Table 1).
Cone indices, computed from static penetrometer
data, have been used to characterize soil compaction
and resistance to root growth (Barber, 1994; Mullins
et al., 1994), tillage effects (Vyn and Raimbault, 1993;
Busscher et al., 2000), wheel traffic effects (Sharratt et
al., 1998), and hard pan resistance (Radcliffe et al.,
1989). The values (Fritton, 1990) depend on cone properties (i.e., diameter, height, and included angle), as
well as soil properties (e.g., bulk density, shear strength,
water content, and texture). Use of existing penetromeJ.E. Herrick, USDA-ARS Jornada Exp. Range, MSC 3JER, and T.L.
Jones, Dep. of Agronomy and Horticulture, New Mexico State Univ.,
Box 30001, Dep. 3Q, Las Cruces, NM 88003-0003. Joint contribution
from the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, and the New
Mexico Agric. Exp. Stn. Received 8 Jan. 2001. *Corresponding author
(jherrick@nmsu.edu).
Published in Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 66:13201324 (2002).

1320

1321

NOTES

Table 1. Comparison of proposed penetrometer design with three alternatives.

Dynamic cone

Dynamic core

Energy source
Factors affecting repeatability
Limitations to use in dry soils

Sliding hammer
Drop height consistency
None found

Measurements units

Energy per unit depth

Sliding hammer
Drop height consistency
Increased (corer) resistance
at greater depth(s)
Energy per unit depth

Costs
Change in shaft resistance
with depth
Description

$100
Minimal
This article

Static cone

Static cone hydraulic

Hand pressure
Operator consistency
Operator strength

Hydraulic
Hydraulic consistency
Hydraulic strength

soil corer

Force per base area

(cone index)
$600

Force per base area

(cone index)

$1000 (est.)

High
Parker and Jenny, 1945

Minimal
Waterways Exp. Stn., 1948

Minimal
Rooney and Lowery, 2000

Only one sample reference is listed for each type to save space.

(even if constant within a single measurement) can result in an

11% variation in cone index for a soil material (Fritton, 1990).
The problem of variable penetrometer velocity can be eliminated by using mechanical devices which adjust penetrometer
force to maintain constant penetrometer velocity (Clark et
al., 1993; Barone and Faugno, 1996). Their use in routine measurements, however, is limited by cost and the need to transport a large platform with a power supply (such as a truck or
tractor) to each measurement point. The variable velocity
problem can also be minimized through the use of audible devices which are triggered by velocities outside of a specific
range.
The adaptability or range of soil conditions to which strain
gauge penetrometers can be applied is limited by the strength
and weight of the operator. The range can be increased by
using cones of different dimensions. However, it is extraordinarily difficult to compare data from penetrometers using
different cones, and the error associated with conversion procedures is quite high (Fritton, 1990).

Dynamic Penetrometers
Dynamic penetrometers do not attempt to push the penetrometer through the soil at a constant velocity, nor do they
apply continuous force to the penetrometer. Dynamic penetrometers supply a known amount of kinetic energy to the
penetrometer, which causes the penetrometer to move a distance through the soil. The penetration distance depends on
the kinetic energy applied to the penetrometer, the geometry
of the penetrometer tip, and the soil penetration resistance.
Dynamic penetrometers are not subject to operator variability
since they do not rely on constant penetration velocity, and
the kinetic energy applied by these devices is mechanically
controlled (i.e., fixed hammer mass and drop heights).
Currently available dynamic penetrometer designs include
some that are dropped onto the soil from a specified height
(e.g., drop cones), and others that are driven into the soil with
repeated hammer blows. The drop cone method measures the
depth of penetration resulting from a cone of fixed mass being
dropped from a standard height. These have been successfully
used to measure shear strength in soils (Campbell and Hunter,
1986; Godwin et al., 1991). The hammer-type penetrometers
use a slide hammer of fixed mass and drop height to apply
consistent kinetic energy with each blow. Either the number
of blows required to penetrate a specified depth, or the depth
of penetration per blow are measured in this method.
The use of hammer-type penetrometers has been largely
limited to drilling applications where standard drilling tools
(e.g., split-spoon or core samplers) have been adapted to act
as penetrometers (Swanson, 1950). A standard procedure for
a split-spoon or split-barrel penetrometer which uses a 63.5kg hammer dropped from a height of 75 cm is described by
Davidson (1965) and more recently by the Annual Society of
Testing Materials (1992). Due to their size and design, these

penetrometers are generally not appropriate for agricultural,

forest, and rangeland management applications. Parker and
Jenny (1945) report one of the few agricultural applications
of dynamic penetrometers. They compared management treatments in a citrus orchard using a soil corer with a 9.1-kg sliding
hammer dropped from a height of 30.5 cm. This design is
limited by the fact that resistance increases with increasing
depth due to the increased contact area with the corer.

Dynamic Penetrometer Design

The design of the cone and the rigid supporting rod illustrated in Fig. 1 follows the ASAE (American Society of Agricutlural Engineers, 1992) standard for a soil cone penetrometer, which is based on the design developed by the United
States Army Corps of Engineers WES (Waterways Experiment Station, 1948). It consists of a removable 30 hardened
steel cone with a 20.3-mm-diameter base mounted on a 72.4cm-long, 15.9 mm-diameter shaft (Fig. 1). The measuring device of the ASAE standard (American Society of Agricutlural
Engineers, 1992) is replaced by a strike plate (anvil), which
is welded to the shaft. The shaft continues through the plate
and is used to guide a 2-kg slide hammer. An adjustable collar
is used to fix the drop height of the hammer. The collar and
extended shaft length help insure repeatability since the hammer is dropped from a specified height instead of relying on
human energy to move the cone forward. This also makes
the instrument adaptable to a wide range of field conditions
because of its reliance on repeated hammer blows rather than
the strength of a particular operator. The range can be increased further by simply changing the drop height (see
Adaptability for a Range of Soil Resistance below). Finally,
there are no gauges to be recalibrated, and of most importance,
it was produced in a local farm implement machine shop for
approximately $100 to $150 including labor.

Operation
The penetrometer is operated by placing the cone on the
soil surface with the shaft oriented vertically. The cone is then
pressed into the soil until it just becomes buried (i.e., soil
surface is level with the base of the cone). This minimizes
variability in starting depth. The slide hammer is raised until
it touches (but does not strike) the collar and is then released.
This operation defines one blow of the penetrometer and is
repeated until the desired penetration depth is reached. Depth
of penetration after each blow and total blows to reach a
desired depth can be recorded. We have used the penetrometer to depths of 30 cm, which covers most, but not all, compaction problems in agricultural settings. Greater depths are possible, but extraction can be a problem. A circular bubble level
glued onto a 20-mm diameter, 50-mm-long section of polyvinyl
chloride tubing can be mounted on top of the shaft and used
to help keep the instrument vertical during operation. The

1322

SOIL SCI. SOC. AM. J., VOL. 66, JULYAUGUST 2002

Fig. 1. Impact penetrometer design. All dimensions are in inches [cm]. Steel was used for all parts except for the bubble level mount, which is
a polyvinyl chloride tube. The striker plate should be welded to the center of a single rod, or to the bottom half of a two-piece rod. The top
half is then threaded. Cone is cut from steel on a lathe, then hardened. Penetrometer can be shortened for transport by threading bottom
end of top section of shaft into striker plate.

operator periodically checks the bubble to ensure that it is in

the center of the level before and after dropping the mass.
Operators should exercise caution when using the penetrometer. Gloves and ear protection are recommended.

Units and Calculations

The hammer-type, dynamic cone penetrometer described
here can be used to calculate a soil penetration resistance
averaged across the distance the cone moves through the soil
after each hammer blow. Soil penetration resistance is defined
as the force applied to the penetrometer by the soil causing
the penetrometer to decelerate from its initial velocity, resulting from the hammer blow, to zero velocity. Resistance
can be calculated as the work done by the soil to stop the
movement of the penetrometer divided by the distance the
penetrometer travels:

Rs

Ws
Pd

[1]

where Rs is the soil resistance (N), Ws is the work done by

the soil (J), and Pd is the distance the penetrometer travels
through the soil (m).
The work done by the soil is calculated according to the
Energy-Work theorem (Halliday and Resnick, 1963) as the
change in the kinetic energy of the penetrometer. When
the penetrometer is driven into the soil by the hammer, the
kinetic energy of the hammer is transferred to the penetrometer cone. When the penetrometer is stopped by the soil, its

kinetic energy is zero. Therefore, the work done by the soil

equals the kinetic energy transferred to the cone from the
penetrometer when the hammer contacts the strike plate. The
calculations here assume that all of the hammers kinetic energy is transferred to the cone. A mass falling a distance of
0.4 m will be traveling at a velocity (v ) of 2.8 m s1 when it
reaches the strike plate (Eq. [2]).

v v20 2a(x) 2.8 m s1,

[2]

s1 ),

where v0 is the velocity at time 0 (0 m

a is the acceleration
due to gravity (9.8 ms2 ) and x is the negative change in height
(0.4 m). The kinetic energy (KE ) for a hammer of mass of 2
kg falling 40 cm is 7.84 J (Eq. [3]).

KE Ws

1
mv2 7.84 J
2

[3]

Substituting the KE of the hammer into Eq. [1] for Ws allows

a soil resistance to be calculated for each blow of the hammer.
The resistance calculated by Eq. [1] represents the average
value of soil resistance across the penetration distance of the
penetrometer. The penetrometer measurements can either be
expressed as the number of blows per meter of penetration,
or as the average soil resistance for each depth of soil traveled
by each blow of the hammer. This approach does not assume
soil uniformity because it generates an average resistance
across the depth the cone travels. These average numbers are
clearly more informative for soils which are relatively uniform
within the depth increment covered by each strike.

1323

NOTES

Repeatability of Measurements
The repeatability of the measurements depends on the consistency of the height from which the mass is dropped. The
error can be reduced to 1 mm by always raising the hammer
to the collar (Fig. 1). This is equivalent to just 0.02 J strike1
using a 2-kg hammer.

Adaptability for a Range of Soil Resistance

Equation [3] explicitly accounts for hammer drop height,
allowing the kinetic energy delivered with each hammer blow
to be easily adjusted. This flexibility also allows a single penetrometer to be used on a broad range of soils without a loss
in sensitivity or an increase in measurement time by simply
moving the adjustable hammer stop. Furthermore, it allows
the operator to increase the sensitivity in specific zones in
which compaction is expected to occur. For example, if a
compaction zone is anticipated at a depth of 12 cm, drop
height could be reduced by 75% for the 10- to 15-cm depth.
Sensitivity could be further enhanced by recording impacts
within more narrowly defined zones (e.g., 1113 cm) or by
recording the depth of insertion generated by every strike. A
recording device could be designed to automate this, but would
result in a more expensive and less durable instrument.
The kinetic energy required to drive the penetrometer to
a depth of 15 cm was compared using a 2-kg mass and three
drop heights: 20, 40, and 60 cm. These configurations were
designed to generate 3.92, 7.84, and 11.76 J strike1, respectively. These figures are based on Eq. [3]. The test was repeated at 20 randomly selected points in a flood-irrigated
pasture on the New Mexico State University Experimental
Farm using the methods described above under Operation.
Any sampling points which fell within 1 m of another point
were discarded and another point was randomly selected. The
field is mapped as a Glendale clay loam (fine-silty, mixed,
superactive, calcareous, thermic Typic Torrifluvents). Gravimetric soil moisture content for the surface 15 cm averaged
24.3 3.7% (mean SD; n 3).
The average kinetic energy required was not significantly
different for all three drop heights (Table 2; ANOVA; n
20; P 0.25). This supports the theoretically based conclusion
that data collected using different drop heights can be reliably
compared, allowing a single instrument to be applied to a wide
range of soil conditions.
The coefficient of variation (standard deviation divided by
the mean) was similar for all three drop heights. This suggests
that for the soil and range included in this test (5 to 14 strikes
per 15 cm; Table 2), the selection of a drop height may be
based on other factors such as operator comfort or time limitations. The time required per measurement declined from 14
s at the 20-cm drop height to 5 s at the 60 cm drop, based on
1 s strike1 (Table 2).

Comparison with Existing Designs

Because the pattern of resistance is not affected by the type
of instrument (Baver et al., 1972), both static and dynamic
penetrometers can be used to monitor changes within a partic-

ular soil at a selected moisture content. Direct comparisons

between the two types of instruments cannot be made because
they are measuring different parameters: Static penetrometers
generate a cone index, which as force per unit area, while
dynamic penetrometers measure actual resistance in terms of
energy per unit depth.
One advantage of static cone penetrometers over the dynamic penetrometer described here is that the methods have
been standardized (American Society of Agricutlural Engineers, 1992) and there is a large and growing body of literature
relating the values to soil properties including bulk density
and moisture content (Ayers and Perumpral, 1982). For example, Ley et al. (1995) found that root growth restriction in the
Nigerian soils they studied may occur at matric potentials as
high as 100 kPa. However, it has been difficult to develop
equations which can be applied consistently across a range of
treatments, even within a single soil series (Busscher et al.,
1997). Consequently, most investigators attempt to make penetrometer measurements at near-constant moisture content
in order to allow moisture-independent comparisons to be
made. Changes in structure without changes in bulk density
can also affect results. Future research should consider the
relative effects of different soil properties on results obtained
with dynamic penetrometers.
The proposed dynamic penetrometer combines the advantage of operator-independence found in dynamic penetrometers and the high-end mechanically operated static designs
with the simplicity and portability of the manually operated
static designs, and thus overcomes many of the limitations
described above. It improves on the dynamic penetrometer
design of Parker and Jenny (1945) by minimizing the problem
of variable resistance with depth. Comparisons with other
penetrometer designs which have been used for agricultural
soils are summarized in Table 1.

Conclusions
The dynamic penetrometer described here represents
a low-cost, durable, and reliable alternative to straingauge-based instruments. It is particularly appropriate
for nearly all applications for which a manually operated
static penetrometer would be used. It is particularly
useful for applications in which soil conditions are highly
variable, or operator consistency is questionable. Due
to its durable, all-steel design and ease of use, it is easily
adopted by farmers and ranchers. It, like other penetrometer designs, is sensitive to differences in soil moisture and texture, and cannot be used as a substitute for
direct measurements of soil bulk density. The penetrometer can, however, be used to monitor changes in soil
condition in response to management and to identify
areas in which more detailed measurements are required. It can also be used to rapidly locate potential
zones of compaction within a profile and areas of compaction within a field.

Table 2. Field comparison of penetrometers using different drop heights with a 2-kg mass. Data are based on number of hammer strikes
necessary to reach a depth of 15 cm (n 20). Values in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different
(P 0.2).
Drop height
cm
20
40
60

Kinetic energy/strike

Strikes

Resistance

Total kinetic energy

CV

J
3.92
7.84
11.76

mean S.E.
13.8 0.4
7.1 0.3
4.9 0.2

J cm1
3.62a
3.72a
3.84a

J
54.3a
55.9a
57.6a

%
12.9
17.7
14.3

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SOIL SCI. SOC. AM. J., VOL. 66, JULYAUGUST 2002

Acknowledgments
A. de Soyza, P. Hyder, M. Rosales, J. Saunders, M. Sucik,
J. Van Zee, M. Walton, M. Wander, and W. Whitford tested
and commented on early designs of the penetrometer. D.
Karlen and W. Voorhees provided a number of useful suggestions which improved the manuscript. T. Lightfoot provided
the design drawing. Development and testing were supported
by a USDA-NRI grant to J. Herrick.

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