ELE 481

Power system Protection

Transformer Protection

Introduction
A wide range of transformers with sizes ranging
from a few kVA to several hundred MVA can be
found in modern power systems .
The considerations for a transformer protection
package vary with the application and importance
of the transformer.
Small distribution transformers can be protected
satisfactorily, from both technical and economic
considerations, by the use of fuses or overcurrent
relays.
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Introduction
Transformers with capacity less than 2500 kVA are
usually protected by fuses (in North America)
With ratings between 2500-5000 kVA, the
transformer may be protected with fuses, but
instantaneous and time delay over-current relays
may be more desirable.
Between 5000-10000 kVA, differential relays are
used for protection.
Above 10 MVA, a harmonic restraint, percentage
differential relay is recommended.
Pressure and temperature relays are used with all
sizes of transformers but recommended for high
ratings.
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Introduction

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The location of the transformer is also important in

terms of deciding the type of protection to be
provided to the transformers.
If the transformer is an integral part of the bulk
power system it will require more sophisticated
relays compared to a transformer used in a
distribution substation.
If the transformer is near a generation source, the
high X/R ratio of the fault path will require
harmonic restraint relays to accommodate the
higher magnetic inrush current.
Other factors that will influence the transformer
protection are the voltage level and connection of
the transformer.
4

Introduction
Typical connections of Transformers

Introduction

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Transformer faults are generally classified

into six categories:
1. Winding and terminal faults
2. Core faults
3. Tank faults
4. Onload tap changer faults
5. Abnormal operating conditions
6. Sustained or un-cleared external faults

(a) Winding Faults

A fault on a transformer winding is
controlled in magnitude by the following
factors:

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Source impedance
Neutral earthing impedance
Transformer leakage reactance
Fault voltage
Winding connection

(b) Core Faults

A conducting bridge across the laminated structures of

the core can permit sufficient eddy-current to flow to
cause serious overheating.

The additional core loss, although causing severe local

heating, will not produce a noticeable change in input
current and could not be detected by the normal
electrical protection.

In an oil-immersed transformer, core heating sufficient

to cause winding insulation damage that will also cause
breakdown of some of the oil with an accompanying
evolution of gas. This gas will escape to the
conservator, and is used to operate a mechanical relay.
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(c) Tank Faults

Loss of oil through tank leaks will ultimately

produce a dangerous condition, either because of
a reduction in winding insulation or because of
overheating on load due to the loss of cooling.

Overheating may also occur due to prolonged

overloading, blocked cooling ducts due to oil
sludging or failure of the forced cooling system,
if fitted.

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(d) Inter-turn Faults

A transformer may develop inter-turn faults giving rise to hotspots within the winding
Such inter-turn may not cause appreciable currents.
Hence, inter-turn faults are difficult to detect by electrical
means. These are best detected by non electrical methods.
Example
Power dissipated I f

R
f

5 103 1 10 3 25 kW

Equating primary and sec ondary VA

400
kV I1 5V 5000 A

I1 0.11 A

The current that circulate within the short circuit is 5000 A whereas at the
400 kV terminals the current is only 0.11 A.
Inter-turn faults are difficult to detect by electrical means. This has led to
the development of Buchholz relay which makes use of heat generated and
the consequent decomposition of oil to sense the fault.

Buchholz Relay
When a winding-to core fault of an inter-turn fault occurs on
the transformer winding, there is severe heating of the oil. This
causes gases to be liberated from the oil at around 350.
There is a build-up of oil pressure causing oil to rush into the
conservator and push a vane to close the contacts of the
Buchholz relay. The output of the Buchholz relay may be used
to trip the transformer.

Buchholz Relay
The Buchholz relay also has
another set of contacts operated by
a float.
These contacts stay open when the
transformer tank is filled with oil.
In case of leakage of oil or
decomposition of oil, the float
sinks causing the contacts to close.
Loss of oil will no doubt cause the
transformer temperature to rise but
does not warrant immediate
tripping. Normally these contacts
are wired to an alarm.

(e) Externally Applied Conditions

Sources of abnormal stress in a transformer

are:
Overload
System faults
Over-voltage
Reduced system frequency

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13

(e-1) Overload

Overload causes increased 'copper loss' and a

consequent temperature rise. Overloads can be
carried for limited periods.

According to IEC 60354, the transformer must

withstand an overload by a factor of 1.5 for a time
period of up to 30 minutes without exceeding a
hot spot temperature of up to 160C.

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14

(e-2) System faults

System short circuits produce a relatively

intense rate of heating of the feeding
transformers, the copper loss increasing in
proportion to the square of the per unit fault
current.

The typical duration of external short circuits

that a transformer can sustain without damage if
the current is limited only by the self-reactance
is shown in the following Table:

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15

(e-3) Over-voltages

Overvoltage conditions are of two kinds:

Transient surge voltages
Power frequency overvoltage

Transient overvoltages arise from faults, switching,

and lightning disturbances and are liable to cause
interturn faults.

These overvoltages are usually limited by shunting

the high voltage terminals to earth either with a
plain rod gap or by surge arrestors.

Power frequency overvoltage causes both an

increase in stress on the insulation and a
proportionate increase in the working flux.

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16

(e-4) Reduced system frequency

Reduction of system frequency has an effect with

regard to flux density, similar to that of overvoltage.

It follows that a transformer can operate with some

degree of overvoltage with a corresponding increase
in frequency, but operation must not be continued
with a high voltage input at a low frequency
(Why?).

This is because overvoltage influences also the

insulation system of the transformer.

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17

Effect of Magnetizing Inrush Current

The phenomenon of magnetising inrush is a transient
condition that occurs primarily when a transformer is
energized.
It is not a fault condition, and therefore transformer
protection must remain stable during the inrush
transient.
To minimize material costs,
weight and size, transformers
are generally operated near to
the knee point of the
magnetizing characteristic.

Effect of Magnetizing Inrush Current

Under normal steady-state conditions the
magnetizing current associated with the
operation flux level is relatively small.

Effect of Magnetizing Inrush Current

If a transformer winding is energized at a voltage zero,
with no residual flux, the flux level during the first
voltage cycle (2) will result in core saturation and a
high non-sinusoidal magnetizing current waveform.
If a transformer has been energized previously, there is
a high possibility that on de-energization some flux R
was left in the iron. This would be positive or negative.
If a residual flux of +R had exist from an earlier
energization, the flux maximum required would have
been 2 +R, resulting in a higher magnetizing inrush
current.
If had been negative, the maximum required flux would
be 2 -R with less inrush current.

Effect of Magnetizing Inrush Current

Typical inrush current

Effect of Magnetizing Inrush Current

The maximum initial-magnetizing current may be as high as 830 times the full-load current.
Resistance in the supply and transformer reduce the peaks of
the inrush current which eventually decays to the normal
exciting current.
The time constant varies from 10 cycles to as long as 1 min in
very high-inductive circuits.
The energizing conditions that result in an offset inrush current
produce a waveform that is asymmetrical. Such a wave
typically contains both even and odd harmonics.
Typical inrush currents contain substantial amount of secondharmonic component of %15 or more of the fundamental
component current.

Effect of Magnetizing Inrush Current

A number of factors affect the magnitude and
duration of the magnetizing current inrush:
Residual flux
Point on wave switching
Number of banked transformers
Transformer design and rating
System fault level

Overcurrent Protection

As in all protection applications with overcurrent

relays, the external faults or steady state load
currents must be distinguished from internal faults.

The effect of external faults or steady state heavy

load is the overheat of the transformer winding and
insulation degradation.

The effect of internal fault is arcing, possible fire,

magnetic and mechanical forces that result in
structural damage to the windings, the tank or the
bushings.

As previously mentioned, over current protection

can be provided using fuses, time-delay and
instantaneous relays.
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(a) Protection with Fuses

Fuses are used to protect small distribution

transformers (less than 2.5 MVA).

The fuse must have a rating well above the

maximum transformer load current in order to
withstand the short duration overloads that may
occur.

Typically the fuse rating should be greater than

150% of the maximum load.

Also, the fuses must withstand the magnetizing

inrush currents drawn when power transformers
are energized.

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25

(a) Protection with Fuses

The rules for fuse

protection can be
summarized as follows:
The low voltage side
fuse must operate
before the high voltage
side fuse.
The two fuses should
coordinate with the
short circuit capability
of the transformer.

9Dec13

HV

26

(b) Protection with Overcurrent relays

Protection against overload or persisting

external faults is provided by time-delay over
current relay.

The pick-up setting is usually 125% of the

maximum acceptable overload.

This margin covers the uncertainty in the CTs,

relays, and their calibration.

Instantaneous relays must be used with

caution in transformer as they should not
operate due to inrush current.

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27

(b) Protection with Overcurrent relays

This scheme may serve the purpose of providing either the

primary protection for smaller transformers or the back-up
protection for bigger transformers.

Transformer Differential Protection

In applying differential protection, several
factors must be considered:
Magnetizing inrush current
Different voltage level
Phase shift in wye-delta-connected banks
Transformer taps for voltage control

Transformer Differential Protection

In applying the principles of differential protection

to transformers, a variety of considerations have to
betaken into account:
It may not be possible to obtain CT ratios on the primary
and secondary side which will satisfy the condition
N1n1=N2n2
CT ratio errors.
Under load tap changer (ULTC) error.

Transformer Differential Protection

The use of biased differential relay can take care of
the previous problems.
The relay will trip when: id K ir

i1s i2 s
where id i1s i2 s ; ir
2

K is the slope of the

percentage
differential
characteristics:
typically 10%,
20%, 30%, 40%, Ipick up
50%, 60%.

Transformer Differential Protection

Example
A single phase transformer is rated at 69/110 kV, 20
MVA. It is to be protected by a differential relay
with input taps of 3, 4, 4.5, 4.8, 4.9, 5, 5.1, 5.2, 5.5
amps secondary. The transformer has an under load
tap changer with a turn ratio of -5% to +5% in steps
of 5/8%. Specify the CTs (assume the CTs to be
10CXXX type), the pickup setting and the
percentage differential slope for the relay. The
available slopes are 10%, 20% and 40%. What is the
level of fault current for an unloaded transformer for
which the differential relay will not operate?

Transformer Differential Protection

Example, solution:
The currents in the primary and secondary are:

20,000
Ip
289.8
69

Is

20,000
181.8
110

Therefore we may select the CT ratios of:

300:5 for the primary winding, and
200:5 for the secondary winding.
These ratios will produce the following currents in the
CT secondary windings:

5
I p 289.8
4.83
300
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I s 181.8

5
4.54
200

The current mismatch will be: 4.83 4.54 = 0.29 A

33

Transformer Differential Protection

Example, solution:
In order to reduce a mismatch between these
currents, we may use the relay tap of 4.8 for the CT
on the primary side and the relay tap of 4.5 for the
CT on the secondary side.
The current mismatch will be: (4.83/4.8)-(4.54/4.5) =
about 0.3%
The tap changer will change the main transformer
ratio by 5% when it is in its extreme tap position.
So the total differential current will be 5.3%.
Since the selected CT is 10CXXX, it is reasonable
to assume that the errors in the two CTs will not
differ from each other by more than 10%.
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34

Transformer Differential Protection

Example, solution:
This gives a net differential current of 15.3% for the
largest external fault while the tap changer is at its
farthest position.
With about 5% margin of safety, we may therefore
select a 20% differential slope for the relay.
For the pick-up setting, typical value of 1/4 A is
reasonable.
The primary current on the 69 kV side will be:
(300/5)*(4.8/5)*0.25 = 14.4 A, so fault current less
than this current will not be detected.
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35

Application and Connection of

Transformer Differential Relays
This should be done in two steps:
1. Phasing: The current through the differential relay
restraint windings should be in phase.
By using wyedelta units, to assure that the
secondary currents to the differential relay are in
phase.
2. Ratio Adjustment: There should be a minimum
difference (operating) current for load and external
faults
By selecting CT ratios or relay taps, or both, to
minimize the difference current.

Example: Differential Protection Connections for

Two-Winding Wye-Delta Transformer Bank

Differential Protection Connections for TwoWinding Wye-Delta Transformer Bank

1. Phasing:
Connecting the deltaside CTs in wye and connecting the
wyeside CTs in delta cancels the 30 phase shift between
the delta and wye sides of the transformer.
This will also balance the sequence currents during
external faults and normal loading.
2. Ratioadjusting:
ByselectingCTratiosorrelaytaps,orboth,tominimize
thedifferencecurrent.
Thepercentagemismatch

Example: Differential Protection Connections for

Multi-winding Transformer Bank

Differential Protection Connections for Multiwinding Transformer Bank

Withthreewindingsconnectedtoexternal
circuits,threerestrainttransformerdifferential
relaysarerequired.
ThereshouldbeasetofCTsineachcircuit,
connectedtoaseparaterestraintwinding.
Theprotectedzoneistheareabetweenthe
CTs.
Multiwindingtransformerbanksusuallyhave
differentMVAratingfortheseveralwindings,
andtheseareusedtodeterminetheCTratios.

Suppose that the bank ratings are 60, 40, and 25 MVA for the 230, 69
and 13.8 kV windings, respectively. Then the current for the windings
would be:

 Toselecttherelaytaps,itisessentialtoselectanyvalueof
MVAandpassitthroughthepairswithzeroMVAintheother
winding.
Assume40MVAfirstflowsfromthe230to69kVsystems
withzerointhe13.8kVsystem.
Thispowergivesacurrentof7.25Ainthe69kVrestraintcoil.
Inthe230kVrestraintcoil,thecurrenttobalanceis

Usingtaps5forthe230kVand6forthe69kV,themismatch
is

Thisiswithintransformerdifferentialrelaycharacteristics

 Now,passequalMVAinanotherpair,arbitrary
select25MVAfromthe230kVsystem,which
gives4.36Ainthe13.8kVrestraint.
Inthe230kVrestraint

Choosetap6forthe13.8kV,thenthe
mismatchis

Special Connections for Transformer

Differential Relays
Occasionally, it may be necessary to use
wye-connected CTs on a grounded wye
circuit in a differential scheme instead of
the preferred delta CT connection.
This can occur in applications for which a
differential zone is established around
several banks.

Special Connections for Transformer Differential Relays

Differential Protection for 3 banks of

1 Transformer Units
If it becomes necessary to use the CTs on
transformer bushings, the normal differential
connection cannot be used when the CTs are
inside the delta.
Two sets of CTs connected in parallel are
required to provide protection for ground
faults in these windings.
Wye-connected CTs can be used on both
sides.

Differential Protection for 3 banks of 1

Transformer Units

Ground Zero-Sequence Differential

Protection for Transformers
The ground differential scheme provides
compromise protection for delta-wyegrounded transformer banks.
It is useful when there are no available or
convenient CTs on the delta side.
This is common for distribution and
industrial ties with the delta as the HV side
and, possibly protected by fuses.

Ground Zero-Sequence Differential

Protection for Transformers

Grounding Transformer Protection

To provide system grounding on the delta
side of power system transformer banks, a
shunt-connected grounded wye-delta or
zigzag transformer bank is applied.
With wye-delta units, the delta operates as
an ungrounded tertiary to circulate zerosequence current.

Protection of a zigzag grounding transformer

Ground Differential Protection with Directional

Relays Using current balancing Autotransformer

Ground Differential Protection with Directional

Relays Using current balancing Autotransformer

External Fault

Ground Differential Protection with Directional

Relays Using current balancing Autotransformer

Internal
Fault

Example
Zero-sequence
current flow for an
internal ground
fault, with no
current from line
(currents in
amperes)

Example
Zero-sequence
current flow for an
internal ground
fault, with current
from line (currents
in amperes)

Ground Differential Protection with Directional

Relays Using Auxiliary current Transformer

Currents shown for external ground fault

Ground Differential Protection with Directional

Relays Using Auxiliary current Transformer
Zero-sequence current flow for an external
ground fault (currents in amperes)

Ground Differential Protection with Directional

Relays Using Auxiliary current Transformer

Currents shown for internal ground fault

Ground Differential Protection with Directional

Relays Using Auxiliary current Transformer
Zero-sequence
current flow for an
internal ground fault,
with no current from
line (currents in
amperes)

Ground Differential Protection with Directional

Relays Using Auxiliary current Transformer
Zero-sequence
current flow for an
internal ground
fault, with current
from line (currents
in amperes)