Elements of ML Programming ML97 Edition Jeffrey D. Ullman An Alan R. Apt B= Saat avis Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458Ullman, Jeffrey D. Elements of ML programming/ Jeffrey D. Ullman ML97 Edition pcm ‘An Alan R. Apt. Book” Includes bibliological references and index. ISBN: 0-13-790387-1 1. ML (Computer program language). I. Title CIP DATA AVAILABLE Acquisitions editor: ALAN R. APT Editor-in-chief; MARCIA HORTON Production editor: IRWIN ZUCKER ‘Managing editor: BAYANI MENDOZA DE LEON Director of production and manufacturing: DAVID W. RICCARDI Cover director: JAYNE CONTE. Manufacturing buyer: JULIA MEEHAN Egitorial assistant: TONT CHAVEZ, © 1988, 1994 by Price, tn | Upper Saale River, New Jey 7458 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, ‘without permission in writing from the publisher. ‘The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These efforts include the development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The author and publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation contained in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential damages in connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs. Printed in the United States of America 098765 ISBN O-13-790387-1 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana. S.A.. Mexico City Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. New Dethi Prentice-Hall of Japan. Inc., Tokyo Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.. Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda.. Rio de JaneiroPreface I became interested in ML programming when I taught CS109, the introdue- tory Computer Science Foundations course at Stanford, starting in 1991. ML was used by several of the instructors of this course, including Stu Reges and Mike Cleron, to introduce concepts such as functional programming and type systems. It was also used for the practical purpose of introducing a second programming paradigm, other than the Pascal or C that students learned in the introductory programming course. Reimplementing algorithms and data structures in a significantly different language often is an aid to understanding of basic data structure and algorithm concepts. I first learned ML from the notes that Reges and Cleron had written for their students. Initially, I was intrigued by the rule system, which gave me much of the power of Prolog, a language with which I had worked for several years. Yet ML did not introduce the semantic complexity that comes from the use of unification and backtracking in Prolog. However, I soon discovered other charms of ML: the type system, the use of exceptions, and the module system for creating abstract datatypes, among others. From the Reges and Cleron notes I also picked up the utility of giving the student a fast overview, stressing the most commonly used constructs rather than the complete syntax. In writing this guide to ML programming, I have thus departed from the approach found in many books on the language. As an outsider, I had the opportunity to learn the language from the standpoint of the typical program- mer. I have tried to remember how things struck me at first, the analogies I drew with conventional languages, and the concepts that I found most useful in getting started. I hope that my selection is accurate, and that the book will facilitate the reader’s transition from conventional languages to ML. The Second Edition You are reading the second edition of the book. The primary change between the first and second editions is that the second conforms to the new language standard called ML97. All major implementations of ML either have converted, or are in the process of converting, to this standard. For the few matters that. are implementation-dependent, such as the choice of diagnostics, the second iiiiv PREFACE edition, like the first, follows the Standard ML of New Jersey (SML/NJ) im- plementation. SML/NJ is the work of Andrew Appel of Princeton University, David MacQueen of Lucent/Bell Labs, and their colleagues. ‘The following is both a summary of the second edition and a guide to the correspondence between the first and second editions. . Chapter 1 corresponds to the old Chapter 0. Chapter 2 lays the groundwork for ML programming. Sections 2.1 through 2.4 correspond to the old Chapters 1 through 4, respectively. Chapter 3 introduces functions in ML. The old Chapter 5 is now Sections 3.1 and 3.2, while the old Chapter 6 appears in Sections 3.3 and 3.6. Old Chapter 7 has become Section 3.4, while Sections 3.5 and much of Section 3.6 are new. Chapter 4 covers ML input and output. The old Chapter 9 has been split among Sections 4.1, 4.2, and 4.4, while the new Section 4.3 comes from the old Chapter 22. In Chapter 5 we return to the subject of functions in ML, presenting a number of advanced topics. Section 5.1 covers matches and patterns like the old Chapter 19. Section 5.2 covers exceptions, from the old Chapters 8 and 20. Section 5.3 covers polymorphism as in the old Chapter 10. Material on higher-order functions from the old Chapters 11 and 21 is now split among Sections 5.4 through 5.6. The case study in Section 5.7 was originally part of the old Chapter 22. Chapter 6 introduces datatypes. The old Chapter 12 is split between Sections 6.1 and 6.2, while old Chapter 13 is now Sections 6.3 and 6.4. Chapter 7 presents a number of advanced topics about data structures. Section 7.1 covers record structures, the old Chapter 18. Material on arrays, the old Chapter 16, is now in Sections 7.2 and 7.4. Old Chapter 17, about references, is in Sections 7.3 and 7.5. Chapter 8 covers the ML module system. Old Chapter 14 is split among Sections 8.1 through 8.3, and old Chapter 15 is now in Sections 8.4 and 8.5. The case study in Section 8.6 is new. Finally, Chapter 9 attempts to summarize the entire language. Some concepts not appearing elsewhere in the book are introduced as well. Section 9.1 on infix operators, corresponds to the old Chapter 24. Sections 9.2 and 9.3 summarize what is called the “top-level environment,” the set of features one has in ML without asking for them explicitly. Then Section 9.4 summarizes the “standard basis,” or capabilities one can obtain if one calls for them explicitly. Some of the old Chapter 25 is spread among Sections 9.2 through 9.4, but much of these sections is new for ML97.PREFACE v Section 9.5 corresponds to the old Chapter 23 and covers some important features found only in SML/NJ, involving the creation of executable files. Section 9.6 concludes with syntax diagrams for the entire language and is an updating of the old Chapter 26. Features of the Book The test of a language is not the best or most succinct examples of its use. Rather, a language will only be adopted widely if it can handle everyday pro- gramming chores well. Thus, I have considered in this book many of the most common data structures, such as trees and hash tables, and many of the most common algorithms, such as sorting or Gaussian elimination. I think the reader will be impressed by how well ML handles these standard tasks that were se- lected because of their ubiquity, not because they exhibit special features of the language. ‘To focus the reader's attention, I have inserted boxes at various places in the text. These boxes are interruptions from the main focus of the text, but they are sufficiently important that I want to make sure they are noticed. On the other hand, footnotes are also interruptions to the main thread, but they are there only “for the record” rather than as an aid to understanding. Exercises ‘Most of the sections have exercises at the end. In the text, we indicate that an exercise or part of an exercise has a published solution by preceding the exercise or part of an exercise by a star. You can find solutions to exercises with stars at URL http: //www-db. stanford. edu/“ul1man/emlpsols/sols.html. Exercises are graded by difficulty. Harder exercises are indicated by an exclamation point in the margin, and a few of the hardest exercises have two exclamation points. Use of the Book The book as a whole is a tutorial and reference for the person who wants to program productively in ML. Although there are occasional references to conventional languages like C or Pascal, I believe the book is sufficiently self- contained that it could be used to teach ML as a first programming language. When we teach students ML in the CS109 course at Stanford, the material covered corresponds closely to what is in Chapters 2, 3, 4.1, 5, 6, and 7. The book can be used as a supplement to a programming language concepts course, in which case Chapter 8 would surely be included.vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments I would like to thank Andrew Appel and David MacQueen, both of whom carefully critiqued the original edition. Matthias Blume was equally a boon for the second edition. They are all three tied for the title of “world’s greatest referee.” T value a number of important pointers on ML from John Mitchell. Also, Henry Bauer, Richard LeBlanc, Peter Robinson, and Jean Scholtz have my appreciation for their work as referees of the first-edition manuscript. Errata from the first edition were found and pointed out to me by Baoquan Chen, Franklin Chen, Martin Erwig, Mark Girod, Naomichi Komuro, Hugh McGuire, Jeffrey Oldham. David Richardson, and Daniel Yankelevich. Finally, I appreciate the help from several members of the core ML commu- nity that kept me informed of changes and encouraged me to keep this book on track. I even got help on the design of the cover for the first edition (see the following note), which has been carried over to the second edition as well. Cover Art Special thanks go to Luca Cardelli, who volunteered to create original art for this book. The result is on the cover. Supplementary Material on the Web The book’s home page is www-db.stanford.edu/~ullman/emlp.html. There you can find: 1. Solutions to starred exercises. 2. Code for the major programs in the book. Errata. Notes and exams from Stanford’s CS109 involving ML. see Links to ML documentation and resources. J.D. U. Stanford CA September, 1997Table of Contents 1 A Perspective on ML and SML/NJ 11 Why ML? ............... 1.2. Standard ML of New Jersey . . . 1.3 Prerequisites for the Reader... . . 14. References and Web Resources 1.5 Features of ML97.......... aoe Oe 2 Getting Started in ML 21 Expressions 6... eee eee vee 9 2.1.1 Constants. ........ 10 2.1.2 Arithmetic Operators 14 2.1.3 String Operators : 15 2.1.4 Comparison Operators . . 15 2.1.5 Combining Logical Values eee 7 2.1.6 If-Then-Else Expressions ee eee eee 18 2.1.7 Exercises for Section 2.1 . 19 2.2. ‘Type Consistency... ...... bees 20 22.1 TypeBrros.............-0. 20 2.2.2 Coercion Between Integers and Reals . 24 2.2.3 Coercions Between Characters and Integers 25 2.2.4 Coercions Between Strings and Characters . 26 2.2.5 Exercises for Section 2.2 . . 26 2.3 Variables and Environments . . . . beet cee e es T 23.1 Identifiers... 2.0... 27 2.3.2. The Top-Level Environment . . . . 29 2.3.3 An Assignment-Like Statement 29 2.3.4 A View of ML Programming 31 2.3.5 Exercises for Section 2.3. . tee renee 8B 24 Tuples and Lists . rer rrr rrr rr rn 4 24.1 Tuples... cee vee 84 2.4.2 Accessing Components of Tuples . 35 243 Lists. ... 2.2.22 -20 008 36 24.4 List Notation and Operatorsviii 24.5 24.6 24.7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Converting Between Character Strings and Lists Introduction to the ML Type System Exercises for Section 2.4 . . 3 Defining Functions 31 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 It’s Easy; It’s fun . 3.11 3.1.2 3.13, 3.14 3.1.5 3.1.6 Recursive Functions ..... . 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 Patterns in Function Definitions 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3, 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.7 Local Environments Using let 34.1 3.4.2 3.4.3. Splitting Apart the Value Returned by a Function 3.44 3.4.5 Case Study: Linear-Time Reverse . 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5 Case Study: Polynomial Multiplis 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6 Function Types... . Declaring Function Types Function Application . Functions With More Than One Parameter Functions that Reference External Variables Exercises for Section 3.1 Function Execution Nonlinear Recursion . . Mutual Recursion . . . How ML Deduces Types Exercises for Section 3.2 Patterns as Function Parameters see “As” You Like it: Having it Both Ways. Anonymous Variables 2.0.2... What Is and What Isn't a Pattern? How ML Matches Patterns... .. . A Subtle Pattern Bug... 02... Exercises for Section 33......... Defining Common Subexpressions Effect on Environments of let Mergesort: An Efficient, Recursive Sorter Exercises for Section 3.4 Analysis of Simple Reverse... .. . ML's Representation of Lists . . . ‘A Reversal Function Using Difference Li Analysis of Fast Reverse Exercises for Section 3.5 ition . Representing Polynomials by Lists . A Simple Polynomial-Multiplication Algorithm Analysis of Simple Multiplication . . Auxiliary Functions for a Faster Multiplication . . The Karatsuba-Ofman Algorithm . . . Analysis of the Karatsuba-Ofman Algorithm 40 41 42 45 45 46 a7 49 50 52 52 54 56 39 60 63 64 65 65 67 69 69 72 74 74 7 78 79 80 82 83 84 84 85 86 88 88 88 89 89 91 92 94 97TABLE OF CONTENTS ix 3.6.7 Exercises for Section 3.6... ....-50-00-.5000008 98 4 Input and Output 101 4.1. Simple Output cone -101 4.1.1 The Print Function “101 4.1.2. Printing Nonstring Values . - 103 4.1.3 “Statement” Lists : - 104 4.1.4 Statement Lists Versus Let-Expressons - . 106 4.1.5 Exercises for Section 4.1 . - 107 4.2. Reading Input From a File » . 108 4.2.1 Instreams . . - 108 42.2 Reading Characters From a File . 109 4.2.3 Reading Lines of a File 110 4.2.4 Reading Complete Files . . . qi 4.2.5 Reading a Single Character . qu 4.2.6 Lookahead on the Input . . 113 4.2.7 Closing Instreams . . . 4 4.2.8 Exercises for Section 4.2 . . 15 4.3 Output to Files 116 4.3.1 Outstreams - 17 43.2 Closing Outstreams .. . 17 4.3.3. The output Command. . 118 43.4 Exercises for Section 4.3. 118 44° Case Study: Summing Integers . . eee 121 44.1 The Function startInt .. . Seen e ee 121 4.4.2 The Function finishInt . 123 44.3 The Function getInt 124 4.4.4 The Function sumInts . . 125 44.5 Eager Evaluation... . . - 125 4.4.6 Exercises for Section 4.4 . - 126 5 More About Functions 127 5.1 Matches and Patterns - 127 5.1.1 Matches... . vee es 128 5.12 Using Matches to Define Functions... 0.0... - + - - 128 5.1.3 Anonymous Functions . . see 129 5.1.4 Case Expressions... .. . 130 5.1.5 If-Then-Else Expressions Revisited . . 131 5.1.6 Exercises for Section 5.1. . + + 132 5.2 Exceptioss ............ . . 132 5.2.1 User-Defined Exceptions . 134 5.2.2. Expressions With Parameters 135 5.2.3 Handling Exceptions... .... . 136 5.24 Exceptions as Elements of an Environment : nM i 5.2.5 Local Exceptions . . . .TABLE OF CONTENTS 5.2.6 Exercises for Section 5.2 . . 5.3. Polymorphic Functions... .. . 5.3.1 A Limitation on the Use of Polymorphic Functions . . . . 145 5.3.2 Operators that Restrict Polymorphism . 149 5.3.3. Operators that Allow Polymorphism . . 149 5.3.4 The Equality Operators . . 150 5.3.5 Exercises for Section 5.3 . . 154 5.4 Higher-Order Functions : 156 5.4.1 Some Common Higher-Order Functions 159 54.2 A Simple Map Function .......... 160 5.4.3. The Function reduce vee ss 162 5.4.4 Converting Infix Operators to Function Names... . . . 165 5.4.5 The Function Filter 165 5.4.6 Exercises for Section 5.4. . 166 5.5 Curried Functions cee 168 5.5.1 Partially Instantiated Functions . . . . 169 5.5.2 The ML Style of Function Application . 172 5.5.3 Exercises for Section 5.5.0... 0... +173 5.6 Built-In Higher-Order Functions 174 5.6.1 Composition of Functions . . 174 5.6.2 The ML Operator o For Composition - 175 5.6.3 The “Real” Version of Map... .... 176 5.64 Folding Lists ....... bev ees .179 5.6.5 Exercises for Section 5.6 181 5.7. Case Study: Parsing Expressions . . » 184 5.7.1 The Grammatical Structure of Arithmetic Expressions . . 184 5.7.2 Structure of the Parsing Program . 5.7.3 Detailed Explanation of the Parser Code 5.74 Exercises for Section 5.7... 0.0... 5+ Defining Your Own Types 6.1 Defining New Types ....... 6.1.1 Review of the ML Type System 6.1.2 New Names for Old Types . Lee 6.1.3 Parametrized Type Definitions . . . . 6.1.4 Exercises for Section 6.1 . 6.2 Datatypes... ... 6.2.1 A Simple Form of Datatype Declaration 6.2.2 Using Constructor Expressions in Datatype Definitions. 199 6.2.3 Recursively Defined Datatypes 6.2.4 Mutually Recursive Datatypes 6.2.5 Exercises for Section 6.2 . 6.3 Case Study: Binary Trees... . 6.3.1 Binary Search Trees . . . 6.3.2 Lookup in Binary Search TreesTABLE OF CONTENTS xi 8.2 - 214 216 219 221 221 222 6.3.3 Insertion into Binary Search Trees . 6.3.4 Deletion from Binary Search Trees . . 6.3.5 Some Comments About Running Time 6.3.6 Visiting All the Nodes of a Binary Tree 6.3.7 Preorder Traversals. . . . . ee 6.3.8 Exercises for Section 6.3 . . 6.4 Case Study: General Rooted Trees » 223 6.4.1 A Datatype for Trees........-... + 223 6.4.2 Summing the Labels of a General Tree . + 225 6.4.3 Computing Sums Using Higher Order Functions - 227 6.4.4 Exercises for Section 6.4 . cee - 227 7 More About ML Data Structures 229 7.1 Record Structures... 0.2... . 229 7.1.1 Records and Their Types - 229 7.1.2 Extracting Field Values . . 231 7.1.3 Tuples as a Special Case of Record Structures - 231 7.14 Patterns That Match Records vee 232 7.1.5 Shorthands in Record Patterns - 235 7.1.6 Exercises for Section 7.1 . . » 236 7.2 Arrays eee 237 7.2.1 Why Do We Need Arrays? . . 237 7.2.2 Array Operations... 2.2.6 289 7.2.3 Exercises for Section 72......... : ee AL 7.3 References . . . : : + = 242 731 The ref Type Constructor... 0.11 sss sss ees 242 7.3.2 Obtaining the Value of a Ref- = 243 7.3.3. Modifying Ref-Variables . vce es 248 7.34 The While-Do Statement . . . : 244 7.3.5 Exercises for Section 7.3 fe es 245 7.4 Case Study: Hash Tables cece ee vee » 246 7.4.1 The Dictionary Operations 246 7.4.2 How a Hash Table Works 247 7.4.3. An Example of Hash Table Implementation... . . 247 744 Exercises for Section 7.4... .........2..+ 5+ 250 7.5 Case Study: Triangularization of a Matrix... 00.22... 250 7.5.1 Creating and Initializing the Matrix ........... . 251 7.5.2 Triangularization by Row Operations ........ 253 7.5.3 Exercises for Section 7.5 » 255 8 Encapsulation and the ML Module System 257 8.1 Why Modules? .. 00.0.0... eee eee 267 258 259 261 8.1.1 Information Hiding.) 1.1.1) 8.1.2 Clustering Connected Elements . Structures oe eee eeexii TABLE OF CONTENTS 8.2.1 Signatures. 0... eee +. + 262 8.2.2 Restricting Structures Through Their Signatures . + 264 8.2.3. Accessing Names Defined Within Structures... . . . . . 266 8.2.4 Opening Structures - 267 8.2.5 Exercises for Section 8.2 . = 268 83 Functors...........-05 - 270 8.3.1 Motivation for Functors . vee eee es 270 83.2 Using Functors to Import Information... 1... +... 272 8.3.3 More General Forms for Functor Parameters and Argu- ments 277 8.3.4 Exercises for Section 8.3 . » 280 84 Sharings............0. 282 282 283 283 285 285, 286 84.1 Sharing Specifications. . 8.4.2 Substructures....... 84.3. Sharing of Types... ... 8.4.4 Sharing of Substructures . 8.4.5 Exercises for Section 8.4 . boas 8.5 ML Techniques for Hiding Information 8.5.1 An Information-Hiding Problem 287 8.5.2 Using Signatures to Hide Information .......... . 287 8.5.3 Abstract Types... .. « 289 8.5.4 Local Definitions... « 291 292 = 294 299 299 8.5.5 Opaque Signatures . . . . 8.5.6 Exercises for Section 8.5 8.6 Case Study: Feedback Shift Registers... . 8.6.1 Operation of a Feedback Shift Register . : 8.6.2. A Functor to Create Random Number Generators . 301 8.6.3 Generating a Feedback Shift Register ........ » 303 8.6.4 Exercises for Section 8.6... ....-...0.002505 305 Summary of the ML Standard Basis 307 9.1 The Infix Operators ..... see 307 9.1.1 Precedence - 308 9.1.2 Precedence Levels in ML - 309 9.1.3 Associativity of Operators . 310 9.14 Creating New Infix Operators 310 9.1.5 Infix Data Constructors. 313 9.1.6 Exercises for Section 9.1 2 315 . 316 316 316 .. 317 . 317 9.2 Functions in the Top-Level Environment... 9.2.1 Functions on Integers 9.2.2 Functions on Reals 9.2.3 Functions on Booleans . . 9.2.4 Functions on Characters 9.2.5 Functions on Strings . . 317 9.2.6 Functions on Options - 318TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii 9.3 94 9.5 9.6 318 318 320 321 - 321 . 323 9.2.7 Functions on References . 9.2.8 Functions on Lists... . 9.2.9 Functions on Exceptions . 9.2.10 Functions Affecting Return Values 9.2.11 Exercises for Section 9.2 . ‘Top-Level Types and Exceptions 9.3.1 Primitive Types... . . sees | 323, 9.3.2 Primitive Type Constructors... . .. fees. 324 9.3.3 Primitive Datatypes ............ eee BM 9.3.4 Top-Level Exceptions +. 326 9.3.5 Exercises for Section 9.3 . - . 328 Structures of the Standard Basis | 328 9.4.1 The Structure Int . 329 9.4.2 The Structure Word 330 9.4.3 The Structures Real and Math cee ee 5 333 9.4.4 The StructureChar .......... . » 334 9.4.5 The Structure String . . . 334 9.4.6 The Structure Substring . 336 9.4.7 The Structure List 338 9.4.8 The Structure Array . . 340 9.4.9 The Structure Vector . . 340 9.4.10 The Structure 0S 342 9.4.11 The Structures Time and Timer cee BAB 9.4.12 What If [Lose a Name?....... 345 9.4.13 Exercises for Section 9.4 345 Additional Features of SML/NJ 348 9.5.1 Exporting Functions . . .. 348 9.5.2 Exporting the ML Environment . » 351 9.5.3 Exercises for Section 9.5 . 352 Summary of ML Syntax .. . . . 353 9.6.1 Lexical Categories . . . . 353 9.6.2. Some Simplifications to the Grammatical Structure... . 354 9.6.3 Expressions . . : » 355 9.6.4 Matches and Patterns . . 357 9.6.5 Types 360 9.6.6 Declarations . . 362 9.6.7 Signatures 2. 368 9.6.8 Structures .. 37 9.6.9 Functors . » 374 9.6.10 Programs . 375 Index 377Chapter 1 A Perspective on ML and SML/NJ In this preliminary chapter we shall introduce the reader to the history of ML. and the reasons for its existence and popularity. We shall also present the mechanics of using a particular implementation of ML, called Standard ML of New Jersey, which is the implementation used for examples in this book. Finally, some general references on the language are given, including URL’s for obtaining ML compilers and on-line documentation. 1.1 Why ML? ML is a relatively new language that has some extremely interesting features. Its designers incorporated many modern programming-language ideas, yet the language is surprisingly easy to learn and use. In this section we shall enumerate the most important of these features. A Functional Language ML is primarily a functional language, meaning that the basic mode of compu- tation is the definition and application of functions. Functions can be defined by the user as in conventional languages, by writing code for the function. But it is also possible in ML to treat functions as values and compute new functions from them with operators like function composition. Side-Effect Freedom A consequence of the functional style is that computation proceeds by eval- uating expressions, not by making assignments to variables. There are ways to give expressions side-effects, which are operations that permanently change 12 CHAPTER 1. A PERSPECTIVE ON ML AND SML/NJ the value of a variable or other observable object (¢.g., by printing output). However, side-effects are treated as necessary aberrations on the basic theme. In contrast, languages like Pascal or C use statements with side-effects as a matter of course. For example, a Pascal assignment like a := btc has a side- effect, since the value of variable a is changed after the assignment is executed. In contrast, when ML evaluates an expression like btc, it typically creates an entirely new element with which to associate the result. Higher-Order Functions ML supports higher-order functions — functions that take functions as argu- ments — routinely and with great generality. In comparison, languages like Pascal or C support functions as arguments only in limited ways. Polymorphism ML supports polymorphism, which is the ability of a function to take arguments of various types. For example, in Pascal or C we may have to create different types with similar properties, such as “stack of integers,” “stack of reals,” “stack of pairs of integers,” and so on, We would then have to define operations like “push” and “pop” for each different type of stack. In ML, we can define one notion of a stack, one push function, and one pop function, each of which works no matter what type of elements our stacks have Abstract Data Types ML supports abstract data types through: 1, An elegant type system, 2. The ability to construct new types, and 3. Constructs that restrict access to objects of a given type so all access is through a fixed set of operations defined for that type. An example is a type like “stack,” for which we might define the push and pop operations and a few other operations as the only way the contents of a stack could be read or modified. These abstract data types, called structures, offer the power of “classes” used in object-oriented programming languages like C++, Java, or Smalltalk. They are considered very important for such programming goals as modularity, encapsulation of concepts, and reuse of software. However, the ML notion of a structure also includes and generalizes several other important ideas, such as the libraries of functions provided in many languages and “friend” classes in C++.1.1. WHY ML? 3 Recursion ML strongly encourages recursion in preference to iterators like for-loops or while-loops that are used commonly in Pascal or C. Recursion generally pro- vides a cleaner expression for computational ideas, especially when coupled with ML’s functional programming style. We shall learn a natural, recursive style of programming similar to that used in Lisp or Scheme. However, iterative constructs are available in ML for the times when that style is most appropriate. Rule-Based Programming There is in ML an easy way to do rule-based programming, where actions are based on if-then rules. The core idea is a pattern-action construct, where a value is compared with several patterns in turn. The first pattern to match causes an associated action to be executed. In this way, ML has much of the power of Prolog and other languages that are thought of as “artificial intelligence languages.” Strong Typing ML is a strongly typed language, meaning that all values and variables have a type that can be determined at “compile time” (i.e., by examining the program but not running it). A value of one type cannot be given to a variable of another type. For example, the integer value 4 cannot be the value of a real- valued variable, even though the real 4.0 could be the value of that variable, Many other languages allow confusion of types. For example, C allows a value to change its type arbitrarily, through the “cast” mechanism, while Lisp and Prolog do not try to constrain types in general. Strong typing is a valuable debugging aid, since it allows many errors to be caught by the compiler, rather than resulting in mysterious errors when the program is run, Interestingly, although most other strongly typed languages require a declaration of the type of every variable, ML tries hard to figure out the unique type that each variable may have, and only expects a declaration for a variable when it is impossible for ML to deduce its type. ML is not the only language to possess these features. For example, Lisp is principally functional, supports higher-order functions, and promotes the use of recursion. Prolog also promotes recursion and supports rule-based program- ming naturally. Smalltalk and C++ offer powerful abstract-data-type facilities, and so on. However, the combination of features found in ML offers the user @ great deal of programming ease. At the same time, ML allows one to use a full palette of modern programming language concepts.4 CHAPTER 1. A PERSPECTIVE ON ML AND SML/NJ 1.2 Standard ML of New Jersey In this book, we shall assume that the SML/NJ, or “Standard ML of New Jersey,” implementation of ML is used. SML/NJ was implemented by David MacQueen of Lucent Bell Laboratories, Andrew Appel of Princeton University, and their colleagues. It is available for most UNIX workstations, for PC’s running LINUX, and in an experimental version (at the time of this book's writing) for PC’s running Microsoft Windows. There is a Web site at Bell Laboratories from which software and documentation may be downloaded; see the references in Section 1.4. SML/NJ version 109.30, upon which this book is based, has been implemented to conform to the recent ML97 standard. Interactive Mode To run SML/NJ in interactive mode, in response to the UNIX prompt type sm SML/NJ will respond with: Standard ML of New Jersey +» Here, as throughout this book, we shall use italic font to indicate ML’s re- sponses, while text typed by the user will be in the “teletype” font, as sml above. ‘The dash on the second line is ML’s prompt. The prompt invites us to type an expression, and ML will respond with the value of that expression. We can make definitions and enter expressions indefinitely, and SML/NJ will respond to each with the resulting value. © To terminate an SML/NJ session, type d. Direct Program Execution It is also possible to get SML/NJ to execute a program in a conventional way. For example, if your ML program is in file foo, give the sml command with that file as standard input: sml is typed, it will respond with the prompt = instead of -. The = sign is a warning that we have not finished our input expression. ‘© The response of ML to an expression is: The word val standing for “value,” The variable name it, which stands for the previous expression, ‘An equal sign, The value of the expression (7 in this example), se ene ‘A colon, which in ML is the symbol that associates a value with its type, and 6. An expression that denotes the type of the value. In our example, the value of the expression is an integer, so the type int follows the colon. 2.1.1 Constants As in any other language, expressions in ML are composed of operators and operands, and operands may be either variables or constants. At this point, we have not yet discussed the way values may be assigned to variables, so it does not make sense to use variables in expressions. However, syntactically, variables present no surprises. You may think of Pascal identifiers (letters followed by letters or digits) or the identifiers in your favorite language as names for ML variables, although as we shalll see in Section 2.3.1, ML identifiers differ somewhat from identifiers in these languages. ML provides as part of its top-level environment (see Section 1.2) a number of types that are similar to those found in most languages. There is also a way to get from the system some additional types. In this preliminary discussion, we are going to introduce only the most commonly used atomic types and their allowable values. The complete set of types is discussed in Section 9.3. Integers Integers are represented in ML as in other languages, with one exception involv- ing the minus sign. A positive integer is a string of one or more digits, such as 0, 1284, or 11111111. A negative integer is formed by placing the unary minus sign, which is the tilde (~), not a dash, in front of the digits, such as ~1234. Integers may also be represented in hexadecimal notation, where the char- acters Ox or OX are followed by a string of hexadecimal digits. Recall that the hexadecimal digits are 0 through 9 and A through F, with the letters standing for “digits” with values 10 through 15 (in decimal), respectively. The hexadecimal digits that are letters may be written in either upper or lower case.2.1. EXPRESSIONS ul Example 2.2: Here are the responses of the ML system to some expressions that are hexadecimal integers. 0x1234; val it = 4660 : int Here, 1234 in hexadecimal, whose decimal value is 1 x 1728+ 2 x 14443 x 1244 = 4660 is converted to decimal in ML’s response. Notice that ML gives you a deci- mal representation, regardless of whether you write the integer in decimal or hexadecimal. “OxaA; val it = “170 : int Here, we notice that either a or A stands for the hexadecimal digit “10,” and upper and lower case can be mixed. We also see that the negation symbol ~ may be used in hexadecimal integers. O Reals Reals are also represented conventionally, with the exception that minus signs within reals are represented by ~. An ML constant of type real thus consists of 1. An optional ~, 2. A string of one or more digits, and 3. One or both of the following elements: (a) A decimal point and one or more digits. (b) The letter E or e, an optional ~, and one or more digits. As in other languages, the value of a real number is determined by taking the number that appears before the E or e and multiplying it by 10 raised to the power that is the integer that follows. Example 2.3: Here are some examples of real numbers: 1, 123.0 is the negative real that happens to have an integer value ~123. 2. 3E°3 has value .003. 3. 3.14e12 has value 3.14 x 10! o12 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML Booleans There are two boolean values: true and false. ML is case-sensitive (unlike some other languages such as Pascal or SQL that also use true and false as boolean constants), so these constants must be written in lower case, never as TRUE, False, or any other combination involving capitals. Example 2.4: Here is what happens when we type a boolean value. true; val it = true : bool Notice that the type of booleans is bool in the ML response. O Strings Values of type string are double-quoted character strings like "£00" or "R2D2". Certain special characters are represented by sequences of characters, as in the language C, where the backslash (\) serves as an escape character. The principal ways to represent characters that cannot be typed on the keyboard, or characters with a special meaning that would confuse the interpretation of strings, are: 1. The two-character sequence \n is used for the “newline” character. \t is used for the tab character. \\ is used for the backslash character. ee LN \" stands for the double-quote character, which otherwise would be in- terpreted as the string ender. 5. A backslash followed by three decimal digits stands for the character whose ASCII code is the number represented by those three digits, in base 10. This convention allows us to type characters for which there is no key on the keyboard. For example \007 is the “character” that rings the bell on the console. 6. Those characters that are control characters can also be written by the three character sequence consisting of a backslash, the caret or uparrow symbol *, and a character whose ASCII code is in the range 64-95 (dec- imal), i.e., the capital letters and the five characters (\]*_ The actual character represented is determined by subtracting 64 from the ASCII code for the character typed. For example, \°G stands for G and is the same bell-ringing character that is represented by \007. There are certain other escape sequences that are less commonly used or that may not be supported by a given ML implementation. See the box on “Other Character Codes.”2.1. EXPRESSIONS 13 Example 2.5: The string "A\tB\tC\n1\t2\t3\n" is printed as A B c 1 2 3 Here we sce uses of the tab sequence \t and the newline sequence \n. If a string is too long to be written conveniently on a single line, we may continue it over several lines. We make all but the last line end with a backslash, and all but the first line begin with a backslash. Example 2.6: The text of item 4 above could be written as a string extending cover three lines as follows: "\\\" stands for the double-quote character, \ \which otherwise would be interpreted \ \as the string ender." In the first line, the first quote is not part of the string but indicates that a string follows. The first two backslashes represent the character \. The third backslash and the quote represent the character " (the second character of item 4 above). The backslash at the end of the first line indicates that the string continues on the next line. Note that the space after the comma is shown explicitly on the first line. If that space were missing, the represented string would look like ...character,which.... In general, * Any sequence of characters beginning and ending with the backslash and containing between the backslashes only “whitespace” characters such as blank, tab, and newline, is ignored in interpretation of strings. In Example 2.6, we used sequences consisting of a backslash, a newline, and another backslash to make a string break over several lines without the newlines becoming part of the string. Characters As in C, there is a distinction between a character string of length one and a single character. ML provides a type char for characters. The representation of character values in ML is somewhat unusual: The character # followed by character string of length one. That is, #"2" represents the character 2. Example 2.7: Character a is represented by #"a". The tab character is rep- resented by #"\t". O4 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML Other Character Codes ML also provides the following escape sequences: \a, \b, \v, \f, and \r for the ASCII characters 7, 8, 11, 12, and 13, which are the bell-ringing character, backspace, vertical tab, form feed, and carriage return, respec- tively. In addition, the ML97 standard permits, but does not require, that an implementation support an extended ASCII character set of up to 16 bits, such as the 16-bit character code used in the language Java. If an im- plementation supports such an extended set (SML/NJ version 109.30 does not), then one can represent such characters by the sequence \u followed by four hexadecimal digits. 2.1.2 Arithmetic Operators ‘The arithmetic operators of ML are similar to those of Pascal or C. There are: 1. The low-precedence “additive” operators: +, -. 2. The high-precedence “multiplicative” operators: *, / (division of reals), div (division of integers, rounding down toward minus infinity), and mod (the remainder of integer division). 3. The highest precedence unary minus operator, ~. However, note the following. ¢ A unary minus sign is always denoted by a tilde (~), never by a dash. Thus, we write “#4 and 3-4, but never 374 or ~3+4, © ML is case-sensitive, so the operators mod and div must be written in lower case. * Associativity and precedence is like Pascal or C; higher precedence op- erators are grouped with their operands first, and among operators of equal precedence, grouping proceeds from the left. Grouping order can be altered by parentheses in the usual manner. Example 2.8: Here are some expressions and their responses from the ML interpreter. 3.0 - 4.5 + 6.7; val it = 5.2: real Note that grouping of equal precedence operators is from the left. This expres- sion is interpreted as (3.0 — 4.5) + 6.7, not 3.0 ~ (4.5 + 6.7), which has value -8.2.2.1. EXPRESSIONS 15 43 div (8 mod 3) * 5; val it = 105 : int All three operators div, mod, and * are of the same precedence, but the parentheses force us to use the mod first, then group from the left. Since mod calls for the remainder when its left argument is divided by the right, the value of 8 mod 3 is 2. We thus evaluate (43 div 2)*5, or 105. O 2.1.3 String Operators We may not apply the arithmetic operators to string operands. There is, how- ever, one operator that applies to strings and only to strings. The operator ~ stands for concatenation of strings; it has the precedence of an additive opera- tor. When we concatenate two strings s1 and s2, we get the string s182. That is, the resulting string is a copy of string 81 followed by a copy of s2. Example 2.9: Here are some examples of string concatenation. "house" * "cat"; val it = "housecat” : string "Linoleum" >" val it = “linoleum” : string Notice in the second example that "" represents the empty string, the string with no characters. When we concatenate the empty string with any other string, either on the left or right of the ~ operator, we get the other string as a result. O 2.1.4 Comparison Operators The six comparison operators that we find in Pascal are also part of the ML repertoire. These are =, <, >, <=, >=, and <>, representing, respectively, the comparisons =, <, >, S, >, and #. They can be used to compare integers, reals, characters, or strings, with one exception: Reals may not be compared using = or <>. The other four comparisons of reals, such as <, are permitted, however. In the case of characters, ¢1 < cz means “lexicographically precedes”; that is, the character code for ¢) is less than the character code for c2. Similarly, <= means “equals or lexicographically precedes,” and so on. For strings, < is lexicographic order, just as < in Pascal or stremp in C. That is, if s; and sp are strings, then s, < s2 if either 1. 8; is a proper prefix of $2, or16 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML Why Can’t We Test Reals for Equality? ‘The policy that forbids testing r = s in ML, when r and s are real quanti- ties, is motivated by the fact that all machines perform real arithmetic only approximately. Thus, in some circumstances, two real-valued expressions that are theoretically equal could turn out, because of rounding error, to be unequal in the machine. If you definitely want to test whether r = s, you can test both r 4; val it = true : bool ML does not evaluate the second condition (3 > 4), since the first being true is sufficient to guarantee that the whole expression is true. Remember that the result of a comparison is a boolean, so it makes sense to connect two comparisons by a logical operation such as orelse. In the following expression: 1<2 andalso 3>4; val it = false : bool it is necessary to evaluate both conditions. Had the first condition been false, then there would have been no need to check the second, because the whole expression could only be false. Because the symbol not has such high precedence, we must. be careful to group its argument properly. Here is an example. Example 2.12: The expression not 1<2 is grouped as (not 1)<2, which makes no sense and is a type error in ML. We would have to write not (1<2), although the simpler expression 1>=2 would do as well. Incidentally, one might wonder why it matters whether or not the second operand of a logical operation is evaluated, if the result of the entire expression cannot depend on that operand. The reason is that in some special cases, an ML expression can have a side-effect, which is an action whose effect does not disappear after the expression is evaluated. The most common example of a side-effect is when something inside an expression causes information to be18 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML printed or read. We have not yet seen any ML operator that has a side-effect, and indeed it is in the ML style to avoid side-effects normally. However, side- effects are possible, as we shall see in Section 4.1 and elsewhere. When they occur, it is essential that we understand the conditions under which part of an expression will not be evaluated and its side-effects consequently not performed. Remember to use andalso and orelse, never and and or, for the logical operations. There is no special meaning for or in ML, but and has another meaning entirely, having nothing to do with logical operations. 2.1.6 If-Then-Else Expressions ML lets us use conditional expressions of the form if E then F else G. We compute the value of this expression by first evaluating expression E, which must have a boolean value. If that value is true, then we evaluate expression F (and never evaluate G); the value of F becomes the value of the entire if- then-else expression. If the value of E is false, then we evaluate only G, which becomes the value of the entire expression. Example 2.13: Consider the following conditional expression: if 4<2 then 3+4 else 5+6; val it = 7: int We begin by evaluating the expression between the if and then. In this case, the expression 1 < 2 evaluates to true. Thus, we evaluate the second expres- sion, 3+4. The result, 7, is the value of the entire expression. We do not evaluate the expression 5+ 6, and if in its place there were an expression with side-effects, those side-effects would not be executed. Here are a few important points about conditional expressions. © The conditional, or if-then-else operation, is one of the rare operations that takes more than two operands. There is, however, a similar three- operand (ternary) operator in C, using the characters ? and : in place of then and else (nothing in place of if). © Iéthen-else forms an expression. It is not a control-flow construct that groups statements together, as we find in most languages. There is no if --- then construct in ML. Such an expression does not have a value when the condition is false. This point emphasizes the dif- ference between if-then-else as an expression form and as a control-flow construct. There is no harm in having a control-flow construct if-then, since it simply executes no statements if the condition is false. However, an if-then expression might return no value at all and thus could not be used inside larger expressions.2.1. EXPRESSIONS 19 Case Sensitivity in ML ML is case-sensitive, and operators whose names are composed of letters are written with lower-case letters only. For example, we must be careful to write not, andalso, if, mod, and so on. ‘There might appear to be an exception concerning letters used in the expression of certain constants. For instance, we saw that either E or e may be used in real constants, and hexadecimal integers can be introduced with either Ox or OX. In fact, the hexadecimal digits themselves can be written in either upper or lower case. However, this phenomenon is not an exception to case-sensitivity. The ML standard simply allows alternative forms of expression of certain constants. 2.1.7 Exercises for Section 2.1 Exercise 2.1.1: What is the response of ML to the following expressions? *a) 14243 b) 5.0-4.2/1.4 *c) 11 div 2 mod 3 d) "foo"""bar"="" * c) 3>4 orelse 5<6 andalso not (7<>8) f) if 6<10 then 6.0 else 10.0 * g) OXAB+123 h) Oxab<123 Exercise 2.1.2: The following ML “expressions” have errors in them. Explain what is wrong with each. *a) 8/4 b) if 2<3 then 4 *c) 162 and 5>3 d) 647 Dv 2 * 0) 4.43.5 f) 1.02.0 or 3>420 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML * g) Baan h) 123. *1i) 1.0 = 2.0 Exercise 2.1.3: Write a string that when printed creates the displayed text on lines (3)~(5) of Example 2.6. You may assume that the indentation of the lines is made by a single tab character. Your string should be written over several lines so there are no more than 80 characters appearing on any one line. Exercise 2.1.4: Express: * a) Eorelse F b) EB andalso F as if-then-else expressions. Incidentally, in ML, expressions formed with the symbols orelse and andalso are actually shorthands for these if-then-else ex- pressions. 2.2 Type Consistency Having seen some of the important building blocks of expressions, we must now learn what can go wrong when we use expressions built from these operators. ML assigns a unique type to every expression. Operators also have partic- ular types that they require their operands to have. Certain operators take operands of one particular type only. Examples are /, which requires operands of type real, div, which requires operands of type integer, and , which requires operands of type string. Others, like + or *, can take arguments of different types, e.g., two integers or two reals. As we shall see shortly, it is not possible to mix operands of integer and real types, as it is in C or most other languages. However, ML provides certain operators for converting from a value of one type to an “equivalent” value of another type. We shall also learn a number of these “coercion” operators in this section. Let us again remind the reader that there is a purpose to this seeming inflex- ibility on the part of ML. It enables the ML compiler to type-check programs completely. Thus, no program that can run at all can have a type error. The advantage to the programmer is that what could be a run-time bug in another language’s program is caught by the ML compiler. 2.2.1 Type Errors As we saw in Example 2.1, when an operator is given operands of the proper type, it responds with the result. However, when one or both operands are of the wrong type, we get an error message. The nature of error messages depends2.2. TYPE CONSISTENCY 21 on the particular implementation. We shall use the responses from SML/NJ version 109.30 in examples.’ Example 2.14: The operator + can take either integer or real arguments. However, both operands must be the same type. When the types of the operands are the same, ML attributes the same type to the result, for instance: 1+ 25 val it = 3: int 1.0 + 2.0; val it = 3.0 : real On the other hand, when the operands are of mixed type, we get an error message, as shown in Fig. 2.1. Let’s see what ML is telling us. The first line of the response says that the operator expects operands of types other than what it saw. The second line of the response tells us that the operator + expects an “operand” whose type is a pair of integers. Although + can apply to either integers or reals, the fact that the left argument 1 is an integer suggests that integer addition was meant here. 142. Error: operator and operand don't agree [literal] operator domain: int * int operand: int * real in expression: +: overloaded((1 : int),2.0) Figure 2.1: A type error and its diagnostic message ‘The * operator in the expression int * int is not multiplication, but rather an operator that applies to types and produces a product type, that is, the type of a pair, triple, or so on. In particular, int * int is the type of any pair of integers, for example, of the pair (1,2). ‘This response makes us aware of a rather rigid view ML has of operators and operands. Strictly speaking, all operators in ML are unary, that is, they take a single argument. A binary (two-argument) operator like + is perceived by ML as taking a single argument that is a pair. In most situations there is no problem with viewing a binary operator as if it had two operands, but there are some differences that we shall address in Section 5.5. The third line of the response tells us what ML saw as the operand of the operator, namely a pair whose first component (the left operand) is an integer THowever, SML/NJ also returns a line and column number locating the point at which it detected the error. We do not show this response since it is rarely meaningful out of context,22 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML but whose second component (the right operand) is a real. The final two lines indicate the expression in which the error occurred. The only additional nuance is that the operator and operand are shown in the conventional ML prefix form, with the operator + appearing in front of its operand, which is the pair (1,2.0). a In the fifth line of Fig.. 2.1, we note the use of the term “overloaded” in reference to +. An operator is overloaded if it can apply to two or more different types, as + can. Notice that the fact + is defined for two integers or two reals does not mean that it can be applied to one of each. Similar comments apply to overloaded operators like -, *, <, and the other comparison operators. If we were to use an operand of the wrong type with an operator that is not overloaded, we get an error message similar to Fig. 2.1, but without the word “overloaded.” An example follows. Example 2.15: The expression peeeione applies the nonoverloaded operator ~, which concatenates strings, to a character and a string. The error message would look like: Error: operator and operand don't agree [literal] operator domain: string * string operand: char * string in expression: * (#?a","be") o Another type of error involves applying an operator, overloaded or not, to operands at least one of which has a type inappropriate for the operator. Example 2.16: The division operator / applies only to reals, as we learned in Section 2.1.2. Here is what happens when this operator is misused. 1/25 Error: overloaded variable not defined at type symbol: / type: int Our first observation is that the error message talks about the symbol / and its application to the type int, which we know is improper. However, what is the “overloaded variable” in the first line of the error message? ML thinks of / as a variable. As we shall see in Section 2.3.1, / is a legitimate identifier for a variable in ML, unlike most languages, where variable identifiers are restricted to letters and digits plus perhaps a few other symbols. Although we said that / applies only to “reals,” an implementation of ML may support several kinds of reals, such as single- and double-precision numbers. Thus, / might indeed be defined for several different types. O2.2. TYPE CONSISTENCY 23 Another place where type mismatches may occur through carelessness is in an if-then-else expression. The rules regarding types for this expression are: « The expression following if must have boolean type. « The expressions following then and else can be of any one type, but they must be of the same type. Example 2.17: Figure 2.2 shows what happens when the types of the expres- sions following then and else disagree. Here, one is a character and one is a string. if 1<2 then #"a" else "be"; Error: types of rules don’t agree [tycon mismatch] earlier rule(s): bool + char this rule: bool + string in rule: false > "be” Figure 2.2: A mismatch between the then and else parts Obviously, ML is telling us something about finding a string (ie., "be") when it expected a character to match the character #"a" that followed the then. But what's this about “rules”? The explanation lies in the fact that the if- then-else expression is really a shorthand for a more general kind of expression: the case expression. We shall cover the case expression in Section 5.1.4 For the moment, let us just note that ML’s view of the if-then-else is that, it involves two “rules,” each of which takes a boolean value and produces a value of some one type. The first of these rules associates the boolean value true with the character #"a". This rule expresses the principle that if the condition is true, we use the value of the expression that follows the then. ‘The second rule associates the boolean value false with the value following the else, namely "bc" in this case. However, ML expects to find another character-valued expression following else, which it will then associate with false in the second rule. ML is unhappy that it has found a string-valued expression, because ML will not tolerate groups of rules that produce values of different types. O « The word “tycon” in the first line of response in Fig. 2.2 is short for “type constructor,” that is, a way of constructing types from simpler types. Rules in the sense used in Fig. 2.2 are actually of a function type, mapping booleans to some other type. We discuss function types in Section 3.1 1.2 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML Applying Functions, ML Style ML offers us a diction for applying a function or operator to an argument that may be unfamiliar to some: f x means “apply function f to argument x,” just as f(z) does in C or most other languages. Since there is no harm in putting parentheses around an argument, we have used the more conventional style, writing real(1) instead of the preferred ML style: real 1. By adhering to the more familiar style, with parentheses, we hope to focus attention on the more significant issues of ML, without adding to the “newness” of the language. However, as the book progresses, we shall gradually shift to the ML style of omitting the parentheses around the argument of a function whenever appropriate. 2.2.2 Coercion Between Integers and Reals Sometimes we have a reason to convert (coerce) a value of one type to an “equivalent” value of another type. Thus ML provides certain built-in functions that do the conversion for us. Perhaps the clearest case is when we want to convert an integer to a real with the same value. The function real lets us do just that. Example 2.18: Applied to an integer, real produces the equivalent real value as: real (4 val it = 4.0 ; real As another instance, we can fix Example 2.14, where we tried to add an integer and a real, if we first apply real to the integer. real(1) + 2.0; val it = 3.0 : real shows a correct version of this addition. Of course, there is no point in writing real (1) instead of 1.0, but if we replaced 1 by an integer-valued variable, we would have no choice but to convert the variable by applying the operator real toit. O When we try to convert a real to an integer, it is not so clear which integer ‘we want, since the real may not equal any integer. ML provides four coercion operators: floor, ceil (ceiling), round, and trunc (truncate). Each produces the integer with the same value when given a real that happens to be an in- teger; for instance, 4.0 is converted to 4 by each of these four functions. In general, given a real number r, floor produces the greatest integer that is no2.2. TYPE CONSISTENCY 25 larger than r, and ceil produces the smallest integer no less than r, Function round produces the closest integer, with 0.5 raised to the next highest integer, regardless of whether the real is positive or negative. The trunc function drops digits to the right of the decimal point. Example 2.19: Figure 2.3 shows the effect of these four operators on positive and negative real numbers. We include the special case of a half-integer (3.5 and —3.5), noticing that rounding occurs upward. We also include typical cases where the rounding is to the closest integer. Notice that floor and trunc do the same thing on positive numbers, but trunc agrees with ceil on negative numbers. Remember that —3 is “larger” than -3.5 and —4 is “smaller.” 0 x_| floor(x) | ceil(x) | round | trunc(x) 3.5 3 4 4 3 73.5 “4 “3 “3 73 3.4 3 4 3 3 3.6, 4 3 3 3 Figure 2.3: Effect of real-to-integer coercion operators 2.2.3 Coercions Between Characters and Integers We convert from characters to integers, just as in Pascal, using the ord function (which, however, must be lower case in ML). The result of applying ord to a character is the integer code for that character. Normally, the character will be one of the ASCII characters, and ord will return the ASCII code for that character. Example 2.20: ord (#"a") ; val it = 97: int ord(#"a") - ord(#"A"); val it = 32: int The latter example computes the difference between the ASCII codes for lower- case a and capital A. This result is no coincidence. Every lower-case letter has an ASCII code that is 32 more than its corresponding capital letter. O Similarly, we can convert integers in the range 0 to 255 to characters. The function chr performs this task as: chr (97); val it = "#a” : char26 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML 2.2.4 Coercions Between Strings and Characters If we have a character, we can convert it to a string of length one with the operator str. That is, str(#"a"); val it = "a": string However, conversion from strings to characters is not so straightforward. Part of the problem is that we have to deal with strings that are not of length one. ML provides several ways to make the conversion where it makes sense. For example, we shall see the explode operator in Section 2.4.5, which converts a string to a list of characters. 2.2.5 Exercises for Section 2.2 Exercise 2.2.1: Write expressions to make each of the following conversions. * a) Convert 123.45 to the next lower integer. b) Convert -123.45 to the next lower integer. ©) Convert 123.45 to the next higher integer. * d) Convert —123.45 to the next higher integer. *e) Convert #"Y" to an integer. f) Convert 120 to a character. *1g) Convert #""N" to a real. 1h) Convert 97.0 to a character. i) Convert #"2" to a string. Exercise 2.2.2: The following expressions contain type errors. What are the errors and how might we fix them? * a) ceil(4) b) if true then 5+6 else 7.0 * c) chr(256) d) chr(“1) * e) ord(3) f) chr(#"a") g) if 0 then 1 else 2 *h) ord("a")2.3, VARIABLES AND ENVIRONMENTS 27 2.3 Variables and Environments In most languages, such as C or Pascal, computing takes place in an environment consisting of a collection of “boxes,” usually called variables. Variables have names and hold values. The name of a box is an identifier, which is a string of characters (typically, letters and digits) that the language allows as the name of a variable. There is usually a type associated with a variable, and the contents of a “box” can be any value of the appropriate type. Pascal, C, and most other languages allow variables of types integer, real, and many other types. ‘At any given time the set of values stored in the variables’ boxes constitute the store. In conventional languages, computation proceeds by side-effects, that is, by changing the store. One of the interesting things about ML is that it is impossible for the store to change, with a few exceptions, such as arrays and references, that we shall introduce in Chapter 7. Rather, ML does its computing by adding to the environment new value bindings, which are associations between identifiers and values. The above brief overview of this section is heady material, so let's start again from the beginning. 2.3.1 Identifiers Identifiers are character strings with certain restrictions. Most languages allow identifiers that are letters followed by any number of letters and digits. ML allows these too, along with many other strings that are not identifiers in most other languages. In ML, identifiers fall into two classes: alphanumeric and symbolic. There is no difference in their use, with the exception of type vari- ables, as described below, which are alphanumeric identifiers beginning with an apostrophe. Alphanumeric Identifiers The alphanumeric class of identifiers consists of strings formed by 1. An upper case or lower case letter or the character ? (called apostrophe or “prime”), followed by 2. Zero or more additional characters from the set given in (1) plus the digits and the character . (underscore). However, identifiers beginning with the apostrophe ? are type variables. They can only refer to types and cannot be bound to ordinary values. Example 2.21: The following are examples of alphanumeric identifiers: abe X29a Number_of_Hamburgers_Served a’b’c28 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML The following is a legal alphanumeric identifier: *. However, it cannot be bound to values like 3, 4.5, "six", or any of the values we normally think of as the values of variables. It can only be bound to a type. In fact, ML often chooses the identifier ’@ to represent the type of something whose value can be of any type. For instance, ’a might in some contexts be given the type integer as its “value.” Note that being bound to the type integer is quite different from being bound to a particular integer like 3. 0 Symbolic Identifiers Of all the characters we can type with a conventional keyboard, there are only ten that cannot appear as part of some sort of identifiers. These ten characters are the three kinds of pairs of parentheses (round, square, and curly), double quote, period, comma, and semicolon. That is, the only characters that always stand alone and cannot be part of an identifier are QC) CITC". 4G Of course the “white space” characters — blank, tab, and newline — also are not part of identifiers. These do not have a meaning by themselves, but they serve to separate the elements of a program. The remaining 20 keyboard characters that cannot appear in alphanumeric identifiers can be used to form symbolic identifiers. To be precise, the set of characters for symbolic identifiers is +-/*# <> reesy,rae se“ \I?: Many of these symbols by themselves are names of operators. For example, we have seen the use of +, *, and several others. ML interprets the identifier + as a special function that adds either two reals or two integers. More precisely, ML initially binds the identifier + to the addition function. Similarly, ML initially binds any other symbolic identifier that stands for an operator to the function implementing that operator. We are free in ML to form our own identifiers from strings of the 20 charac- ters listed above. These identifiers might be used to name new operators that we define, but they can also be used routinely to name integers, reals, and so on, Example 2.22: The following are legal symbolic identifiers: $$$, >>>=, and 1e#%. However, !@a is not a legal identifier because it mixes the characters ! and @ (which may only appear in symbolic identifiers) with the character a (which can only be part of an alphanumeric identifier). O2.3. VARIABLES AND ENVIRONMENTS 29 Exercise Care Using Symbolic Identifiers We advise against using symbolic identifiers to represent values of types such as integers or strings. Besides looking strange, they often cause trou- ble because they must be surrounded by white space to prevent them from “attaching” to operators like + and forming unintended identifiers that confuse the ML system and cause an error. That is, although << and a are both legal identifiers, we must write << +a or << + a to add them. Should we write <<+a, we get the error message: Error: unbound variable or constructor: <<+ If we use symbolic identifiers as program variables at all, they should be used as functions, so the above lexical confusion will not occur. 2.3.2 The Top-Level Environment When we invoke ML, we are given the top-level environment (see Fig. 1.1) in which to work. In this environment, the identifiers that have meaning to the ML system are bound to these meanings. The entire contents of the top-level environment is enumerated in Sections 9.2 and 9.3. In Fig. 2.4 we suggest some of these identifiers. Environments will be rep- resented as a table, with a left column for identifiers and a right column for the associated value. At the bottom of Fig. 2.4 is the top-level environment.” We see an entry for the identifier ~ to represent the function that concatenates strings, and we see another named floor that represents the floor function discussed in Section 2.2.2. There are other entries for all the operators and functions that we have learned and those we have yet to learn. In addition, we have shown some other identifiers to which common values have been bound as additions to the top-level environment. In particular, we have the identifier foo bound to the integer 3, an identifier bar with value ‘equal to the integer 490, and an identifier pi that is bound to the real number 3.14159. 2.3.3 An Assignment-Like Statement It is possible to add an identifier to the current environment and bind it to a value. To do so we use a “statement” called a val-declaration, whose simplest form is ? The top-level environment will always be at the bottom of environment diagrams, which grow upward as new value bindings are made. ‘The term “top-level” is thus unfortunate, but we hope the reader will find the convention of adding new bindings on top of old ones intuitively appealing,30 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML foo 3 bar 490 pi 3.14159 function to concatenate strings Top-level environment . function to floor compute the floor of a real Identifier Value Figure 2.4: The top-level environment and some added user variables val = That is, we use the keyword val, the identifier for which we wish to create a value binding, an equal sign, and an expression that gives the value we wish to associate with that identifier. Example 2.23: Here is an example of how the identifier pi shown in Fig. 2.4 might have been added to the environment. val pi = 3.14159; val pi = 3.14159 : real Notice that in response to the val-declaration of variable pi, ML responds with the value of pi rather than with the value of it, as was the case in all previous examples. Otherwise, the response to a val-declaration is the same as the response to an expression. # In general, responses to val-declarations tell us the identifiers that have been bound to values and what those values are. We might next define an identifier radius as: val radius = 4.0; val radius = 4.0 : real The val-declaration is actually considerably more general, and in place of single identifier we can have arbitrary “patterns.” ‘The matter is discussed further in Section 3.3.42.3. VARIABLES AND ENVIRONMENTS 31 Some Points About ML “Assignment” « Remember to use the keyword val to cause a value binding to oc- cur. Assignment statements like x = y or x familiar from other languages, are errors in ML (with one exception, discussed in Section 7.3.3). It is tempting to think of the equal-sign in a val-declaration as equiv- alent to := in Pascal or = in C. However, these assignment operators from other languages cause side-effects, namely the change in the value stored in the place named on the left of the assignment opera- tor. In ML, the val-declaration causes a newentry in the environment to be created, associating what is to the left of the equal sign with the value to the right of the equal-sign. Example 2.24 illustrates this point. Now we have some variables, namely pi and radius, that we can use along with constants to form expressions. For instance, we can write an expression that is the familiar formula for the area of a circle: pi * radius * radius; val it = 50.26544 : real Similarly, we could introduce another identifier, say area, and use a val- declaration to give it a value. val area = pi * radius * radius; val area = 50.26544 : real Note that in the above example, the expression supplying the value itself in- volves variables and operators. In previous examples the “expression” was a single constant. O 2.3.4 A View of ML Programming We now have a rudimentary view of what ML programs look like. They are sequences of definitions, such as the val-declaration that associates values with identifiers (which are loosely the same as “program variables”). So far, we don’t have any really interesting assignments to make; we can only bind values of @ basic type (e.g., real or string) to identifiers, and we can ask for the value of an expression involving these identifiers and constants, by typing that expression. In Chapter 3 we shall see how to give identifiers values that are functions and32 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML how to apply functions to values in order to compute new values. When these functions are recursive, we shall find ourselves programming in a mode that gives us all the power of other programming languages, yet has a distinctive flavor of its own. Tt is natural to think of a val-declaration as an assignment, and often we shall not go wrong if we do so. However, there is a subtle but important difference in the way ML views what happens in response to a val-declaration. The next example illustrates some of that difference. Example 2.24: Suppose that after issuing the val-declarations of Example 2.23 we “redefine” radius to be equal to 5.0 by: val radius = 5.0; val radius = 5.0: real We might imagine that the entry in the environment for radius has had its value changed from 4.0 to 5.0. However, the proper ML view is suggested in Fig. 2.5. Below the top entry is the environment that existed before radius was “assigned” 5.0. We do not show all the identifiers that ML defines for us (e.g., +), but we concentrate on those we have defined: pi, radius, and area. Our View radius 5.0 area 50.2654 radius 4.0 Existing before pi 3.14159 val radius = 5.0 Figure 2.5: The environment after redefining radius ‘The topmost entry in Fig. 2.5 is an addition to the environment that re- sults from the new val-declaration. We have shown in the current environment two entries that are named by the identifier radius, but only the most recent (upper) one is visible at this time. If we are running ML in interactive mode and simply entering a sequence of val-declarations, then the earlier declaration of radius cannot again become accessible through the current environment. When we discuss functions and their effect on the environment in Section 3.2.1, we shall see that it is sometimes possible to access a “buried” value binding such as the lower entry for radius, just as it is in conventional languages such as C or Pascal. O2.3. VARIABLES AND ENVIRONMENTS 33 Identifiers Do Not Have Fixed Types Note that when creating an entry with an old name, as we did in Exam- ple 2.24, there is no restriction that the new value be of the same type as the old value. We could just as well have defined radius to be an integer in Example 2.24, for instance: val radius = However, we then could not have used this variable radius in expressions like pi * radius * radius, because of the type mismatch. 2.3.5 Exercises for Section 2.3 Exercise 2.3.1: Tell whether each of the following character strings is (i) an alphanumeric identifier suitable for ordinary (nontype) values, (ii) a symbolic identifier, (iii) an identifier that must represent a type as a value, or (iv) not an identifier of ML. * a) The7Dwarves b) 7Dvarves * c) SevenDwarves ,The d) ’SnowWhite’ *e) aceb f) hurrah! *g) #1 h) 7123 Exercise 2.3.2: Show the effect on the environment of making the following sequence of val-declarations. Which variables are now accessible? val a= 3; val b = 98.6; val a = "three"; val ¢ a‘str(chr(floor(b)));34 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML 2.4 Tuples and Lists So far we have seen five types that ML values may have: integer, real, string, character, and boolean. Most languages start with a similar collection of types and build more complex types with a set of operators called type constructors, which are dictions allowing us to define new types from simpler types. For example, Pascal has, among other type constructors, 1. The record. . .end notation to build record types, whose fields may be of any type, 2. The ~ operator to build a type whose values are pointers to values of some simpler type, and 3. The array constructor that defines an array type, given a type for elements and an index type. ML also has a number of ways to define new types, including datatype constructions discussed in Section 6.2 that go beyond what we find in C, Pascal, or most other languages. However, the simplest and possibly most important ways of constructing types in ML are notations for forming tuples, which are similar to record types in Pascal or C, and for forming lists of elements of a given type. In this section we shall learn these notations and also cover the most important operations associated with these types. 2.4.1 Tuples A tuple is formed by taking a list of two or more expressions of any types, sepa- rating them by commas, and surrounding them by round parentheses. Thus, a tuple looks something like a record, but the fields are named by their position in the tuple rather than by declared field names. Example 2.25: In the following val-declaration we assign to variable t a tuple whose first component is the integer 4, whose second component is the real 5. and whose third component is the string "si val t = (4, 5.0, “six"); val t = (4, 5.0, "six”) : int * real * string Let’s try to understand the ML response. It repeats the fact that the value of t is the one we just gave it, which should be no surprise. However, it uses terminology we have not seen before in an ML response, as it describes the type of t. Recall from Section 2.2.1 that the type int * real * string is a product type. Its values are tuples that have three components. The first component is an integer, the second is a real, and the third component is a string. The operator * has a different meaning when applied to types than it does when applied to integer or real values. Here + has nothing to do with multiplication, but indicates tuple formation. O24. TUPLES AND LISTS 35 In general, a product type is formed from two or more types Tis Tess Ti by putting *’s between them, as T; * Tz * +++ * Tp. Values of this type are tuples with & components, the first of which is of type T;, the second of type Ty, and so on. Example 2.25 showed a case where k = 3, T; is int, T» is real, and Ty is string. Example 2.26: Here are some further examples of tuples and their types. 1. (1,2,3,4) is of type int * int * int * int. 2. (1,(2,3.0)) is of type int * (int * real). 3. (1) is of type int. Strictly speaking, it is not a tuple, just a parenthesized integer. In (2) the tuple has two components, the first of which is an integer. The second component is itself a tuple with two components: an integer and a real. This grouping is reflected in the type description. 0 ‘The * operator applied to types is not an associative operator. For example, int * (int * real) isnot the same type as (int # int) * real. The latter type describes tuples of two components, the first of which is a pair of integers and the second of which is a single real. For example, ((1,2) ,3.0) is a value of type (int * int) * real. Neither is the same as the type int * int * real, which describes “flat” tuples like (1,2,3.0). 2.4.2 Accessing Components of Tuples Given a tuple or a variable whose value is a tuple, we can get any particular component, say the ith, by applying the function #i. Example 2.27: In Example 2.25, identifier t was bound to the tuple value (4, 5.0, "six") Now we can obtain its components. For example: #1(t) val it = 4: int #3(t) val it "sie” : string It is an error to apply a function like #4 that designates a component number higher than the number of components the tuple has. 0 ‘Tuples can be likened to records whose field names are the numbers 1, 2, - In truth, tuples as we have defined them are a special, simplified case of a more general record-structure construct that does allow the programmer to specify names for fields. However, the tuple is adequate and quite convenient for most purposes. We defer the more general case of record structures to Section 7.1.36 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML 2.4.3 Lists ML provides a simple notation for lists whose elements are all of the same type. We take a list of elements, separate them by commas, and surround them with square brackets. Example 2.28: The list of three integers 1, 2, 3 is represented in ML by [1,2,3]. The response of ML to an expression that is this constant value is (1,2,3]5 val it = /1,2,3) : int list ‘The response to our list expression is informative. In addition to the usual repetition of the value in the expression, it assigns the list the type int list, which is ML’s way of saying ‘list of integers.” 0. @ In general, “T List” is the type of a list of elements each of which is of type T. Example 2.29: In our second example, the list has a single element that is of type string. val it a") : string list The type attributed to the list expression is string list, or “list of strings.” ‘The fact that there is only one string in the list is irrelevant. ‘The square brackets differentiate the expression "a", which is of type string, from the expression ('a"], which is a list of strings that happens to have only one string on the list. 0 Example 2.30: Finally, here is an example where we erroneously try to mix the types of elements of a list. We tried to write a list of three characters, but we forgot the pound sign on the last one, so it became a string of length one, instead of a character. fea", eb", "o"]; Error: operator and operand don't agree [tycon mismatch) operator domain: char * char list operand: char * string list in expression: #0" We shall explain the error message after we have learned some of the notation of lists in Section 2.4.4. 02.4. TUPLES AND LISTS 37 2.4.4 List Notation and Operators In this section we shall learn several operators that involve lists. These include notation for the empty list, the head and tail of a list, “cons” or construction of a list from a head and tail, and concatenation of lists. ‘The Empty List ‘The empty list, or list of no elements, is represented in ML by either the name nil or by a pair of brackets, [] Head and Tail Any list besides the empty list is composed of a head, which is the first element, and a tail, which is the list of all elements but the first, in the same order. Example 2.31: If L is the list (2,3,4], then the head of L is 2, and the tail of L is the list [3,4]. If M is the list (5), then the head of M is 5, and the tail of M is the empty list, or nil. O We can get the head or tail of a list by applying the function hd or t1. to the list, respectively. The following restates Example 2.31 in a sequence of ML expressions. Example 2.32: Suppose we define lists L and M by the val-declarations val L = (2,3,4]; val L = [2,3,4] : int list val M = [5]; val M = [5] : int list Now we can get the head and tail of each of these lists as follows. hd(L); val it = 2: int t1(L); val it = [3,4] : int list38 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML In the last of these expressions, ML describes the type of nil as int List. It is possible for nil to be of any list type. In this case, since it is the tail of an integer list, it is appropriate to assign it this type. 0 Concatenation of Lists While hd and t1 take apart lists, there are also two operators that construct lists: concatenation and cons. We consider each in turn. The concatenation operator for lists, which is @, takes two lists whose ele- ments are the same type and produces one list consisting of the elements of the first list followed by the elements of the second. Thus (1,21@(3,4]; val it = [1,2,3,4) : int list « Do not interchange the ~ operator, which is concatenation of strings, with the @ operator, which is concatenation of lists. Cons The cons operator, represented by a pair of colons (::), takes an element (the head) and a list of elements of the same type as the head, and produces a single list whose first element is the head and whose remaining elements are the elements of the tail. Thus 2:: (3,4) val it = (2,3,4] : int list The precedence of the and @ operators is below that of the additive operators such as +, but above that of the comparison operators like <. Most unusual is that these operators are right-associative, meaning that they group from the right instead of the left as do most operators we have seen. Example 2.33: Especially important about right-associativity of these oper- ators is the interpretation of a cascade of cons operators, like Ai:2::3:inil ‘This expression is grouped from the right, as 1::(2::(3::nil)). Expression nil represents the list with head 3 and an empty tail, that is, [3]. Next, :[3] is the list whose head is 2 and whose tail is the list whose only element is 3; this list is [2,3]. Similarly, the entire expression denotes the list [1,2,3]. Notice that when we have a sequence of cons operators, only the last operand must be a list, such as nil in the example above. The other operands must. be elements. It would not make sense to eroup an expression like2.4. TUPLES AND LISTS 39 The Types of Heads and Tails ¢ Remember that the types of the head and tail are different. If the type of the head is T, then the type of the tail is “list of 7,” or T list in ML. © Similarly, the cons operator :: takes a first argument that is of some type T, and a second argument that is of type T list. © On the other hand, the operator @ takes two arguments of type T list for some type T. Fg nil from the left, as ((1 ::3)::mil, because 1::2 is a type mismatch. That is, when the cons operator sees the left operand 1, it expects that the type of the tail will be int list. Since the type of 2 is int, not int list, it is not possible to apply :: to this pair of operands. © Example 2.34: Let us reprise Example 2.30 and consider the meaning of the error message that we saw there. We repeat the relevant part of Example 2.30 in Fig. 26. Cera", ab", "o"]; 1) Error: operator and operand don’t agree [tycon mismatch) 2) — operator domain: char * char list 3) operand: char * string list 4) in expression: 5) BPD 70" 2 nil Figure 2.6: Error message from Example 2.30 ML parses lists from the back (ie., the right end). It starts off assuming a list is empty, i.e., nil. When it sees the last element, "c", it “conses” that clement with the list following, i.e., "c" :: nil to get a list of one element, ("c"]. Evidently, the type of this list is string list, since its one element is a string. Now, ML tries to attach the next-to-last element, #"b", as the head of a list whose tail is ("c"]. But there is a type mismatch in the resulting list #"b" :: [Mc]. That is, since the head is a character, the expected domain of the operator :: is char * char list, ie., a pair consisting of a character40 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML (the head) and a list of characters (the tail).4 That is what line (2) of the error message is telling us. However, as line (3) states, the actual type of the pair to which the :: operator was applied is char * string list, i.c., ahead that isa character and a tail that is a list of strings. Lines (4) and (5) of the error message confirm that the problem occurs in the expression #"b" imil oO 2.4.5 Converting Between Character Strings and Lists In ML, strings and lists are different types. However, there is a great similarity between a string and a list of characters, and it is possible to convert between the two representations using the built-in functions explode and implode. The first of these takes a string and converts it to the list of characters appearing in that string, in order. Example 2.35: Here are two examples of the use of explode. explode("abed") ; val it = [##"a", #0", #"C", #7") : char list explode(""); val it = [J : char list Notice in the second example that "is the empty string, which when exploded yields an empty list of characters. The function implode takes a list whose elements are characters and con- catenates all the characters together to form a single string. Example 2.36: Here are three examples of imploding lists. implode ([#"a",#"b", #"c",#"d"]) 5 val it = "abed” : string implode (nil) val it = "” : string implode (explode ("xyz")); val it = "syz” : string The second example points out that we can implode the empty list and get the empty string. The third illustrates that implode and explode are inverses of one another, and the effect of explode followed by implode on any string is to return the string itself. 02.4. TUPLES AND LISTS a The Type of the Empty List Notice that in the second case of Example 2.35, ML deduced"that the empty list was of type char list, even though there are no elements in the list. ML knows it is an empty list of characters, because explode always returns a list of characters. In general, the type of the empty list is "a list, i.e, a list of elements of any one type. Recall from Example 2.21 that identifiers beginning with a quote mark denote types. Thus, a list is ML’s way of saying “any- type list.” However, when the empty list appears as a value, the ML system must be able to discover a concrete type for its elements — the type that the elements would have if there were any elements. We shall have more to say about the need to resolve types in Section 5.3.1. A third operator, similar to implode, works on lists of strings instead of lists of characters. If L is a list of strings, then concat (L) produces the string that is the concatenation of all the strings on L, in order. Example 2.37: Here is an example of concat applied to a list of strings. concat (["ab","cd","e"]); val it = "abede” : string ao 2.4.6 Introduction to the ML Type System Every programming language has a type system, that is, a collection of types for its values and variables and a way of expressing those types. We have not seen nearly all of the ML type system yet, but it is useful to observe the way types and their representations are constructed. The type system of ML is constructed from a basis of elementary types by applying certain type construc tors recursively. A type constructor is an operator that builds new types from simpler ones. Here is what we have seen so far of the ML type system. BASIS: We have seen the elementary types int, real, bool, char, and string. INDUCTION: We have seen two type constructors: 1. The product-type constructor builds the types of tuples. If T;,T2,---,;Tn are types, then T; * Tz * --- * Ty denotes the type of a tuple whose ith component has type Tj, for i= 1,2,...,n. “Recall that all binary operators in ML are perceived as applying to a single pair, rather than to two arguments,42 CHAPTER 2. GETTING STARTED IN ML 2. The list-type constructor List builds list types from element types. If T is a type, then T list is the type of lists each of whose elements is of type T. ‘We may apply these type constructors in any order, as many times as we like, to build new types of increasingly complex structure. In type expressions, List is of higher precedence than *. Thus, we may need to use parentheses to group operands properly. Example 2.38: Here are some examples of constructed types and a typical value for each. 1. ‘Type expression int List is a list of integers. It is the appropriate type for values such as (1,2,3]. 2. Type expression string * int list * int is the type for a tuple with three components, whose types are respectively a string, a list of integers, and a single integer. A typical value of this type is ("ab", [1,2,3], 4). Note that in type expressions, List has higher precedence than *, so this type expression is properly parsed string * (int list) * int, rather than (string * int) list * int. 3. Type expression (int * int) list list is the type of a list of lists of pairs of integers. An appropriate value for this type is (£(1,2),(3,4)], ((5,6)], nil] The list consists of three elements. The first element is the list consisting of the pairs (1,2) and (3,4). The second element is the list with only one element: (5,6). The third element is the empty list. o 2.4.7 Exercises for Section 2.4 Exercise 2.4.1: What are the values of the following expressions? * a) #2(3,4,5) b) hd([3,4,5]) *c) t1((3,4,5]) d) explode("fo: *e) implode([#"f", #"o", #"0"]) f) "co" ‘124. TUPLES AND LISTS 43 * 8) [re h) coneat(["e","a","t"]) o"JOL"b","o","1"] Exercise 2.4.2: What is wrong with each of the following expressions? If possible, suggest an appropriate correction. * a) #4(3,4,5) b) haf) *1c) #1(1) d) explode(("bar"]) * 0) implode( "b") f) [rv]: ('a","e"] *g) t1(01) h) 102 * i) concat ([#"a",#"b"]) Exercise 2.4.3: Give the types of the following expressions. *a) (1.5, ("3", (4,5])) b) ((1,2] nil, (3]] *c) ((2,3.5), (4,5.5), (6,7.5)] d) ( "), Cni2, (1,2,3]) “! Exercise 2.4.4: Are (1,2) and (1,2,3) the same type? Are [1,2] and [1,2,3] the same type? ve Exercise 2.4.5: Give examples of appropriate values for each of the following type expressions. Do not use the empty list as the value for any list component. *a) int list list list b) (int * char) list * c) string list * (int * (real * string)) * int d) ((int * int) * (bool list) * real) * (real * string) *e) (bool * int) * char. !f) real * int list list list list. ! Exercise 2.4.6: Using two of the operators we have learned in this section, it is possible to convert a string of length one into the character of that string. Show how to accomplish this transformation.Chapter 3 Defining Functions Now we know everything there is to know about ML, except how to program! In this chapter we shall learn about defining and using functions. Essentially all programming in ML is conducted by the definition of functions and the application of these functions to arguments. As we shall see, ML uses functions in places where more traditional languages use iteration (e.g., while-loops). 3.1 It’s Easy; It’s fun ‘The keyword fun introduces function definitions. In this section we shall see the simplest form of function definitions, which are essentially single expressions that are evaluated for the arguments of the function whenever the function is called. Later sections discuss the more common forms of function definition, involving the matching of arguments to patterns, and the use of temporary defi- nitions in functions. We defer to Chapter 5 some of the more advanced concepts regarding ML functions, such as polymorphic functions (those that can take ar- guments of different types), higher-order functions (those that take functions as arguments or produce functions as results), and Currying of higher-order functions (writing a function so new functions may be created by instantiating one of its arguments). ‘The simplest form of function declaration is fun () = ; ‘That is, the keyword fun is followed by the name of the function, a list of the parameters for that function, an equal-sign, and an expression involving the parameters. This expression becomes the value of the function when we give the function arguments to correspond to its parameters. Example 3.1: Let us define a function upper that converts a lower-case letter46 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS to the corresponding upper-case letter.! To do so, we need to know that the ASCII code for an upper-case letter is always 32 less than that of the lower-case version. The function upper will perform the following steps: 1. A given character is converted to an integer, 2. 32 is subtracted, and 3. The result is converted back to a character. Here is the definition of function upper: fun upper(c) = chr(ord(c)-32); val upper = fn: char -+ char There are a number of observations we should make about the function upper. First, it has one parameter c. The value of upper is computed by the expression chr(ord(c)-32). We discuss the ML response to the definition of upper in Section 3.1.1. We may use function upper to convert lower-case letters, just as we would in most languages, by applying upper to the desired letter. For instance, we can convert #"a" to by: upper (#"a") ; val it = #A” : char ML responds to expression upper (#"a") as it would to any expression, by assigning its value to it and telling the value. O 3.1.1 Function Types Notice from Example 3.1 how ML represents function types. The response to the definition of function upper was val upper = fn: char -+ char In general, when a function is defined, ML does not respond with the value of that function, which is hard to express other than by repeating the defini- tion of the function. Rather, it responds with the type of the function. The specification of the function type has the form: fn : -> That is, the response to a function definition consists of: V Phere is actually a function toUpper that is available in a library of functions that ML calls the Char “structure.” We shall cover structures in Section 8.2 and the particular structure Char in Section 9.4.4, Function topper also has an inverse function, toLower, which converts upper-case letters to their corresponding lower-case letters. Moreover, each of the functions ‘topper and toLover leave intact those characters that are not lower- or upper-case letters, respectively, which our simple function upper does not do.3.1. IT’S EASY; IT’S FUN 47 Function Parameters and Arguments In this book we call the variables to which a function is applied in its definition the parameters, while the expressions to which the function is applied in a function call are arguments. In other literature, one sometimes sees the terms “formal parameters” and “actual parameters” where we use “parameters” and “arguments.” 1. The keyword fn. 2. A colon. 3. The type of the parameter(s), called the domain type for the function. This type is char in Example 3.1. ML regards each function as having one parameter, but the type of this parameter can be a product type. So in practice there can be any number of parameters for a function. 4, The symbol ->. 5. The type of the result of the function, that is, the range type for the function. In Example 3.1, the range type is also char, but it is common for the domain and range types to differ. ML views each function as returning a single value, but since this value may be a tuple, in effect a function can return several items. The operator -> is another way to construct types, just like * and the word List. If T; and Tp are types, then T; + Tp is the type of functions with domain type 7; and range type T», that is, functions which take an argument of type T; and return a result of type T>. Operator -> is right-associative, so T, -+ Tz + Ts is interpreted as Ty > (Te > Ts) and is the type of a function whose parameter is of type T; and whose result is itself a function; that function has domain type T2 and range type Ts. The notion of a function producing a function as a value may seem strange, but these “higher order functions” are an integral part of ML programming that we shall examine starting in Section 5.4. 3.1.2 Declaring Function Types It might surprise the reader that we never had to declare the type of the param- eter c in the function upper of Example 3.1 or the type of the value returned by this function. ML deduced that these types are both char because of what it knows about the functions ord and chr. In general ML does not require48 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS Don’t Confuse fun With fn The response in Example 3.1 uses the keyword fn, which should not be confused with fun, even though both are short for “function.” We use fun to introduce a declaration of a particular identifier to be a certain function, while fn is used in ML to introduce a value that has a function type. declarations for types, although you are free to declare the type if you wish. We shall have more to say about how ML deduces types in Section 3.2.4, and there we shall get a better idea of when we can rely upon ML to deduce types for us. The most common situation in which we have to declare a type is when ML would use the default rule for an arithmetic or comparison operator to deduce that certain variables were of integer type, and yet we want these variables to be of some other type on which the operator can be used. If we need to, we can follow any variable or expression by a colon and a type. The effect is to declare that variable or expression to have that type. Recall that the colon symbol is also used in ML responses to connect values with their types. Example 8.2: Our next example is a function that squares reals. fun square(x:real) = x#x; val square = fn: real ++ real The function square has one parameter, x. By following parameter x with a colon and the type real, we declare to ML that the parameter of function square is of type real. ML then infers that the expression x4x represents real multiplication, and therefore the value returned by square is of type real. It is necessary to indicate that x is real somewhere. Otherwise, ML will use the default type, integer, for x, resulting in a function that can square integers but not reals: fun square(x) = x#x; val square = fu: int > int We could have attached the :real to any or all of the three occurrences of x in the definition of square in Example 3.2. For example fun square(x) = (x:real)*x is a possibility. However:3.1. IT’S EASY; IT’S FUN 49 ‘¢ We must be careful to parenthesize the arguments of the colon operator for example, (x:real) — because the colon has lower precedence than the arithmetic or comparison operators. Example 3.3: Some care must be exercised in how we specify the types of variables in a function definition. Here is an example of a surprising error that can occur if we do not group a variable with its type properly. fun square(x) = x:real * x; Error: unbound type constructor: b then ) if a>c then a (4) else (8) else (6) if bec then b mM else ¢} val mar3 = fn : real * real * real real Figure 3.1: Function computing the maximum of its three arguments Comments Now that we can write programs of more than one line, we shall have reason to comment our code. The proper way to do so is shown in line (1) of Fig. 3.1. The pair of characters (+ introduce a comment, which continues, even across lines, until the matching sequence of two characters *) is encountered. This convention is similar to most implementations of Pascal, but in ML it is possible to nest pairs of (+...#), just like parentheses are nested. * Also notice that the type of max3 is a function that takes a triple of real numbers as its argument and produces a real. That type is shown in the response as real * real * real -> real « In type expressions * takes precedence over ->. Thus in the type expres- sion above, the domain type is real + real * real, and the range type is real. © If we did not declare the type of any variable in function max3, then ML would assume the variables compared by > have the type integer, the default type for operator > # One advantage of the ML view that functions have only one parameter is that a variable whose value is of the appropriate product type can be defined and used as the argument of a multiparameter function. For example, val t = (1.0,2.0,3.0); max3(t. is correct ML and produces the value 3.0.52 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS 3.1.5 Functions that Reference External Variables The functions illustrated so far use only their parameters in computing their result. Sometimes, we wish to write a function that uses previously defined variables in its body. As in most other languages, the use of a variable x in the definition of a function f “freezes” x as far as the function f is concerned. That is, subsequent redefinitions of « will not affect the function f. A simple example will illustrate the rule, Example 3.7: Consider the following sequence of steps: 1) val x = 3; 2) fun addx(a) = atx; 3) val x = 10; 4) addx(2) 5 int val it = 5: A picture of the changes to the environment is shown in Fig. 3.2. At line (1) we create a variable x and give it the value 3. When at line (2) the function adax is defined, its definition uses xr. We suggested by an arrow in Fig. 3.2 that the definition of addx refers to this value binding for x. Remember that, as we suggested in Section 2.3.4, the value binding for «, after being added to the environment at line (1), never changes. Thus, we can be sure that the definition of addx will always use 3 as the value of 2.2 Now, in line (3) we create a new variable, also named x. As we see in Fig. 3.2, the new binding for x goes above the old binding for x and the definition of addx. However, the definition of addx does not change; it continues to refer to the value of z that pertained when the definition of addx was made. Thus, we see that in line (4), addx(2) results in the value 5, not 12, because the value of xin the definition of addx is still 3. 3.1.6 Exercises for Section 3.1 Exercise 3.1.1: Write functions to compute the following: * a) The cube of a real number x b) The smallest of the three components of a tuple of type int * int * int. * c) The third element of a list. ‘The function need not behave properly if, given an argument that is a list of length 2 or less. ‘You may therefore wonder why we would want to write adéx as we did. Indeed, fun addx(a) = a+3 would be a simpler way to write the same function. There are some good reasons to write functions that refer to external variables, however. For example, in Section 8.1.2, we consider a collection of functions that all use the same external variable. If ‘we change this variable, all the functions change in a coordinated way.3.1. IT’S EASY; IT’S FUN 53 x 10 Added at line (3) definition Added at li addx of adax \ Added at line (2) x 3 ) Added at line (1) Previous environment Figure 3.2: Changes to the environment in Example 3.7 d) The reverse of a tuple of length 3. * ©) The third character of a character string. Your function need not behave well on strings of length less than 3. Hint: Use explode and your function from Exercise 3.1.1(c). £) Cycle a list once. That is, given a list [a,,a2,...,n], produce the list [a2,a3,..-44n,aa)- ! Exercise 3.1.2: Write functions to do the following. * a) Given three integers, produce a pair consisting of the smallest and largest. b) Given three integers, produce a list of the three in sorted order, c) Round a real number to the nearest tenth. !d) Given alist, return that list with its second element deleted. Your function need not behave well on lists of length shorter than 2. Exercise 3.1.3: Suppose we execute the following sequence of definitions: vala= fun f(b) = a*b; val b= fun g(a) = a+b; Give the value of the following expressions: *a) £(4).bd CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS When and Where Function Definitions Occur The behavior of ML regarding the value of variables used in a function definition is essentially the same as the policy followed by C or Pascal, or most other languages. For example, in C a function’s definition can refer to static variables defined prior to the function definition in whatever file the function definition appears. That is, the variables a function definition can use depends on where the definition appears in a C program. It might appear that which variables are usable by a function defini- tion in ML depends on when the function is defined. That is, the function can refer to previously defined variables. However, the apparent difference is caused by the fact that we have been thinking of ML programming as done in interactive mode, where steps are entered one at atime. If we think of what we type in interactive mode as a single file of program elements, then we see that ML follows the same rule as C — you may use variables that are located above the function definition in the file. This rule applies exactly if we write ML programs in files and execute them using use, as we discussed in Section 1.2. There are, however, two differences between ML and C in this regard: 1. In C, the value of a variable can change, thus changing what the function does; in ML the value cannot change. 2. In ML, it is possible to make several declarations for the same iden- tifier, external to any function. In C, that would be considered an illegal redefinition. *b) £(4) 4d. ©) g(5) d) g(5)+a. *e) £(g(6)) f) g(£(7)). 3.2 Recursive Functions It is possible, and indeed frequently necessary, for ML functions to be recursive, that is, defined in terms of themselves, either directly or indirectly. In fact, re- cursive functions in ML substitute for most of the iterations such as while-loops or for-loops than one finds in C, Pascal, and most other languages. Looping3.2, RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS 55 statements, while present in ML (See Section 7.3.4), are awkward and generally discouraged. When writing recursive functions, we must be careful that if a recursive function calls itself, it does so with an argument that is, in some sense chosen by the programmer, smaller than its own argument. For example, if the argument is an integer i, we could safely call the function with argument i — 1 or any integer smaller than i, If the argument is a list L, we could call the function on the tail of the list or any shorter list. Normally, a recursive function consists of 1. A basis, where for sufficiently small arguments we compute the result without making any recursive call, and 2. An inductive step, where for arguments not handled by the basis, we call the function recursively, one or more times, with smaller arguments. In this section we shall learn about writing simple recursions. We then in- troduce two extensions: nonlinear recursion, where the recursive function calls itself several times, and mutual recursion, where several functions are defined recursively in terms of each other. We begin with a simple example of a recur- sion. Example 3.8: Let us write a function reverse(L) that produces the reverse of the list L.? For example, reverse([1,2,3]) produces the list [3,2,1]. BASIS: The basis is the empty list; the reverse of the empty list is the empty list. INDUCTION: For the inductive step, suppose L has at least one element. Let the first or head element of L be h, and let the tail or remaining elements of L be the list T. Then we can construct the reverse of list L by reversing T and following it by the element h. For instance, if L is [1,2,3], then h = 1, T is [2,3], the reverse of T is [3,2], and the reverse of T concatenated with the list containing only h is (3,2]@(1), or (3,2,1]. (1) fun reverse(L) @) if L = nil then nil (3) else reverse(t1(L)) @ [hd(L)]; val reverse = fn: ’a list + 'a list Figure 3.3: A recursive function to reverse a list In Fig. 3.3 we see the ML definition of reverse that follows the basis and inductive step described above. Lines (2) and (3) are the expression that forms SML actually has a built-in function rev that performs this operation.56 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS When Does a Function Need to Know Its Type? Given our discussion in Section 3.1.2, it might surprise you to find that in Example 3.8 it was not necessary for the particular type of elements to be deduced by the ML compiler. The difference between Example 3.8 and previous examples of functions that work on parameters of only one type, is that some functions use an overloaded operator such as + or 0. Also, if m =n, then there is one way to pick all n things out of n — pick them all. Thus, (") = 1 for all n > 0. INDUCTION: If 0 < m n, so this basis and induction entirely define the function. Example 3.10: We can write a function comb(n,m) that computes (7). The code appears in Fig. 3.6. Line (2) handles the basis case, and line (3) implements the inductive step. Note that the program will not behave well if the assumption about n and m in the comment of line (1) is violated. We really should test for violations, and there is an important mechanism, the “exception,” that allows60 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS us to do so and still adhere to the principle that functions return a value of one particular type invariably. We discuss exceptions in Section 5.2. 0 (1) fun comb(n,m) = (« assumes 0 <= m <= n *) (2) if m=0 orelse m=n then 1 @) else comb(n-1,m) + comb(n-1,m-1) ; val comb = fn : int * int + int Figure 3.6: Function to compute n choose m_ The sequence of recursive calls initiated by a single use of function comb is rather complex. For example, in the expression comb(4,2); val it = 6: int the initial call first calls comb(3,2) and later calls comb(3,1). However, be- fore the latter call, comb(3,2) calls comb(2,2) and comb(2,1), and so on. Figure 3.7 shows the structure of the calls as time progresses from left to right. G) @) () Figure 3.7: Structure of recursive calls for the comb function 3.2.3 Mutual Recursion Occasionally, one needs to write two or more functions that are mutually re- cursive, meaning that each calls at least one other function in the group. Most languages, such as Pascal or C, put some obstacles in the way of writing such functions, but ML has a straightforward mechanism. We shalll give an example of mutually recursive functions, first showing the problem that. arises if we are not careful. Then, we shall show how ML lets us handle the problem. Example 3.11: Suppose we want to write a function that takes a list L as argument and produces a list consisting of alternate elements of L. There are two natural versions of this function. One, which we call take(L), takes the first element of L and alternate elements after that (i.e.. the first. third. fifth.3.2. RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS 61 and so on). The other, which we call skip(L), skips the first element and takes alternate elements after that (i.c., the second, fourth, sixth, and so on). It is convenient to define these two functions in terms of each other. BASIS: If L is empty, both functions return the empty list. INDUCTION: If L is not empty, take returns the head clement of L followed by the result of applying skip to the tail of L. On the other hand, skip returns the result of applying take to the tail of L. Figure 3.8 shows a failed attempt to define the functions take and skip. At the third line of take, we assemble the result using the cons operator; the head is the head of L, and the tail is the result of applying skip to the tail of L. The problem is that at the third line, the function skip is not defined, even though we intend to define skip immediately thereafter. Thus, ML responds with an error message. Defining skip first would cause a similar error because take is used in the third line of skip. O fun take(L) if L = nil then nil else hd(L)::skip(t1(L)); ‘unbound variable or constructor: skip Error fun skip(L) = if L = nil then nil else take(t1(L)); Figure 3.8: Erroneous attempt to define mutually recursive functions ‘We can get ML to wait until it has seen both functions take and skip before trying to interpret variables, if we use the keyword and between the function definitions. The general form for defining n mutually recursive functions is shown in Fig. 3.9. There we see the n definitions connected by and’s. There is one use of fun at the beginning and one use of the semicolon, at the end. © Do not confuse and, which is used to indicate mutual recursions, with andalso, which is the logical AND operator in ML. © It is not necessary to use the and construct if there is no mutual recur- sion. If we define functions fi, fo,..-, fn, and, for each i, in the definition of f; we use only functions that appear earlier on the list — that is, fis fos-++ fi-a — then there is no mutual recursion. Example 3.12: The correct definition of the functions take and skip from Example 3.11 is shown in Fig. 3.10. Notice that the response from ML does not62 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS fun and and and ; Figure 3.9: Form of a mutually recursive function definition come until after both functions have been seen. Both are identified as functions from lists to lists. The elements of the input and output lists of both functions must be of one type ’a, but ML cannot identify the type. fun take(L) = if L = nil then nil else hd(L)::skip(t1(L)) and skip(L) = if L = nil then nil else take(tl(L)); fn: ‘alist + 'a list fn: ‘alist + 'a list Figure 3.10: Correct definition of mutually recursive functions Here are two examples of the use of these functions. take(([1,2,3,4,5]); val it = [1,3,5] : int list skip([#"a",#"b" ,#"c" ,#"d",#"e"]) 5 val it = [#"b",#"d"] char list When we use the functions on particular lists, ML can figure out the type of list elements from the argument. Hence, the type of the result list is reported with each use: int list in the first case and char list in the second. O3.2. RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS 63 3.2.4 How ML Deduces Types ML is quite good at discovering the types of variables, the types of function parameters, and the types of values returned by functions. The subject of how ML does so is quite complex, but there are a few observations we can make that will cover most of the ways types are discovered. Knowing what ML can do helps us know when we must declare a type and when we can skip type declarations. 1. The types of the operands and result of arithmetic operators must all agree. For example, in the expression (a+b) *2.0, we see that the right operand of the * is a real constant, so the left operand (a+b) must also be real. If the use of + produces a real, then both its operands are real. ‘Thus, a and b are real. They will also have a real value any other place they are used, which can help make further type inferences. 2. When we apply an arithmetic comparison, we can be sure the operands are of the same type, although the result is a boolean and therefore not necessarily of the same type as the operands. For example, in the expres- sion a<=10, we can deduce that a is an integer. 3. In a conditional expression, the expression itself and the subexpressions following the then and else must be of the same type. 4. Ifa variable or expression used as an argument of a function is of a known type, then the corresponding parameter of the function must be of that type. Similarly, if the function parameter is of known type, then the variable or expression used as the corresponding argument must be of the same type. 5. If the expression defining the function is of a known type, then the function returns a value of that type. 6. If no way to determine the type of a particular use of an overloaded operator exists, then the type of that operator is defined to be the default, for that operator, normally integer. Example 3.13: Consider the function comb(n,m) in Fig. 3.6, which we repro- duce here for convenience. (1) fun comb(n,m) = (* assumes 0 <= m <= n +) (2) if m=0 orelse m=n then 1 @) else comb(n-1,m) + comb(n-1,m-1); In line (2), we see that in one branch of the if-then-else the result is the integer 1. Thus, the expression on line (3) must also be of type integer, and the function comb returns an integer value. In line (3) we also see the expressions n-1 and n-1, Since one operand of each subtraction is the integer 1, the other operands,64 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS n in one case and m in the other, must also be integers. Thus, both parameters of the function are integers, or strictly speaking, the (one) parameter of the function is of type int * int, that is, a pair of integers. Another way we could have discovered that m and n are integers is to look at line (2). We see m compared with integer 0, som must be an integer. We also see n compared with m, and since we already know m is an integer, we know the same about n, O 3.2.5 Exercises for Section 3.2 Exercise 3.2.1: Write the following recursive functions. * a) The factorial function that takes an integer n > 1 and produces the product of all the integers from 1 up to n. Your function need not work correctly if the argument is less than 1. b) Given an integer i and a list L, cycle L i times. That is, if L=[a1,02,.--54n] then the desired result is [ai41,@i+2,---,@n,@1,@2,--.,@;]. You may use the function cycle defined in Exercise 3.1.1(f). * c) Duplicate each clement of a list. That is, given the list [a1,a2,...,an), produce the list [a,a1,@2,a2,...,@n,@n)- d) Compute the length of a list. ¢) Compute z', where x is areal and i is a nonnegative integer. This function takes two parameters, xr and i, and need not behave well if i < 0. *!£) Compute the largest element of list of reals. Your function need not behave well if the list is empty. *! Exercise 3.2.2: In the following function definition fun foo(a,b,c,d) = if a=b then c+1 else if a>b then c else btd it is possible to deduce that a, b, c, and d are all integers. Explain how ML makes these deductions. Exercise 3.2.3: Suppose we define a function f by a statement that begins fun f(a:int, b, c, d, e) =... There is a function length in the ML top-level environment that performs this function; the exercise asks you to write the function as if it were not already available.3.3. PATTERNS IN FUNCTION DEFINITIONS 65 ‘Tell what can be inferred about the types of b, ¢, d, and/or e if the body of the function is each of the following if-then-else statements: *a) if acbtc then d else e. b) if acb then c else d. *c) if acb then btc else dte. !d) if acb then b() = | () 1 ve | () ;66 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS The identifiers must all be the same (they are each the name of the function), and the types of the values produced by the expressions on the right of the equal- signs must all be the same. Likewise, the types of the patterns themselves must be the same, but they can differ from the type of the values produced. ‘As with functions in general, the parentheses around the patterns are op- tional. However, the juxtaposition of expressions representing application of a function to its arguments has higher precedence than any of the usual opera- tors. Thus it is wise to put parentheses around patterns that are more complex than a single variable. Otherwise, we run the risk that only the first part of the pattern will be treated as the function argument, and an error will result. ML goes through the various patterns in the order that they appear until it finds one that matches its argument. The first match determines the value produced; other patterns are not considered. Thus, there can be overlap among the various patterns.” «@ It is also legal to fail to cover all possible cases with the forms. However, you will get the diagnostic Warning: match not ethaustive You should then be very sure that the function will be used only with arguments that match one of the patterns. Example 3.15: Let us reconsider the function reverse from Example 3.8 There are two patterns for the argument L. If L is empty it matches the pattern nil. If L is not empty, it will match the pattern x::xs. For instance, if the list has a single element, x becomes that element and xs gets the value nil. A nonempty list cannot match nil, and x::xs does not match the empty list, because there is no head element to give a value to x. (It is not possible to give x the value nil because x is an element, not a list). Thus, the following definition works: fun reverse(nil) = nil | reverse(x::xs) = reverse(xs) @ [x] val reverse = fn: ‘a list + ’a list Compare this definition with the equivalent definition in Fig. 3.3.7 Here, x plays the role of hd(L) and xs plays the role of t1(L). The above function operates by first checking if its argument is nil and returning nil if so. If the argument is not nil, then we can match x: :xs to the argument; x acquires the value of the head and xs acquires the value of the tail. However, SML/NJ, as a default, treats completely redundant patterns, that is, patterns that can never be reached when the argument has any value that will match the pattern, as an error. "There is actually a small difference between the two functions we called reverse, con- cerning the types of the elements that may form the lists being reversed. We shall address this distinction in Section 5.3.43.3. PATTERNS IN FUNCTION DEFINITIONS 67 Names for List Components in Patterns It is conventional to use a pair of identifiers like x for the head of a list and xs (read “exes”) for the tail of the same list. However, beware using a::as. Since as is a keyword in ML (see Section 3.3.2), you will get a strange diagnostic and must find another variable to use in place of as. added in call to reverse(nil) zs aad added in call x 3 to reverse([3]) ae {3 added in call x 2 to reverse((2,3]) ze (2,3) added in call x 1 to reverse([1,2,3]) E {1,2,3) initial environment Figure 3.11: Binding values to the identifiers of a pattern Figure 3.11 suggests the addition to the environment that occurs when reverse(L) is called, where L has the value [1,2,3]. Notice at the last call, to reverse(nil), there are no bindings for x or xs because the pattern nil matches the argument, and we never even try to match the second pattern. All these additions to the environment go away when the initial call to reverse completes. 3.3.2 “As” You Like it: Having it Both Ways It is possible to take a single value and at one time give the value to an identifier and match the value with a pattern. In the match, variables mentioned in the pattern acquire their own values. The form is as Example 3.16: Let us write a function merge(L,M) that takes two lists of integers, L and M, that are sorted lowest-first, and merges them. That is, merge produces a single sorted list with all the elements of L and M. The68 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS following recursive definition of merge works, assuming that the given lists are sorted. Note that, although no types are specified, integer type is inferred for all values because that is the default type for <. BASIS: If L is empty, then the merge is M. If M is empty, the merge is L. INDUCTION: If neither L nor M is empty, compare the heads of L and M. If the head of L, say 2, is smaller, then the sorted list is x followed by the merge of the tail of L with all of M. Note that in this case, x is the smallest of all the elements, so x followed by the merge of the other elements will be the proper sorted list. If instead, the head of M, say y, is at least as small as x, then the merge is y followed by the merge of L and the tail of M. Since y belongs at the head of the result, the complete list will be sorted. (1) fun merge(nil,M) = M (2) | merge(L,nil) = L (3) | merge(L as x::xs, M as y::ys) = (4) if x int Figure 3.14: Summing the elements of a list of lists Line (1) of Fig. 3.14 covers the case where the list of lists is empty and the sum is 0. Line (2) covers the case where there is a first element on the list, but that element is itself the empty list. In this case, we can dispense with the head and just sum the integers on the lists of the tail. Line (3) covers the case where there is at least one element on the list that is the head of the list of lists. We take x, which is the head of the head, and add to it the result of applying sumLists to the list in which the element x has been removed from the first list, but all other lists are the same. For instance, if the entire list is ([1,2], (3,411, then the recursive call’s argument is [2], (3,4]]. © ‘As we learn about constructors and the creation of our own datatypes in Section 6.2, we find there are many other ways to construct data structures besides lists (which are constructed by the cons operator : :) and tuples (which are constructed by parentheses and commas). All datatypes make patterns of their own. However, there are some other patterns that make sense but are illegal in ML. For example, we might expect to be able to construct patterns using the concatenation operator @ or arithmetic operators. The next example indicates what happens when we try to do so. Example 3.20: We might expect to be able to break a list into the last element and the rest of the list. For instance, we might try to compute the length of a list by:8 fun length(nil) = 0 | length(xs@[(x]) = 1 + length(xs); Error: non-constructor applied to argument in pattern: @ Error: unbound variable or constructor: xs However, as we can see, the pattern xs@[x] is not legal and triggers two error messages. The first message complains that @ is not a legal pattern constructor. SML does provide a built-in function length that gives the length of a list. It may be implemented by expressing a nonempty list as x::x8 and returning 1+Length(xs).72 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS The second message is caused by the fact that, because the pattern is flawed, variable xs does not get bound to a value. Therefore, when we encounter it later, in the expression length (xs), ML has no value to use for xs. Incidentally, we get. a similar pair of error messages if we try to use an arithmetic operator to construct a pattern. For instance, fun square(0) = 0 | square(x+1) = 1 + 2ex + square(x is equally erroneous, even though it is based on a correct inductive definition ofz?. O As a final example of a nonpattern, a real constant cannot appear in pat- terns. For instance, the following function definition fun £(0.0) = 0 | £@) = x; is regarded as syntactically incorrect because a real number is not permitted in a pattern.? 3.3.5 How ML Matches Patterns A pattern, like any expression, can be represented by a tree. The outermost, or highest-level, operator is the root of the tree, and it has one child for each operand. The child for an operand is, in turn, the root of a subtree for that operand. The basis case, an expression or subexpression that is a single constant, or variable, is represented by a node labeled by that constant or variable. Example 3.21: Consider the pattern expression (x: :zs, w) ‘This expression has as outermost operator the pair-forming operator, which we shall represent by (,). Its left operand is the subexpression x: :y::28, and the right operand is the subexpression w. The latter is represented by a single node labeled w. The former is grouped x: : (y::28) and is represented by a tree with root operator ::, left child x (a single node) and right child the root of a tree representing subexpression y::zs. The entire expression tree is shown in Fig. 3.15(a); for the moment, ignore the curved lines connecting it to Fig. 3.15(b). Similarly, Fig. 3.15(b) represents the expression ([1,2,3,4], 5). The root operator is again the pairing operator (,), and the right child of the root rep- resents constant 5. The left operand is the list (1,2,3,4]. We build lists as The reason for this seemingly strange restriction is that ML does not allow equality tests between reals; see Section 2.1.4. Without such a test it is impossible to tell whether a given real constant matches the real constant in a pattern,3.3. PATTERNS IN FUNCTION DEFINITIONS 73 /\ /\ /\ 10 Ty £\ a7 \ /\. (a) (b) Figure 3.15: Matching a pattern to an expression, expressions by using the cons operator. Note that the last tail must be nil, not the list consisting of the last element, so there are n uses of the cons operator ina list of length n. O To match a pattern and an expression, we overlay the pattern’s tree and the expression’s tree, starting, as a basis step, by matching the roots. For the inductive step, if we have matched nodes N and M of the pattern and expression respectively, then the children of N and M must also be matched in order. However, sometimes a match will be impossible, and the pattern-match fails. This situation occurs when we try to match a pattern node that is labeled by an operator or constant, and the matching node of the expression has a different label. Example 3.22: If we try to match the pattern x::xs with the expression nil, we must match operator :: with constant nil at the respective roots, and we fail. If we try to match pattern x::y::zs with [1] (or as an expression: 1::nil), we match the roots with operators :: successfully. However, at the right children we must match the second :: from the pattern with nil from the expression, and thus we fail. 0 If we successfully match the pattern with the expression, then any identifiers at. the leaves of the pattern tree match nodes that represent subexpressions.74 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS These subexpressions become the values associated with those identifiers. Example 3.23: Consider again Fig. 3.15. The pattern in Fig. 3.15(a) suc- cessfully matches the expression in Fig. 3.15(b); the curved lines indicate the correspondence of the nodes. As a result, the node labeled x in the pattern corresponds to the node labeled 1 in the expression, so x acquires the value 1. The pattern node labeled y corresponds to expression node 2, and pattern node zs corresponds to the expression node representing expression 3: :4: :nil, or equivalently, the list [3,4]. Finally, the pattern node w corresponds to the expression node 5. O 3.3.6 A Subtle Pattern Bug Often we wish to use an identifier with a special meaning like nil in our pat- terns. At this point we have few such special words. But beginning in Sec- tion 6.2 we shall see that words of this type, called “data constructors,” can be created by the programmer and used in patterns. Such a misspelled word is usu- ally a legal identifier and looks like a pattern that matches anything. SML/NJ treats completely redundant patterns as an error, but other ML compilers may issue only a warning and allow the function to be used. (1) fun reverse(niil) = nil (2) | reverse(x::xs) = reverse(xs) @ [x]; (3) Error: match redundant (4) nil => (3) 4 czas... Figure 3.16: The reverse function with a misspelling Example 3.24: In Fig. 3.16 is the reverse function of Example 3.15, in which we have misspelled nil as niil on line (1). We see in lines (3) through (5) the SML/NJ response. The system has detected the pattern niil will match any argument, and therefore the pattern x: :xs on line (2) can never be reached. The single arrow at the beginning of line (5) indicates which pattern is redundant. o 3.3.7 Exercises for Section 3.3 Exercise 3.3.1: Write the following functions from previous exercises, using two or more patterns in each. * a) The factorial function of Exercise 3.2.1(a). b) The function from Exercise 3.1.1(f) that cycles a list one position. If the list is empty, return the empty list.3.3. PATTERNS IN FUNCTION DEFINITIONS 75 ¢) The function from Exercise 3.2.1(b) that cycles a list i times, where i, as well as the list, is a parameter. * d) The function from Exercise 3.2.1(c) that duplicates each element of a list. e) The function from Exercise 3.2.1(d) that computes 2! *£) The function of Exercise 3.2.1(e) that computes the largest of a list of reals. Exercise 3.3.2: Write a function that flips alternate elements of a list. That is, given a list [a,,a2,...,aq] as argument, produce [az,a1,a4,43,06,45,...]. If nis odd, ay, remains at the end. Exercise 3.3.3: Write a function that, given a list L and an integer i, returns a copy of L with the ith element deleted. If the length of L is less than i, return L. Exercise 3.3.4: Show the sequence of calls to sumLists (as defined in Fig. 3.14) and the bindings to variables of patterns that occur when we call sumLists(((1,2] ,nil,(3]]) Exercise 3.3.5: Does the pattern of Fig. 3.15(a) match the following expres- sions? If so, give the value bindings for each of the variables x, y, zs, and Ww. *a) (Cra"," b) (C"a" ">I ,4.8) * 0) ((81, (6,71) ner] [ra te") Exercise 3.3.6: Draw trees as in Fig. 3.15 to show how the pattern ((x,y) zs] matches the expression [((1,2) ,3)]. * Exercise 3.3.7: There is a recursive definition of the square of a nonnegative integer: 0? = 0 (basis), and n? = (n — 1)? + 2n — 1 (inductive step for n > 0). Write a recursive function that computes the square of its argument using this inductive formula. * Exercise 3.3.8: Write a function that takes a list of pairs of integers, and orders the elements of each pair such that the smaller number is first. Use the as construct, so you can refer to the pair as a whole when it is not necessary to change it.76 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS Exercise 3.3.9: Write a function that takes a list of characters and returns true if the first element is a vowel and false if not. Use the wildcard symbol - whenever possible in the patterns. 11 Exercise 3.3.10: The simple rule for translating into “Pig Latin” is to take a word that begins with a vowel and add "yay", while taking any word that begins with one or more consonants and transferring them to the back before appending "ay". For example, "able" becomes "ableyay" and "stripe" be- comes "ipestray". Write a function that converts a string of letters into its Pig-Latin translation. Hint: Use explode and the function from Exercise 3.3.9 that tests for vowels. Exercise 3.3.11: Suppose we represent sets by lists. The members of the set. may appear in any order on the list, but we assume that there is never more than one occurrence of the same element on this list. Write functions to perform the following operations on sets. * a) member(x,S) returns true if element x is a member of set S; that is, 2 appears somewhere on the list representing S. b) delete(x,S) deletes x from $. Remember that you may assume that x appears at most once on the list for S. * c) insert (x,S) puts z on the list for S if it is not already there. Remember that in order to preserve the condition that there are no repeating elements on a list that represents a set, we must check that x does not already appear in S; it is not adequate simply to make x the head of the list. Exercise 3.3.12: Write a function that takes an element a and a list L of lists of elements of the same type as a and inserts a onto the front of each of the lists on the list L. For example, if a = 1 and L is ([2,3), [4,5,6] nil], then the result is ((1,2,3], (1,4,5,6], (11). * Exercise 3.3.13: Suppose sets are represented by lists as in Exercise 3.3.12. The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S. A set of sets can be represented in ML by a list whose elements are lists. For example, if S is the set {1,2}, then the power set of S is {0, {1}, {2}, {1,2}}, where 0 is the empty set. This power set can be represented in ML by the list of lists (nil, [1], [2], [1,2]]. That is, the elements of the lists are themselves lists, each representing one of the subsets of S. Write a function that takes a li ‘as argument, representing some set S, and produces the power set of S. Hint: Recursively construct the power set for the tail of the list and use the function from Exercise 3.3.12 to help construct the power set for the whole list. * Exercise 3.3.14: Write a function that, given list of reals (a1,a2,...,n), computes Tlic; (ai - a3)‘TS USING LET 77 3.4. LOCAL ENVIRONMI That is, we compute the product of all differences between elements, with the element appearing later on the list subtracted from the element appearing firs If there are no pairs, the “product” is 1.0. Hint: Start by writing an auxiliary function that, given @ and [b,,b2,.-.,Dn], computes [J]! (a — 6) Exercise 3.3.15: Write a function to tell whether a list is empty. That is, return true if and only if the argument is an empty list.!° Exercise 3.3.16: Explain how ML deduces that the function sumPairs of Example 3.18 has domain type (int * int) list. 3.4 Local Environments Using let Sometimes we need to create some temporary values — that is, local variables — inside a function. The proper way to do so is with a let --- in --- end expression. A simplified form of this expression, where only val-declarations are used, is shown in Fig. 3.17. let val = ; val = ; val = in end Figure 3.17: Simple form of the “let” construct That is, following the keyword 1et is a list of one or more val-declarations, just like those introduced in Section 2.3.3. These are followed by the keyword in. Following in is an expression that may use the variables defined after let. This expression may also use any other variables accessible in the environment: in which the function using let is defined, provided their identifiers are not redefined by the temporary declarations between let and in. The keyword end completes the expression. Here are a few important points to remember about let expressions: ‘© Semicolons following the declarations are optional. We shall adopt Pascal style and follow each but the last by a semicolon. Just as for val-declarations in the top-level environment, don’t forget to use the keyword val. 1OThere is a built-in ML function nul2 that does this task. We should not use this function in the solution.78 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS ¢ We must not omit the keywords in and end, which are as essential as the let. « In truth, the Let expression is more general than is suggested by Fig. 3.17, and any “declaration” can appear where we have shown val-declarations. So far, we have not seen any other kinds of declarations besides val- declarations and function declarations (with the keyword fun). However, there are several others; for example, we shall meet exception declarations in Section 5.2. The complete syntax for declarations is in Fig. 9.19. « As another generalization, a pattern may appear in place of a single iden- tifier in any val-declaration. Also, more than one expression may appear after the let, although the utility of an expression list will not become apparent until we study side-effects in Section 4.1.3. 3.4.1 Defining Common Subexpressions One use of a let expression is to allow us to use common subexpressions. The following example illustrates the technique. Example 3.25: Suppose we want to compute the hundredth power of a num- ber z. We could write the expression xex« -+- #x(100 2's) if we had the pa- tience, but it is less tedious and less prone to error if we write the function in Fig. 3.18. fun hundredthPower(x:real) = let val four = x#x#x#x; val twenty = four*four*four*foursfour in twenty*twenty*twenty*twenty*twenty end; val hundredthPower = fn : real -+ real hundredthPower (2.0); val it = 1.2675060022823E30 : real hundredthPower(1.01); val it = 2.70481382942153 : real Figure 3.18: Raising a number to the 100th power In Fig. 3.18 we define two local variables, four and twenty (no jokes about blackbirds, please). We first define four to be x‘, and then define twenty to3.4. LOCAL ENVIRONMENTS USING LET 79 be four raised to the fifth power, or x°. Finally, we use twenty in the final expression after the keyword in, which is twenty raised to the fifth power, or 100, We then see two uses of this function, first computing 2%, which is about 10°, and then computing (1.01)'°°. The latter value is close to e = 2.718-+- , as it must be because ¢ is the limit as n goes to infinity of (1+ 1/n)". O 3.4.2 Effect on Environments of let When we enter a let expression, an addition to the current environment is created, adding value bindings for all the identifiers defined between the let and the in. twenty 1048576.0 added for let-expression four 16.0 added on call x 2.0 to hundredthPower environment before call to hundredthPower Figure 3.19: Additions to environment when hundredthPover is called Example 3.26: In Fig. 3.19 we see the situation when the function of Fig. 3.18 is called. The first addition is for the function call; it is a binding for the parameter x. The next additions are for the Let expression and include bindings for the local variables four and twenty. We have shown x bound to the value 2.0 in the call and the local variables bound to their consequent values. As always, when the function call returns, the additions to the environment disappear. However, the returned value is made available as the value of the function in the environment that results after the return. © Example 3.27: We can rewrite Fig. 3.18 to use x not only as the argument of the function hundredthPower, but also as both local variables. The function then appears as in Fig. 3.20. It behaves exactly like the function of Fig. 3.18. However, the additional bindings in Fig. 3.21 each associate the variable x with avalue. O80 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS fun hundredthPower (x:real) = let val x = x#xK#KHX; val x = xexexexex in Poerenend end; val hundredthPower = fn : real —> real Figure 3.20: Repeat of Fig. 3.18 with x used for all variables added for second x 1048576.0 val-declaration added for first x 16.0 val-declaration added on call x 2.0 to hundredthPower environment before call to hundredthPower Figure 3.21: Additions to environment corresponding to Fig. 3.20 3.4.3 Splitting Apart the Value Returned by a Function Another important use of Let expressions is when the result of a function has components or parts that we want to separate before we use them. In particular, when the type of the value returned by a function is a tuple, we can get at the components by a more general form of val-declaration than we suggested was possible in Fig. 3.17. Instead of a single identifier following the word val, we can have any pattern. For instance, if a function f returns a three-component tuple, we could write val (a,b,c) = £(. and have the three components of the result of f bound to variables a, b, and ¢ respectively. This approach is often more convenient than writing val x = £(... which associates the entire tuple with x, and then extracting the individual components with #i operators in subsequent val-declarations such as3.4. LOCAL ENVIRONMENTS USING LET 81 Patterns for Lists of Length 1 Note that the way we express “list of length 1” as a pattern is to put square brackets around a single identifier, like Ca] in line (2) of Fig. 3.22. Such a pattern can only match a list with a single element, and variable a acquires that element as its value. Another way to express “list of length 1” is with the pattern a: :ni1. Again, a acquires the lone element as its value. val a = #1(x); Example 3.28: Let us implement a function split(L) that takes a list L and splits it into two lists. One list consists of the first element, third element, fifth element, and so on; the other list consists of the second element, fourth clement, sixth element, and so on. This function has an important application. In tandem with the function merge of Fig. 3.12, it lets us write a function mergeSort that is an efficient sorter of lists. We shall cover mergeSort next, in Section 3.4.4. We want the function split to produce a pair of lists. The recursion consists of two basis parts and an inductive part. BASIS: If L is empty, then produce a pair of empty lists. If L has a single element, the first list of the pair produced has that element and the second list is empty. INDUCTION: If the given list has two or more elements, let the first two ele- ments be a and 6. Recursively split the remaining elements into a pair of lists (M,N). The desired result is the pair of lists (a :: M, b :: N). That is, the first list has head a and tail equal to the first of the returned lists, and the second has head 6 and tail equal to the second of the returned lists. ‘An ML implementation of split is shown in Fig. 3.22. Line (1) implements the first part of the basis: return a pair of empty lists in response to the empty list. Line (2) implements the second part of the basis, where the given list has length 1. Lines (3) through (5) handle the inductive case. The pattern a::b::cs in line (3) can only match a list with at least two elements; a acquires the first element as value, b acquires the second, and cs acquires the list of the third and subsequent elements as its value. In line (4), we apply split recursively to the third and subsequent elements; the result is bound to the pair (M,N). That is, M is bound to the first component of the result, which is the elements in positions 3, 5, 7, and so on of the original list. N acquires the second component of the return value, which is the elements in positions 4, 6, 8, and so on from the original list.82 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS (1) fun split(nil) = (nil,nil) (2) | split(fa]) = ({a],nil) (3) | split(a:: s) = let (4) val (M,N) = split(cs) in 6) (a :N) end; val split = fn: a list + ‘a list * 'a list split((1,2,3,4,5]); val it = ((1,3,5],(2,4]) : int list * int list Figure 3.22: Splitting lists Finally, in line (5) we construct the return value for the present call to split. The first component has head a — that is, the first element of the given list — followed by M, the list of all the other odd-position components. Thus, the first component is the odd-position elements in order. Similarly, the second component b: :N is all the even-position elements. O 3.4.4 Mergesort: An Efficient, Recursive Sorter We can combine the functions merge of Fig. 3.12 with split of Fig. 3.22 to sort lists of integers. This algorithm is one of the simplest ways to sort n elements in time proportional to nlogn steps. We shall not develop the analysis of this algorithm here, but we shall complete the specification of the algorithm in ML. The idea behind the mergesort algorithm is expressed in the following induction. BASIS: If the given list L is empty or consists of a single element, then L is surely sorted already, so just return L. INDUCTION: If L has at least two elements, split L to produce the (approxi- mately) half-size lists M and N. Recursively mergesort M and N. Then merge the sorted lists M and N to produce the sorted version of L. The function mergeSort is shown in Fig. 3.23. It must be preceded by the functions merge and split to form the complete implementation of the mergesort algorithm. Incidentally, ML discovers that mergeSort works only on integer lists because it uses merge, which we wrote to work only for integer lists. Lines (1) and (2) implement the basis; the remaining lines are for the induc- tive step. Line (4) splits the given list. Lines (5) and (6) sort the half-sized lists, and the result is produced by merging the sorted lists in line (7). Incidentally,* 3.4. LOCAL ENVIRONMENTS USING LET 83 (4) fun mergeSort (nil) = nil (2) | mergeSort({a]) = [a] (3) | mergeSort(L) = let (4) val (M,N) = split(L); (6) val M = mergeSort (M) ; ©) val N = mergeSort(N) in m merge (M,N) end val mergeSort = fn : int list > int list Figure 3.23: Mergesort we could also have combined some steps by eliminating lines (5) and (6) and replacing line (7) by merge(mergeSort (N) ,mergeSort (M)). 3.4.5 Exercises for Section 3.4 Exercise 3.4.1: Write a succinct function to compute 210. Exercise 3.4.2: Rewrite Fig. 3.22 so line (4) does not use a pattern in the val-declaration. That is, replace line (4) by val x = split(cs), and obtain the components of pair x as needed. Exercise 3.4.3: Improve upon the power-set function of Exercise 3.3.13 by using a let expression and computing the power set of the tail only once. Exercise 3.4.4: Improve upon the function of Exercise 3.2.1(e), to compute the maximum of a list of reals, by using a let expression. Hint: Compute the maximum of the tail of the list first. Exercise 3.4.5: Write a function to compute x” for real x and nonnegative integer i. You should make only one recursive call in your function. Hint: Note that we can start with « and apply the squaring operation i times. For example, when i = 3, we compute ((2?)*)?. Exercise 3.4.6: Write a version of sumPairs of Example 3.18 that sums each component of the pairs separately, returning a pair consisting of the sum of the first components and the sum of the second components. Exercise 3.4.7: Write a function that takes a list of integers as argument and returns a pair consisting of the sum of the even positions and the sum of the odd positions of the list. You should not use any auxiliary functions.84 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS 3.5 Case Study: Linear-Time Reverse ‘We have seen two versions of a function to reverse lists: first in Fig. 3.3 and then in Example 3.15. These functions each seem simple enough, but they suffer from a common flaw that they take time proportional to n to reverse lists of length n. In comparison, a well-designed reverse function, such as the function rev in the ML top-level environment, can reverse lists of length n in time proportional to n. In this section, we shall see how to write a list-reverse function that is efficient and learn a general technique for programming with lists as we do. 3.5.1 Analysis of Simple Reverse Let us begin by understanding why a function like that of Example 3.15 takes time proportional to n?. The function is reproduced here for reference: fun reverse(nil) = nil | reverse(x::xs) = reverse(xs) @ [x]; Suppose T(n) is the time it takes reverse to work on a list of length n. We can develop a recurrence relation, where T(n) is defined in terms of T(n — 1) and then “solve” the equation for T(n), to get an expression for T(n) in terms of n alone (not T) BASIS: The basis case is when n = 0; that is, the list is empty. In this case the first pattern, nil, matches, and nil is returned. The whole process takes only some constant amount of time, so we shall say T(0) = @ for some constant a. INDUCTION: Suppose n > 1. There are a number of steps that the program will go through to process a list of length n > 1: 1. The first pattern doesn’t match, and it takes some constant amount of time for the ML system to determine that nil doesn’t match the argu- ment. 2. It takes another constant amount of time to match the pattern x::xs and assign the head of the list to x and the tail to xs. 3. It takes time T(n — 1) to compute the value of reverse(xs). The reason is that xs is surely a list of length n — 1 if x::xs is of length n. 4. To compute the return value reverse(xs) @ [x] requires that we copy the list reverse(xs) and append the final element x as we do. This process takes time proportional to n, the length of the resulting list. The constant time taken by the first two steps is dominated by the linear time taken by the last step. Thus, T(n) is approximately T(n — 1) + bn for some constant b; the Tn — 1) represents the time for the recursive call and bn. represents the time for the other steps. The recurrence equation is thu:3.5. CASE STUDY: LINEAR-TIME REVERSE 85 T(0) T(n) =T(n- 1) +6n for n = 1,2, There are several ways to solve this equation. Perhaps the simplest to to check that T(n) = a+ bn(n + 1)/2 satisfies the equations and is therefore the solution. Since a+ bn(n + 1)/2 is proportional to n? as n gets large, we see the justification for our claim that reverse takes time proportional to n? on lists of length n. A more intuitive argument is to observe that on a list of length n, reverse gets called recursively on lists of length n—1,n—2, and so on, down to 0. Each call on a list of length i results in work bi for some constant 5, except the call on a list of length 0, which results in work a. The total work is thus at Dy bi = at bn(n +1)/2 which, as we observed, is proportional to n?. 3.5.2 ML’s Representation of Lists A better function for reversing lists can be designed if we use the cons operator, , instead of the concatenation operator @. It may not be obvious, but while it takes time proportional to the length of the first list to concatenate lists, we can cons a head and a tail in constant time. Thus, before giving the proper design for reverse, we must understand something of how ML represents lists internally. Lists are represented in a conventional, linked list fashion, as suggested by Fig. 3.24. Cells consist of a pair of pointers, the first to an element of the list and the second to the next cell. If a list is bound to a variable L, then in the ML environment there is an entry in which the identifier L is associated with a pointer to the first cell of the list. +L + Figure 3.24: Representing a linked list Suppose we wish to construct the list x: :xs given values of head x and tail xs. We have only to create a new cell C. The first pointer of C points to the head of the list, that is, to the value of x, and the second pointer in C points86 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS to the value of xs. In this way, C becomes the first cell on the linked list that represents the value of x::xs. The process is suggested by Fig. 3.25. Notice that creating cell C and setting its pointers to refer to the values of x and xs takes a constant amount of time, independent of how big the value of x or xs is. There is no need for ML to “look inside” the values of the head or tail. Similarly, we can invert this process. In constant time we can find the head and tail of a list. No copying is necessary. Figure 3.25: Applying the cons operator 3.5.3 A Reversal Function Using Difference Lists There is a trick known to LISP programmers as difference lists, in which one manipulates lists more efficiently by keeping, as an extra parameter of your function, a list that represents in some way what you have already accomplished. The idea comes up in a number of different applications; we hope that seeing it used to reverse lists will illustrate the technique sufficiently that its use will be apparent when you need it.3.5. CASE STUDY: LINEAR-TIME REVERSE ca We design an auxiliary function rev1(L,M) whose job is to return LM, that is, the reverse of list L followed by the list M (not reversed). Note that we use the superscript R as a convenient way to indicate the reverse of a list. If we wish to reverse list L, we have only to call revi(L,nil). The result is LF concatenated with the empty list, which is just L®. (1) fun revi(nil, M) = (2) | revi(x::xs, ys) = revi(xs, x::ys); val revl = fn: ‘a list * ’a list > ’a list fun reverse(L) = revi(L,nil); val reverse = fn: ‘a list + 'a list Figure 3.26: List reversal using difference lists Figure 3.26 shows the function rev1 and its use to define a linear-time list- reversal function. Line (1) of rev1 handles the basis case, when there is nothing left to reverse. Then, the result is just a copy of the second argument. Line (2) handles the inductive case, where we need to reverse a list of one or more elements. We move the head of the list we need to reverse to the beginning of the list that is not to be reversed. We then call revi recursively on the new pair of lists. Eventually, all the elements of the first list are moved to the front of the second list, in reverse order. At that point, the basis case applies and the recursion ends. To see why the technique works, suppose we call revi ([a1,a2,...,@n], [b1,b2,-.-,bm}) Then the desired output is the list [an,an—1,-..5@1,01,b2,.- move the head of the first list to the second, we call bm). When we »bm]) ‘The result of this call is [an,an—1,.--,2] followed by the element a1, followed by [b1,b2,..-45m], which is the result desired for the original call to revi. revi({az,03,-.-sdn), [arsbis br Example 3.29: Here is the sequence of calls that results when we try to reverse the list [1,2,3]: reverse((1,2,3]) revi([1,2,3], nil) revi((2,3], [1]) revi((3], (2,1) revi(nil, [3,2,1]) At this point, the basis applies, and the result [3,2,1] is produced. O88 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS 3.5.4 Analysis of Fast Reverse We can argue that the reversal program of Fig. 3.26 takes time proportional to the length of the list, as follows. 1. Function revi calls itself with a first argument that is shorter by 1 than its parameter, so with a first argument of length n, revi makes n recursive calls. 2. Each recursive call to revi takes a constant amount of time to break apart a head and tail and then cons a head and tail, until we get to the basis case at line (1) of Fig. 3.26. The basis case also takes constant time. 3. Thus, revi takes time proportional to the length of its first argument. 4. The time taken by reverse on a list of length n is essentially the time taken by revi when given a first argument of length n. Thus, reverse takes time proportional to the length of the list it is to reverse. 3.5.5 Exercises for Section 3.5 Exercise 3.5.1: Write a function cat(L,M) that produces the concatenation LON of the lists L and M. However, your function should not use the @ operator; only the cons operator :: should be used. Your function must run in time proportional to the length of L, independent of M. Exercise 3.5.2: Write a function cycle(L, i) that cycles list L by i positions, as in Exercise 3.2.1(b). However, your function must take time proportional to the length of L (which we assume is at least i). Hint: You need to break this function into a sequence of steps performed by auxiliary functions. 3.6 Case Study: Polynomial Multiplication In this section we shall show one useful way to represent polynomials in a single variable. We shall consider ways to perform polynomial multiplication, which is also the important signal-processing operation known as convolution. We begin with some simple functions that get the job done, but take time proportional to n? to multiply polynomials of length n. Then, we exhibit a more complicated algorithm that multiplies polynomials in time proportional to n'5®. We do not show the algorithm that is asymptotically most efficient — the “Fast Fourier Transform” approach. That algorithm takes time proportional to nlogn.'! jee Aho, Hoperoft, and Ullman, Design and Analysis of Computer Algorithms, Addison- Wesley, 1974, for a discussion of efficient polynomial multiplication, including both the FFT. and the Karatsuba-Ofman approach discussed in Section 3.6.5.3.6. CASE STUDY: POLYNOMIAL MULTIPLICATION 89 3.6.1 Representing Polynomials by Lists We shall use lists of reals to represent polynomials by their coefficients, lowest degree first. For instance, the polynomial 2* + 4x — 5 is represented by the list (75.0, 4.0, 0.0, 1.0]. In general, the polynomial 57”_, a:z! is represented by the list of n + 1 elements [ao,@1,..-,@,]. Conventionally, we shall take the empty list to represent the polynomial 0, but this polynomial also has other representations such as [0.0] and [0.0, 0.0]. An important observation is that if L is a list representing polynomial P, and L is of the form a :: M (that is, L has head a and tail M), and the tail represents polynomial Q, then P = a+Qcz. That is, multiplication by z in effect shifts the elements of the corresponding list one position right. For instance, if P=n+4r-5 then we observed that the representing list is [“8.0, 4.0, 0.0, 1.0]. Thus, ais ~5.0 and M is [4.0, 0.0, 1.0]. M represents the polynomial Q = 2? +4. Note that P =a +Qz, that is, P= —5 + (2? +4)x. 3.6.2 A Simple Polynomial-Multiplication Algorithm In Fig. 3.27 we see three functions that perform common operations on polyno- mials in this representation. The first, padd(P,Q), adds polynomials P and Q. We recursively define the sum of two lists P and Q that represent polynomials by: BASIS: If either P or @ is the empty list, then the sum is the other. Note that if both are empty, the result is the polynomial 0 represented by the empty list. INDUCTION: For the induction, assume that neither list is empty. Suppose P has head p and a tail representing polynomial R, while Q has head q and a tail representing polynomial S. Then the sum P + Q is the list with head element p+q and tail equal to the result of applying padd to the two tails. The correctness of this rule is seen as follows. If P = p+ Rr and Q = q+ Sz, then P+Q=(p+q)+(R+S)x In line (1) of Fig. 3.27 we see one part of the basis. Whenever the second polynomial is the empty list, the result is the first polynomial. Line (2) handles the other part of the basis. If the first polynomial is empty, the result is the second. If neither of the first two patterns match the arguments, then it must be that both polynomials are nonempty lists. Thus, in line (3) the pattern p: :ps is sure to match the first argument, and q: :qs will surely match the second argument. Notice we have attached type real to the variable p of this pattern. That is enough for ML to figure out the type of all variables and to disambiguate the use of + in line (3).90 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS As a result of the match, p acquires the value of the first element of the first polynomial, and q acquires the value of the first element of the second polynomial. Their sum becomes the first element of the result, and padd is applied to the tails to get the tail of the result. (* padd(P,Q) produces the polynomial sum P+Q *) (1) fun padd(P,nil) = P (2) | padd(ni1,Q) = Q (3) | padd((p:real)::ps, q::q8) = (p+q)::padd(ps,qs); (* smult(P,q) multiplies polynomial P by scalar q *) (4) fun smult(nil,g) = nil (5) | smult((p:real)::ps,q) = (p+q): :smult(ps,q); (* pmult(P,Q) produces PQ *) (6) fun pmult(P,nil) = nil (7) | pmult(P,q::qs) = padd(smult(P,q), 0.0::pmult(P,qs)); Figure 3.27: Polynomial addition and multiplication In lines (4) and (5) of Fig. 3.27 we see the function sult that multiplies a polynomial P by a scalar q. That is, each term in the polynomial is multiplied by g. The recursive definition of this operation is: BASIS: If P is empty, then the product is the empty list representing 0 INDUCTION: If P has head p, then the head of the result is pg. The tail of the result is found by recursively applying smult to the tail of P and the scalar q. Line (4) handles the basis and line (5) handles the inductive step. The justification for this algorithm is that if P = p+ Re, then Pq = pq + Rar. Now let us consider the function pmalt of lines (6) and (7) of Fig. 3.27. This function multiplies polynomials P and Q using a recursion on the length of the second polynomial. BASIS: If the second polynomial is empty, then the result is empty. INDUCTION: If the second polynomial Q can be written as q + Sz, then PQ = Pq+PSr The product Pq is a scalar multiplication. PS is a recursive application of the polynomial multiplication with a smaller second argument.3.6. CASE STUDY: POLYNOMIAL MULTIPLICATION 91 The basis is implemented by line (6). In line (7) we see the inductive ste smult (P,q) produces Pg, while pmult (P ,qs) produces the polynomial product we called PS in the inductive formula above. To multiply this product by .. (p :: psn) >... ‘The compiler has correctly pointed out that we have made an assumption about the relationship between the arguments P and n of carve(P,n): n will never be greater than the length of P. Thus, the first pattern looks for n = 0, and the second pattern assumes that if n > 0, then P must not be nil. If we were to call carve(nil,n), where n > 0, then neither pattern would match and the function would fail. Fortunately, when we use carve in the Karatsuba-Ofman algorithm, our assumptions are certain to be met. However: It is generally a bad practice to write functions whose patterns do not cover all possible cases, even cases for which the function was not intended. of Section 3.6.3, the shifts and additions take time that is linear in the size of the polynomials. That is, we can write a recurrence equation for T(n) the time it takes to multiply polynomials of length n using Formula 3.1 directly: T(n) = 4T(n/2) + bn ‘The solution to this equation is T(n) = (a+ b)n? — bn << ;——> O= v Ww Figure 3.29: Breaking polynomials into half-sized nincas96 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS That is, T(n) is proportional to n2, exactly as for the straightforward polyno- mial multiplication method. To design a faster algorithm, we need to reduce the number of times we mul- tiply half-sized polynomials. We can do so even at the expense of an increased number of operations that take time linear in the size of the polynomials, such as adding or subtracting polynomials, “shifting” (multiplying by a power of x), or “carving” polynomials into two. We can reduce the number of half-sized multiplications to three if we com- pute TV and UW as in Formula 3.1, but write the middle term as: TW +UV =(T+U)(V+W)-TV-UW (3.2) Since TV and UW are already computed, Formula 3.2 uses only one additional half-sized multiplication, (T-+U) times (V +1), rather than the two additional multiplications needed if we computed TW +UV directly. Notice that the fact Formula 3.2 uses two additions and two subtractions in place of a single addition is not a real problem. Intuitively, multiplication takes time that grows faster than linear in n, so the cost of the multiplications swamps out the cost of the additions for large n. (* komult (P,Q) computes the product of polynomials PQ using the Karatsuba-Ofman method that only calls itself three times rather than four on half-sized polynomials. +) (1) fun komult(P,nil) = nil (2) | komult(nil,Q) = nil (3) | komult(P, {q]) = smuit(P,q) (4) | komult({p],Q) = smult(Q,p) (5) | komult(P,Q) = let (6) val n = length(P); a val m = length(Q); (8) val s = bestSplit(n,m); (9) val (T,U) = carve(P,s); (10) val (V,W) = carve(Q,s); (11) val TV = komult(T,V: (12) val UW = komult(U,W); (13) val TUVW = komult(padd(T,U), padd(V,W)); (a4) val middle = psub(psub(TUVW,TV), UW); in (15) padd(padd(TV,shift(middle,s)), shift (UW,2*s)) end; Figure 3.30: The Karatsuba-Ofman multiplication algorithm3.6. CASE STUDY: POLYNOMIAL MULTIPLICATION 97 Figure 3.30 implements this idea in a recursive ML function. Lines (1) and (2) handle the basis cases where one of the polynomials is the empty list. In these cases, the empty list is returned. Lines (3) and (4) handle additional bases cases where one of the polynomials is of length 1. Such a polynomial is a constant, so we can use the linear-time scalar multiplication algorithm to handles these cases. Line (5) begins the inductive case. We use each of the auxiliary functions from Fig. 3.28 at least once in a sequence of val-declarations. Lines (6) and (7) compute the lengths of the two polynomials, and line (8) picks the value of s using the bestSplit function. The role of s, the length of the low-order pieces T and V, was illustrated in Fig. 3.29. Then, lines (9) and (10) divide the two polynomials into low-order and high-order pieces, as suggested by Fig. 3.29. Line (11) computes the first half- sized product, TW, and line (12) computes the second: UW’. Lines (13) and (14) implement the expression of Formula 3.2. That is, line (13) computes (7 +U)(V +W), and line (14) subtracts from this expression the terms TV and UW. Finally, the result of the function is computed in line (15). This expression implements Formula 3.1. However, the middle term, TV + UW, has been computed by Formula 3.2, rather than directly. 3.6.6 Analysis of the Karatsuba-Ofman Algorithm We can show that the dominant cost of the algorithm of Fig. 3.30 is the three half-sized multiplications. Let T(n) be the running time of this function on two polynomials of length n. For the basis, where n = 1, one of the basis cases of lines (3) or (4) applies. The running time is thus some constant, say T(1) = a. For the induction, let n > 1. Then the inductive case starting at line (5) applies. The following is a list of the running times for each of steps (6) through (15): 6: Proportional ton. 7: Proportional to n. 8: Constant. 9: Proportional to n. 10: Proportional to n. 11: T(n/2). 12: T(n/2). 13: A term proportional to n for the calls to padd plus T(n/2) for the call to komult.98 CHAPTER 3. DEFINING FUNCTIONS 14: Proportional to n. 15: Proportional to n. ‘The sum of the times is thus 37'(n/2) plus a term that is proportional to n. We may write the recurrence equation as: T(1)=a T(n) = 37 (n/2) +n The solution to this equation is T(n) = (a + 26)n'823 — 2bn as you may check by substitution in both equations. Thus, the running time of the Karatsuba-Ofman algorithm is proportional to n!°823, or n!-®°, significantly less than the n? of more straightforward algorithms. 3.6.7 Exercises for Section 3.6 Exercise 3.6.1: Write a function genPoly(n) that generates a polynomial of length n (degree n — 1), all of whose coefficients are 1.0. Measure the running time of the straightforward algorithm pmult of Fig. 3.27 and the algorithm of Fig. 3.30 with its attendant auxiliaries from Figs. 3.27 and 3.28. The code can be downloaded from the book's web site. Consider polynomials of length n ranging from 1 to about 1000, generated by genPoly. For what value of n does the running time of komult drop below the running time of pmult? Exercise 3.6.2: One problem with komult is that for small n it wastes time, compared with the straightforward approach to polynomial multiplication. Re- write Komult so it calls pmult to multiply polynomials whose length is below some limit. Experiment with running times as in Exercise 3.6.1 to find the limit below which it makes sense to use pmult, and adjust your function accordingly. ! Exercise 3.6.3: Write a function to evaluate a polynomial at a given real value a. That is, define a function eval (P,a) that takes a list (polynomial) P and a real number a, and computes P(a). *! Exercise 3.6.4: Given a list of reals [a1,a2,..., dn], find the polynomial whose Toots are a1,02,-..,@n. Hint: Note that this polynomial is the product of (x —a;) for i= 1,2,....n. 1! Exercise 3.6.5: We can represent polynomials in two variables, x and y, by a list of lists. Think of such a polynomial as a polynomial in 2, whose coef- ficients, instead of being real numbers, are polynomials in y. Represent these polynomials in y by lists as we did in Section 3.6.1. Then use the lists repre- senting these polynomials as the elements of a list representing the polynomial3.6. CASE STUDY: POLYNOMIAL MULTIPLICATION 99 in z. For example, the polynomial 1+ 2zy + 3zy? + 42%y can we written as 1+ (2y + 3y)x + (4y)z%. The polynomial 2y + 3y? is represented by the list {0.0, 2.0, 3.0] and the polynomial 4y is represented by [0.0, 4.0]. Thus, the polynomial in x can be written ([1.0], [0.0,2.0,3.0], (1, [0.0,4.0]] Write functions to add polynomials in two variables, scalar-multiply such poly- nomials, and polynomial-multiply these polynomials. You need not use a “Karatsuba-Ofman” type trick to improve efficiency.Chapter 4 Input and Output In this chapter we shall learn how to read and write information from files. ML offers us a number of tools, ranging from a simple function that prints strings to the standard output to more complex functions that perform UNIX-style input/output and more. Our study of input and output forces us to learn a number of additional features of ML. In this chapter we shall find discussions of the following topics in addition to input/output: 1. The unit type, which is similar to “void” in C. 2. The type constructor option, which allows us to express values that are either present or absent. 3. Lists of statements. 4. A way to access functions that are in the standard basis of ML but not in the top-level environment. 4.1 Simple Output ML provides a print operator that writes a character string to the standard output. This function is simple to use and can do most of what we need for typical output operations. Thus, it is a good point to begin our study of 1/0. 4.1.1 The Print Function The expression print (x) causes the value of a character string x to be printed on the “standard output,” which would be the terminal unless you have called SML/NJ with another standard output designated (via the UNIX > operator). The value returned by the print function is the unit (). This symbol, which102 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT we have not seen before, is the lone value of the type unit, which we have also not encountered previously. One purpose of the unit is to serve as the value returned by a function, such as print, that does its work by a side-effect. Notice that unlike all expressions of ML encountered so far, print has an effect on more than the ML environment; it changes the external world: either what appears on the user’s terminal or the contents of the file that is the current standard output. © Note that print does not return the value printed as its own value. Example 4.1: In Fig. 4.1 is a function called testZero, which tests whether or not its integer argument is 0 and prints one of the strings "zero" or "not zero" as appropriate. Notice that ML responds by saying that testZero is a function from the type integer to the type unit, because the unit is the “value” produced by the print function. The fact that a string is produced as a side-effect is not reflected in the type of the function. fun testZero(0) = print("zero\n") | testZero(_) = print ("not zero\n' val testZero = fn: int + unit testZero(2); not zero val it = () : unit Figure 4.1: A function that uses the print function We also see in Fig. 4.1 a use of testZero(2) and ML’s response. We first see the printed response not zero on the standard output. Following immediately is the normal response of ML after evaluating a function: val it = () : unit Notice that the value of the expression testZero(2) is the unit (). That is what print returns, and therefore that is what testZero returns. Remember from Section 2.1.1 that in strings we can use the sequence \n to represent a newline. Had we omitted printing this character in the print statements of Fig. 4.1, the output would have run together, as not zeroval it = () : unit4.1. SIMPLE OUTPUT 103 The Type unit The unit type is another of the basic types of the ML system, like int. In a sense it is like the C type void. However, while there is no value for a “void” in C, the ML unit type has exactly one value, () ‘The unit appears in a surprising place in ML: as the argument of a seemingly zero-argument function. Thus, if we were to write a zero- argument function that when called returns the string hello world, it would appear as follows: fun hello() = "hello world" val hello = fn : unit + string ‘That is, function hello has an argument after all; the unit. It would be called by applying it to the unit, as: hello(); val it = “hello world” : string 4.1.2 Printing Nonstring Values It is possible to print values other than strings if we first convert the value to a string. For example, we learned in Section 2.24 that the function str will change a character into a string of length 1. Thus, we could write val c = #"a"; print (str(e)); to print an a on the standard output. However, printing characters as strings is not very interesting. More often, we would like to print integers or real numbers, or perhaps values of other types. There is a function toString associated with integers, reals, and some other types that converts values of those types to appropriate character strings. The identifier toString denotes one of several rather different functions, and in order to tell which one is meant, it is necessary to prefix the identifier toString by the name of the “structure” to which it belongs, and a dot. We shall take up structures, both user-defined structures and structures provided by ML, in Section 8.2. However, roughly, for each type there is a structure with the same name but with the first letter capitalized. For example, the structures Int, Real, and Bool are associated with the types int, real, and bool, respectively. Example 4.2: Here is an example of printing the value of a real number as @ string:104 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT. val x = 1.0E50; val x = 1e50 : real print (Real.toString(x)); Le50val it = () : unit Notice that ML selects a representation for our chosen real number that is equivalent to, but not exactly the way we typed it. Also observe that there is no newline character printed, so the standard “val =” response of ML follows the printed value on the same line, with no intervening space. Similarly, we can print integers or booleans by print (Int.toString(123)) ; 123val it = () : unit print (Bool.toString(true)); trueval it = () : unit In each of these cases, we have used the integer or boolean value as an argument directly, rather than “assigning” the value to a variable. In practice, there would be little point in writing an integer or boolean and converting it to a string, rather than printing the resulting string directly, provided we knew the value to be printed in advance. We would only use these conversion functions if we wished to print some value that was calculated at run time. O 4.1.3 “Statement” Lists It is often useful to execute a sequence of two or more “statements” with side- effects, such as print expressions.! The syntax for doing so in ML is (first expression> ; --- ;) That is, a list of expressions is separated by semicolons and surrounded by parentheses. The construct is like begin --- end in Pascal or { --- } in C. Each expression is evaluated in turn. However, the list of expressions is itself an expression and produces a value. The value produced by a list of expressions is the value produced by the last of the expressions. "Technically, there is no such thing as a “statement” in ML, only expressions. However, expressions that cause side-effects behave much like statements of ordinary languages. We shall informally refer to them as statements.4.1. SIMPLE OUTPUT 105 Example 4.3: The function printList in Fig. 4.2 prints each element of an integer list in order and in a vertical column. Line (1) handles the case where the list is empty. Nothing is printed, and the unit is returned. Note that we do not care what printList returns since, unlike most ML functions, printList does its job by its side-effects, not by its returned value. However, like all functions, printList must return one type of value, unit in this case. (1) fun printList(nil) = ( (2) | printList(x::xs) = ( (3) print (Int. toString(x)); «@) print("\n"); (5) printList (xs) ds val printList = fn: int list + unit printList((1,2,3] 1 2 8 val it = () : unit Figure 4.2: Printing a list as a side-effect Lines (2) through (5) handle the case where the list is not empty. We see, beginning at line (3), a sequence of three expressions, each of which causes a printing side-effect. Line (3) prints the head element of the list. Since the function Int. toString is applied to the head element z, this element must be an integer. Line (4) prints the newline character, thus skipping to the next line of output. Line (5) is a recursive call to printList on the tail of the list. That expression causes the rest of the list to be printed and returns the unit. The unit thus becomes the value of the list of statements and the value returned by the function. The ML response confirms that printList is a function that takes an integer list as argument and returns a unit. In Fig. 4.2, this function is used to print the list (1,2,3]. The initial call to printList({1,2,3]) prints 1, then prints a newline (i.e., it skips to the next output line), and last calls printList recursively on the tail [2,3]. That call results in the printing of the elements 2 and 3 on separate lines. Finally, since printList ([1,2,3]) is an expression, ML responds with the value of this expression, which is the unit.106 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT. Opening Structures It is possible to give an identifier such as toString that is defined within one or more structures its meaning within that structure, without requiring that the structure name be prefixed. To do so, we open the structure, for example, open Int; to open the structure for integers. ML responds with a long list of functions that are available in this structure. The names of these functions are now part of the ML environment and can be referred to without prefixing Int. to those names. For example, print (toString (123)) is now legal. How- ever, the toString functions from other structures still must be referred to with their structure name as a prefix; e.g., print (toString (12.34)) is illegal. Figure 1.1, which we repeat here as Fig. 4.3, suggests the situation regarding structures. The entire content of all these structures is called the standard basis. The top-level environment of ML, which is available when the ML compiler is invoked, gives the user certain functions from various structures, such as the operators discussed in Sections 2.1 and 2.2. Other functions of the standard basis are available “below the surface,” if we refer to these functions by a long identifier that includes the structure name. However, an entire structure can be “raised” to the surface by the open command, 4.1.4 Statement Lists Versus Let-Expressions You may have noticed a similarity between the list of statements mentioned above and the let-expression from Section 3.4. Each involves a sequence of steps that are evaluated or executed in turn, and the result is the value returned by the last expression. However, different kinds of expressions are allowed between the let and in keywords than are allowed in statement lists or are allowed between the in and end. Between let and in we must find declarations such as val-declarations, function definitions, and a few more kinds of declarations that we shall learn later (see Fig, 9.19 for a summary of declarations). Intuitively declarations are the kinds of expressions that evoke a response other than val it = --- when you type them in the top-level environment. For example, they may result in ML telling the value of some identifier other than it. On the other hand, the “ordinary” expressions that can appear in an ex- pression list (or after the in of a let-expression) are characterized by an ML response in which the identifier it has its value told. See Fig. 9.13 for the com-4.1. SIMPLE OUTPUT 107 Top-level Environment Int Real String 000 Structures Figure 4.3: Parts of structures of the standard basis appear in the top-level environment; the remainders are also available plete structure of expressions. Another way to look at the distinction is that let-expressions make significant alterations to the environment through their declarations, while expressions leave the environment unchanged. Note that side-effects such as printing or reading input do not change the environment as far as ML is concerned, although they do change the state of the surrounding file system # Although we have not yet seen an example, an expression list can appear between the in and end in a let-expression, in place of a single expression. The surrounding parentheses are unnecessary in such a list. 4.1.5 Exercises for Section 4.1 Exercise 4.1.1: If we were to change line (1) of Fig. 4.2 to fun printList(nil) = 0 and leave the rest of printList as it is, would there be a type error in the function printList? Exercise 4.1.2: Write the function comb, computing (/,), in such a way that when we call comb(n,m) it prints n and m before printing the result. Print out suitable words so n, m, and ("") are clearly distinguishable from one another. Exercise 4.1.3: Write a function that, given integer n, prints 2" X"s, using n recursive calls. Hint: Compute the desired string recursively before printing it. Exercise 4.1.4: Write a function that, given n, prints 2” X’s using only logy n recursive calls.108 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT Should We Open Structures? There is a school of thought that one should never open a structure. One reason is that it is hard to remember exactly which functions are brought into the current environment when a given structure is opened. Should we open a structure, we might absent-mindedly replace some function we needed by a function of the same name in the structure, with unpredictable results. However, for succinctness, in the balance of this chapter we shall asume that the Text IO structure is open. 4.2 Reading Input From a File ML's approach to reading and writing files will be familiar if you have used UNIX file reading and writing commands from C or another language. In this, section we shall cover file reading, while writing files is treated in Section 4.3. 4.2.1 Instreams ‘The ML type instream is a source of characters that may be read by certain functions that we are about to learn. If you are familiar with file input/output in UNIX, you will see an analogy between an instream and the file-ID of a file that is opened for reading. The necessary functions are found in a structure called Text 10. If we wish, we may issue the command: open TextI0; ML responds with a list of the functions available in the Text IO structure. We may now refer to these functions without prefixing them with TextIO and a dot. Had we not opened the TextI0 structure, we could still use its functions if we prefixed them by Text 10 and the dot. Our first step in reading a file is to obtain a value of type instream that is associated with the file, opened for reading. We issue the command: openIn("") This expression causes the file named by the quoted string to be opened for reading. It returns a “token,” or internal value, of type instream. This token must be used to read from the file in the future. Example 4.4: val infile = openIn("foo"); val infile = — : instream4.2. READING INPUT FROM A FILE 109 opens the file named foo in the directory in which the ML program is running. To read from the file subsequently, we refer to it by the identifier infile, not foo. The argument to openIn may be any legal path name. For instance, the expression val infile2 = openIn("/usr/spool/mail/ullman val infile2 = — : instream opens the author’s mail file for reading. In the future, this file must be referred to by the identifier infile2. O 4.2.2 Reading Characters From a File Once we have opened the file, we can read characters from it. There are several different functions that can read different amounts of the opened file. Let us begin by using a simple approach involving the following two functions: 1. endOfStream() is a predicate (function that returns a boolean) that tells whether we are at the end of the file. The value of must be an instream, that is, a token returned by openIn. Function endOfStream returns true if this instream currently has no input waiting. If the instream refers to a standard file, then the end-of-file has been reached. However, if the instream is a special file, such as a terminal, then endO0fStream might return true at one time and later return false when more input had been typed at the terminal. 2. inputN( ,n) reads the next n characters from the file named . What is read is returned as a string. Again, is an instream or internal token used to designate an opened file. If there are fewer than n characters remaining in the file, then only what remains is read, and fewer than n characters are returned. However, if the “file” is actually a source like an input terminal, then input will wait until n characters appear or an explicit end of file is seen. There will be an indefinite wait if these characters never arrive. Example 4.5: Figure 4.4 shows a function readList that opens a file, reads it character-by-character, and returns the list whose elements are the characters of the file, in order. Each element is a string of length 1. Line (2) says that if we have reached the end of the file, then we return the empty list. Line (3) handles the case where the file is not empty. We use the inputN function to read a string of length one from the file, and this string becomes the head of the list being formed. The tail of the list is constructed by a recursive call to the function readList. ML deduces that infile must be of type instream, because function inputN requires that type for its first argument.110 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT (1) fun readList(infile) = (2) if end0fStream(infile) then nil @) else inputN(infile,1) :: readList(infile); val readList = fn : instream — string list (4) readList (openIn("test")); val it = [71",2","\n","a”,"”,"\n"] + string list Figure 4.4: Reading a file and turning it into a list of characters We also see in line (4) of Fig. 4.4 the application of readList to a file named test that holds the six characters shown in Fig. 4.5. Note that two of the characters in the file are newline characters, one after each line. 12 ab Figure 4.5: The file test In the expression readList (openIn("test")) of line (4), openIn opens the file test and produces a token of type instream representing this file. We never see the value of this token, but it immediately becomes the argument of readList; that is, the parameter infile of readList gets this instream as its value for the call. Finally, we see the response of ML to this expression; it ascribes to identifier it the list of characters of the file test. Note that we have, in effect, “dropped the list on the floor.” In a more realistic example, we would pass the list as an argument to another function, which would perform some useful computation on the list. O 4.2.3. Reading Lines of a File The function inputLine() is applied to an instream. It returns a string consisting of the characters on the first unread line of the instream, that is, all characters up to and including the next newline character. If there are one or more characters remaining on the instream, but there is no newline character, then the characters up to the end of file are returned with a newline character appended. Example 4.6: Suppose we open the file of Fig. 4.5 with: val infile = openIn("test4.2. READING INPUT FROM A FILE bb In Fig. 4.6 are three consecutive uses of the inputLine function; in each case the string returned is “thrown on the floor.” inputLine(infile) ; val it = "12\n" : string inputLine(infile) ; val it = "ab\n” : string inputLine(infile) ; val it =" : string Figure 4.6: Uses of inputLine Note that the two lines of the file are returned by the first two calls, and since the end of file has then been reached, the third call returns the empty string, not a newline. However, had the final newline been omitted, and the file test composed of the five characters 12\nab, the responses would have been exactly the same as Fig. 4.6, including the newline character following b in the second use of inputLine. O 4.2.4 Reading Complete Files We can read an entire text file with the function input (). Again, the file is an instream. The result of this call is a character string consisting of all the remaining characters of the instream. Example 4.7: If we open the file from Fig. 4.5 as we did in Example 4.6, then val s = input(infile); binds s to the string "12\nab\n". Among other possibilities, we could apply the explode function to s, producing a list of characters. We could then process this list character by character in a variety of ways. O 4.2.5 Reading a Single Character Yet another function to read text files is input1 (). This function reads from the instream a single character. However, the value is returned in a form we have not seen before, involving the type constructor option. That is, the type of the value returned by input is char option, whose values are either of the form112 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT 1. SOME c, where ¢ is a character, or 2. NONE. IfSOME cis returned by input, then cis the character read. If NONE is returned, then no character remained on the instream. Example 4.8: Suppose infile is an instream opened for reading the file test of Fig. 4.5. Here is the first call to input on this instream. input1(infile) ; val it = SOME "1” : char option Notice that the first character of the file is returned as an option; its type is char option. The next five calls return SOME #"2", SOME #"\n", SOME #"a", SOME #"b", and SOME #"\n". The seventh and subsequent calls return NONE. o The fact that the character is returned as an option is actually convenient, since it lets us gracefully handle the situation where there are no more characters on the instream, We use SOME and NONE in patterns, thereby distinguishing the end of file without having to use end0fStream to test the end explicitly. Example 4.9: In Fig. 4.7 we sce another way to read a file and turn it into a list of characters. The work is done by the auxiliary function makeList1, which takes an instream called infile and a character option and returns the list consisting of the character in the option (if there is one) and all the characters remaining on the instream fun makeList1(infile, NONE) = nil || makeListi(infile, SOME c) = ¢ i: makeListi(infile, inputi(infile)); val makeList! = fn : instream * char option > char list fun makeList(infile) = makeListi(infile, inputi(infile)); val makeList = fn : instream -+ char list Figure 4.7: Converting a file into a list of characters The first line of makeList1 handles the case where the option is NONE. This case occurs when there were no more characters on the instream when we tried previously to read the instream using input1. Since we have no more characters available, we return the empty list.4.2, READING INPUT FROM A FILE mn Some Operators for Options There are two useful operators on options. Given a value x whose type is T option for some type T, we can say: 1. isSome(x) to get a boolean value that is false if the value of « is NONE and true if the value of z is SOME y for some value y. 2. val0f(x) returns y if x is of the form SOME y. If x is NONE, then a runtime error occurs. For instance, we could write the function makeList1 of Fig. 4.7 as: fun makeList1(infile, c) if isSome(c) then val0f(c): :makeList1(infile,input1(infile)) else nil; ‘The remainder of makeList1 handles the case where we have successfully read a character c from the instream, and SOME c is the second argument of makeList1. We extract the character c itself from the pattern SOME c and make this character the head of the list being formed. The tail of the list is what we get by applying input to get a character option from the instream and recursively calling makeList1 with the instream and this character option as arguments. The function makeList, also defined in Fig. 4.7, Simply applies input! to its instream and calls makeList1 with the instream and this first character option as arguments. Function makeList1 will read character after character, until NONE is returned by inputi. O 4.2.6 Lookahead on the Input The function lookahead () is similar to input1, but lookahead does not consume the character read from the input. It returns a character option, just as inputi does. Example 4.10: Let us again assume that infile is an instream opened for reading the file of Fig. 4.5. Here are the responses to a use of lookahead followed by a use of input: lookahead (infile) ; val it = SOME #1" : char option114 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT A Comparison Between Options and Lists The type constructors option and List have certain similarities. In each case, there are two identifiers, called value constructors, that are used to build values of these types. The value constructor NONE is a value by itself, just as nil is a value by itself. And just as the type of nilis ’a list (a list of any type), the type of NONE is ’a option (an option of any type). Each has a second value constructor: :: in the case of lists and SOME in the case of options. However, :: is a binary, infix operator and can be used recursively to create lists of arbitrary length. SOME is a unary, prefix operator and may not be used recursively. That is, while a value like 1: :nilis of type int list, value SOME SOME 1 is not of type int option. Rather, it is a value of type int option option. We shalll learn more about type constructors like these in Section 6.2, when we take up the matter of datatypes. Both list and option are actually examples of datatypes that are provided by the ML system, rather than being defined by the user, as most datatypes are. input1(infile) ; val it = SOME #1” : char option Notice that while lookahead reports the first character on the instream, that character is not read from the instream. Rather, it remains to be consumed by the later call to input1. A following call to either lookahead or input would return the second character, SOME 2. Of course lookahead would leave 2 on the instream; input1 would not. The function canInput(f, i) is a predicate that returns true if there are at least i characters currently available on the instream f. For instance, canInput(infile,1) returns false exactly when lookahead (infile) returns NONE. 4.2.7 Closing Instreams We may close a file that has been opened for reading with the command closeIn() Here, the file argument is an instream that was returned by openIn. It is generally not essential that files be closed. The ML system will handle files correctly when the program terminates.4.2. READING INPUT FROM A FILE ay 4.2.8 Exercises for Section 4.2 Exercise 4.2.1: Write expressions that will do the following. * a) Open file zap for reading. * b) Close the file whose instream is int. c) Read 5 characters from the instream in2. * d) Read a line of text from the instream in3. c) Read the entire file from instream in4. f) Find the first character waiting on the standard input without consuming it. *1 g) Find how many characters are presently waiting on the standard input. Exercise 4.2.2: Suppose we have a file with the characters abe de f Suppose the file has been opened for reading and infile is a variable whose value is the instream for this file. Tell what. happens if the following commands are executed repeatedly. a) val x = input(infile); b) val x = inputi(infile); *c) val x = inputN(infile,2); d) val x = inputN(infile,5); *e) val x = inputLine(infile); f) val x = lookahead(infile); Exercise 4.2.3: Give the types of the following expressions: * a) SOME () b) SOME 123 * c) SOME NONE d) fun £() = SOME true; *e) fun £(NONE) = 0 | £(SOME i) = i;116 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT Exercise 4.2.4: Read a file of characters, treating it as a sequence of words, which are sequences of consecutive non-white-space characters. Each word is followed by either a single white space character or the end-of-file, so two or more consecutive white spaces indicate there is an empty word between them. Return a list of the words in the file. Exercise 4.2.5: Design the following calendar-printing function. Take as in- put a month, the day of the first of that month, and the number of days in the month. Months and days are abbreviated by their first three letters. The month, day, and number of days are each separated by a single white-space character. For example, a request to print the calendar for a September in which the first of the month is on a Thursday would be Sep Thu 30 Print the calendar as: 1. A row with the month (full name) indented by three tabs. 2. A blank row. 3. A row with the names of the days (three-letter abbreviations) separated by tabs. 4, As many rows as necessary, with the days printed in the proper columns. For example, Fig. 4.8 shows the calendar desired for September when Sept. 1 falls on a Thursday. September Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 14 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Figure 4.8: Example calendar page 4.3 Output to Files We saw in Section 4.1 how to print output on the standard output file. In this section we shall learn more about output, including the type outstream, which is the analog of an instream. We shall also study commands to write to any of several outstreams.4.3. OUTPUT TO FILES a 4.3.1 Outstreams We met the type instream in Section 4.2.1. Normally, an instream represents a file of characters that has been opened for input. We may imagine an instream to be represented by the token (normally an integer) used by the operating system to refer to that file. However, we are not allowed by ML to see this token or even to compare it to another instream value. Similarly, there is a type outstream that normally represents a file of char- acters that has been opened for output. We may also think of an outstream as the internal token representing this file. We create an outstream when we open a file for writing. While there is only one reading mode — read a file from the beginning — there are two output modes: 1. Function openDut () opens a file for writing. The file is first made empty, and a token of type outstream is returned. 2. Function openAppend() opens a file for appending. This function does not empty the file; it leaves the file asit is. An outstreamis returned, and future output operations on this outstream are added to the end of the file. These functions, like all the functions introduced in this section, are found in the structure Text 10. Thus, we must either open Text10 or prepend Text IO and a dot to the names of these functions. We continue to assume that Text 10 is opened. Example 4.11: Here is an example of a file-opening statement. val outfile = openOut("/u/ullman/foo' val ouffile = - : outstream Notice that the value of outfile is not shown; it is represented by a dash, because it is an internal token whose value we are not allowed to know. Its type is identified as outstream. The effect of this openOut statement is to empty the file /u/ul1man/foo. An outstream is returned and bound to the identifier outfile. In the future, we can write characters onto the end of file /u/ullman/foo by referring to outfile. O 4.3.2 Closing Outstreams After writing to an outstream f, we can close the file by closeOut (f). Here f is the outstream token that we received from openOut or openAppend when we opened the file. Any characters waiting in the buffer for the file are written, and the file is closed to further writing. Should we later try to write to an outstream that has been closed (or try to read from a closed instream) we get an error condition called an “exception” (see Section 5.2).118 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT Flushing the Output ‘The function flushOut () “flushes” the outstream to which it is applied. We would normally use flushOut if the outstream were a terminal or other device whose output is buffered. This command assures that any characters waiting in the buffer are written at the time flushOut is executed, even if we do not immediately close the outstream. Example 4.12: We close the file /u/u11man/foo mentioned in Example 4.11 with closeOut (outfile). We refer to the file by outfile because that iden- tifier was bound to the outstream for the file /u/u11man/foo in the call to openOut that created outstream outfile. O 4.3.3 The output Command Function output (f,s) appends the string to the end of the outstream f. Unlike input, which has a variety of functions that obtain various prefixes of an instream, essentially all output is done either with the output function or the print function described in Section 4.1. Example 4.13: Let us consider an example using function output to the standard output stdOut (see the box on “Standard Input and Output”). In Fig. 4.9 we see a version of the comb function that with each call prints a line of X’s of length equal to the value of n in that call. The output helps us picture the sequence of calls made by an initial call to comb(n,m). Lines (1) and (2) are the function put (a), which prints n X’s and then a newline on the standard output. We see in line (1) the basis case, where n = 0 and we print just the newline. In line (2) is the case where n > 0. We print one X, then recursively print n — 1 more X’s and the newline. Lines (3) through (6) are the modified function comb. On line (4) n X’s are printed. Then, lines (5) and (6) do the normal recursion for comb. Finally, line (7) is an example call to comb(5,2). The original call of line (7) and each recursive call it makes is reflected by a line of X’s, and at the end is ML's response to the original call. Note that because put prints to the standard output, the X’s appear on the terminal mixed with ML’s own responses, which also go to the terminal. O © Note that Example 4.13 uses only single characters as output strings in lines (1) and (2) of Fig. 4.9. In general, strings of any length may be used. 4.3.4 Exercises for Section 4.3 Exercise 4.3.1: Write expressions that will do the following.4.3. OUTPUT TO FILES (1) fun put(0) = output (std0ut,"\n") (2) | put(n) = (output (std0ut,"X"); put(n-1)); val put = fn: int + unit (3) fun comb(n,m) = ( (4) put (n); (5) if m=0 orelse m-n then 1 (6) else comb(n-1,m) + comb(n-1,m-1) 5 val comb = fn: int * int + int (7) comb(5,2) 5 XXXXX XXXX XXX XX XX x x XXX XX x x XX XXXX XXX XX x x XX XXX val it = 10 : int Figure 4.9: Printing a profile of calls to comb 119120 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT Standard Input and Output UNIX has a notion of a “standard” input, output, and error file for a process, normally the terminal or window in which the process originates. Structure TextIO provides names for these three standard files: 1. stdin is an instream, the standard input. 2. stdQut is an outstream, the standard output. 3. stdErr is an outstream, the standard error file. None of these instreams and outstreams need to be opened. You may refer to them, knowing that the surrounding operating system will direct the characters to or from the appropriate place, such as your terminal. Standard Input Can Interact With the snl Command When using standard input, we must be careful how we call ML. If we use the UNIX command sm1 10, then represent digits ten and above by their decimal representation surrounded by parentheses. For example, 570 in base 12 is 3(11)6; that is, 570 = 144 x 3+ 12x 11+6. You should read from an instream infile and write to outstream outfile. Exercise 4.3.3: Write a function that, given i prints 2' X’s, using i recursive calls. Hint: Use an auxiliary function that computes the desired string before the string is printed.4.4. CASE STUDY: SUMMING INTEGERS 121 4.4 Case Study: Summing Integers In this extended example, the problem we shall address is how to read a list of integers from a designated file and compute their sum. The following restric- tions are assumed. 1. Integers are positive only. 2. Integers are separated by one or more characters that are not digits. 3. The last integer may or may not be followed by one or more nondigits before the end of the file is reached. The entire program appears in Fig. 4.10. In line (1), we open the TextI0 structure so that the file-reading functions will be available to us. Line (2) de- fines a symbolic constant END, whose value is 1. This constant is a convenient way for the various functions in Fig. 4.10 to signal that they have failed to find any more integers on the instream and are ready to complete the sum. Function digit in line (3) checks whether its argument lies between the characters "0" and "9" in lexicographic order. Note that in the ASCII code, the digits have consecutive codes. Now, let us divide the task into some components. Our initial sketch of the program, in a “Pidgin-Pascal” notation, is shown in Fig. 4.11. Getting the next integer from the file is itself a complex task. First, there may not be any more integers, since no digits may remain on the file. We shall handle this situation by producing the integer —1. Note we can do so here because of the assumption that there are no negative integers. Thus there can be no ambiguity whether —1 is a legitimate integer — it cannot be. However, to make the role of —1 more transparent, we use END, the variable defined on line (2), in place of -1. If there is an integer to be found, we can divide the process into two steps: 1. Skipping over characters to find the first digit, and 2. Reading subsequent digits until either a nondigit or the end of file is encountered, computing the value of the integer as we go. 4.4.1 The Function startInt The first of these operations is performed by the function startInt shown in lines (4) through (8) of Fig, 4.10. Function startInt is mutually recursive with an auxiliary function startInt1 that does most of the work. In line (4), startInt gets the first character (as a character option) from the input file and passes that character and the file to start Inti. The latter function first checks on line (5) if the optional character is not present (i.e., the char option is NONE). In that case the end of file has been reached and the special constant END is returned to signal that there are no more integers.122 qa) (2) @) (4) (8) (6) mm (8) (9) (10) (41) (12) (13) (4) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT open TextI0; val END = “1; fun digit(c) = c >= #"0" andalso c <= #"9"; fun startInt (file) = startInti(file, inputi(file)) and startInti(file, NONE) = END | startInti(file, SOME c) = if digit(c) then ord(c)-ord(#"0") else startInt (file); fun finishInt(i,file) = if i = END then END else finishInti(i,file, inputi(file)) and finishInti(i, file, NONE) = | finishInti(i, file, SOME c) if digit(c) then finishInt (10*itord(c)-ord(#"0"), file) i else i; fun getInt(file) = finishInt(startInt(file), file) fun sumInts1(file) = let val i = getInt(file) in if i = END then 0 else i + sumIntsi(file) end; fun sumInts(filename) = sumInts1(openIn(filename)) ; Figure 4.10: ML Code to read a file and sum all the integers found on that file4.4. CASE STUDY: SUMMING INTEGERS 123 Using Boolean Expressions Succinctly If you are like the author, you are tempted to write a predicate like digit as fun digit(c) = if c>= #’0? andalso c <= #9? then true else false; This code is correct but “illiterate.” When we write a function that returns a boolean, we can use the test as the return value itself. if there are no more integers on the file then return 0. else begin get an integer from the file; recursively sum the rest of the file; return the sum of the first integer and the rest of the file end Figure 4.11: Sketch of integer-summing program If the character is present, then input returns SOME c for some character c. In that case, at lines (6) through (8) startInt1 first checks if c is a digit. If so, then the value of that digit is returned at line (7) by subtracting the ASCII code for 0 from the ASCII code for the digit. The difference is the integer value of the digit. But if the character c is not a digit, then start Int 1 instead ignores this character and calls startInt to get the next character from the file. 4.4.2 The Function finishInt Now we have a way to find the first digit of an integer and return the value of that digit. Next, we need a function finishInt (i, file) that takes an integer i, which represents the value of digits read so far, and reads as many more consecutive digits as there are in the instream named file. Eventually the value of the integer represented by this entire sequence of digits is produced by finishInt. The key arithmetic point to remember is that if i is the value of digits read so far, and we read one more digit, say d, then the value of the integer up to the newly read digit is 101 + d. Completing the integer that was begun by startInt is the task of fune- tion finishInt and its mutually recursive auxiliary function finishInt1. At124 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT Signaling the End of the File Admittedly, the style we have adopted for signally that no integers remain on the file — returning —1 when no integer is found — is fraught with danger and should be avoided. We shall learn two safer ways to repre- sent the end of file. One is Exercise 6.2.4, where we consider the use of datatypes, and another is Exercise 5.2.3, where we consider exceptions and their handling. Still another way (discussed in Exercise 4.4.1) would be to return an int option, which would either be NONE if there were no integer remaining on the input or SOME i, if integer i were found. line (10) of Fig. 4.10, finishInt tests if we are already at the end of file, be- cause startInt has returned the special integer END. If so, then finishInt also returns END to signal that there is no integer and the end of file has been reached. If the integer was successfully started by startInt, then finishInt reads the next character from the instream and calls finishInt1 with this character and the integer i read so far. If the next character is not there, because the end of file has now been reached, then at line (12) finishInt1 returns i, the integer found so far. But if there is another character c on the input, then finishInt1 tests if c is a digit at line (13). If so then on line (14) finishInt1 multiplies the integer i by 10, and adds the value of the digit read, to get a new integer, which we may call j. Also on line (14), finishInt1 calls finishInt recursively with integer j and the same file If, on the other hand, the character passed to finishInt1 is not a digit, then the integer being read is finished. Function finishInt return the integer ion line (15), and the recursion ends. 4.4.3 The Function getInt The functions startInt and finishInt are combined as one function get Int on line (16) of Fig. 4.10 that either reads the next integer from a file or returns END if the end-of-file is encountered before any digits. If there are one or more digits in the file, startInt will get the value of the first, and finishInt will repeatedly multiply its integer argument by 10 and add in the value of the next digit, eventually returning the value of the entire string of consecutive dij This value is returned by getInt. Should getInt be called when there is no integer left on the file, then startInt will return END; so will finishInt, and therefore getInt returns END.44, CASE STUDY: SUMMING INTEGERS 125 Using Auxiliary Functions Contrast the approach used in Example 4.9, where we designed a recur- sive auxiliary function makeList1 that was called once by its primary function makeList with the approach used in Fig. 4.10, where the auxil- iary functions startInt1 and finishInt1 were mutually recursive with their corresponding primary functions. Either style could be used in either example. For instance, on line (8) of Fig. 4.10 we could have start Int1 call itself with else startInti(file, inputi(file)); The code would then look more like that. of Example 4.9. We would follow the definition of startInt4 by the definition of startInt, and the two functions would no longer be mutually recursive. Which approach is preferable is a matter of taste. 44.4 The Function sumInts Finally, we see in lines (17) through (21) of Fig. 4.10 the functions that do the summing of integers. The work is really done by sumInts1, which at line (18) reads an integer off the instream. If the integer is END (i.e., ~1), then we have reached the end of the file and found no integer, so the sum of integers found is 0. We handle this case in line (19). If a nonnegative integer is found, then on line (20) we recursively call sumInts1 to sum the rest of the integers on the file, and add the integer found first, to produce the correct sum. The final touch is the function sumInts of line (21). This function takes a string filename, which is the name of the file whose integers we must sum, and applies opentn to it. The result is an instream representing the file. This in- stream is passed to sumInts1 and, through it, to the other functions of Fig. 4.10 that read from the file, 4.4.5 Eager Evaluation One might wonder whether all the complexity of Fig. 4.10 is really necessary. For example, we could have converted the file into a string in one step, using function input. We could then use explode to create a list of characters and process this list. It might well be more convenient to process the list than to read characters directly from the input file, as we did. However, there is a disadvantage to doing so, because of ML's method of parameter passing, which is call-by-value (recall Section 3.1). That is, the first thing that would happen if we used input is that the entire file would be turned into a string. But suppose we had agreed to terminate the list of integers not by126 CHAPTER 4. INPUT AND OUTPUT the end of the file, but by some special character like #"e", which could appear in the middle of the file. In that case, we would not need to read the part of the file beyond the first #"e". However, should we start by using functions input and explode to convert the file to a list of characters, we would wind up reading the entire file whether or not we needed it. This style of computing values is called eager evaluation. Its opposite, where parts of an argument such as a list or file are evaluated only as needed, is called lazy evaluation. ML follows the eager evaluation approach because of the call-by-value se- mantics associated with its function arguments. However, by careful program- ming, we can have a measure of lazy evaluation. Notice in particular that the program of Fig. 4.10 reads one integer at a time, and it never creates a list of all the integers before it sums them. More to the point, if we had used a marker like #"e" to indicate the end of the group of integers to be summed, and suitably modified the program of Fig. 4.10 to look for #"*e" instead of the end-of-file, the program would never even read the file beyond the first #"e". In truth, it should be pointed out that while ML argument evaluation is “eager,” there are other aspects of the language design that are “lazy.” For instance, we mentioned that the second argument of andalso or orelse is evaluated “lazily,” that is, only if needed. 4.4.6 Exercises for Section 4.4 Exercise 4.4.1: Generalize the program of Fig. 4.10 to allow negative integers on the input. We assume that negative integers are preceded by the minus sign (-) rather than the tilde (~). Note that we not only have to recognize negative integers, but we can no longer use —1 as a convenient value to indicate that the end of file has been reached. Hint: Return an integer option that tells whether the end of file has been reached. Exercise 4.4.2: Rewrite makeList and makeList1 of Example 4.9 so the two functions are mutually recursive Exercise 4.4.3: Rewrite functions startInt and startInt1 of Fig. 4.10 so they are not mutually recursive. Do the same for functions finishInt and finishInt1.Chapter 5 More About Functions This chapter continues the study of ML functions that we began in Chapter 3. First, we introduce the “match,” a special kind of expression similar to the pattern-matching diction that we studied in connection with function definitions in Section 3.3. In fact, we shall see that function definitions using fun are really a shorthand for a match. ‘Then we introduce the “exception,” a mechanism that lets us deal with those functions for which certain values of its argument(s) do not allow the function to return a sensible value. Then, we discuss two of the things that distinguish ML from other programming languages: the ease with which one can write 1. Polymorphic functions — functions that accept arguments of different types — and 2. Higher order functions — functions that take functions as arguments and/or produce functions as return values. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of ways to construct new functions from old, especially the technique known as “Currying,” where we bind some of the arguments of a function to make a new function. 5.1 Matches and Patterns Patterns and the matching of patterns to expressions play a central role in ML programming. In this chapter we look at some additional ways that patterns are used. 1. We use patterns in matches, which resemble the sequence of patterns and associated expressions that appear in function declarations using the keyword fun. In turn, matches are essential components of128 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS (a) Function expressions. These allow us to define functions as values, by using the keyword fn. An important use of these expressions is to define anonymous functions that can be used as arguments to higher-order functions without giving them a name; see Section 5.1.3. (b) Case expressions. These are similar to the case-statements of Pascal or the switch-statements of C. (c) Exception-handlers, which we shall cover in Section 5.2.3. These allow us to handle error conditions gracefully. 2. We use patterns in val-declarations, which we shall find are really much more general than the bindings of values to single variables that we have been using almost exclusively. 5.1.1 Matches A match expression consists of one or more rules, which are pairs of the form => The rules are separated by vertical bars, so the form of a match is: => | => | => Each of the expressions following the =>’s must be of the same type, since any one of them could become the value of the match. ‘The match is applied to a value v. We compare each pattern of the match with v in order, until we find a pattern that matches v, say the ith pattern. This match of a pattern with v binds values to each of the identifiers in the pattern, in the manner discussed with regard to functions in Section 3.3.5. Identifiers in the ith expression are then replaced by their associated values, and the resulting value of the ith expression becomes the value of the match. 5.1.2. Using Matches to Define Functions An alternative way to define a function f, without using the keyword fun, is val rec f = fn The keyword rec, short for “recursive,” is necessary only if the function f is recursive, that is, if the identifier appears in one or more expressions of the match. This keyword informs ML that any uses of f in the match refers to the function f being defined recursively and is not an undefined or previously defined variable.5.1. MATCHES AND PATTERNS 129 Matches That Don’t Cover All Possibilities If there exist values that match none of the patterns, then ML will issue a warning: Warning: match not ehaustive when the match is compiled. If the match is actually applied to a value that does not match any of the patterns, then the exception Match is raised and computation halts, unless the program has been designed to “handle” the error as discussed in Section 5.2.3. Example 5.1: Another way to write the definition of the function reverse of Example 3.15 is val rec reverse = fn nil => nil | reverse(xs) @ [x]; ’a list + ‘a list val reverse = fn: Here the keyword rec is necessary because reverse appears in the match itself. Ina function definition like val rec addOne = fn x => x+1; the keyword rec is legal. However, it is unnecessary, and possibly confusing, since the match consisting of a single pattern x and expression x+1 does not mention the name add0ne. As a general rule, any function definition using fun that has the form fun f(P) =F | f(P2)= Fa | -- | (Pn) = Eni is a shorthand for the val-declaration val rec f = fn Py => Ey | Pp => Ep | ++ | Py => Ens 5.1.3. Anonymous Functions We can also use a match, preceded by the keyword fn, as an anonymous function. that is used once and thrown away. That is, if M is a match, then (fn M) is a function without a name. It may be applied to an argument E by writing (fn M)(E) Example 5.2: Consider the expression (fn x => x+1)(3)i val it = 4: int130 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS Here, we use the simple one-pattern match of function addOne in Example 5.1, but without giving it a name. It is applied to the argument 3, and produces the valued. © The example above may be an uninteresting use of anonymous functions, since its effect can be simulated more simply. However, in Section 5.4 we shall see many places where anonymous functions are useful as arguments of higher- order functions. 5.1.4 Case Expressions The form of a case expression is case of ‘The value of a case expression is found by matching, in order of appearance, each pattern in the match against the value of the expression. As soon as a matching pattern is found, the corresponding expression in the match is evaluated and becomes the value of the case expression. If there is no pattern matching the expression, then the exception Match is raised. Example 5.3: One use of a case expression is to replace an auxiliary function that has no use besides supporting some “primary” function. Since the case expression has all the power of a match, it can easily replace one use of a function. In Fig. 5.1 we see a rewrite of the pair of mutually recursive functions startInt and startInt1 from Fig. 4.10. We have used the case statement to replace startInt1 entirely. (1) fun startint(infile) = (2) case inputi(infile) of (3) NONE => END | (4) SOME c => (5) if digit(c) then ord(c) - ord(# (6) else startInt(infile); Figure 5.1: Function start Int using a case statement In line (2), the expression for the case statement is given; it is input1 (file), which we should recall gets a character option from the instream. There are two possible cases. In line (3) we handle the case where NONE was returned by input; i.e., the end of file has been reached and there is no character. In this case, startInt must return the special value END to signal the end of file. Lines (4) through (6) handle the case where a character was returned. The pattern SOME c allows us to extract the character. If it is a digit, then the value of that digit is returned on line (5). If the character is not a digit, then5.1. MATCHES AND PATTERNS 181 on line (6) we call startInt recursively to search further on the file for the first digit. 0 5.1.5 If-Then-Else Expressions Revisited The if-then-else expression, which we introduced in Section 2.1.6, is actually a shorthand for a case expression. That is, if E, then E2 else E3 stands for case Ey of true => Ey | false => E3 And in turn, a case expression case E of M, where M is a match, is equiva- lent to the function application (fn M)(B). Example 5.4: One place where the underlying meaning of the if-then-else expression needs to be understood is if we make an error and get a diagnostic from the ML compiler. Without understanding what is going on, the response of the compiler can seem rather mysterious. Suppose we confuse characters with strings in the following expression: if x #"a" and false => "b", do not produce values of the same type. The first rule tells ML to expect character results. Thus, when the second rule is encountered, the error message Error: types of rules don’t agree [tycon mismatch] earlier rule(s): bool + char this rule: bool + string rule: false => "b” is produced. O132 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS 5.1.6 Exercises for Section 5.1 Exercise 5.1.1: Rewrite the functions finishInt and finishInt1 from Fig. 4.10 to use a single function with a case statement. Exercise 5.1.2: Write the following functions as values, using fn and a match. * a) Function padd of Fig. 3.27. b) Function smult of Fig. 3.27. ©) Function pmult of Fig. 3.27. d) Function sunPairs of Example 3.18. * c) Function printList of Example 4.3. f) Function merge of Fig. 3.12. g) Function comb of Fig. 3.13. Exercise 5.1.3: A year is a leap year if and only if it is divisible by 4, but not by 100, unless it is also divisible by 400. Write a case expression that tells whether year y is a leap year. Exercise 5.1.4: Recall from Exercise 2.1.4 that expressions using orelse and andalso can be rewritten as if-then-else expressions. We now find that ifthen- else expressions can be rewritten as case expressions. Write: * a) Eorelse F b) Eandalso F as case expressions. 5.2 Exceptions Many functions are partial, meaning that they do not produce a value for some of the possible arguments of the function's domain type. It is essential that we be able to catch such errors, but the constructs given so far do not let us do so. The canonical example of an erroneous argument is division by 0. We have claimed that in ML an expression like a div b must invariably produce a value of type integer. But what if b has the value 0? Will ML in fact produce an integer as a result? The fact is that, as in other languages, division by 0 produces an error. If we do nothing to handle the error, it will stop the computation with an “uncaught exception” message. Example 5.5: Here are some of the operators we have seen and their response when given operands for which they have no defined value.5.2. EXCEPTIONS 133 Real Arithmetic in ML Real arithmetic in ML avoids raising exceptions by using two special con- stants inf (infinity), and nan (“not a number”). For example, 5.0/0.0 produces the value inf, ~5.0/0.0 produces the value ~inf, and 0.0/0.0 and inf-inf both produce the value nan. 5 div 0; ‘uncaught exception Div hd(nil: int list); uncaught exception Empty t1(nil uncaught exception Empty real list); chr (500) ; uncaught exception Chr The first example is an integer division by zero, and the system raises the exception Div. Note that the Div exception will be raised and will halt the entire program whenever integer division by zero occurs. The division might be explicit, as in these examples, or it may be a division by some expression that happens to evaluate to 0. However, as we shalll see in Section 5.2.3, it is possible to turn an exception into an appropriate value; this process is called “handling” exceptions. Handling the exception Div keeps the computation going by providing a value for the expression with denominator 0. The next two examples apply the operators hd and t1 to get the head and tail, respectively, of the empty list. Since the empty list has neither a head nor a tail, both of these exceptions raise the built-in exception Empty. Note that an expression consisting of a function like hd or t1 applied to nil, is illegal unless we pick a type for the result, as we have done here.! We shall have more to say about the rationale for this requirement in Section 5.3.1. ‘The last example applies the built-in operator chr to an integer that is too big to represent a character; chr requires an integer in the range 0) to 255. Thus, the exception Chr is raised. 0 was not TOlder versions of ML allowed such function applications in situations where necessary to know the type of the result.134 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS 5.2.1 User-Defined Exceptions We may also define our own exceptions and “raise” them in code we write when an exceptional condition is discovered. The simplest form of an exception declaration is exception Foo; exception Foo Foo is thus declared to be the name of an exception. In the definition of a function f, we can use an expression raise Foo to raise exception Foo when we find an erroneous input or other condition that we associate in our minds with “Foo.” If function f raises exception Foo during the running of a program, then f returns no value at all. Rather, ML will halt execution and print the message uncaught exception Foo Note that the type of Foo is “exception,” written exn. The range type of function f is generally not exn, but rather whatever type the function f returns when no exception is raised. Example 5.6: Reconsider the comb(n,m) function of Fig. 3.6 that computes (2). This function is fun comb(n,m) = (* assumes 0 <= m <= n *) if m=0 orelse m=n then 1 else comb(n-1,m) + comb(n-1,m-1); val comb = fn: int * int + int We pointed out in Example 3.10 that this function was not designed to work correctly in situations where either n was negative or m was outside the range O-to-n. One approach to the problem is to define some exceptions and rewrite comb to raise them when the input is improper. Figure 5.2 shows this modifi- cation. ‘We begin by defining two exceptions, BadN and BadM. It is possible to define several exceptions at one time as exception BadN and BadM; or more generally, any list of exceptions separated by the keyword and. ‘These exceptions are used in lines (2) and (3) of the function comb to check for the erroneous input possibilities. The expressions raise BadN and raise BadM, when executed, cause the function comb to terminate abnormally, without returning an integer.5.2. EXCEPTIONS 135 exception BadN; exception BadN exception BadM; exception BadM (1) fun comb(n,m) = (2) if nn then raise BadM (4) else if m=0 orelse m=n then 1 (8) else comb(n-1,m) + comb(n-1,m-1 val comb = fr: int * int + int comb(5,2) 5 val it = 10: int comb (~1,,0) uncaught exception BadN comb(5,6) 5 uncaught exception BadM Figure 5.2: Using exceptions to catch error conditions in comb * Note that this situation violates the principle that a function invariably returns a value of its range type. However, exceptions are the only viola- tion of this principle in ML. The rest of the function, in lines (4) and (5), can assume the inputs satisfy 0 of The identifier is an exception constructor, essentially the name of an exception. When we raise the exception, it takes an argument of this type. Example 5.7: Let us define an exception constructor Foo that takes an argu- ment of type string. The declaration exception Foo of string; exception Foo of string When we raise exception Foo, it must take a string as argument. For instance, if a function contains the phrase raise Foo("bar") and this portion of the function is executed, we get from the ML runtime system the message uncaught exception Foo On the other hand, if we do not provide the string argument, just saying: raise Foo then we get an error message from the ML compiler when we try to compile the function containing this phrase. The message Error: argument of raise is not an exception [tycon mismatch] raised: string + ern in expression: raise Foo In its response, ML indicates that it does not even regard Foo by itself as an exception. In the second line of the response it notes that the type of Foo is string -> exn, that is, a function from strings to exceptions. O 5.2.3 Handling Exceptions Raising an uncaught exception always stops computation. We may prefer that when an exception is raised, there is an attempt to produce an appropriate value and continue the computation. We can use an expression of the form handle 5.2. EXCEPTIONS 137 to help in this process. Here, the expression E before the handle keyword is one in which we fear that one or more exceptions may be raised. The match takes exceptions as patterns and associates them with expressions of the same type as E. If E produces a value v and does not raise an exception, then the match is not applied to v, and v is the result of the handle expression. However, if E raises an exception, perhaps with arguments, then the match is applied. The first pattern that matches the exception causes its associated expression to be evaluated, and this value becomes the value of the handle expression. If none of the patterns match, then the exception is uncaught at this point. The exception may be handled by another, surrounding handle expression, or it may remain uncaught, percolate up to the top level, and stop the computation. Example 5.8: Let us reconsider the function comb of Fig. 5.2, where we at- tempted to compute (") and catch situations where n < 0,m <0, orm >n. In Fig. 5.2, our only response when we found an error in the arguments was to raise one of two exceptions BadN and Bad and cause computation to halt. ‘A better approach is to declare an exception OutOfRange, which takes a pair of integers as parameters. When we raise this exception, we let the function arguments n and m be the arguments of the exception as well. We can then handle the error as follows. For n = m = 0, we shall treat the value of (9) as 1. Otherwise, we print an error message telling the user what values n and m had when the error occurred. However, we let comb return the value 0 in the hope that it will be possible for computation to proceed.” Figure 5.3 shows the program. Line (1) declares the exception constructor OutOfRange and says that its argument type is int*int, that is, a pair of integers. Lines (2) through (6) define the function comb1, which is like comb in Fig. 5.2. However, lines (3) and (4) detect possible errors and raise the exception OutOfRange(n,m) so the arguments that caused the error will be transmitted with the exception when it is raised. In line (7) we define the function comb, which calls combi and then handles the exceptions that are raised by combi. Line (8) shows the first rule of the match, where both arguments are 0, and the result is 1. Lines (9) through (15) handle all other cases of the exception. We print the message “out of range” and the values of n and m as a side-effect. ‘The last expression, on line (15), is 0. Recall it is the value of the final expression in a list of expressions that is returned. Thus the value returned by comb is 0 in all exceptional cases besides m =n = 0. Line (16) shows a correct use of comb. Here, comb1 returns the value 6 and raises no exception. There is no exception to handle, so 6 is produced by comb, and ML tells us that 6 is the value of it. Line (17) shows an erroneous use of comb, where comb1 raises the exception OutOfRange(3,4) at line (4). This exception fails to match the pattern on 2We should be very sure that no unexpected errors will be introduced by the chosen value 0, or hard-to-diagnose bugs may result.138 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS (1) exception OutOfRange of int*int; exception OutOfRange of int * int (2) fun combi(n,m) = (3) if n <= 0 then raise OutQfRange(n,m) (4) else if m< 0 orelse m > n then raise OutOfRange(n,m) (5) else if m=0 orelse m=n then 1 ©) else combi(n-1,m) + combi(n-1,m-1); val combi = fn : int * int + int (7) fun comb(n,m) = combi(n,m) handle (e) OutOfRange(0,0) => 1 | (9) OutOfRange(n,m) => ( (10) print("out of range: n="); (1) print (Int. tostring(n)); (12) print(" (13) print (Int. toString(m)); (aa) print("\n"); (15) 0 ) val comb = fn: int * int + int (16) comb(4,2); val it = 6: int (17) comb(3,4); out of range: n=3 m=4 val it = 0: int (18) comb(0,0); val it = int Figure 5.3: Combinatorial function handled by an exception5.2. EXCEPTIONS 139 line (8), but matches the pattern of line (9), which gives n the value 3 and m the value 4. We see two lines of response. The first is the side-effect resulting from the sequence of print-expressions in lines (9) through (14). The second is the value of it, which is 0. This integer is the value returned by comb because 0 is the last expression on line (15). Finally, line (18) shows an erroneous situation where the pattern of line (8) is matched. The exception OutOfRange (0,0) is raised on line (3). It matches the pattern on line (8), and the value 1 is produced. Thus, 1 becomes the value of it in the ML response. There is no side-effect as there was when the pattern of line (9) was the correct match. 5.2.4 Exceptions as Elements of an Environment Let us trace the effect on the environment of the sequence of declarations in Fig. 5.2 where we declared BadN and BadM to be exceptions. These effects are shown in Fig. 5.4. Bach of the two exception declarations adds to the environment. We show identifiers BadN and BadM bound to unidentified values. That is, the associated values are internal symbols that are never seen by the user; only identifiers declared to be exceptions are printed when an exception is raised. n 2 Added in response to n 3 call to comb(5,2) definition of | Added in response to C5) comb J] | definition of comb wi Added in response to Beaty - exception BadM x Added in response to BadN = exception BadN Prior environment. Figure 5.4: Additions to environments for exceptions When we define the function comb, its binding is a further addition to the environment. Since the definitions of the two exceptions sit below it, comb has access to these exceptions for its own code, as suggested by the arrows in Fig. 5.4. We then show the further additions that occur when the call to comb(5,2) is made. It adds boxes for its parameters as usual; these boxes will disappear when the call returns.140 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS 5.2.5 Local Exceptions It is not necessary to declare exceptions outside a function. We can declare them inside the function, using a let expression, so we know they will make sense any time the function is used, regardless of whether or not the exceptions are declared outside the function. There is, however, a problem with locally defined exceptions. If we try to handle them, the function that does the handling will not be in the scope in which the exceptions were defined, and thus the match used by the handler will not recognize the local exceptions, even if it uses the same identifier in one of its patterns. The following example illustrates the problem. fun comb2(n,m) = let exception OutOfRange of int+int in if n <= 0 then raise Out0fRange(n,m) else if m<0 orelse mn then raise Out0fRange(n,m) else if m=0 orelse m=n then 1 else comb2(n-1,m) + comb2(n-1,m-1) end; fun comb(n,m) = comb2(n,m) handle OutOfRange(0,0) => 1 | OutOfRange(n,m) => ( print(“out of range: n= print (Int.toString(n)) print(" m="); print (Int.toString(m)); print ("\n"); 0 d; Error: nonconstructor applied to argument in pattern: OutofRange Figure 5.5: Function comb2 raises an exception that cannot be handled by comb Example 5.9: Suppose we try to write comb1 of Fig. 5.3, but with exception OutOfRange local to comb1. We would find that we cannot handle this exception in function comb when it is raised. Figure 5.5 illustrates this erroneous way to use exceptions. We have omitted the global definition of OutOfRange that appeared in line (1) of Fig. 5.3. In its place, function comb2, which replaces comb1 of Fig. 5.3, declares a local exception with name OutOfRange.5.2. EXCEPTIONS 141 OutOfRange - Added in response to nm value of m call to comb2 n value of n definition comb of comb Available definition before and comee of comb2 after call to comb2 Figure 5.6: Local exceptions cannot be used after their function returns Figure 5.6 suggests what would be the situation before, during, and after the call of comb2 by comb. Before the call, the definitions of comb and comb? are available. When comb2 is called, it creates new bindings for its parameters n and m and its local exception OutOfRange. These bindings are available during the execution of comb2, but when comb2 finishes, then the bindings for n, m, and OutOfRange go away and are not available to comb. In particular, when comb of Fig. 5.3 tries to handle exception OutOfRange, the identifier OutOfRange is not defined. In fact, the code of Fig. 5.5 is illegal. In response to the definition of comb we get from the ML compiler the error message: Error: non-constructor applied to argument in pattern: OutOfRange as seen in Fig. 5.5. 0 5.2.6 Exercises for Section 5.2 Exercise 5.2.1: Write a function to return the third element of a list. Define suitable exceptions to tell what is wrong in the cases that the response of the function is not defined. Raise the appropriate exception in response to erroneous inputs. Exercise 5.2.2: Write a factorial function that produces 1 when its argument is 0, produces 0 for a negative argument while printing an error message, and142 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS produces n! for a positive argument n. Organize your code so a function fact does the work of computing n! and raises an exception Negative(n) ifn is a negative integer. *! Exercise 5.2.3: In Fig. 4.10 we wrote a program to read nonnegative integers and signal the end of file with the integer —1. It is better to handle this signal with an exception. Modify Fig. 4.10 by declaring an exception Eof and raising it in function startInt when the end of file is found. Modify function sumInts1 to handle Eof. Other functions can ignore Eof, passing the problem to sumInts1. * Exercise 5.2.4: We can represent a matrix of reals by a list of lists. Each list on the “main” list represents one row of the matrix. It is possible to compute the determinant of a matrix by pivotal condensation, a technique where we recursively eliminate the first row and the first column.’ The method can be described as follows. BASIS: If there is one row and column, then return the one element. INDUCTION: If there are more than one row and column, i. Normalize the first row by dividing each element by the first element, say a, in the row. ii. For each element Mj; not in the first row or column, subtract from My the product of the first element in row i and the jth element in row 1. ‘These are the elements furthest above, and furthest to the left of Mi. iii. Recursively compute the determinant of the matrix formed by eliminating the first row and first column. The result is a times this determinant. Recall a is the constant from step (i) that was originally in the upper left corner of the matrix. Write a collection of functions that implement the pivotal condensation algo- rithm. Define suitable exceptions to catch errors, including 1. The case where a = 0 in step (i) and division by a would therefore yield infinity in step (ii), and 2. Cases where the matrix is not originally square. That is, there are not as many rows as columns, or there are unequal-length rows. Hint: It helps to take this one in easy stages. Start with a function that normalizes a row (list) by dividing each element by a given constant. Also, write a function to subtract a multiple of one row from another. Then, write 3 This method is not often preferred for computing determinants, since when followed blindly it can result in failure even in cases where the determinant is not zero (i.e., where the matrix is nonsingular). It can be improved by permuting the rows at each recursive step 50 the pivot (element in the upper left corner) has as large a magnitude as possible.5.3. POLYMORPHIC FUNCTIONS 143 a function that takes a list of rows and subtracts from the tail of each row the product of the head of the row and a given list. The latter is the heart of the pivotal condensation process. The given row is the normalized tail of the first row. When we multiply it (as a vector) by the head of a row and then subtract the result from the tail of the same row (again, thinking of lists as vectors), we are performing the basic operation required by the pivotal condensation algorithm. Exercise 5.2.5: Consider the following function: ) = Div Match; fun myFavoriteException("sall; | myFavoriteException("joe' * a) What is the type of this function? !b) Both myFavoriteException("joe") and myFavor iteException("zzz") seem to produce Match as the answer. What is the difference between the results of these two calls? 5.3 Polymorphic Functions We saw in previous chapters that sometimes a function requires arguments of a particular type. Other times, arguments are not restricted to a type, or they are partially restricted. For example, an argument might have type ’a list, meaning a list of any one type of clement is required. The ability of a function to allow arguments of different types is called polymorphism (“poly” = “many”; “morph” = “form”), and such a function is called polymorphic. In this section, we study what makes a function polymorphic, or conversely, what forces an argument to be restricted to a single type. Before proceeding, it is useful to remember some points about ML types. © MLis strongly typed, meaning it is possible to determine the type of any variable or the value returned by any function by examining the program, but without running the program. Put another way, an ML program for which it is not possible to determine the types of variables and function return-values is an incorrect program. © The algorithm whereby ML deduces the types of variables is complex and beyond the scope of this book. In practice, it is usually easy to see what ML is doing to discover types, as we discussed informally in Section 3.2.4. * Although we must be able to tell the types of all variables in a complete program, we can define functions whose types are partially or completely flexible; these are the polymorphic functions. Example 5.10: The extreme example of a polymorphic function is the identity function. which we can define by144 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS fun identity(x) = x; val identity = fn: ‘a 'a This function simply produces its argument as its own result, and the argument can be of any type whatsoever. ML observes that the type of the argument and the result are the same, and so designates the type of the identity function as Ja-> va. We can use the identity function with anything as an argument. For in- stance: identity(2) 5 val it = 2: int Here the type of the result is found to be an integer. We can even give the identity function a function as an argument; it will produce that function as result. identity (ord); val it = fn: char —> int Although ML does not tell us specifically what function is returned, the fact that the result is ord is suggested by the description of the type of the result, a function from characters to integers. We can even apply the function identity twice in the same expression, using it on values of different types, as long as no type error is thereby introduced. identity(2) + floor(identity(3.5)) val it = 2 int Here, identity has been applied to a value of type int and another value of type real in one expression. Example 5.11: Suppose we have defined the function identity, as above. Here is a new function f that is polymorphic to an extent: fun f(x) = if x<10 then identity else rev; val f = fn: int + 'a list + “a list Note that rev is the built-in list-reversal function provided by ML. It is essen- tially the function reverse from Fig. 3.26. Because rev requires an argument that is a list of some type, its type is ’a list -> ’a list. Since f, like all ML functions, must have a unique range type, the function identity within f must also be applied only to types of the form ’a list, even though identity could otherwise be applied to a more general type: ’a. 05.3. POLYMORPHIC FUNCTIONS 145 5.3.1 A Limitation on the Use of Polymorphic Functions A type variable, such as ’a actually has two meanings that differ subtly. 1. A type variable ’a can say “for every type T, there is an instance of this object with type T in place of *a.” Such a type variable is called generalizable. The primary example of such a use is in descriptions of the type of polymorphic functions. For instance, the type ’a->’a used to describe the type of the function identity in Example 5.10 represents such a type schema, where the function identity can be used with any type, even in the same expression, as we saw in that example. 2. A type variable ’a can represent any one type that we choose. However, once that type is selected, the type cannot change, even if we reuse the object whose type was described using the type variable ’a. A type variable of this kind is nongeneralizable. We shall defer an example of a nongeneralizable type variable to Example 5.16. Versions of ML prior to ML97 did not always distinguish between the two meanings for type variables, and often there is little harm in blending the two. However, because of certain technical problems that prevent compile-time de- termination of types, which we recall is an essential feature of ML, the ML97 specification requires that expressions at the top level (i.e., expressions that are not subexpressions of another expression) be such that the generalizable interpretation is appropriate. Moreover, ML97 is conservative about allowing the generalizable interpretation for type variables. As a result, only certain kinds of expressions at the top level can have types involving type variables. These expressions, called nonexpansive expressions, include function definitions as a common case. In general, we can build nonexpansive expressions by the following rules: 1. A constant or a variable is nonexpansive. 2. A function definition is nonexpansive. 3. A tuple (or more generally a record structure as described in Section 7.1) of nonexpansive expressions is nonexpansive. 4, A nonexpansive expression may be preceded by a “constructor” that is either an exception constructor or a data constructor belonging to a datatype. The latter constructors are covered Section 6.2, but we give a simple example of this form of nonexpansive expression in Example 5.14. In addition, we can attach types to nonexpansive expressions with a colon and a type expression, and we can use the keyword op where appropriate in nonexpansive expressions. Expressions that are not of these forms are expansive and not allowed to have type variables. The error message that we get when, at the top level, we146 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS write an expansive expression with a type variable, accuses that type variable of being “nongeneralizable,” i.e., of not having the first interpretation given at the beginning of this section. The matter of which expressions are permitted to have types with type variables and which are not is complex. However, a few examples should suffice to cover the cases that are likely to surface in practice. Example 5.12: If we apply a function to an argument, and the type of the result has type variables, then these type variables are nongeneralizable and the expression is illegal. A simple example is: identity (identity); Error: nongeneralizable type variable val it = "ZZ Here, ML has recognized that the result is a function whose domain and range types are arbitrary but the same (represented by °Z here). However, it does not accept the expression, because it is expansive and has a type variable. We can apply the identity to itself only if we provide a concrete type for the domain and range. For instance: identity(identity: int -> int); val it = fn: int -> int Now the resulting expression, which is the identity function on integers only, has a type with no type variables, so the fact that the expression is expansive becomes irrelevant. O Example 5.13: We can safely build tuples of nonexpansive expressions. For example: (identity, identity); val it = : (a + 'a) * (b> 'b) Here, we have constructed an expression consisting of a pair of identity func- tions. Notice that the type of the pair involves two distinet type variables ’a and "b, because each of the identity functions could apply to a different type. In contrast to tuple-formation, list formation is considered to build an ex- pansive expression. Thus, an expression like (identity, identity] is illegal inML. O Example 5.14: Another way to build nonexpansive expressions is with the data constructors that are associated with datatypes. We have not yet covered the subject of datatypes (see Section 6.2), but we have met one example of a datatype that ML provides for us in the top-level environment: the option. That is, the names SOME and NONE are actually treated by the ML system as data constructors of the datatype option. Thus, for example, the following expression is legal.5.3. POLYMORPHIC FUNCTIONS Mr When Does a Type Problem Arise? Remember that the problem leading to the “nongeneralizable type vari- able” error that we have been discussing in this section can arise only when all three of the following conditions are met. by an expression: 1. The expression is at the top level; that is, the expression is not a subexpression of some larger expression. 2. The type of the expression involves at least one type variable. 3. The form of the expression does not meet the conditions for it to be nonexpansive. If even one of these conditions is not met, we need not worry about the type of the expression. SOME identity; val it = SOME fn : (’a ~ ’a) option Here, we have applied the data constructor SOME to a nonexpansive expres- sion — the variable identity that represents the identity function. The re- sponse tells us that the result is an option of a function of the type of the identity function, ’a->’a. 0 Example 5.15: Next, let us observe that we can use expressions that would be illegal at the top level inside another expression, as long as the resulting expression is legal. Consider the expression of Fig. 5.7. let val x = identity(identity) in x(Q1) end; val it = 1; int Figure 5.7: A nongeneralizable type variable for a subexpression Here, we have defined x to be the identity applied to itself. We saw in Example 5.12 that such an expression is illegal at the top level. However, here identity (identity) is a subexpression, so we do not yet trigger the objection that there is a nongeneralizable type variable, even though the type variable ’a in the type ’a->’a for x is indeed nongeneralizable. Since the one type to148 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS which x applies is found in the expression x(1) to be int, ML finds no problem with the expression as a whole. In fact, the complete expression of Fig. 5.7 has no type variables in its type, so the issue of nongeneralizable type variables does not come up. O let val x = identity(identity) in (x(Q), x(a") end; Error: operator and operand don't agree [literal] operator domain: int operand: string in expression ("a") Figure 5.8: Trying to reuse a nongeneralizable type variable Example 5.16: The variable x in Fig. 5.7 is nongeneralizable. That is, the interpretation of its type variable is that one and only one type may ever be substituted for that variable. We can see in Fig. 5.8 the effect of the nongener- alizability of the type of x. There, we try to use x twice to stand for the identity applied to different types. That is, the variable ’a in the type ?a->’a of x is, bound to int when ML encounters the expression x(1). When x is next applied to the argument "a" it is too late to change the value of ’a, so we are trying to apply the identity function on integers to a string and get the error message shown in Fig. 5.8. To further emphasize the difference between generalizable and nongeneral- izable type variables, consider that the following expression: (Cidentity(1), identity("a")); val it = (1,"a”) : int * string is legal. The difference between this expression and the almost-identical Fig. 5.8 is that when we defined x in Fig. 5.8, even though the value of x is the identity function, ML converted the interpretation of the type variable in x’s type from generalizable to nongeneralizable. True, the system might have realized that x was just the identity function, and allowed it to retain the generalizable inter- pretation for its type variable. However, as we mentioned at the beginning of this section, ML must be conservative about using the generalizable interpreta- tion, or it will be impossible for the system to guarantee correct compile-time type checking. O5.3. POLYMORPHIC FUNCTIONS M9 5.3.2 Operators that Restrict Polymorphism Most of the operators that we have met prevent polymorphism in functions where they are used. These “polymorphism-destroying” operators inclu 1. Arithmetic operators: +, -, #, and ~. 2. Division-related operators such as /, div, and mod. 3. The inequality comparison operators: <, <=, >=, and >. Note we exclude = (equal-to) and <> (not-equal-to) from this group. They behave differently from the inequality comparisons as far as polymorphism is concerned. We shall discuss this matter in Section 5.3.4. 4. The boolean connectives: andalso, orelse, and not. 5. The string concatenation operator: * 6. Type conversion operators such as ord, chr, real, str, floor, ceiling, round, and truncate. All but groups (1) and (3) force their argument(s) and result to be of one specific type. Groups (1) and (3) include operators that apply to several dif- ferent types, but ML requires that the type be known from inspection of the program. Thus, operators in groups (1) and (3) not only restrict their argu- ments and results to one type, they frequently require us to indicate with a colon what that type is. 5.3.3 Operators that Allow Polymorphism We have seen several operators that allow polymorphism, although they some- what restrict the types of their results and/or arguments. ‘Three classes of operators in this category are: 1. Tuple operators, such as the tuple-forming operator, consisting of paren- theses and commas, as (,,...,). Also in this group are the component- reading operators, #1, #2, and so on. 2. The list operators ::, @, hd, and t1, the list constant nil, and brackets used as the list-former [:- -]. 3. The equality operators = and <>. When we apply a tuple constructor, we get a tuple type of some sort. When we apply a list-building operator, we are restricted to create a list type of some sort. When we apply an equality operator, we restrict the arguments to be of the same “equality type,” a concept we shall discuss shortly, in Section 5.3.4. However, there are no other constraints forced on the types of operands or results.150 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS Let us consider why list operators do not prohibit polymorphism. A similar explanation applies to the tuple-forming operators. First, consider an expres- sion like x +y. ML implements the addition operator by computing a new value, the sum of z and y. To compute the sum, ML needs to know whether to add integers or reals. In contrast consider the cons operator :: . ML represents lists internally in the conventional, linked-list fashion that we discussed in Section 3.5.2. Cells consisting of a pair of pointers, the first to an element and the second to the next cell, represent the list. To apply the cons operator, the ML runtime system creates a new cell, puts a pointer to the head in the first field of the cell, and puts a pointer to the tail in the second field of the cell. Notice that with this scheme, the operation is performed in exactly the same way regardless of the types of the head and tail. Of course, ML requires that it be able to deduce the types of head and tail before running the program and requires that they be compatible types (i.e, if the head is of type T, then the tail is of type T list). 5.3.4 The Equality Operators Now let us look at the equality operators = and <>. ML defines a class of types called equality types, which are those that allow equality to be tested among values of that type. Most basic types — integer, boolean, character, and string — are equality types.' Two ways to form more equality types are: 1. Forming products of equality types (for tuples). 2. Forming a list whose elements are of an equality type. Note that rules (1) and (2) can be applied recursively. So, for example, int * int isan equality type, (int * int) list is an equality type, int list + string is an equality type, and so on. We shall also see user-defined datatypes in Section 6.2, and some of these new types will be equality types as well. Example 5.17: Let us define two variables to be pairs of integers. val x = (1,2); val x = (1,2) : int * int val y = (2,3); val y = (2,3) : int * int ‘Remember, however, that the reals are not an equality type, for reasons we discussed in Section 2.1.45.3. POLYMORPHIC FUNCTIONS a ‘Then we can compare these values, for instance: xey; val it = false : bool x = (1,2); val it = true : bool Similarly, we could define and compare lists, as: val L = [1,2,3]; val L = [1,2,3) : int list val M = [2,3]; Then we can compare as follows: LOM val it = true : bool M; val it = true : bool Notice in the last example that ML evaluates expressions before testing for equality, so it discovers that the expression 1::M denotes the same list as is denoted by the variable L. 0 On the other hand, functions cannot be compared for equality even though we might think that two functions should be equal if they do exactly the same thing on all inputs. Any type involving a function is not an equality type. Example 5.18: Suppose we write an expression such as identity = identity; where identity is the function defined in Example 5.10. Then we get the error message shown in Fig. 5.9. Line (1) of Fig. 5.9 says that the type of the operator (the = sign) does not agree with the type of its operand (the pair of identity functions). The problem is that equality or inequality can only be tested among pairs of the same equality type, and no function type is an equality type. Thus, even though the two uses of identity as a function name obviously denote the same function, the comparison is not legal in ML. Line (2) further explains that the operator = requires arguments of the same equality type, here denoted by ?Z.152 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS (1) Error: operator and operand don’t agree [equality type required] (2) operator domain: "2 * "Z (3) operand: (’Y + 'Y) * (X + ’X) (4) _ in expression: (5) = (identity, identity) Figure 5.9: Functions cannot be compared for equality Remember that type variables whose values are restricted to be an equal- type are distinguished by having names that begin with two quote marks rather than only one. Line (3) points out that the actual pair of arguments given is two polymorphic functions. One function is from some type ’X to the same type, and the second is from some type ’Y to that same type. « Note that there is no reason to believe that ’X and ’Y are the same type. As with polymorphic functions in general, two uses of the identity function need not apply to the same type. Finally, lines (4) and (5) indicate that the error was in the expression identity = identity However, it gives the operator and operands in prefix form, where the operator is applied in the same way a function is applied to its argument. 0 Example 5.19: To explore further the effect of an = or <> comparison on the set of permissible types, let us reconsider the two versions of the function reverse that we developed in Examples 3.8 and 3.15. These are repeated in Fig. 5.10(a) and (b), as functions revi and rev2, respectively. However, here we have used the correct type variable name ?*a (with two quotes) that ML uses to describe the type of the function in Fig. 5.10(a). This type name tells us that any type can be used, provided it is an equality type. In Fig. 5.10(b), we see the ML response telling us that the function rev2 can take an argument of any type whatsoever, regardless of whether it is an equality type. If we give each of these programs a list whose elements are from one equality type, both functions produce the same answer. The difference shows up, however, if we apply each function to a list whose elements are chosen from one non-equality type. For instance, consider a function call of the form reverse([floor, trunc, ceil]); where reverse can be either revi or rev2. Each of the elements on the list are functions from reals to integers that. we discussed in Section 2.2.2. Thus, the type of elements on the list is5.3. POLYMORPHIC FUNCTIONS 153 (1) fun revi(L) = (2) if L = nil then nil (3) else revi(t1(L)) @ [ha(L)]; val revt = fn: "a list + "a list (a) Reversal using an equality comparison (4) fun rev2(nil) = nil (8) | rev2(x::xs) = rev2(xs) @ [x] val rev2 = fn: ‘a list + 'a list (b) Reversal without using an equality comparison Figure 5.10: Two functions for reversing a list fn: real -> int If we use rev2, the function of Fig. 5.10(b), then the list will be reversed normally, which yields the list [ceil, trunc, floor]. The ML response is: rev2([floor, trunc, ceil]); val it = [fn,fn,fn] : (real —> int) list That is, ML tells us that the result is a list of three functions, each from reals to integers. (1) Error: operator and operand don’t agree [equality type required] (2) operator domain: "Z list (3) operand: (real —> int) list (4) in expression: (5) revt floor :: trune :: ceil: nil Figure 5.11: Error response when list reversal requires an equality type However, if we use revi, the function of Fig. 5.10(a), then we get the error message in Fig. 5.11. This message is similar to that in Fig. 5.9. Line (2) refers to the operator revi, which takes as an argument a ’7Z List, that is, a list whose elements are from any one equality type. Line (3) says that the argument actually found, which is [floor, trunc, cei], is a list of functions from reals to integers. This type, being a function type, is not an equality type and therefore is not suitable as the type ’’Z. Lines (4) and (5) indicate the154 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS offending expression. Note that lists are represented by :: and nil rather than by square brackets. We may well wonder why the function revi of Fig. 5.10(a) requires an equality type. The reason is found in line (2), where the comparison L=nil occurs. If list L is to be tested for equality to something, then surely L must be of an equality type, which means its elements must be chosen from an equality type. Pin contrast, ine (4) in Fig. 5.10(b) makes essentially the same test by match- ing L to the pattern nil. Recalling the discussion in Section 3.3.5 about how ML matches patterns, we see that here we are not testing for equality of L to nil. Rather, we are matching the expression tree for the value that L cur- rently has, to the one-node tree for the expression nil. ML can match trees without testing for equality of anything except constants of the basic types and identifiers. You may think that there is something wrong with this analysis and observe that in line (2) of Fig. 5.10(a) we don’t really need to test equality of elements to compare a list L with nil. That is quite true, although if we had replaced the test of line (2) by a test for equality to a list other than nil, for instance L=[1,2], then L would surely have to be of an equality type. The designers of ML have chosen to infer that an equality type is needed by the presence of an operator = or <>, and they have chosen not to consider equality to nil as a special case. You may regard that choice as either “a bug or a feature” of ML, as you wish. ML has a built-in function nul that tests whether a list is empty without requiring that list to be of an equality type. We could write line (2) of Fig. 5.10(a) as (2) if null(L) then nil and then the function revi of Fig. 5.10(a) would not require an equality type. Its type would be ’a list -> ’a list, just like Fig. 5.10(b). 5.3.5 Exercises for Section 5.3 Exercise 5.3.1: Let revi be the function of Fig. 5.10(a) and rev2 the function of Fig. 5.10(b). What is the result of the following calls? *a) revi([(revi: int list -> int list), revi]) b) rev2([(revi: int list -> int list), revi]) ©) revi ((revi,revi]) * d) rev2([rev2,rev2]) e) revi((chr,chr])5.3. POLYMORPHIC FUNCTIONS aoe * f) rev2([chr,chr]) g) revi([chr,ord]) h) rev2(Cchr, ord] ) Exercise 5.3.2: We can restrict polymorphic types (type expressions with variables) by: (i) equating type variables, (ii) replacing a type variable by a constant type, or (iii) replacing a type variable by a nonconstant expression. Give an example of each kind of restriction for the following type expressions. a) as bint b) Ca list) * (’b list) ! Exercise 5.3.3: Suppose f(:r,y,z) is a function. Give an example of a defi- nition of f that would cause the argument of f to have each of the following types. *a) aed * Ca -> 1d) b) ae a int *c) ta list * ’b © ?a d) Ca * ’b) * ’a list * ’b list Exercise 5.3.4: Tell whether or not each of the following types is an equality type. *a) int * string list b) (int -> char) * string *c) int -> string -> unit *d) real * (string * string) list Exercise 5.3.5: Let L have the value [(1,2), (3,4)], let M have the value (1,2), and let N have the value (3,4). Which of the following equality tests have the value true? * a) L = M:N) = Le(N] * c) ((1,2)]@(N] = Leni2 b) M: d) Ni:L = (3,4):: sil156 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS fun f(nil) = nil 1 £¢0)) = Cx) 1 fxrsy::zs) = [x,y]; fun g(x,y) = (£(x), £(y))5 fun h(x,y) = let val v = f(nil) in (x:: » yitv) end; Figure 5.12: Functions for Exercise 5.3.7 * Exercise 5.3.6: If the ML runtime system applies the cons operator without looking at the elements of the list, how can it be sure the types of the head and tail are compatible? ! Exercise 5.3.7: In Fig. 5.12 are three functions, f, g, and h. Function f takes any list and returns the list with the third and subsequent elements, if they exist, deleted. Function g applies f to a pair of arguments and returns the pair of results, Function h computes a local value v by applying f to nil (which returns an empty list) and then conses the two arguments of h to v. For each of the expressions below, indicate whether it is legal, and if not, what is the error? * a) g((1,2,3), ["a"]) *b) g([1,2,3], nil). ©) g(lt.4], (1). 4) (C11, (1.01). *e) a(t, 2). f) h(t, "a"). *g) h(nil, nil). h) R((1], nil). 5.4 Higher-Order Functions A typical function has parameters that represent “data.” That is, the param- eters are of some basic type like real, or they are lists or tuples of basic types, lists or tuples of those, and so on. However, it is also possible for parameters or results of functions to have function tvpes. In Section 5.3. we met. some5.4. HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS wr functions that can take arguments of other types, including function types. Ex- amples are the identity function, which can take an argument of anv type, or rev2 of Fig. 5.10(b), which is able to reverse a list of functions. Functions that take functions as arguments and/or produce functions as values are called higher-order functions. ML makes it easy to define higher- order functions. In contrast, the mechanisms in conventional languages for defining and using higher-order functions tend to be cumbersome, and there may be some limitations on the power of these mechanisms. For example, it may not be possible to define a function like identity that works on values of any type whatsoever. Example 5.20: Let us consider a higher-order function that is often used as an example for conventional programming languages: numerical integration by the trapezoidal rule. The idea is to compute the (approximate) integral of some function f(z) between limits a and 6 — that is, [? f(x)de — by dividing the line from a to b into n equal parts for some n. We then approximate the integral as the sum of the areas of the n trapezoids that are suggested by Fig. 5.13 for the case n= 3. Figure 5.13: Integration by the trapezoidal rule In more detail, let 6 = (b—a)/n. Then the ith trapezoid has width 5 and runs from a+ (i —1)6 to a+i6. The area of the ith trapezoid is 6 times the average of the two vertical sides, that is: 5(s(a+ (i= 1)6) + F(a+i8))/2 Figure 5.14 shows the function trap(a,b,n,F) that takes two real numbers, the limits a and b, an integer n (the number of trapezoids to use), and a function F to be integrated. As we cannot easily iterate from 1 to n and thereby sum the areas of all the trapezoids, our ML function will use an equivalent recursive strategy. The function trap computes the arca of the first trapezoid only. Tt158 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS The Order of a Function Technically, the order of a function is defined by the following induetion. BASIS: A function is “first-order” if its arguments and result are all “data,” that is, not functions. INDUCTION: A function is of order one more than the largest of the orders of its arguments and result. Note that there are some functions, like the identity function, that do not get an order by this induction, and are therefore of “infinite order.” then computes a new lower limit that is one trapezoid’s width to the right of the old lower limit a, and decreases n by 1. A recursive call with the new values of a and n sums the areas of the remaining trapezoids. fun trap(a,b,n,F) = qa) if n<=0 orelse b-a<=0.0 then 0.0 else let (2) val delta = (b-a)/real(n) in (3) delta (F(a)+F(atdelta))/2.0 + @) trap(a+delta,b,n-1,F) end; val trap = fn: real * real * int * (real + real) -+ real Figure 5.14: Function implementing the trapezoidal rule In line (1) of Fig. 5.14 we test for the basis case, where n = 0 and b = a. Then the value of the integral is 0. However, at the same time we handle data errors, where n or 6 — a is negative, or where one of n and b— a but not the other is 0. These errors can only occur on the initial call to trap, and we really should catch them with exceptions, rather than by returning 0 as we do. If we are not at the basis case, then in line (2) we compute the local variable delta to be 1/nth of the width of the range of integration; that is, delta is the width of each trapezoid.® Lines (3) and (4) evaluate the integral. In line (3) we compute the area of the first trapezoid, multiplying delta by the sum of the heights of the sides — F(a) and F(atdelta) — and then dividing by 2. 5The value of deita should be the same at each call to trap, and we leave it as an exercise to rewrite the function so it evaluates delta only once. However, reevaluating delta for each trapezoid does have the advantage of preventing the accumulation of roundoff errors in situations where the value of delta cannot be represented precisely in the computer.5.4. HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS 159 Simulating Iterations by Recursions The reader should examine the “trick” of Fig. 5.14 carefully, because it is a common way to convert from a loop in an iterative language to a recursive function in a functional language. The general idea is to write a function that, as a basis case, tests if the loop is done. For the induction it does one iteration of the loop and then calls itself recursively to do whatever iterations of the loop remain. The arguments of the function are the loop index and any other variables that are needed in the loop. The hard part in designing the function often is deciding how to express the result of the loop as a value to be returned by the function. Line (4) adds to this area the result of the recursive call on the range that excludes the first trapezoid. Note the type of the function trap as described in the ML response. It is a function that takes a 4-tuple for an argument; the four components (a, b, n, and F) are respectively of types real, real, int, and real -> real. The result of the function trap is a real. ‘As an example of a use of the function trap, let us define a suitable function F, such as fun square(x:real) = x#x; val square = fn : real + real Then, we can call, for instance, trap(0.0, 1.0, 8, square); val it = 3359375 : real This call asks for the integral } 22dz, whose exact value is 1/3. We divide the range into 8 parts, and the result is high by less than 1%. 5.4.1 Some Common Higher-Order Functions We shall now introduce three useful higher-order functions. The first two are actually present as ML built-in functions, although they appear in a form some- what different from the form we use here. 1. The map function takes a function F and a list [a,,a2,..-,dn), and pro- duces the list [F(a1), F(a2),---»F(an)]- That is, it applies F to each clement of the list and returns the list of resulting values. This function is known to Lisp users as mapcar. Since there is in ML a function map that is similar in spirit but different in type, we shall use simpleMap for our initial version of map. In Section 5.6.3 we cover the ML version of map.160 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS 2. The reduce function takes a function F with two arguments and a list [a1,a2,...,a,]. The function F normally is assumed to compute some associative operation such as addition, that is, F(r,y) = x+y. The result of reduce on F and [a1,02,... dn] is F(a, F(a2, F(-++, F(@n-1,4n) ***))) ‘Thinking of F as an associative binary infix operator, we have the simpler expression a; Fa2F --- Fan. For example, if F is the sum function, then reduce(F, (a1,@2,...,@n}) is a, + @2 +--+ +n, the sum of the elements on the list. ML has two functions foldl and foldr (fold from the left or right) that are similar in spirit to the function reduce that we shall design. The latter functions are covered in Section 5.6.4. 3. The function filter takes a predicate P, that is, a function whose value is boolean, and a list a1,a2,...,4]. The result is the list of all those elements on the given list that satisfy the predicate P. 5.4.2 A Simple Map Function We can define a simple version of the map function as follows. fun simpleMap(F,nil) = nil | simpleMap(F,x::xs) = F(x)::simpleMap(F,xs) val map = fn: ('a-+ 'b) * 'a list + % list In the first line we sce that if the list is empty, then there are no elements to apply the function F to, so simpleMap returns the empty list. The second line covers the inductive case, where we apply F to the head of the list and then recursively apply simpleMap to the same function F and the tail of the list. The result is assembled by taking F(z), that is, F applied to the head element, and following it by the result of applying F to all the other elements of the list. Notice the type of simpleMap. It has two parameters, the first of which is a function F from some type ’a to a possibly different type ’b. The second parameter is a list of elements of the type ’a, which is the type F expects for its argument. The result of simpleMap is of type ’b list, that is, a list of elements of the range type of function F. We see that simpleMap is as polymorphic as it can be; it only requires that the list elements be of the type that the function F expects. Example 5.21: Let us define the function square to produce the square of a real, as fun square(x:real) = x*x; val square = fn : real + real5.4. HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS 161 ‘Then we may apply square to each element of a list of reals by using simpleMap as follows. simpleMap(square, [1.0, 2.0, 3.01); al it = [1.0,4.0,9.0] : real list That is, simpleMap applies square to each of 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 in turn and produces the list of their squares. O Example 5.22: The function to which simpleMap is applied need not be some- thing we write; it could be a suitable built-in function. For instance, ~, the unary minus operator, has the form we expect for a function used as an argument of simpleMap. We can write simpleMap(~, [1,2,3]); val it = [°1,~2,-3) : int list This application of simpleMap has negated each element of the given list. O If we want to apply simpleMap to a function that we must define, we need not write the definition of that function separately and give it a name as we did for square in Example 5.21. Just as we may write the value of an integer, say 23, without giving it a name, we may express the value of a function anonymously. We saw how to do so in Section 5.1.2. We write the function as the keyword fn (not to be confused with fun) followed by a match. Recall that a match is written as one or more groups consisting of a pattern, the symbol => (not to be confused with ->), and an expression that is the value of the function for inputs that match the pattern. If there is more than one group, the groups are separated by vertical bars. Example 5.23: We can apply square to each member of a real list without actually defining square to be the name of the function, as follows. simpleMap(fn x => x#x, [1.0, 2.0, 3.0]); val it = [1.0,4.0,9.0] : real list This anonymous function uses only one pattern, x, and the result of the function for this pattern is 2°. Notice that in the definition of the squaring function as a value, fn x => xex we did not have to declare x to be real. ML was able to figure out that * repre- sents real multiplication from the fact that the second parameter of simpleMap is a real list.162 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS 5.4.3 The Function reduce Another useful higher-order function is one we shall call reduce. It is related to, but different from, functions fold1 and foldr in the ML top-level environment; we discuss the latter functions in Section 5.6.4. Our function reduce takes a function F of two arguments and a nonempty list (a1, @2,...,@n]. A recursive definition of the result of reducing the list by function F is: BASIS: If n = 1, that is, the list is a single element a, then the result is a. INDUCTION: If n > 1, then let 6 be the result of reducing the tail of the list, which is [a2,a3,..-,@n], by function F. Then the reduction of the whole list [ai,a2,...,an] by F is F(a1,b). Example 5.24: Usually the function F defines an associative operator, in which case it does not matter in what order we group the list elements. For instance: 1. The reduction of a list with F equal to the addition function produces the sum of the elements of the list. 2. The reduction by the product function produces the product of the ele- ments of the list. 3. The reduction by the logical AND operator produces the value true if all the elements of a boolean list are true and produces false otherwise. 4. The reduction by the function max (larger of two elements) produces the largest element on the list. exception EmptyList; exception EmptyList (1) fun reduce(F,nil) = raise EmptyList (2) | reduce(F,{a]) = a (3) | reduce(F,x::xs) = F(x, reduce(F,xs)); val reduce = fn: ('a * ’a—> 'a) * ‘alist + “a Figure 5.15: The function reduce An implementation of the function reduce is shown in Fig. 5.15. Since reduce does not make sense on the empty list, we create an exception EmptyList and raise it at line (1) if the second argument of reduce is nil. Next, line (2) says that if the list has a single element a, then that element is the value of reduce regardless of the function used.5.4. HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS 163 ‘© By intercepting lists of length 1 at line (2), we avoid ever calling reduce recursively on an empty list, which would cause an error. Finally, line (3) implements the inductive step. We reduce the tail of the given list, using the function F, and then apply F to the head and the result of this reduction. Notice the type of reduce. It is a function that takes as first parameter a function F, both of whose parameters are of the same type a and whose result is also of this type. The second parameter of reduce is a list of elements of type ’a, and the result of reduce is also of type a. ‘These equalities of type are inferred by ML as follows. F is used with the result of reduce as its second argument in line (3), so the result of reduce and the second parameter of F must be of the same type, say ’a. In line (2) we see that the elements of the list can be the result of reduce, which says that the element type is also ’a. We see in line (3) that elements of the list can also be the first argument of F, which tells us that the first parameter of F is also of type ’a. Finally, from line (3) we see that the result types of reduce and F are the same, so F produces a value of type ’a as well. Example 5.25: This example illustrates the use of function reduce. It also uses simpleMap and in general illustrates how one can program using higher- order functions effectively. The variance of a list of reals [a1,a2,...,an] is the average of the squares minus the square of the average. More precisely, one formula for the variance is n n 2 (Ya)/m- (Lan) (41) ist t= The variance is a measure of the amount by which the elements of a list differ from their average value. In fact, an equivalent formula for the variance is the average of the squares of the differences between each clement and the average element. In other words, the variance may also be written (S7jL, (ai — @)?)/n, where @ is the average element, or @= (S77 ai)/n. The square root of the variance, called the standard deviation, represents the amount by which a typical element differs from the average. For example, if all the elements are the same then the variance and standard deviation are 0. If half the elements are 10.0 while the other half are 20.0, then each element differs from the average (15.0) by 5.0, so the variance is 25.0 and the standard deviation is 5.0. We can evaluate Formula (5.1) for the variance using the higher-order func- tions simpleMap and reduce as follows. Suppose we have function square to take the square of a real and function plus to sum two reals. We can obtain the sum of the squares of the elements of a list L by the expression reduce(plus, simpleMap(square,L)). That is, simpleMap(square,L) pro- duces the list of squares, and reduce with first argument plus sums these164 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS squares. We divide this result by n, the length of the list L, to get the average square. Then we can get the average by reduce (plus,L)/n, and we can apply square to get the square of the average. The necessary functions, assuming that reduce and simpleMap are as previously defined, are shown in Fig. 5.16. (1) fun square(x:real) = x*x; val square = fn : real -> real (2) fun plus(x:real,y) = x+y; val plus = fn : real * real + real fun variance(L) = let 3) val n = real(length(L)) in a) reduce(plus,simpleMap(square,L))/n - 6) square(reduce(plus,L) /n) end; variance = fn : real list + real (6) variance([1.0, 2.0, 5.0, 8.0]); val it = 7.5 : real Figure 5.16: Computing the variance using higher-order functions In lines (1) and (2) of Fig. 5.16 we define the functions square and plus. Then we see the definition of function variance. At line (3) it computes n, the list length, which is a common subexpression, as a real number. Recall that ML provides a built-in function Length at the top level, to compute the length of a list (as an integer), as well as a function real to convert an integer to an equivalent real number. Lines (4) and (5) are Formula (5.1) Finally, in line (6) we see a use of the function variance on the list of elements (1,2,5,8]- Here, n = 4. The sum of the squares is 1+4+25+64 = 94, so the average square is 94/4 = 23.5. The average element is 4, so the square of the average is 16. Since 23.5 — 11 7.5, the variance is 7.5, as we see in the ML response. Another way to compute the variance is to take the average of the squares of the differences between the elements and the average. In this case, we would average (1—4)?, (2—4)?, (5-4), and (8—4)?, or (9+4+4+1416)/4=7.5. 05.4. HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS 165, 5.4.4 Converting Infix Operators to Function Names We might expect that we could use the operator + in place of the function plus of Example 5.25. For example, can we write reduce(+,L) in line (5) of Fig. 5.16. Should we do so, we get the error message: Error: expression or pattern begins with infix identifier: +” The problem is that ML, like most languages, defines the usual arithmetic operators to be infix. That is, they appear between their operands. However, the function F in the definition of reduce is expected, as are all functions, to precede its operands To allow an infix operator to be used as the name of a function, we precede it by the keyword op. For example, we may write op + (2,3); val it = 5: int In effect, op + is the same function as the function plus defined in Fig. 5.16, except that the latter is restricted to reals and the former needs to have its parameter type determined. As another example, line (5) of Fig. 5.16 can be written square(reduce(op +, L)/n) with no change in the behavior of the program. 5.4.5 The Function Filter Another useful higher-order function is £ilter, which appears in Fig. 5.17. This function takes a predicate P and a list L, and produces the list of elements of L that satisfy the predicate P. In line (1) we see the basis case: if the list L is empty then filter produces the empty list regardless of P. Lines (2) through (4) cover the inductive case. We test at line (3) whether P(c) is true for the head element z of the list L. If so, the resulting list is x followed by whatever we get by filtering the tail of the list with predicate P. On line (4) we see that if P(z) is false then z is not selected and the result is whatever we get by filtering the tail. Notice the type of filter. It has two parameters, the first of which is a function of type ’a -> bool. This type indicates that the argument corre- sponding to the first parameter of filter can be a predicate with any domain type. The second argument is a list of elements of the type ’a to which the predicate applies. The result of filter is another list of elements of this type. In line (5) of Fig. 5.17 we see an example of the use of filter. The first argument is a description of the boolean-valued function that is true when its argument is greater than 10. We use the keyword fn and a one-pattern match to describe this function. The second argument is a list of integers, and the result is those integers greater than 10, in the order of their occurrence on the ict166 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS (1) fun filter(P,nil) = nil (2) | filter(P,x::xs) = 3) if P(x) then x::filter(P,xs) «@) else filter(P,xs); val filter = fr: ('a > bool) * 'a list + a list (5) filter(én(x) => x>10, [1,10,23,5,16]); val it = [23,16] : int list Figure 5.17: The function filter 5.4.6 Exercises for Section 5.4 * Exercise 5.4.1: Write a function tabulate that takes as arguments an initial value a, an increment 6, a number of points n, and a function F from reals to reals. Print a table with columns corresponding to values x and F(z), where r=a,at+d,a+2%,...,a+(n—1)6. Exercise 5.4.2: Simpson’s rule is a more accurate way to integrate functions numerically. If we evaluate a function F at 2n +1 evenly spaced points, a,a+d,a+26,...,a+ 2nd then we may estimate the integral f°*?"* F(«)de by 5( F(a) + 4F(a +6) + 2F(a + 25) + 4F(a-+ 36) + 2F(a+ 45) +--- +2F (a+ (2n ~ 2)6) + 4F(a+ (2 ~ 16) + F(a + 2nd) /3 That is, the even-position terms all have a coefficient of 4, while the odd position terms have coefficient 2, except for the first and last, which have coefficient 1. Write a function simpson that takes starting and ending points a and 6, an integer n (such that the evaluation is to use 2n + 1 points as above), and a function F to integrate by Simpson's rule. ‘Try out your function on polynomials *, 2°, and so on. What is the smallest integer i such that Simpson's rule fails to get the exact integral of z‘ with a = 0.0, b = 1.0, and n = 1? Exercise 5.4.3: When implementing either the trapezoidal rule or Simpson's rule, it is possible to compute d once and for all, rather than at each recursive call (although as explained in the text, this strategy may cause roundoff errors to accumulate). Reimplement * a) The function trap of Fig. 5.145.4, HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS 167 b) Your function simpson from Exercise 5.4.2. in such a way that 6 is computed once Exercise 5.4.4: Improve the function trap of Fig. 5.14 by printing an appro- priate error message and then raising an exception when the input is bad (as detected by line (1) of Fig. 5.14). Exercise 5.4.5: Use the function simpleMap(F,L) to perform the following operations on a list L. * a) Replace every negative element of a list of reals by 0, leaving nonnegative elements as they are. b) Add 1 to every element of an integer list. * c) Change every lower-case letter in a list of characters to the corresponding upper-case letter. Do not assume that only lower-case letters appear in the list. 1d) Truncate each string in a list of strings so it is no more than 5 characters long. That is, delete the sixth and subsequent characters while leaving shorter strings alone. Exercise 5.4.6: Use the function reduce to perform the following operations on a list L. * a) Find the maximum of a list of reals. b) Find the minimum of a list of reals * c) Concatenate a list of characters (je., the function implode). d) Find the logical OR of a list of booleans. Exercise 5.4.7: Use the function filter to perform the following operations on a list L. * a) Find those elements of a list of reals that are greater than 0. b) Find those elements of a list of reals that are between 1 and 2. *1 c) Find those elements of a list of strings that begin with the character #" ! d) Find those elements of a list of strings that are at most 3 characters long. ! Exercise 5.4.8: What is the effect on a list L of reduce(op -, L)? *! Exercise 5.4.9: Write a function Lreduce that takes a two-parameter function F and a list [a1,a2,---,@n] and produces168 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS F(-- F(F(a14@2), 49) +n) ‘That is, this function is like reduce, but it groups the elements of the list from the beginning of the list instead of the end. Exercise 5.4.10: What is the effect of lreduce(op -, L)? * Exercise 5.4.11: Another version of reduce takes a basis constant g of some type ’b, a function F of type ’a * ’b -> ’b, anda list of elements of type *a. The result applied to a list [a1,a2,.-.,4n] is F(a1-++F(an-1, F(an9)) “*) Write a function reduceB that performs this operation. * Exercise 5.4.12: Use the function reduceB from Exercise 5.4.11 to 1a) Compute the length of a list. 11 b) Compute the list of suffixes of a list. For example, given the list (1,2,3], produce ([1,2,3], [2,3], [3], nil]. *! Exercise 5.4.13: Another use of polymorphic functions is to allow late binding of overloaded symbols such as + or *. That is, instead of using these symbols in a function f, we invent names for them such as plus and times, and we let these names be parameters of the function f. Then, we can call f with appropriate definitions for the parameters, thus binding the names to the correct meanings as late as possible. As an exercise: a) Write a function eval that takes as parameters functions representing scalar addition and multiplication, as well as taking a polynomial (rep- resented as a list in the manner of Section 3.6) and a value at which to evaluate the polynomial. b) Show how to call your function from (a) to evaluate the integer polynomial 4a + 32? + 22 + 1 at the point x = 5. 5.5 Curried Functions Until now, we have considered only functions that have a single parameter, although that parameter often is a tuple written with parentheses and commas. Thus, we have written many ML functions that looked like multiparameter functions of languages like C or Pascal. Technically, these ML functions really have a single parameter, of a product type, but in practice there is little harm in pretending they are ordinary multiparameter functions. However, ML provides a more general way to connect a function name to its parameters or arguments. It is sometimes useful to express multiparameter5.5. CURRIED FUNCTIONS 169 functions in Curried form,® where the function name is followed by the list of its parameters, with no parentheses or commas. The following example illustrates the difference between the Curried and uncurried form of functions. We shall be introduced to the important advantage of the Curried form when we discuss partially instantiated functions in Section 5.5.1 Example 5.26: Let us write a two-parameter function that computes x¥. In lines (1) and (2) of Fig. 5.18 we see such a function exponent1 in the style we have been using. This function takes a parameter that is a pair consisting of a real z and an integer y, and returns 2. It is not carefully designed because it loops forever on a negative integer y. (1) fun exponenti(x,0) = 1.0 (2) | exponenti(x,y) = x * exponent1(x,y-1)5 val exponent! = fn : real * int + real (3) fun exponent2 x 0 = 1.0 (4) | exponent2 x y = x * exponent2 x (y-1); val exponent? = fn : real > int + real (5) exponent1(3.0,4); val it = 81.0 : real (6) exponent2 3.0 4; val it = 81.0: real Figure 5.18: Two styles for exponentiation functions ‘The Curried function exponent? in lines (3) and (4) of Fig. 5.18 does exactly the same computation as the uncurried function exponent. The parameters of exponent2 are not surrounded by parentheses or separated by commas, either in the definition on lines (3) and (4) or in the recursive use on line (4). Lines (5) and (6) show appropriate calls to the two functions. Each computes 3f=81. O 5.5.1 Partially Instantiated Functions Curried functions are useful because they allow us to construct new functions by applying the function to arguments for some, but not all, of its parameters. Named after the mathematician Haskell Curry, who investigated this form of function Aafinition170 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS Precedence of Function Application ‘The parentheses around y-1 on line (4) are necessary for ML to group arguments properly. Without parentheses around y-1, the second argu- ment in the recursive call to exponent? will be regarded as y. Constant 1 will be subtracted from the result of the call, leading to a type error. The reason for this interpretation is that juxtaposition of expressions, which is function application in ML, is an operator of higher precedence than the arithmetic operators. To begin our exploration of this matter, notice the subtle difference between the responses to the two functions in Fig. 5.18. ML finds the type of exponent 1 to be a function that takes a pair of type real * int as parameter and returns areal. However, the type of exponent? is given as real -> int -> real. Remembering that the -> operator associates from the right, we interpret this type as real -> (int -> real), that is, a function taking a real as argument and returning a function from integers to reals. This type suggests how the function exponent2 is interpreted. In the call of line (6) in Fig. 5.18, the first argument, 3.0, is given to the function exponent2, resulting in a new function g. This function, of type int -> real, takes an exponent y as its argument and produces the result g(y) = 3¥. The function g is a value in its own right and can, under the right circumstances, be isolated and bound as the value of an identifier. ‘The process of forming new functions by binding one or more of the parame- ters of an existing function is called partial instantiation. In the general mathe- matical setting, we can take a function f of n arguments, say f(21,22,...,2n). We bind the first k of those arguments to constants a; ,a@2,...,a% to form a new function, which we may call fa;,ap,...,a¢(k+1Tk42)-++52n)- The definition of function fay,a2,...,az is as expected: Fay,a2,..., a4 (e+) Th425---52n) = F(d1,02,.-- Ak Thy, Th425-- Ln) In ML, Curried functions can be partially instantiated by applying them to values, one for each of the first k parameters. It is only possible to instantiate the parameters from the left, not in any order. Example 5.27: Having made the definition of exponent? in Example 5.26, we can proceed to create a new function by instantiating its first argument. An example is val g = exponent2 3.0; val g = fn: int + real5.5. CURRIED FUNCTIONS 7 Now g is a function that takes an integer y as argument and returns 3¥. Figure 5.19 suggests what has happened. Identifier g has been bound to a value that is a notation representing the function exponent2 applied to 3.0. Use — ‘ with first argument 3.0 Code for exponent2 exponent2 Figure 5.19: Partially instantiating a function We can use g like any other function if we provide its proper argument. For example, g4s val it = 81.0 applies g to the integer 4, producing 34, or 81. 0 Here are a number of points about partial instantiation and the Curried form of functions. © Note that we are not restricted to the no-parentheses form. We could have written g(4) instead of g 4, and we could have defined new functions from exponent2 with parentheses. For instance, val h = exponent2(10.0) makes h a function that computes powers of 10. © As discussed in Section 3.1.5, the value of the function g does not change if we define a new function called exponent2, because the definition of 9 refers to the specific value shown in Fig. 5.19.172 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS ‘¢ We can partially instantiate a function by binding arguments other than in left-to-right order of appearance, but to do so we need to define a new function using fun. For example, we could bind the second argument of exponent? to the value 3, producing a function that cubes a real number, by: fun cube x = exponent2 x 3; This approach to partially instantiating functions works even if the func- tion definition was not written in Curried form. 5.5.2. The ML Style of Function Application As we learned in Example 5.26, parentheses around arguments of ML functions are optional in many cases. The only time they are essential is when the argu- ment has components that are kept together with an operator whose precedence is below that of function application. Unfortunately, function application is al- most the highest-precedence operator of all. Thus, for instance, the following give us errors. 1. fun f c:char = 1.0 is grouped (f c):char = 1.0. To ML, it appears as if we are trying to say that the result of f is a character, when in fact it is defined to be a real. Thus, we need to write fun f(c:char) = 1.0. 2. fun f x::xs = nil is grouped (f x)::xs = nil, which is not likely to be what we intended. We need to write fun f(x::xs) = nil, 3. print Int.toString 123 is grouped (print Int.toString) 123 and leads to a type error since Int. toString (the function that converts integers to strings from the structure Int) is not itself a string, which the function print requires. Thus, we need one pair of parentheses: print (Int.toString 123). On the other hand, there are many places where the parentheses around arguments are superfluous, and we shall start omitting parentheses in safe sit- uations. Here are some of the places where we can avoid parentheses. 1. £ [1,2,3] or even £[1,2,3] means the same as f([1,2,3]). In general, if the argument of a function is already bracketed so it cannot be split apart by the function application, then no parentheses are needed. 2. chr 100 means the same as chr (100). In general, operators are functions, and the same rules as apply to functions apply to operators. 3. open TextI0 is not only permitted, it is necessary. The keyword open is not a function, and we cannot put parentheses around the structure name when we open a structure like TextI0.“ 5.5. CURRIED FUNCTIONS ms 5.5.3 Exercises for Section 5.5 Exercise 5.5.1: Write, in Curried form, a function applyList that takes a list of functions and a value and applies each function to the value, producing a list of the results. 1 Exercise 5.5.2: Write, in Curried form, a function makeFnList that takes a function F whose domain type is D and whose range type R is a function type T, + T». The result of makeFnList is a function G that takes a list of elements [di,dp,...,dy] of type D and produces a list of functions [fi fo,-.., fal of type R, such that f; = F(di). Exercise 5.5.3: Write a function substring, either Curried or not, that takes two parameters and tests whether the first is a substring of the other. String ¢ is a substring of string y if we can write y as the concatenation of strings w, 7, and 2, It is permissible for any of the strings to be empty. For example, "abc" has substrings including , and "ab". Using makeFnList of Exercise 5.5.2, construct a function f that takes a list of strings [s1, 82,...,8n] and produces a list of functions [F,, F2,..., Fy], such that F(z) tells whether s; is a substring of a. Exercise 5.5.4: From f of Exercise 5.5.3, create a list of functions that, re- spectively, check whether one of the words "he", "she", "her", "his" is a substring of a given string. Exercise 5.5.5: Apply your list from Exercise 5.5.4 to the string "hershey", using function applyList from Exercise 5.5.1. What is the result? Exercise 5.5.6: Repeat Exercise 5.5.3 for subsequences in place of substrings. String x is a subsequence of string y if x is formed by striking out zero or more positions of y. For example, "ac" is a subsequence of "abe" but is not a substring. Then, as in Exercise 5.5.4, create a list of functions that test whether the following strings are subsequences of a given string: [ear", "part", "trap","seat"] Finally, apply your list of functions to the string "separate" Exercise 5.5.7: It is actually quite easy to convert an n-parameter function, for fixed n, from Curried to uncurried form. Write the following higher-order functions that perform the translations. * a) Given a function F that takes one parameter whose type is a product type with n components, the function curry applied to F produces a function G that takes n arguments in Curried form. G a1 x2 --- tq produces the same value as F(21,22,-.+2n)- b) Given a Curried function F that takes n parameters, the function uncurry applied to F produces a function G that takes one parameter that is a tuple with n components. G(r1,22,...,2,) produces the same value aS Fay tz ++ tn.14 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS 5.6 Built-In Higher-Order Functions ML provides certain higher-order functions in the top-level environment. In several cases these functions are similar to functions such as simpleMap and reduce that we studied in Sections 5.4.2 and 5.4.3, respectively. In this section, we shall introduce these functions and their use. We shall also give definitions of these built-in ML functions in terms of simpler constructs, both to help the reader see the meaning of these functions and to illustrate some useful funetion- writing ideas. 5.6.1 Composition of Functions We shall now study a problem that is of intrinsic importance and that also encourages us to view functions as values disembodied from any arguments to which they might be applied. The composition of functions F and G is that function C such that for any argument x, C(x) = G(F(z)). Example 5.28: Let F(x) = c+3, and let G(y) = y? +2y. Then the composi- tion of F and G, or G(F(x)), is (x +3)? +2(x +3), or 2? +82 +15. We get this formula by substituting F(x) for y in the formula for @ and then expanding the formula. We can define a higher-order function comp that takes two functions as arguments and applies them to a third argument. The ML code is simple: fun comp(F,G,x) = G(F(x)); val comp = fn: (‘a> 'b) *(b> 'c) *'a 4c Notice the type of this function. First, recall that * takes precedence over ->, so the type expression is grouped (Ca -> ’b) * (b -> ’c) * ’a) -> 'o Thus, the function comp has three parameters, the first of which (F) is a function from some type ’a to some (possibly different) type ’. The second parameter, G, takes a value of the type ’b and produces a value of some (possibly different) type ’c. The third parameter is of the type ’a to which F applies, and the result is of the type ’e that G produces. Example 5.29: We can use comp to compute the composition of the two functions from Example 5.28 on a particular value of 2, for instance: comp(fn x => x+3, fn y => ysy+2ey, 10); val it = 195 : int Here we have defined the first argument of comp to be the function 2 +3 and the second to be the function y? + 2y. The composition of these functions, which we discovered in Example 5.28 was the polynomial x? + 8x + 15, is then applied to 10, and produces the correct result, 10? +8 x 10+15=195. O5.6. BUILT-IN HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS a 5.6.2 The ML Operator o For Composition However, Example 5.29 is somehow unsatisfactory. It is true that we can apply the composition of any two functions to an argument, as long as the types match properly. Yet we cannot address the question of Example 5.28: “what function is the composition of functions x + 3 and y? +2y?” Function comp as we defined it is relatively useless. It is a “shorthand” for G(F(z)), but it even fails to save us keystrokes. What we really want is a function that takes only the two functions F and G as its arguments and produces the function C that is the composition of F and G. For instance, in the case of Example 5.28, we would like the composition function to return the function x? + 8x + 15 itself, rather than returning the value of this function for a particular value of x. In ML, there is an operator 0 (lower-case “Oh”) that composes functions. Example 5.30: If we defined fun F x = x43; yey + 2ay; then the function G(F(z)) = 2? + 8x +15 can be obtained by fun Gy val H=GoF; which makes H the desired function. © Let us write a function comp that behaves like the ML operator o, but our function will not be an infix operator, as o is. A useful technique for defining higher-order functions is to describe, within a let-expression what the effect of the function is supposed to be, giving the function so described a name, say f. ‘Then, between the in and end place f by itself. For the function comp, we use a let-expression to define, in terms of a pa- rameter z, what the function that is the composition of F and G does. The expression that follows the keyword in is just the name of the defined function. The proper definition appears in Fig. 5.20. Line (2) defines a function C to have the desired behavior; it is the compo- sition of F and G. In line (3) we see that the value of the function comp, which is what we are defining with the let-expression, is the function C itself. The type of comp confirms that we are on the right track. It takes two arguments: 1. A function F from some type ’a to some type ’b, and 2. A function G from type ’b to some type *e. The result of comp is a function of type ’a -> ’c, that is, a function from type a to type °c.” This function is the composition of F and G. TTo parse this type expression, remember that ~> groups from the right. Thus, the proper grouping is (’a => "b) -> (CB => 'e) => Ca => 7e))176 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS (1) fun comp F G = let (2) fun C x = G(F(x)) in (3) c end; val comp = fn: ('a— 'b) + (b> 'c) 4 “a> "ec (4) fun F x = x+3; val F = fn : int + int (5) fun G y = yeys2eys val G = fn: int + int (6) val H = comp F G; val H = fn: int + int (7) H 10; val it = 195 : int Figure 5.20: Computing the composition of two functions Next, we see in Fig. 5.20 a definition of the function F to be x +3 and the function G to be y? + 2y. Then we define the function H to be comp F G, that is, the composition of F and G. We now have a name H that we can use to refer to the function that is the composition of F and G, that is, the function whose expression as a polynomial is 2? + 8x + 15. This function can be applied to any integer argument; we show it in Fig. 5.20 applied to argument 10. 5.6.3 The “Real” Version of Map As we mentioned in Section 5.4.2, the top-level environment of ML has a func- tion map that is similar to the function simpleMap that we defined there. How- ever, instead of taking both the function and list as arguments, map takes only a function F as an argument. The result of map is a function that takes a list of elements and returns the list that is the result of applying F to each element of the list. Figure 5.21 is a definition of the ML built-in function map. Of course, this definition is unnecessary, as one can use map in programs without it. In line (1).5.6. BUILT-IN HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS 177 Defining comp Via Currying The same function comp that we constructed in a let-expression in Fig. 5.20 can also be written as a 3-argument Curried function: fun compC F G x = G(F(x)); It may seem strange that a function that takes x as an argument could be the same as the two-argument function comp in Fig. 5.20. However, the two functions have the same type, and they behave the same way. For example, compC F G is surely a function of «, while comp F G seems to have no argument. However, since the result of comp F G is a function, it can be applied to an argument of the domain type of G, just like compC F G can. That is, an expression like comp (fn x=>x+3) (fn y=>yxy+2*y) 10 makes sense, and gives the answer 195 that we saw in Fig. 5.20, even though comp was not defined to have a third argument. we see that map takes one argument, a function F. In a let-expression, we define a function M that takes a list and applies F to each element. Line (2) says that M applied to the empty list is the empty list. Line (3) says that for nonempty list, M applies F to the first element and calls itself recursively on the tail to apply F to the remaining elements. Finally, at line (4) we say that this function M iss the result of map when it is applied to F. (1) fun map F = let (2) fun M nil = nil (3) | MGcrixs) = Fox rt Moxs in (4) M end; val map = fn: (a>) + “alist + °b list Figure 5.21: The ML function map Notice the type of map in the ML response. Remembering that -> groups from the right, this type is (?a -> ’b) -> (a list -> ’b list). That is, nap is a function that takes as its argument a function F from type ’a to type 7. Then, map returns a function M that takes a list of elements of tvne a and178 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS Representing a Composition It is useful to consider the way the values of F, G, and H are represented by ML, if H is the composition of F and G. Since functions are defined by code, the identifiers F and G are bound to a value that is code. However H, being defined by a composition, is bound to a value that is a notation saying it is the composition of F and G. The situation is suggested in Fig. 5.22. Note that the value for H refers to the values bound to F and G in the current environment, not to the names F and G. The distinction becomes important if we bind identifier F or G to a new value. Since H is bound to the particular environment entries suggested in Fig. 5.22, and entries in an environment do not change their values, the value of H does not change. produces a list of elements of type *b. Composition ofy and G Code for G F Code for F Figure 5.22: Representing function values in an environment Example 5.31: If map is as defined in Fig. 5.21, and square is the function that squares reals, then map(square) is the function that takes a list of reals and squares each one. We could create this function by val squareList = map square; val squareList = fn : real list + real list ‘Then, we can use this function as squareList [1.0, 2.0, 3.0];5.6. BUILT-IN HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS 179 val it = [1.0,4.0,9.0] : real list to square each element of a particular list. 0 5.6.4 Folding Lists ML provides the user a pair of functions called foldr and fold1. Both functions perform a variety of the fold operation, which takes a list L = [a,a,...,an] and treats each element a; as if it were a function; call this function F,,. When we apply a folding operation to L, we construct the function that is the composition of all the functions Fa,,Fay,-++; Fay, that is, Fa, © Fay 0---0 Fay Example 5.32: Many operations on lists can be specified by folding, using an appropriate definition of the functions Fy, and also choosing the right constant to which the composition of functions is applied. For instance, suppose L [a1,a2,...,an] is a list of integers, and the function Fy, is the function that multiplies its argument by a;. Then the function Fa, ° Fa, 0---0F,, multiplies its argument by the product of the elements of the list L, that is, ay x@2x---xdn. If we apply this function to 1, we can compute the product of the elements of a list. ‘As another example, suppose instead that Fs, is the function that adds 1 to its argument, regardless of what a; is. Then the function Fy, 0 Fa, 0--- 0 Fa, adds n to its argument. In particular, applied to 0 it computes the length of the list L. Thus, folding also lets us define the length function if we correctly specify the functions Fy. 0 The missing element in Example 5.32 is the method of going from a; to the proper F,,. In effect, we need to reverse the effect of partial instantiation of these functions, by writing one function F(a, z) such that F(a, x) equals Fa(x) for all a and x. Example 5.33: Let us consider the two problems in Example 5.32. If Fa, is to multiply its (integer) argument 2 by a;, then we want F(a,z) = az, or in ML: fun F(a,x) = a*x; val F = fn: int * int + int In the second problem, where we want each Fy, to add one to its argument, we define F(a,2) = 2 + 1, or: fun F(a,x) = xt; val F = fn: 'a * int -> int180 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS inML. 0 The difference between foldr and foldl is that foldr composes the func- tions Fa, starting from the end (ie., from the right), and fo1d1 composes them starting from the left. That is, foldr, given list [a,,a2,...,@n] and initial value b, computes Fa; (Faa (+++ (Fan (6))--+)) while fo1d1 computes Fay (Fay -1 (+++ (Fay (8)) --*)) A definition for function foldr is shown in Fig. 5.23. Again, let us emphasize that foldr is a primitive of ML, and we do not need to define it. However, seeing a definition in terms of more elementary operations is instructive. The definition of fo1d1 is similar, and we leave it as an exercise. (1) fun foldr F y nil = y (2) | foldr F y (x::xs) = F(x, foldr F y xs); val foldr = fn: (a*) > b> b> ‘alist > % Figure 5.23: Definition of folér We define foldr in Curried form, with three parameters. 1. Function Fis of type ’a * ’b -> °b. Type ’ais the type of list elements, and ’b is both the range type of F and the type of the result of applying foldr. 2. Value y is of type *b. It is the initial value associated with the empty list. 3. List L is a list of elements of type ?a Line (1) of Fig. 5.23 covers the case of an empty list. Then we just return the initial value y. Line (2) covers the inductive case, where the list L = [a1,a2,...,a,] has a head element x and a tail xs. That is, x is a and xs is [a2,...,@n). To compute the result we do the following: a) Apply foldr to function F, the initial value y, and the tail of the list. The result is computed recursively by applying the functions Fans Fanais+++s Fas associated with the elements of the tail, in turn, to the initial value y.5.6. BUILT-IN HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS 181 b) Apply the function F to the list head 2 and the result of (a). This step has the effect of composing function F,, with the other functions Faz;--+,Fa, that have already been applied to y. As a result, all the functions associated with the entire list L are applied to the initial value y. They are applied in the reverse of the order in which they appear on the list, with the last element’s function applied first. Example 5.34: If we want to take the product of the elements of list of integers L, we can use foldr with a suitable product function, such as that in Example 5.33 and initial value 1. That is, we may write val L = [2,3,4]; foldr op * 1 L; wal it = 24 : int Note that in order to use the multiplication function as the first argument of foldr, we need op to make it a prefix operator. The arguments of fold are grouped as foldr (op *) 1 L. ‘* But beware putting those optional parentheses in exactly that way, be- cause *) is interpreted as a comment-ender, and an error will result. In this special case we would need to write fold (op * ) 1 L. a Because foldr is defined in Curried form, we can partially instantiate foldr with a function F and an initial value and get another function that takes a list L and “folds” L according to F and b. Example 5.35: We can write a function that takes the product of the elements on any integer list by: val prod = fold op * 1; val prod = fn : int list + int prod [23,4]; val it = 24 : int a 5.6.5 Exercises for Section 5.6 Exercise 5.6.1: Use the higher-order functions map, foldr, and fold1 de- scribed in this section to build the following functions on lists. You should write anonymous functions that operate on list elements only.182 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS * a) A function that turns an integer list into a list of reals with the same values. b) A function that turns an integer list L into a list of reals, each of which is the absolute value of the element on L. *1c) The function implode, which turns a list of characters into a single string with those characters in order. d) The function concat, which turns a list of strings into the concatenation of all those strings. *t) A function that turns a list of integers [a1, a2,...,an] into the alternating sum a; — a2 +43 ~ q+. f) A function that computes the logical AND of a list of booleans. * g) A function that computes the logical OR of a list of booleans. 1h) A function that computes the exclusive or of a list of booleans. The exclusive or of a1, @2,...,dn is true if an odd number of the a;’s are true and false if an even number of the a,’s are true. * Exercise 5.6.2: Write a definition for the function foldl analogous to the definition of foldr in Fig. 5.23. Hint: Recompute the initial value in the recursion. Exercise 5.6.3: Since the function comp of Fig. 5.20 was written in Curried form, we can bind the first argument F to a function to get a new function that, takes a function G as argument and produces the function G o F. However, if we write an expression such as val I = comp (fn x => x+3); we get an error message saying there is a “nongeneralizable type variable,” namely the unknown type that is the range type for I and the function to which I will be applied. *1 a) We can fix the definition of I above if we give it a type. If we want the range type of I to be string, what is a suitable type declaration to add to the definition of I? b) Having defined J as in part (a), show how to use J to create a function that given an integer x returns a string consisting of the digits of z + 3. ©) Use your answer to (b) to create a function that, given an integer z prints +3. *! Exercise 5.6.4: Suppose we define comp as in Fig. 5.20 and5.6. BUILT-IN HIGHER-ORDER FUNCTIONS 183, fun addi x = x+1; Give the type and value for each of the following functions or constants. To avoid a nongeneralizable type variable error as discussed in Exercise 5.6.3, you should declare all unknown types to be integers. a) val compAi = comp addi; 1b) val compCompA1 = comp compat; c) val £ = compAl addi; d) £(2); Me) val g = compCompA1 compA1; f) val h = g addi; g) (2); ! Exercise 5.6.5: Repeat Exercise 5.6.4 for the following expressions. The func- tions compA1 and compCompA1 are as defined in Exercises 5.6.4(a) and (b). How- ever, you should redeclare their type for the uses described below. a) val £ = compAi real; where real is the built-in function that converts integers to equivalent reals. b) val compT = comp trunc; where trunc is the built-in function that con- verts a real to an integer, rounding towards 0 if necessary. !c) val g = compCompA1 compT; d) val h = g real; e) £(2); f) n(3.5)5 g) (73.5); Exercise 5.6.6: Write a version of the function filter from Section 5.4.5 that takes only a predicate P as argument and produces a function that takes a list of elements of suitable type and returns those elements on the list that satisfy P. !! Exercise 5.6.7: Using foldr and an anonymous function, write a function that takes a list of reals [ao,a1,.-.,@n—1] and produces a function that takes an argument b and evaluates the polynomial dg + ay +092? +--+ + aye"? at x = 6; that is, it computes 7"j ajbi. ! Exercise 5.6.8: Write the two-argument function simpleMap of Section 5.4.2 in Curried form. Show that its behavior is exactly the same as that of the one-argument function map of Fig. 5.21.184 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS 5.7 Case Study: Parsing Expressions In this section we shall look at one of the fundamental parts of a compiler, a parser for expressions. In so doing we shall review some of the ideas introduced in this chapter: case statements and exceptions. We also see an interesting ap- plication of several “old” ideas: the lookahead operator for reading an instream, a mutual recursion involving five functions, wildcards in patterns, and the use of statement lists, including the addition of a final “statement” to return the proper value. The problem we shall address is how to read arithmetic expressions from the input and compute their value. The operands of these arithmetic expressions are integers, and the operators used are *, +, -, and /.8 For simplicity, we assume there are no blanks or other white space between characters of the expression. It is easy to ignore white space or other characters should we wish; the case study of Section 4.4 showed how. 5.7.1 The Grammatical Structure of Arithmetic Expres- sions We shall describe the structure of expressions using a graphical notation equiv- alent to context-free grammars; it is illustrated in Fig. 5.24. Each syntactic category is named on the left; we have in Fig. 5.24 four syntactic categories: INTEGER, ATOM, TERM, and EXP (expression). A syntactic category repre- sents a set of sequences of elements. Each element can be a string of characters or it can be another syntactic category. The possible instances of a syntactic category are indicated by the possible paths from the left end of its graph to the right end; each path represents a sequence of elements that is an instance of the syntactic category named at the left. For instance, in Fig. 5.24(a) the graph for INTEGER requires us to go through DIGIT once. Then we can continue to the right end or we can cycle back to pass through DIGIT any number of additional times. That is, an INTEGER is a string consisting of one or more DIGIT’s. The syntactic category DIGIT is not defined by a graph, but we define it to consist of any of the digits 0 through 9. In Fig. 5.24(b) we see that an ATOM is defined to be either an INTEGER or a sequence consisting of a left parenthesis, an EXP, and a right parenthesis That is, an ATOM is an integer or a parenthesized expression. Next we see that a TERM is an ATOM followed by zero or more additional elements, each element consisting of either a multiplication or a division sign, followed by another ATOM. That is, a TERM is a sequence of one or more ATOM’s separated by multiplication and/or division signs. Similarly, an EXP is a sequence of one or more TERM’s separated by plus and/or minus signs. SOf course, ML would use div for integer division, but that is unimportant because we are not reading ML programs in this example,5.7. CASE STUDY: PARSING EXPRESSIONS 185 (a) INTEGER a7 7 ( (—-+Gaxe) +0) (9 TERM 7 We C) (@ EXP 7 Ni © Figure 5.24: The structure of arithmetic expressions 5.7.2 Structure of the Parsing Program Figures 5.25 and 5.26 together show a program that computes the value of an expression.” Its functions carefully choose between the lookahead operator and the inputi operator to make sure that input characters are consumed only at the appropriate time. Let us examine the statements and functions in Fig. 5.25. Line (1) opens the TextIO structure, which we shall need to perform input operations on the file. Line (2) is the definition of an exception Syntax that will be raised when an ill-formed input is found. Line (3) is the familiar function digit that tests whether a character is a digit. ®This program implements a parsing method called “recursive descent.” ‘The reader may consult Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools, A. V. Aho, R. Sethi, and J. D. Ullman, ‘Addison-Wesley, Reading MA, 1986 for an explanation of this technique.186 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS Then come six functions — the last five are mutually recursive — that collectively implement the diagrams of Fig. 5.24. Each takes a parameter IN that is the instream on which the expression appears. Some functions take an additional parameter that helps the function return the integer value of some portion of the input. This additional parameter, if present, will be referred to as “the parameter” or “the argument” of the function, even though IN is also a parameter We shall introduce the functions, and then later return to the details of their implementation. The six functions, each of which returns the value of whatever input it consumes, are: 1 integer consumes whatever prefix of the current input is a sequence of digits. The parameter i is the integer value of any digits that have been seen and consumed on the input immediately before the current call to integer. The result returned is the value of the digits seen so far (as represented by é) and any further digits found consecutively on the input. An initial call to integer with i = 0 implements the diagram of Fig. 5.24(a) and returns the value of the digits read. atom looks on the input for either (a) An integer or (b) A left parenthesis, followed by any expression, followed by a right parenthesis. It thus implements the diagram of Fig. 5.24(b). . term looks for an atom on the input and, after consuming one, calls termTail. The argument i for termTail is the value of the atom found. ‘Together, term and termTail implement the diagram of Fig. 5.24(c). . termTail looks for and consumes from the input zero or more groups consisting of a * or / sign and an atom. It takes a parameter i, which is the value of all atoms found so far, multiplied or divided as dictated by the signs that connect them. If termTail finds a * or / as the next input character, it consumes it and calls aton. The value i is multiplied or divided, as appropriate, by the value of the atom found. The result becomes the argument of a recursive call to termTail. If termTail does not find a * or / as the next input character, it does nothing but return its argument i. expression looks for a term on the input and, after consuming one, calls expTail with argument i equal to the value of the term found. Together, expression and expTail implement the diagram of Fig. 5.24(d). expTail looks for and consumes from the input zero or more groups consisting of a + or - sign and a term. It takes a parameter i, which5.7. CASE STUDY: PARSING EXPRESSIONS 187 (1) open TextI0; (2) exception Syntax; (3) fun digit(c) = (#"0" <= c andalso c <= (4) fun integer(IN,i) = >) case lookahead(IN) of ©) SOME c => mM if digit(c) then ( (8) input1(IN); (* consume character c *) 9) integer (IN, 10*i+ord(c)-ord(#"0")) ) (10) else i (* if c is not a digit, return i without consuming input *) qt) NONE => i (x ditto if end of file is reached *) (12) fun atom(IN) = (13) case lookahead(IN) of (a4) SOME #"(" => ( (15) inputi(IN); (* consume left paren *) let (16) val e = expression(IN) in (17) if lookahead(IN)=(SOME #")") then ¢ (18) input1(IN); (* consume right parenthesis *) (a9) e (* return expression *) ) (20) else raise Syntax end ) | (21) SOME ¢ => (22) if digit(c) then integer(IN,0) (23) else raise Syntax | (24) NONE => raise Syntax and Figure 5.25: Parser for arithmetic expressions (beginning)188 CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS is the value of all terms found so far, added or subtracted as dictated by the signs that connect them. Its operation is analogous to that of termTail. 5.7.3 Detailed Explanation of the Parser Code Let us now examine the code of Fig. 5.25 in more detail. ‘The Function integer Function integer isin lines (4) through (11). Line (5) uses lookahead to obtain a character-option from the instream, That is, the expression lookahead (IN) evaluates to either NONE if there is no more input, or SOME c, if c is the first character remaining on the input. Nothing is consumed from the input, how- ever. Lines (6) through (10) cover the case when a character c is present. Line (7) tests if c is a digit, and if so, this digit is consumed from the instream at line (8). ‘At line (9) integer is called recursively with an argument that represents the effect of appending the digit ¢ to the integer read so far. The formula used on line (9) is the same one that was used in Fig. 4.10. Line (10) covers the case when ¢ is not a digit. In this case, the integer i has ended, and its value is returned by integer. The second and final case of the case statement is handled by line (11).!° Here, there is no more input, so the integer i has ended and is returned. Note that integer is only called on line (22), where we have already determined that at least one digit waits on the input. Thus integer properly implements the diagram of Fig. 5.24(a), which requires that at least one digit be consumed. The Function aton The function atom appears in lines (12) through (24). A case statement starts on line (13), and the first case is when the next character waiting on the instream is a left parenthesis. If so, then the input must begin with a parenthesized expression. Line (15) consumes the left parenthesis from the input, and line (16) calls expression to consume an expression from the input. At this point we expect a right parenthesis to follow, and line (17) checks the right parenthesis is there. If so, the parenthesis is consumed from the input at line (18), and the value of the expression between the parentheses is returned at line (19). However, if after reading the expression at line (16), the following character is not a right parenthesis, then there is a syntax error, and the exception Syntax is raised at line (20). © Notice that the reason for the let-in-end construct in lines (16) through (20) is because we cannot return the value e of the expression read on ‘Notice that we have put the vertical bars separating cases on a line of their own to make it easier to separate complex cases visually.5.7. CASE STUDY: PARSING EXPRESSIONS 189 line (16) immediately. We need to hold it and check that there is a right parenthesis following. Lines (21) through (23) handle the second case, where there is a character waiting on the input, but it is not a left parenthesis. We test if it is a digit at line (22), and if so we conclude that the atom is an integer and call integer to consume the integer from the instream. Using argument 0 in this call is correct, since there are no previous digits when the initial call to integer is made. Recursive calls to integer from itself will increase the value of the argument. If the character is neither a digit nor a left parenthesis, then there is a syntax error, which is reported at line (23). The final case is when there is no character on the input. Since we are expecting an atom, there must be a syntax error, which is reported at line (24). The Function term Line (25) in Fig. 5.26 is the entire function term. It first calls atom to consume an atom from the input and return the value of that atom. This value becomes the argument of termTail, which multiplies or divides the value of the first atom by the sequence of zero or more atoms it finds on the input. We have used a succinct but subtle style in designing the function term. The call to atom occurs within a call to termTail, so the call to atom is executed first. We could have separated the two steps more transparently, but less succinetly by code such as let val i = atom(IN) in termTail(IN,i) end The Function termTail Function termTail appears in lines (26) through (34) of Fig. 5.26. On line (27) it looks at the next input, which becomes the basis of a 3-way case-statement. Lines (28) through (30) cover the case where the next character is *. This character is consumed on line (29). Then atom is called on line (30) to read and evaluate the next atom on the input. The value of this atom is multiplied by i, which is the value of the argument to termTail, and this product becomes the argument in a recursive call to termTail. Lines (31) through (33) handle the case where the next character is / anal- ogously to lines (28) through (30). Line (34) handles all other possible values of the next character. If the next character is other than * or /, the term is complete. In this case, termTail returns its own argument as the value of the entire term that has just been seen on the input. Functions expression and expTail Finally, lines (35)-(44) are functions expression and expTail. Their workings are analogous to those of term and termTail, and we omit the details.190 (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (36) (a7) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42) (43) (44) and and and CHAPTER 5. MORE ABOUT FUNCTIONS term(IN) = termTail(IN,atom(IN)) termTail(IN,i) = case lookahead(IN) of SOME #"*" => ( inputi(IN); (* consume * *) termTail (IN,i*atom(IN)) ) | SOME #" ¢ inputi(IN); (* consume / *) termTail(IN,i div atom(IN)) =i expression(IN) = expTail(IN,term(IN)) expTail(IN,i) = case lookahead(IN) of SOME #"+" => ( imput1(IN); (+ consume + +) expTail(IN,i+term(IN)) > | SOME #"-" => ( inputi(IN); (* consume - *) expTail(IN, i-term(IN)) > | 2 a5 (45) val infile = openIn("test"); (46) expression(infile); Figure 5.26: Parser for arithmetic expressions (end)5.7. CASE STUDY: PARSING EXPRESSIONS 191 An Example Use of the Parser On line (45) we begin to use the functions we have written. Identifier intitle is bound to an instream representing the opened file test; this file contains an expression that we wish to evaluate. A call to expression(infile) on line (46) results in the value of the expression in file test being returned by ML. 5.7.4 Exercises for Section 5.7 ! Exercise 5.7.1: Give the grammatical diagram(s) for the form of real con- stants of ML as described in Section 2.1.1. ! Exercise 5.7.2: ML allows us to construct values from integers using list- formation (with square brackets) and tuple-formation (with parentheses). An example is [(1,2),(3,4)]. a) Give grammatical diagrams for the set of values that can be formed by these two construction rules. You do not need to enforce the ML require- ment that list elements have the same type. b) Implement a parser for this class of character strings. You should read the input from an instream IN. The response of your parser is a boolean indicating whether the input is or is not of the proper form. Your program. should allow white space among the integers, parentheses, commas, and brackets, but not in the middle of an integer. The entire value will be terminated by the character $.Chapter 6 Defining Your Own Types In this chapter we shall learn ways to extend the type system of ML with user-defined types. There are two ways to make type extensions: 1. Type definitions are shorthands or macros for previously defined type expressions. 2. Datatype definitions are rules for constructing new types with new values that are not the values of previously defined types. 6.1 Defining New Types As in Pascal or C, it is possible to define new types in ML. However, ML has a more powerful type system (rules for defining types) than these languages. In ML, types can take one or more type-valued variables as parameters. It is also possible in ML to create types whose values are built in more complex ways than is possible in the type systems of most languages. 6.1.1 Review of the ML Type System Before proceeding, let us review what we know about the type system of ML. Types in ML are defined recursively, with a basis of primitive types and rules for constructing more complex types from these. BASIS: The basic types we have met are int, real, string, char, bool, unit, exn (exception), instream, and outstrean. In addition, a type variable such as ’a or ??a can serve in place of a constant type such as int. These variables represent values of any type or any equality type respectively. INDUCTION: We can build new types from old types T; and Ty, as follows 1. T, * Ty is a “product” type, whose values are pairs. The first component of the pair is of type Ti and the second is of type Ts. More gencrally,194 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES T, * Ty * ++. * Ty is the type for a tuple of n components, the ith component of which is of type Tj, for all i= 1,2,...,n. 2. T, -> Tp is a “function” type, whose values are functions with domain type T; and range type Tp. 3. We may create new types by following a type such as T; by certain iden- tifiers that act. as type constructors. So far, we have met: (a) The list type constructor. That is, for every type Ty, there is another type T, list, whose values are lists all of whose elements are of type Ty. (b) The option type constructor. For every type T; there is a type T, option whose values are NONE and SOME zx where z is any value of type Th. We shall meet additional type constructors ref, array, and vector later. In this section we learn that the user can define any identifier to be a type constructor by making the appropriate type declaration. The expressions defined inductively as above are called type expressions. 6.1.2 New Names for Old Types To begin, we shall learn the use of the keyword type, which defines a new type in a simple way — as an abbreviation for other types. The simplest form of an abbreviation is type = That is, the keyword type is followed by the name we choose for the new type, an equal sign, and an expression involving existing types. Example 6.1: We might define the type signal to be a list of reals by type signal = real list; type signal = real list We can then give a value of the appropriate form this new type as val v = [1.0, 2.0] : signal; val v = [1.0, 2.0] : signal Notice that following a value by a colon and a type name declares the value to be of the given type. The type signal is nothing more than an abbreviation. For instance, we can define:6.1. DEFINING NEW TYPES 195 val w = [1.0, 2.0]; val w = [1.0, 2.0) : real list Here, ML is given a real list and is not told to regard it as of type signal. However, if we compare v and w as in yew; val it = true : bool ML recognizes that v and w have the same value and does not complain that one is a signal while the other is a real list. Rather, it recognizes that these are two designations for the same type. 0 6.1.3 Parametrized Type Definitions More generally, we can define a family of types with one or more type variables (identifiers beginning with a quote mark) as parameters. The syntax is type () = That is, following the keyword type is a list of type variables serving as type parameters. If there is only one type variable, the parentheses are optional. The parameters are followed by an identifier, which is the type constructor for the type. Finally comes an equal sign and a type expression, which may involve the parameters. Types in the defined family are described by providing type expressions corresponding to the type parameters and following the type expressions by the type constructor for the type. An example should help to make these ideas clearer. Example 6.2: A useful data structure for remembering and retrieving an association between data of two types is the mapping (not to be confused with the “map” function of Sections 5.4.2 or 5.6.3, In ML, we can think of this structure as a list of pairs. The first component of each pair is of some type *4, called the domain type, and the second component is of some type ’r, called the range type.’ In a mapping we do not expect to see two pairs with the same domain element, although there is nothing in the type definition that requires uniqueness of domain elements. For instance, we might wish to store a count of words in a document as @ list of pairs of the type (string * int). The first component is a word, and the second component is the number of times the word occurs. The counts for the first paragraph of Section 6.1 would include such pairs as ‘Note that the terms “domain” and “range” are used in connection with both mappings and functions. ‘There is no coincidence; the mapping and function describe similar mathe- matical objects. A mapping associates pairs of values by listing the pairs, while a function is ‘a program that computes the second component of a pair from the first component.196 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES CO"in",6), (va",1), ("as",2), ("types",4), ("ML", 4),...] We can see such a set of pairs as assigning an integer value to each domain element (a word) that is mentioned. Mathematicians would say that words are thereby “mapped” to integers. Here is a definition of the parameterized type constructor mapping. type Cd, ’r) mapping = (’d * ’r) List; type (‘a, ’b) mapping = (‘a * ’b) list A few important points about this type definition: ‘© SML/NJ uses ’a, *b, and so on for type variables, regardless of the type variables chosen by the programmer. ‘© Note that the list of type parameters *4 and *r is separated by commas after the keyword type, as if they were parameters of a function. However, in the type expression (’d * ’r) List, we represent the type of a pair whose components are respectively of types ’d and ’r by separating the types with the product-type operator * We can now stipulate that a certain value is of a particular mapping type. For example, the “assignment” val words = [("in",6), ("a",1)] : (string, int) mapping; val words = [(”in”,6), (a”,1)] + (string, int) mapping declares identifier words to have a particular value of the type (string, int) mapping ‘That type is an instance of the parameterized type mapping formed by choosing the appropriate types for the type parameters ’d and ’r in the definition of mapping. O 6.1.4 Exercises for Section 6.1 Exercise 6.1.1: Give type definitions (abbreviations) for the following types. * a) A set of sets, where the type of elements is unspecified and sets are rep- resented by lists. b) A list of triples, the first two components of which have the same type and the third component of which is of some (possibly) different type. Exercise 6.1.2: Give a value of type (real, real) mapping, where the type mapping is defined in Example 6.2. Your value should have 3 pairs.6.2. DATATYPES 197 6.2 Datatypes Since the type declaration is limited to definitions of “abbreviations,” it is of limited power. Often, we want to create types whose values are new structures. For instance, with the types learned so far we cannot express the notion of a tree. ML has a very powerful mechanism for defining new types called datatypes. A datatype definition involves two kinds of identifiers: 1. A type constructor that is the name of the datatype. The type constructor is used to buld types just as type names like mapping of Example 6.2 are used. 2. One or more data constructors, which are identifiers used as operators to build values belonging to a new datatype. 6.2.1 A Simple Form of Datatype Declaration ‘The concept of datatypes generalizes such ideas as enumerated types in Pascal and C or union types in these languages, but it goes far beyond these. Thus, we shall take the datatype concept in easy stages. In our first example we see a rather simple use of datatype definition corresponding to an enumerated type. The datatype declaration consists of the keyword datatype, a name for the datatype, and a list of data constructors separated by vertical bars. Example 6.3: Let us define the datatype with name fruit to consist of the three values Apple, Pear, and Grape. datatype fruit = Apple | Pear | Grape; datatype fruit = Apple | Grape | Pear Identifier fruit is the type constructor for the datatype. The names Apple, Pear, and Grape are the data constructors for the datatype fruit. Note that SML/NJ alphabetizes lists of data constructors; they do not necessarily appear in the order in which they were declared. ‘We can use the new datatype in a function or other expression. For instance, we can write fun isApple(x) = (x=Apple); val isApple = fn: fruit + bool The function isApple returns true if its argument is Apple and false for any other fruit. The function isApple equates its parameter x to a value Apple of type fruit. Thus, the ML compiler will infer that the argument type of isApple is fruit. It is an error to pass as an argument anything that is not one of the data constructors for the datatype fruit. For instance, ispple makes the following responses.198 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES Capitalization Convention ‘There is a common ML convention regarding the capitalization of the first letter in an identifiers. 1. Capitalize the first letter of: (a) Data constructors. (b) Exception names (often called ezception constructors) (c) Structure names. We have seen a few built-in structure names such as Text 10 or Int, but we shall not cover user-defined struc- tures until Section 8.2. (d) Functors (covered in Section 8.3). 2. Do not capitalize the first letter (a) Variables. (b) Function names. (c) Type constructors. 3. Spell “signatures” with all capitals. We shall introduce signatures in Section 8.2.1; they are essentially the type of a structure. Some ML programmers absolutely refuse to start any variable or func- tion name with a capital. We shall not be so strict, since it is often conve- nient to remind the reader of a variable’s type by a capital. For instance, we have found it useful to distinguish a list L from its elements, whose names are uncapitalized, or to distinguish a polynomial P from an uncap- italized coefficient. isApple(Pear) ; val it = false : bool isApple (Apple) ; val it = true : bool isApple (Banana) ; Error: unbound variable or constructor: Banana The last response indicates that Banana is not an acceptable argument for the function isApple. 06.2. DATATYPES 199 We may observe from Example 6.3 something about the form of datatype definitions that serve as enumerated types. The keyword datatype is followed by the name of the type, an equal sign, and a list of the data constructors separated by vertical bars. « Remember that type abbreviations are introduced by the keyword type, but datatypes with data constructors require the keyword datatype. © Notice that datatype definitions, even in the simple case of Example 6.3, define a new type that is not an abbreviation for any other type. « For each type there is a set of values. We know, for instance, that the values for the type int are the integers. Data constructors are used to build the expressions that are the values for user-defined datatypes. In Example 6.3, the data constructors are the values. We shall see that data constructors for more complex datatypes may be combined in powerful ways to build the set of possible values for a type. 6.2.2 Using Constructor Expressions in Datatype Defini- tions Now we take up the more general form of datatype definition, where 1. Type variables can be used to parameterize the datatype, just as they can for type definitions. 2. The data constructors can take arguments. This form of a datatype declaration is datatype () = I I . I That is, we use the keyword datatype followed by a list of zero or more type variables used as parameters in the type expressions that follow. Parentheses are optional if there is one type parameter, and illegal if there are zero type pa- rameters, as in the datatype of Example 6.3. The type parameters are followed by an identifier, which is the type constructor for the datatype. Finally come the equal sign and one or more constructor expressions separated by vertical bars ‘A constructor expression consists of a constructor name, the keyword of, and a type expression. A simple example is Banana of int200 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES This constructor expression says that values of the datatype being defined can have the form Banana(23), or in general, Banana(i) for any integer i. Some important points to remember are: « Notice that the data constructor is used to “wrap” the data with (op tional) parentheses. In an expression like Banana (23), we not only get an integer value, 23, but we are told by the data constructor Banana some- thing about the form, meaning, or origin of this value; perhaps a bunch with 23 bananas is represented. ¢ Thus, data constructors are “applied” to data as if they were functions, but they are not functions. Rather, we use constructors to form symbolic expressions whose appearance is similar to that of an expression involving function applications. # Do not confuse data constructors with type constructors. Data construc- tors are used to build expressions that are values for the type. Type constructors are used in expressions that denote types themselves. Example 6.4: The next example is one in which the datatype capability of ML is used in a manner similar to the union types found in Pascal or C, among other languages. The idea is to manufacture a type whose elements are formed from either of two previously defined types. We use two data constructors, each of which wraps elements of one of the two types, and thus tells us which of the two types is found inside the wrapping. We want to deal with “elements” that may be pairs or singles. The first component of each element will be of some type ’a, and the second component, if it exists, will be of some type "b. We shall call the datatype elenent. It will have two data constructors, P, which forms a pair, and S, which forms a single. In effect, the first type of the union is ’a and the second type is ’a * °b. The declaration and ML response are shown in Fig. 6. (1) datatype (a, ’b) element = (2) Pof ’a* ’b| (3) S of ’a; datatype (’a,"b) element = P of 'a *’b| S of 'a Figure 6.1: Datatype that is the union of singles and pairs In line (1) of Fig. 6.1 we see that a datatype is being declared; it has two type variables as parameters, a and ’b. The name of the datatype is “Ca, ’b) element.” The identifier element becomes a binary type construc- tor, that is, a type constructor that applies to a pair of types, just like the type constructor mapping of Example 6.2. Line (2) tells us about the data con- structor P, which takes as data a pair consisting of an ’a value and a ’b value6.2. DATATYPES 201 and “wraps” them in the symbol P. Similarly, line (3) tells us about the data constructor 8, which takes an °a value and wraps it with an S. Note that the type produced is an (a, *b) element, even though the data itself does not involve a value of type ’b in this case. Now let us see how the element datatype can be used. We can let the type parameters ’a and ’b be anything we choose, but for an example let a be string and ’b be int. To get concrete, we might wish to extend the word- count problem of Example 6.2 to allow the list to include some words that are not present (represented by “singles”), while pairs represent a word that is present, along with its count of occurrences. For instance, a list of elements representing the first paragraph of Section 6.1 might include (P("in",6), S("function"), P("as",2), Suppose we want to take a list of (string, int) element’s and sum the integers in the second components of those elements that have second compo- nents. The function sumE1List in Fig. 6.2 does this task. (1) fun sumElList (nil) = 0 (2) | sumE1List(S(x)::L) = sumE1List(L) (3) | sumE1List(P(x,y)::L) = y + sumE1List(L); val sumBlList = fn : (’a, int) element list + int Figure 6.2: Summing second components of element’s Line (1) handles the basis case; when the list is empty the sum is 0. Line (2) handles the case where the first element is a single. Then, there is no contribu- tion to the sum from the head element, so the result is obtained by a recursive application of sumE1List to the tail. Line (3) handles the case where the head clement is a pair. We recursively apply the function to the tail and then add to the resulting sum the second component of the pair at the head. ‘© The function sumE1List does not constrain the type for first components of pairs. However, line (1) tells us the result of sumE1List is an integer. The addition on line (3) must therefore be integer addition, so the second components of pairs are integers. Thus, the domain type for the function sumElList is (’a, int) element list # In lines (2) and (3), we use the data constructors P and $ as part of the pattern to distinguish the two cases of elements. This style is very common when we program with datatypes. We use one pattern for each data constructor, so each kind of value belonging to the datatype is handled appropriately. Finallv. we can apply function sumE1List to a particular list as202 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES sumElList [P("in",6), S("function"), P("as",2)]; val it = 8; int When we apply the function sumE1List to this particular list, we deduce that the type ’a for this list is string. Notice that we have safely omitted the paren- theses around the argument of sumE1List, since the square brackets around a list guarantees that the argument cannot be misinterpreted. 0 6.2.3 Recursively Defined Datatypes The datatype element of Example 6.4 did not involve nesting of constructors to build values. Rather, we only applied each constructor to appropriate values to form the values of the new type. In many interesting and important examples, values are built by applying the data constructors recursively to build arbitrarily large expressions. Example 6.5: A (labeled) binary tree is defined recursively as follows BASIS: The empty tree is a binary tree. INDUCTION: If T, and Tp are binary trees, and a is a label, then we may form another binary tree T by creating a node with label a, left subtree T;, and right subtree T;. The new node is the root of T. We represent the empty tree by the absence of any mark. A node is repre- sented by its label, a line to the lower left running to the root of its left subtree, and a line to its lower right running to the root of its right subtree. If either subtree is empty, we omit the line to that subtree. Figure 6.3 shows an example binary tree with strings as labels. é™ Figure 6.3: An example of a binary tree labeled by strings Figure 6.4 is a datatype declaration for a binary tree with a type parameter >label representing the type of labels in the tree. The type constructor for this datatype is btree. In any use, the variable ’ label would be replaced by the actual type. For instance, the binary tree of Fig. 6.3, having string labels, is a value of type string btree. Line (1) of Fig. 6.4 declares the name of the datatype, btree, and its type parameter *label. Since there is onlv one tvpe parameter. we have exercised6.2. DATATYPES 203 (1) datatype ’label btree = 2) Empty | (3) Node of *label * *label btree * ‘label btree; datatype ‘a btree = Empty | Node of ’a * 'a btree * ‘a btree Figure 6.4: Datatype definition for binary trees our option to omit parentheses around the parameter. Line (2) gives Empty as a data constructor. This constructor takes no argument and will appear only as an identifier, just as the fruit names used as data constructors in Example 6.3 appear by themselves. Line (3) introduces the data constructor Node, which is applied to a triple of values. The first is of type ?label and the second two are of type "label btree; that is, they are of the same type as the type being defined. The response of ML repeats these points. The values of type *label btree are defined recursively as follows. BASIS: The data constructor Empty is a value. INDUCTION: An expression of the form Node(a, L, R) is a value, if a is of the ’Label type and L and R are label btree’s, that is, binary trees with appropriately typed labels. In general, the values for a datatype are those that are constructed by applying the data constructors to values of the appropriate types, as many times as we wish. For instance, consider the tree of Fig. 6.3. First, we note that the la- bels are strings, so abel must have the value string, and this tree is a string btree. The leaves (nodes with two empty subtrees) are represented by an expression of the form Node(a, Empty, Empty), where a is the label of the node. For instance, the node labeled "types" is represented by the expression Node("types", Empty, Empty). Then we can work up the tree, constructing the expression for a node after the expressions for its two subtrees have been constructed. Thus, after handling all three leaves, we can work on the node labeled "as". This node has the expression Node("as", Node("a",Empty,Empty), Node("in" ,Empty Empty) ) That is, the first component is the label, "as". The second component is the expression for the left subtree, which consists of the leaf labeled "a"; this has the expression Node("a", Empty, Empty). The third component is a similar expression for the leaf labeled "in". Finally, the expression for the root uses the expression for the node labeled "as" for its left subtree and the expression for the leaf labeled "types" as its204 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES right subtree. When combined with the label at the root, we find that the expression for the entire tree is that shown in Fig. 6.5. 0 Node ("ML" Node("as", Node("a" ,Empty ,Empty) , Node("in" , Empty , Empty) » Node("types" Empty ,Empty) Figure 6.5: A value of type string btree 6.2.4 Mutually Recursive Datatypes Occasionally we need to define two or more datatypes in a mutually recursive way. We can do so by connecting the definitions with the keyword and. Type, as well as datatype, definitions may also be connected with and, but there is less need to do so. Example 6.6: We can define an even tree to be a binary tree in which each path from the root to a node with one or two empty subtrees has an even number of nodes. As a special case, the empty tree, whose paths we may regard as having length 0, is an even tree. Similarly, an odd tree is a binary tree all of whose paths from the root to a leaf or to a node with one empty subtree have an odd number of nodes. The tree of Fig. 6.3 is neither even nor odd, because there is an even-length path from the root to leaf "types" and there are odd-length paths from the root to the other two leaves There is a simple, mutually recursive definition of the datatypes evenTree and oddTree. BASIS: The empty tree is an even tree. INDUCTION: A node with a label of type *label and two subtrees that are odd trees is the root of an even tree. A node with a label of type ’label and two subtrees that are even trees is the root of an odd tree. Lines (1) through (4) of Fig. 6.6 show this mutually recursive definition in ML. Line (1) makes Empty a constructor for even trees, and line (2) makes Enode be a constructor that takes a label and two odd trees to construct an ven tree. Similarly, line (4) makes Onode the only constructor of odd trees, taking a label and two even trees. Lines (5) through (9) use the data constructors Onode and Enode to build some odd and even trees. Line (5) creates an odd tree consisting of a single6.2. DATATYPES 205 datatype qa) label evenTree = Empty | (2) Enode of ‘label * ’label oddTree * ’label oddTree and (3) label oddTree = @) Onode of ’label * ’label evenTree * ‘label evenTree; datatype ’a evenTree = Empty | Enode of * ’a oddTree * ’a oddTree datatype a odd Tree = Onode of ’a * 'a evenTree * ’a evenTree (5) val ti = Onode(1,Empty Empty) ; val t1 = Onode(1,Empty,Empty) : int oddTree (6) val t2 = Onode(2,Empty ,Empty) ; val t2 = Onode(2,Empty,Empty) : int oddTree (7) val t3 = Enode(3,t1,t2); val t3 = Enode(3, Onode(1,Empty, Empty), Onode(2,Empty,Empty)) : int even Tree (8) val 4 = Onode(4,t3, Empty) ; val t4 = Onode(}, Enode(3, Onode #, Onode #), Empty) : int oddTree (9) val t5 = Enode(5,t4,t4); val 5 = Enode(5, Onode(4, Enode #, Empty), Onode(4, Enode #, Empty)) : int evenTree Figure 6.6: Mutually recursive datatype definitions* 206 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES node labeled 1. Note that ML now deduces that for this tree the type ‘label is integer. Line (6) similarly creates a node labeled 2. It, like all single-node trees, is an odd tree. Line (7) uses the two odd trees from the previous two lines to create an even tree whose root has label 3, whose left subtree is the single node labeled 1, and whose right subtree is the single node labeled 2. Notice ML’s response, which gives the expression for this tree and identifies its type as an int evenTree. Line (8) builds another odd tree by taking a root node with label 4, the even tree ¢3 from line (7), and an empty even tree as left and right subtrees. Finally, line (9) takes a root node labeled 5 and two copies of the odd tree +4 from line (8) and creates another even tree. Each # in the response to line (9) represents the tree t3. Figure 6.7(a) shows the complete expression for +5 expanded out, while Fig. 6.7(b) is a picture of this even tree. Note that each root-to-leaf path has an even number of nodes. 0 The reader familiar with a language like Pascal or C that uses pointers as a type constructor may have seen trees constructed by pointers in records that represent nodes. Notice that the ML approach is somewhat different. The value of the tree is represented in ML programs by an expression built from data constructors applied to arguments. For example, the value of t3 printed after line (7) of Fig. 6.6 does not involve any pointers to the values of t1 or t2. The distinction is seen if identifiers such as t1 or t2 are redefined. Then, the value of t3 does not change. However, had a tree like t3 been constructed in Pascal or C, with pointers to the trees represented by ti and t2, the value of tree t3 would change as a side-effect of the change to trees t1 or t2. 6.2.5 Exercises for Section 6.2 Exercise 6.2.1: Give an example of a value of type int btree, where btree is the datatype defined in Example 6.5. Your tree should have 3 nodes. Exercise 6.2.2: Define a type (not a datatype) mapTree that is a specializa- tion of the btree datatype to have a label type that is a set of domain-range pairs. Then, define a tree t1 that has a single node with the pair ("a",1) at the root. Exercise 6.2.3: Write a function that takes a btree as its argument and returns a pair consisting of the left and right subtrees. Define an exception for the erroneous case where the tree is empty. Exercise 6.2.4: In Fig. 4.10 we wrote a program to read and sum integers, using the awkward convention that —1 represented the situation where the end of file had been reached and no integer was available. A better approach is to define a datatype intOrEof that has one data constructor Eof to represent the absence of an integer and another data constructor Integer that wraps an integer. Rewrite Fig. 4.10 to use this strategy and avoid the use of —1, which was represented there by the identifier END.6.2. DATATYPES 207 Enode(5, Onode(4, Enode(3, Onode(1,Empty ,Empty) , Onode(2,Empty ,Empty)), Empty » Onode(4, Enode(3, Onode(1,Empty Empty) , Onode(2,Empty ,Empty)) , Empty > (a) Nested expression for tree tS 5 4 NN 4 4 4 3 3 AN 0 \ 2 q 2 (b) Picture of tree t8 Figure 6.7: Representations of the tree t5 from Fig.6.6208 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES Eliding Parts of Values Notice in the response that SML/NJ only shows complicated expressions for a fixed number of levels and elides deeper structure with the # sign. For instance, in the response to line (8) of Fig. 6.6 the first # stands for the tree t1, or Onode(1 ,Empty ,Empty), and the second # stands for t2, or Onode(2, Empty ,Empty). Options as a Datatype Notice that the option type constructor first introduced in Section 4.2.5 is actually a built-in datatype, with constructors NONE and SOME of ’a for any type ?a. Its uses are similar to that of the datatype intOrEof in Ex- ercise 6.2.4. In fact, if we don’t mind the less descriptive data constructors NONE and SOME, we can use option in place of intOrEof, with data con- structor NONE replacing Eof and SOME of int replacing Integer of int. ! Exercise 6.2.5: Tell whether a type or a datatype declaration would be more suitable for the following. Give the appropriate declaration. * a) A type whose values are the suits of a card deck. b) A type whose elements are either lists of (only) integers or lists of (only) reals. * c) A type whose values are “things,” where a “thing” is either an integer or a list of “things.” d) A (parameterized) type whose values are pairs whose components can be of any type, as long as they are of the same type. ! Exercise 6.2.6: Define mutually recursive datatypes zeroTree, oneTree, and twoTree to be those binary trees whose every path from the root to a node with at least one empty subtree has length whose remainder when divided by 3 is 0, 1, or 2 respectively. *! Exercise 6.2.7: We can define a graph with nodes of some type ’node as a list Each pair consists of a node of type ’node and a list of its successor a) Write this type definition.6.2. DATATYPES 209 More Equality Types Both types and datatypes may be used to define more equality types. © A type is an equality type if the type that it stands for is an equality type. A datatype is an equality type if its constructor expressions, if any, involve only equality types or the datatype itself. © A mutually recursive collection of datatypes are equality types if their constructor expressions involve only equality types and the datatypes in the collection. b) Write a function suce(a,G) that produces the set (represented by a list) of successors of node a in graph G. If a is not a node of G, then raise the exception NotANode. !¥c) Write a function search(a,G) that finds the set of nodes reachable from node a in graph G, including a itself. Hint: It helps to write an auxiliary function search1(L,R,G) that finds all the nodes that are reachable from one or more of the nodes on list L in graph G, without going through a node on the list R. Function searchi then returns all the nodes it has reached plus all the nodes on R. We may use parameter R of searcht to keep track of nodes we have already reached in our search. We thus avoid getting trapped in infinite loops, even if the graph G has cycles. ! Exercise 6.2.8: In propositional logic, statements are represented by propo- sitional variables, which we may think of as identifiers. Logical expressions can be built from propositional variables by applying a number of logical operators. In our exercise, we shall define logical expressions and their truth values in a simple but useful form as follows. BASIS: A propositional variable is a logical expression. Its truth value may be assigned to be either true or false. INDUCTION: If E; and E2 are logical expressions, then 1. AND(E;, Ez) is a logical expression, and its value is true if and only if both E, and Ey have the value true. 2. OR(E;, E2) is a logical expression, and its value is true if either Ey or Ez or both have the value true. 3. NOT(E}) is a logical expression whose value is true if and only if the value of E is false.210 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES ‘An example of a propositional expression is AND(OR(p,q), NOT(p)). Do the following: a) Devise a datatype whose values represent logical expressions as described above. You may assume that propositional variables are represented by strings. b) Write a function eval (E,L) that takes a logical expression E and a list of true propositional variables L, and determines the truth value of E on the assumption that the propositional variables on L are true and all other propositional variables are false. 6.3 Case Study: Binary Trees In this section, we shall solidify our familiarity with datatypes by writing a number of functions on binary trees, using the datatype btree introduced in Example 6.5. Most of these functions involve the “binary search tree” described below. 6.3.1 Binary Search Trees Binary search trees are binary trees whose labels obey a particular property called the binary search tree property, or BST property, which we shall define shortly. The BST property only makes sense if there is an ordering relation, often referred to as <, that allows us to compare values of the label type. For example, the types int, real, char, and string have this ordering. To be more general, we shall only assume that there is a predicate 1t(x,y) obeying the important properties of < on integers, reals, or strings. These properties are: 1. Transitivity. That is, [4(x,y) and lt(y, 2) imply lt(x, z), just asx < y and y <2 tell us that x bool, 2. A’a btree. 3. An element of type ’a, and The range type of lookup is bool. We designed Lookup so that it could be par- tially instantiated with a particular less-than function to create a two-parameter function that looks up an element in a binary search tree, using this less-than function. Now, let us study how lookup works. Line (1) of Fig. 6.9 handles one of the basis cases, where the tree is empty. Line (2) provides the pattern that matches all other cases. Variable x matches the value being searched for, and Node(y,left,right) matches the expression for any binary tree except the empty tree. In the match, y acquires the value of the label, left gets the value of the left subtree, and right gets the value of the right subtree. Line (3) handles the case where the desired label is less than the label at the root; we must then search only the left subtree. Line (4) handles the opposite case, where the desired label is greater than the label at the root and we must search the right subtree. The only remaining case, in line (5), is when x and y are equal. Then, z has been found, which is the second basis case. Function lookup thus returns true at line (5). Line (6) defines a variable t to be the specific tree of Fig. 6.5. Then, at line (7), we call Lookup, searching for the word "function" in the tree t, using the specific comparison function strLT. We first compare "function" with "ML", and at line (3) go to the left subtree, rooted at "as". There we find "function" follows "as", so we go to the right, the tree rooted at "in". Next, we find "function" precedes "in", so we go to the left subtree. This tree is empty, so at the next call the pattern of line (1) applies, and we return false. The desired label "function" is not in the tree. * Notice how pattern matching is used in the function Leokup to determine which data constructor is used at the outermost layer of the expression representing the binary tree. © Pattern matching is also used to pick apart the structure of the tree and allow us to attack pieces of the expression recursively. 6.3.3 Insertion into Binary Search Trees Next, let us look at a similar function insert to insert an element into a binary search tree in the appropriate place. The function insert 1t T x returns6.3. CASE STUDY: BINARY TREES 215 Avoiding Equality Tests in Searches We have been very careful in lookup not to assume that the type of labels is an equality type. We use only the given 1t comparison function to compare elements x and y, and we discover x = y when we determine that both 2 a + ‘a btree (6) insert strLT t "function"; val it = Node ("ML”,Node (”as”,Node #,Node #), Node (”types”,Empty,Empty)) : string btree Figure 6.10: Insertion into a binary search tree216 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES. Line (1) handles the case of insertion into an empty tree, where a one-node tree is returned. Line (2), like the same line in Fig. 6.9, matches any nonempty tree and breaks it into its important components. However, the whole tree is also matched to the identifier T at line (2), using the keyword as. In line (3), we are directed to insert into the left subtree. We return a tree whose root label is the same as it was: y. The right subtree is also the same as it was, but the left, subtree is modified to be whatever the recursive call to insert 1t left x produces. That will be the left subtree, modified to include a node labeled ¢ at the appropriate place. Line (4) does the symmetric thing when « must be inserted into the right subtree. Finally, line (5) handles the remaining case, where the element x to be inserted is at the root of the tree T. Since z is already in the tree, we need make no change and can just return T. Line (6) shows a call to insert with first argument "function", second argument the tree t defined in Fig. 6.9, and the comparison function strLT from that figure. We eventually find our way to the empty tree that is the left subtree of the node labeled "in". In the tree constructed as the return value, that empty subtree is replaced by a tree with one node labeled "function". The resulting two-node tree replaces the one-node tree whose node is labeled "in", yielding a four-node tree to replace the three-node tree whose root is labeled "as". Figure 6.11 shows the tree returned by the original call to insert. ML" ZN neon "Zypes" LN Min" Zo "function" Figure 6.11: Binary search tree after insertion of "function" 6.3.4 Deletion from Binary Search Trees We can delete a specified element x from a binary search tree, but the strategy is a bit more complicated than lookup or insertion. As for insertion, we leave the given tree intact but return a modified version of the tree in which x does not appear. The idea is expressed by the following recursive algorithm, which curiously has most of the effort in the basis case where the targeted clement is found at the root of the tree,6.3. CASE STUDY: BINARY TREES 217 BASIS: Nothing needs to be done to delete x from an empty tree; z is not there anyway. Just return the given tree. To delete x from a tree whose root has label x, modify the tree to remove x and maintain the BST property as follows. 1. If the root has at least one empty subtree, replace the tree by the other subtree. 2. If the root has two nonempty subtrees: (a) Find the least element in the right subtree, (b) Delete it from the right subtree (which is always an example of case (1) above, since the least element in a binary search tree must have an empty left subtree), and (c) Make the least label be the label of the root, replacing 2. Return the resulting tree. INDUCTION: To delete x from a tree whose root has label y, where ¢ # y, recursively delete z from the left subtree if z < y and from the right subtree if ys. Figure 6.12 gives the necessary code to implement this algorithm. To un- derstand it, start with the function delete of lines (7) through (16). Line (7) handles the first part of the basis, where we try to delete x from the empty tree and simply return the empty tree. In line (8) we handle all other cases, where we need to dissect it into its important components as we did for lookup and insert. Lines (9) and (10) cover the inductive cases, where we must delete from the left or right subtree. For instance, in line (9) we must delete from the left. To do so, we assemble the result by taking the original label y, the original right subtree, and the left subtree that we get by deleting x from the original left subtree. Lines (11) through (16) handle the hard basis case, where « has been found at the root and we must rearrange the tree. Line (11) is the beginning of a case statement, in which we consider whether one or both of the left. and right subtrees are empty. Lines (12) and (13) are for the case where one of the subtrees is empty and we return the other. If neither subtree is empty, then the case of line (14) applies. We call the function deletemin (to be described next) on the right subtree at line (15). This function returns a pair: 1. z, the smallest label in the right subtree, and 2. r4, the tree that results from deleting z from the original right subtree.218 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES (1) exception EmptyTree; exception Empty Tree (* deletemin(T) returns a pair consisting of the least element y in tree T and the tree that results if we delete y from T. It is an error if T is empty *) (2) fun deletemin(Empty) = raise EmptyTree (3) | deletemin(Node(y,Empty,right)) = (y,right) (* The critical case. If the left subtree is empty, then the element at current node is min. *) (4) | deletemin(Node(w,left right) = let (8) val (y,L) = deletemin(left) in (6) (y, Node(w,L,right)) end; val deletemin = fn: ’a btree + ’a * 'a btree (7) fun delete 1t Empty x = Empty (8) | delete 1t (Node(y,left,right)) x = (9) if 1t(x,y) then Node(y, (delete 1t left x),right) (10) else if 1t(y,x) then Node(y,left, (delete 1t right x)) else (* x=y *) at) case (left,right) of (12) (Empty,r) => r | (13) (1,Empty) => 1 | (14) Q,r) => let (15) val (z,r1) = deletemin(r) in (16) Node(z,1,r1) end; al delete = fn : (‘a * a+ bool) + ’a btree + 'a + a btree Figure 6.12: Deletion from a binary search tree6.3. CASE STUDY: BINARY TREES 219 In line (16) we assemble the result, which has z in place of x at the root, the original left. subtrec, and the revised right subtree r1. Note that because 2 is the least label of the right subtree, the BST property is satisfied with z at the root. It surely precedes anything in tree r1, and because z < 2, it must be that anything in the left subtree precedes 2 as well as z. Now let us consider the function deletemin. This function is only called on nonempty trees, so we use the exception EmptyList in line (1) and raise it in line (2) if somehow the function is called on an empty tree. Note that, unlike the functions insert, delete, and lookup, function deletemin does not need the comparison function 1t as an argument. ‘The least label in a binary search tree is found by following left branches until we reach a node that has an empty left subtree. The situation is suggested in Fig. 6.13. Thus line (3) handles the case where we are at a tree with an empty left subtree. We return the pair consisting of: 1. The label of this node, which must be the least element, and 2. The right subtree, which is what is left when we delete the node with the least element. Notice that this deletion is an easy basis case, where one of the subtrees is empty. least Figure 6.13: Locating the least label in a tree Lines (4) through (6) handle the case where the left subtree is not empty and we must search further. In line (5) we recursively apply deletemin to the left subtree, obtaining a pair (y, L) consisting of the least label y and what remains of the left subtree after deleting y. In line (6) we assemble the desired result, a pair with y as the first component. For the second component we construct a tree with the original label w, the new left subtree L, and the original right subtree. 6.3.5 Some Comments About Running Time We can, and shall, demonstrate that the operations of lookup, insert, and delete on binarv search trees take time proportional to the length of the path followed.220 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES A path in a “typical” binary search tree will have length that is logarithmic in the number of nodes in the tree. So, binary search trees are a very efficient way to represent large sets if we only want to perform these three operations. We shall not try to prove the contention that the typical path is logarithmic in length; the reader may rely on this observation if he or she is unfamiliar with the lore surrounding binary trees. However, it is useful to verify the fact that the time taken by these algorithms is proportional to the length of the path traversed. Function lookup in Fig. 6.9 is the easiest to analyze. Line (1) takes a constant amount of time, independent of the size of the tree, to test whether the second argument is Empty and return false if so. Line (2) takes a constant amount of time to examine the root node of the tree and match variables x, y, left, and right in the pattern. Line (5) takes a constant amount of time to return true if we reach that line. Lines (3) and (4) require constant time to apply function 1t.? We must also consider the time consumed in line (3) or (4) by the recursive call to lookup. However, whether we call lookup 1t left x or lookup 1t right x, we have moved one node down the tree. Thus as we follow our path down the tree, we spend only a constant amount of time at each node and then move down. Hence the total amount of time spent is proportional to the length of the path followed. The argument about insert in Fig. 6.10 is similar. The only difference is that after making the recursive call to insert at line (3) or (4), we have to assemble a new tree, for example by evaluating the expression Node(y, (insert 1t left x) ,right) in line (3). Is it possible that we have to copy the tree produced by insert 1t left x in this situation? Fortunately, it is not. ML is implemented in such a way that this value- construction is done by pointers, just as it is typically done by programmers us- ing conventional languages. In ML, these pointers are “behind the scenes,” and the user may imagine that the trees themselves are manipulated. In practice, the construction of a tree from given trees — or in general, any fixed number of steps of value-construction using data constructors — takes a constant amount of time, independent of the size of the values being manipulated. Interestingly, we avoid copying values even in situations where it appears to be necessary. For example, consider line (11) of Fig. 6.6, where we construct the value of t& from two copies of the value of t4. In ML implementations, the value of t& can have two pointers, each to the value of t4. Because values of variables do not change in ML, we can rely on the value of t4 remaining the Technically, 1t could be any function that returns a boolean, no matter how complicated. But 1t does not get the tree as an argument, and so its running time could not depend on the size of the tree.6.3. CASE STUDY: BINARY TREES 221 same should we ever need the value of t5. In other languages, we normally could not take this risk. 6.3.6 Visiting All the Nodes of a Binary Tree The previous examples each have the property that we follow one path down a binary tree from the root to a leaf, There is another class of functions that operate on a tree by visiting each node in a systematic order. We shall give two simple examples. Example 6.8: Let us write a function sum(T) that takes a binary tree (not necessarily a binary search tree), defined by the btree datatype of Fig. 6.4, and sums the labels of all the nodes, which we shall assume are integers. The function sum is written below: fun sum(Empty) = 0 | sum(Node(a,left,right)) = a + sum(left) + sum(right); val sum = fn: int * int btree + int That is, the sum over an empty tree is 0, and the sum over any other tree is the label at the root plus the sums over the left and right subtrees. As we see from the ML response, the label type is forced to be integer because of the 0 on the first line. 0 6.3.7 Preorder Traversals Our second example of a function that visits all the nodes of a binary tree concerns “preorder traversals.” A preorder traversal of a tree is a listing of the node labels by the following recursive algorithm. 1. List the label of the root. 2. In order from the left, list all the nodes of each subtree in preorder. Example 6.9: Consider the tree of Fig. 6.8. To list its labels in preorder, we first list the label at the root, "ML". Then we work on the 3-node subtree rooted at "as". We list "as", next work on the left subtree "a" and finally work on the right subtree "in". Any I-node tree is listed in preorder by listing the label alone, so we follow "as" by "a" and then "in". Last, we return to the root, having listed its left subtree but not its right subtree. The right subtree, being a I-node tree, is listed by listing its label "types". Thus CoML", "as", "a", "in", "types") is the complete preorder listing. 0222 CHAPTER 6. DEFINING YOUR OWN TYPES Here is a function preOrder(T) that lists a binary tree in preorder. fun preOrder (Empty) = nil | preOrder(Node(a,left,right)) = [al @ preOrder(left) @ preOrder(right) ; val preOrder = fn: ‘a btree + ‘a list This function follows the definition of preorder in a straightforward way. An empty tree yields nothing, while any other tree yields the label of its root, followed by the preorder listings of its left and right subtrees. Note that if cither or both of those subtrees is empty, it will not produce any contribution to the preorder listing 6.3.8 Exercises for Section 6.3 Exercise 6.3.1: Write functions to list the nodes of a binary tree in: a) Postorder, in which the label at the root follows the postorder traversals of the left and right subtrees. b) Inorder, in which the label of the root is in between the inorder traversals of the left and right subtrees. Exercise 6.3.2: Suppose we define the type mapTree as in Exercise 6.2.2 (see the solutions if you have not worked this exercise yourself). This type is a binary tree whose labels are pairs, which we may think of as the domain and range values of a pair in some mapping. We may use a mapTree as a sort of binary search tree, if we use a = A label may be any identifier, or it may be a string of digits; the latter is a very important special case, as we shall see.230 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES ‘The type of a record is a comma-separated list of elements of the form : ‘The list is surrounded by curly brackets. That is, the notation for record types is the same as for record values, except that instead of equal-signs followed by values, we find colons followed by types. We shall refer to the type of a record as its record structure. Example 7.1: Let us design a record structure that can represent information about students. The fields will be 1. An integer ID, the “student ID number.” 2. A string name, the student’s name. 3. A string list that we call courses, indicating the courses in which the student is currently enrolled. val Norm’sRecord = { ts ual Norm’sRecord = { ID=123, } : {ID:int, courses:string list, name:string} Figure 7.1: Creating a record In the val-declaration of Fig. 7.1, the identifier Norm’ sRecord is assigned a value that is a record with three fields. The first field has label ID and value 123. The label of the second field is name, and the value of the second field is "Norm dePlume". The third field has label courses and a value that is a list of three strings. The response repeats the value of the record and indicates its type.’ ML has discovered from the values of the fields that ID is an integer, name a string, and courses a list of strings. 0 Here are a few important points about record structures to remember. © ML reorders the fields in both the value and the type expressions. The SML/NJ compiler chooses lexicographic order for the fields.? "The response from SML/NJ is not indented as shown. ?Remember that in the ASCII character code, all upper-case letters precede all lower-case letters, which explains why 1D appears ahead of cour:7.1, RECORD STRUCTURES 231 # In general, record structures are sets of fields, and the order doesn’t mat- ter. Thus, the record of Fig. 7.1 could have been expressed with any of the six possible orders of the three labels, as long as the value associated with each remained the same, For instance, val Norm’sRecord = {nam courses=["CS106X" 'Norm dePlume" 40" ,"M43"], ID = 123}; means exactly the same as the val-declaration of Fig. 7.1. © Observe that the apostrophe in identifier Norm’ sRecord has no special significance. The apostrophe is treated like an ordinary letter when it appears in the middle of an alphanumeric identifier. 7.1.2 Extracting Field Values The operator # takes a label and a record and produces the value associated with that label in the given record. We usually write this operation as #() However, the parentheses around the record are not required, and space after the # is permissible : Assume the name Norm’ sRecord is as defined in Fig. 7.1. The Example 7. operation #name(Norm’ sRecord) ; val it = "Norm dePlume” : string illustrates the use of the field-accessing operator #. The result is the value of field name in the record Norm’sRecord. O 7.1.3 Tuples as a Special Case of Record Structures In ML, the record structure is a primitive concept, and the tuple, which we have been using until now, is a special notation for certain record structures. That is, the tuple (, ... , ) is really a shorthand for the record {i=, ... , n=}232 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES In this record, the labels are the integers from 1 to n, and they are the names of the n fields, in order. Thus, for example, the tuple (3, "four") is shorthand for the record {1=3, 2 Recall that in Section 2.4.2 we introduced the # operator with an integer and a tuple as arguments, and we learned that #i extracts the ith component from a tuple. Now we see that this convention is an artifact of the definition of tuples as record structures; i is the label for the ith field of a tuple. ‘* Round and curly brackets are not interchangeable. Round parentheses only denote tuples with the “invisible” labels 1,2,.... In contrast, curly brackets only denote records, and the labels are mandatory. 7.1.4 Patterns That Match Records It is possible to use the record notation to define patterns for such uses as function definition. A pattern that matches a record will have the expected form. Between curly brackets we find a comma-separated list of fields of the form = The pattern can be any pattern expression, built along the lines suggested in Section 3.3. The pattern may also use the wildcard for fields, which is the symbol ... (ellipsis). Often, there will be many fields in a record structure, and we wish to use only one or a few of them. The ellipsis comes in handy to avoid our having to specify names for the values of all the irrelevant fields. When we match a particular record to a pattern, the ellipsis matches the set of fields that are not mentioned explicitly. Example 7.3: In Fig. 7.2 we see a function getID that takes a string repre- senting a student name and a list of records with the structure given in Exam- ple 7.1. Function getID finds the first record with that string as the student name and returns the ID for that student. If there is no such record in the list, the exception NotFound, defined in line (1), is raised, In line (2) we treat the case where the list of available records is empty. Then the person searched for has not been found, so we raise the exception. In line (3) we consider the case where there is at least one more record, 2. Using the keyword as, we express < in the alternative form {name=p,...} This expression gives the value of the name field of the record z to the pattern variable p, and the wildcard ... is allowed to match the other two fields. Line (4) checks whether the name p of the student in record x equals the person searched for, that is, person. If so, in line (5) we apply the operator #ID to « to return the value of the ID field of x. Note that at line (5) we also give the type for x, which is {name:string, ID:int, courses:string list}7.1, RECORD STRUCTURES 233 (1) exception NotFound; exception NotFound (2) fun getID(person,nil) = raise NotFound (3) | getID(person, (x as {name=p,...}) = @ if p = person then @) #I1D(x:{name:string, ID: int, courses:string list}) (6) else getID(person,xs) ; val getID = fn : string * {ID:int, courses:string list, name:string} list + int Figure 7.2: Finding the ID of a student with a given name ‘¢ Remember that order of fields is irrelevant, so this type will match records such as Norm’ sRecord of Fig. 7.1 Finally, line (6) handles the case where record x does not have a nane field value that equals person. Then we must apply get ID recursively on the tail of the list. 0 Incidentally, in Example 7.3 we could have written line (3) in several other ways. For example, we could avoid the ellipsis and write getID(person, {name=p, ID=i, courses=_}::xs) = Then, we could use 4 in place of #1D(x) in line (5), and we would not have to specify the type of x or the type of the courses field. Another approach is to let the ellipsis stand for only the courses field, replacing line (3) by getID(person, {name=p, ID=i,...}::x8) = Again we could use i for #1D(x) in line (5), but we would still have to declare the record structure somewhere. Otherwise, ML could not deduce the set of field names represented by this use of the wildcard symbol ... , and an error would be indicated. Example 7.4: Suppose we want to take student records as in Example 7.1 and compute the tuition charge. The rules we shall follow are: 1. A student registered for no courses pays a $1000 fee. 2. A student registered for only one course pays $2000. 3. A student registered for more than one course pays $4000 if an undergrad- uate and $5000 if a graduate student. Graduate students are given ID’s ‘of 100.000 or aver. so we can identify which are the graduate students.234 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES Establishing the Type of the Ellipsis One might imagine that a use of the ellipsis in a record pattern would allow the pattern to match records with different types. For example, ‘a pattern like {name=n,...} might be expected to match any record that has a name field, like {name="joe", addr="123 Maple St."} or {name="sue", phone="987-6543" }. However, as with all ML constructs, we can only use the ellipsis in such a way that the compiler can deduce a unique type for an occurrence of the ellipsis. That is, all records referred to by a pattern with an ellipsis must have the same type, which means that: « Their field names must be exactly the same. © The type for a field must be the same in each record, although as we see in Example 7.4, it is permissible in a function definition for the type to be a variable. On the other hand, it is permissible for the order of fields and the values of those fields to vary among records. ‘The function tuition is shown in Fig. 7.3. Line (1) implements the first rule above; if the list of courses is empty, the tuition is $1000. Here, the patterns for the name and ID fields were chosen to be wildcard variables, because we do not need to use their values in the result of the function. The pattern for the courses field is the constant nil. Note that by specifying all the fields in the record, ML now has a sufficient idea of the record type. However, as we see from the response below line (5), tuition is partially polymorphic because ML never learns, nor needs to know, the type of student names or the names of courses. Line (2) covers the second rule, where the student is taking a single course. The pattern for the list of courses is [ .]. Here, the wildcard variable is used, but its position within square brackets creates a pattern that is matched by lists of length one, and only by those lists. We are able to use the ellipsis safely, since ML knows from line (1) what the other fields of the record must be named, Lines (3) though (5) cover the case where there is more than one course in the course list, because the cases of zero and one course were already intercepted by lines (1) and (2). Now, we need to use the value of the ID field, so we give it a variable name i, while we elide the rest of the record-pattern, © Note that it is permissible for different uses of the ellipses in one function to have different tvpes.7.1. RECORD STRUCTURES 235 (1) fun tuition({name=_, ID=_, courses=nil}) = 1000 (2) | tuition({courses=[ _ ],...}) = 2000 (3) | tuition({ID=i,...}) = (4) if i>=100000 then 5000 (5) else 4000; val tuition = fu : {ID:int, courses="a list, name="b} + int (6) tuition (Norm’sRecord) ; val it = 4000 (7) tuition({name="Mona Kerr" ,ID=54321 ,courses=["CS105"]}) ; val it = 2000 (8) tuition({name="Sue Dunham" , 1D=200000, courses=["CS105" ,"CS022"]}) ; val it = 5000 (9) tuition({name="Alice 0. Nunez", ID=6789,courses=nil}) ; val it = 1000 Figure 7.3: Computing tuition by matching record patterns In line (6) we apply tuition to the specific record Norm’ sRecord defined in Fig. 7.1. It identifies the student as an undergraduate taking more than one course and determines the tuition to be $4000. Lines (7) through (9) test the other three possible outcomes. 0 7.1.5 Shorthands in Record Patterns Often a record pattern uses a single variable as the pattern for a field. ML provides a shorthand for this case if we are willing to use the field name itself as the variable. That is, instead of = as a field, we just use . Example 7.5: In line (3) of Fig, 7.3 we used ID = i asa field of the record- pattern, and we then used i as the value of the field in line (4). An equivalent wav to write this code is236 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES (3) | tuition({ID,...}) = @ if ID>=100000 then 5000 Here, just ID appears as the pattern for the field in line (3), and in line (4) we use ID itself as the value of that field, instead of variable i. In so doing, there is an increase in clarity. We can see that line (4) is asking if the student ID is at least 100,000. O 7.1.6 Exercises for Section 7.1 Exercise 7.1.1: Write expressions to do the following. * a) Define the type dino to be an abbreviation for a record structure with fields name (a string), weight (a real), and height (a real). b) Create a record named tyranno, of type dino, that represents the facts that Tyrannosaurus weighed 7 tons and was 20 feet tall * c) Create a record named brachio, of type dino, that represents the facts that Brachiosaurus weighed 50 tons and was 40 feet tall. d) Write an expression that gets from the record tyranno the height of a ‘Tyrannosaurus. * e) Write an expression that gets from the record brachio the weight of a Brachiosaurus. ! Exercise 7.1.2: Write the following functions based on the dino record type of Exercise 7.1.1. * a) Given a list of dino records, find the tallest dinosaur on the list. b) Find the heaviest dinosaur on a list of dino records. ©) Find the average weight of dinosaurs on a list of dino records. Exercise 7.1.3: Suppose we have a list L of items with the record structure introduced in Example 7.1. We can write several functions to search for records with given properties. Write the following functions: * a) Given a list L and a name n, find all those records with n as the value of its name field. b) Given a list L and an ID i, find the list of courses in the first (and pre- sumably only) record with ID field equal to i. *!c) Given a list L and a course ¢, find the names of all the students who are taking course c.7.2. ARRAYS 237 7.2 Arrays In this section we shall see the first ML construct that changes a value binding. Recall that normally, when we appear to be assigning a new value to a variable, in an “assignment” such as val x = 1; we are really creating a binding for a new variable named ¢. This binding goes above any other binding for z in the current environment, say a binding in which « was bound to the value 2. However, other function calls may still have access to the old binding and that binding still exists in the environment. If we were to change the binding for the “old” variable 2, then functions that had access to the old x would see the value of x change from 2 to 1. ‘The guarantee that a value binding, once created, is available forever to functions that use it, is an important feature of ML. However, there are some situations where programs cannot be made adequately efficient unless we are allowed to change some value bindings. Thus, in this section we shall first moti- vate the need for arrays, with their attendant ability to change valuc bindings, and then show how ML allows us to create and use arrays 7.2.1 Why Do We Need Arrays? While we have seen that programming in a functional style is not hard when one gets used to it, there are certain situations where we need to have a “state” for the data used by a program, or where searching through long lists is too inefficient. Example 7.6: Let us consider the problem of checking that each of the 26 lower-case letters appears in a string. In a language like Pascal we would use a strategy like: 1. Create a boolean array indexed by the letters. Initialize each element to false. 2. For each character of the string, set the corresponding array element to true. 3. After the entire string has been processed, check that each element of the array is true. While the above strategy uses iteration in steps (2) and (3), it is possible to substitute a recursion for the iteration in ML. We can use a somewhat different strategy, seen in Fig. 7.4, to get the job done in ML. | ‘The function member of lines (1) through (4) tests whether element 2 is on a list L. Since the ideas should be familiar, we omit a discussion of this function. Lines (5) through (7) are a function memberA11(ch,L) that checks238 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES (* member (x,L) tests if x appears on list L *) (1) fun member(x,nil) = false (2) | member(x,y::ys) = (3) if x=y then true (4) else member(x,ys); val member = fn: "a * "a list + bool (* memberAll(ch,L) checks that character ch and all following characters up to "z" are on list L *) (5) fun memberAl1(ch,L) = (6) if ch > #"z" then true m else member(ch,L) andalso memberA11 (chr (ord(ch)+1) ,L); val memberAll = fn : char * char list + bool (8) memberA11(#"a" ,explode("qvertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm")) ; val it = true : bool Figure 7.4: Checking that all letters appear: list-based solution whether all the letters between ch and #"z" are on the list L. That is, line (6) checks if the letter that is the value of variable ch is beyond #"2", in which case there is nothing to check, and we return true. If there is still something to check, line (7) first checks that the letter represented by variable ch is on the list and then calls memberA11 recursively on the next letter. Notice that the expression chr (ord(ch)+1) gives the character with the code one higher than that of ch. Finally, in line (8) we test the code with a call to menberAl1. The first argument is #"a", so it checks all the letters, and the second argument is a list of characters formed by exploding the string of all the letters in keyboard order. 0 The solution of Fig. 7.4 works, but it is not a very efficient solution. To see the problem clearly, let us think of the generalization where there are n letters (instead of 26) and the strings to be checked have length at least. n. Then member on the average must go distance n/2 down the list to find a given character, and memberA11 calls member n times to get a positive answer. Thus, a call to memberA11 that returns true takes average time proportional to n?. On the other hand, the array-based solution outlined at the beginning of Example 7.6 takes time proportional to n, provided the string is about n char- acters in length. Step (1) takes time vrovortional to the length of the arrav to7.2. ARRAYS 239 initialize, and in our generalized scenario we need an array of length n. Step (2) takes time proportional to the length of the string, which we suppose is also about n. Step (3) again takes time proportional to the length of the array, or n. Thus, the whole algorithm takes time proportional to n. This increase in efficiency is an important reason why ML provides arrays, even though the array violates the functional style of ML. In particular, arrays allow us to change the binding of an array element as a side-effect of a function called update. No other ML construct, except the reference to be discussed in Section 7.3, allows bindings to be changed. 7.2.2 Array Operations There is a structure in the ML Standard Basis that gives us the ability to create and manipulate arrays. The array operations are not available in the top-level environment, so if we want to use arrays we may open the structure Array by: open Array; Alternatively, we can avoid opening structure Array if we prepend to each of the array operations the word Array and a dot; for example we may use Array .update for the update function on arrays, even if we have not opened structure Array. Arrays have the limited form found in C, where the only permitted index sets are the integers from 0 up to some number. The variety of options for index sets found in languages such as Pascal is not available in ML. The most important operations on arrays are the following: 1. We can create an array A of n elements (numbered 0 through n—1), with each element initialized to value v, by the val-declaration: val A = array(n,v); We must specify the type of v if it is not obvious from the value (e.g., we must specify the type if v is nil). Further, there are limits on the type that v may have, for technical reasons we shall not discuss. 2. The value of the element numbered i of array A is produced by the ex- pression sub(A, i). 3. To store a value v in the element numbered i of array A, we use the expression update (A, i,v). This function is one of the few in ML that has a side-effect. Notice that the value of an element of array A is permanently changed by this use of update «If sub or update are given a value of the subscript i that is out of the index set for the array, then the exception Subscript is raised.240 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES Example 7.7: In Fig. 7.5 we see a program to solve the same problem as that of Fig. 7.4, but it takes only linear time to do so. In line (1) we open the structure Array. The response, which is a listing of all the functions available in this structure, is not shown. Lines (2) through (4) give a function checkA11 that tells whether array A has only true elements with indices from 0 up to and including i. In line (3) we return true if i < 0, because there is nothing we need to check. Line (4) handles the case where something is left to check. We confirm that the element, i of array A is true and, if so, we then check recursively that elements from 0 up to i 1 are also true. (1) open Array; (* checkAl1(A,i) checks that array A has only true elements with indexes 0 through i *) (2) fun checkAl1(A,i) = (3) <0 orelse (4) sub(A,i) andalso checkAll(A, i-1 val checkAll = fn : bool array * int + bool (* fillAndCheck(A,L) sets the element of array A to true for each letter appearing on list L, then checks that all elements are true *) (5) fun fillAndCheck(A,nil) = checkAl1(A,25) (6) | fillAndCheck(A,x::xs) = ( @ update(A,ord(x)-ord (#" (8) fillAndCheck(A,xs) ds val fillAndCheck = fn : bool array * char list + bool true); (9) fillAndCheck(array(26,false) , explode ("qvertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm")) ; val it = true : bool Figure 7.5: Checking that all letters appear: array-based solution Lines (5) through (8) are the function fi11AndCheck, which takes an array A and a list L, and for each character on list L sets the appropriate element of Ato true. After completing the examination of the list, £111AndCheck calls checkAl1 to verify that all elements of array A are true. In detail. line (5)7.2. ARRAYS 241 handles the case where the list is exhausted, whereupon checkA11 is called with second argument 25. The number 25 is the highest index for our array, so we are thereby checking that all elements are true. Lines (6) through (8) handle the case where there are elements on the list L. After matching the pattern x: :x8 on line (6), we do a sequence of two steps. First, on line (7) we take the head element x and compute the corresponding array index by the expression ord(x)-ord(#"a"). Thus, the element indexed 0 corresponds to #"a", 1 to #""b", and so on, up to index 25, which corresponds to #"'z". Then, the update function, as a side-effect, sets the appropriate element of A to true. Second, line (8) calls fi11AndCheck recursively on the tail of the list L Finally, line (9) is a use of function £i11AndCheck. The first argument is the expression array (26, false) whose value is an array with 26 elements, indexed 0 to 25, each of which initially has the value false. The second argument is the list (exploded string) of the lower-case letters in keyboard order. O 7.2.3. Exercises for Section 7.2 Exercise 7.2.1: Write expressions to perform the following operations. * a) Create an array A of 20 elements, each of which is initially an empty list of reals. b) Create an array A of 100 reals, each of which is initially 0. * c) Find the 30th element in an array A of 100 reals. d) Find the 10th element in an array A of 20 integers. * e) Change the element with index 10 in array A to 43. £) Change the element with index 0 in array A to [1,2,3] Exercise 7.2.2: Write programs to sort an array A of length n, using: * a) A simple n?-time sort such as bubblesort or insertion sort. !'b) Mergesort. Hint: Create temporary arrays and merge from two small arrays into one of twice the size. Exercise 7.2.3: Write functions to perform the following tasks: * a) Cycle an array A of length n by one position. 1b) Create a list of the elements of an array A of length n, in order, starting at position 0. *1 0) Reverse an array A of length n. 1d) Given a function f and an integer n, create a function g that applies f to cach element of an array of length n. Function g returns an array of the n results.242 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES 7.3 References Standard ML has a mechanism for associating new values with names of any type, not just with array elements. This feature, called the reference, is the second way to violate the functional, side-effect-free style. We advocate its use only in situations where it simplifies the programming. 7.3.1 The ref Type Constructor It is possible to associate with some identifier x a value that is a “reference,” which we may think of as a box capable of holding any value of a particular type. We add the binding between x and this “box” to the environment by: val x = ref v; Here, v can be a value of any type, say type T, whereupon ML will respond with val 2 = ref v: T ref However, we should be aware that expressions that involve a reference are always expansive (recall Section 5.3.1). A consequence is that, at the top level (i. the expression is not part of a definition of a function or other element), it is not permissible for the type T’ to involve type variables. For example, val x = ref(fn x=>x); Gives us a “nongeneralizable type variable” error message, because the type of the value v (i.e., the identity function) isfn : ’a -> ’a, which involves a type variable. The value in the “box” associated with x can later be changed to another value of type T by using the := operator. In contrast, binding identifier x to value v rather than to value ref v would not allow the binding to be modified in any way. Example 7.8: The statement val i = ref 0; val i = ref 0 : int ref binds identifier i to a “box” whose initial value is ref 0. Figure 7.6 suggests what the box i might look like, with the type constructor ref wrapping the current value in the box. Note that it will be possible to change the value in the “box” of Fig. 7.6 without having to create a new binding. ©7.3. REFERENCES 243 i | ret |_o Current Environment: Figure 7.6: A variable i of type ref int 7.3.2 Obtaining the Value of a Ref-Variable The operator !, applied to a reference, produces the value to which the reference refers. For instance, if i is the ref-variable of Example 7.8, which was made to refer to the integer 0, then the value of !4 is 0. In contrast, the value of the expression i is not 0 but rather ref 0. Function is not defined for expressions that are not references. ML will detect and indicate an error if we write a program that could apply ! to a non-reference. One way to understand the distinction between the value of a ref variable and the value to which it refers is to imagine there is a datatype ref with one data constructor, also called ref. This datatype has one type variable and is defined by datatype ’a ref = ref of ’a: ‘That view is consistent with the picture in Fig. 7.6, where the variable i has the value ref 0 and is of type int ref.? In this view, the function ! is defined by fun !(ref v) = Note ! is not defined for non-reference arguments. However, there is more to references than a datatype. Only ref-variables can change the value to which they are bound. Other identifier bindings remain the same and can only be overwritten by new additions to the environment that bind the same identifier, as we discussed in Section 2.3.4, 7.3.3 Modifying Ref-Variables The function denoted by the infix operator := changes the value inside the box that is bound to a ref-variable. For instance, if i is the ref-variable from Example 7.8, the assignment TWe use ref O rather than ret(O) to represent references, although either is correct. Recall that parentheses are optional in function applications and data constructor applications as well.244 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES irs 4; replaces by 1 the value in the box that is bound to identifier i. The value to which i is bound has not changed; it is still ref applied to the same “box” suggested in Fig. 7.6. In ML terms, the current store (association of locations or “boxes” with values) has changed. In contrast, other ML operations that change things, such as var-declarations, act directly on the environment, creat- ing new bindings for variables and thereby obscuring previously made bindings for variables with the same identifiers. « Note that := can only be used on a ref-variable that has already been defined. It cannot be used to initialize a ref-variable. 7.3.4 The While-Do Statement The expression while do has the expected meaning in ML: 1. Evaluate the first expression. 2. If the first expression is false, end. If the first expression is true, evaluate the second expression and go to step (1). Of course, we shall loop indefinitely if the second expression does not change something that affects the value of the first expression. Ref-variables make it easy to have the evaluation of the second expression change the value of the first expression. They thus let us create loops that perform some useful computation and then terminate. ‘ The value produced by a while-do expression is always the unit, even if the expression after the do has a type other than unit. Example 7.9: A simple example of a while-loop is shown in Fig. 7.7. The effect is that the integers from 1 to 10 will be printed on a line. Each time we execute the “body” of the loop (the three statements after the do), we increment i by 1 until it exceeds 10. Here are a few useful points to remember about the code in Fig. 7. © We must print the value 11, not i. The value of i is something like ref 3, and there is no way to print a ref value without first extracting the value inside and printing that value. * Notice that after we do extract the value to be printed by !i, we use the appropriate conversion function, Int. toString, which converts an integer to a string.7.3. REFERENCES 245 val i= ref 1; val i = ref 1: int ref while !i<=10 do ( print (Int.toString(!i)); print(" "); ice lie¢ed 5 123456789 10 val it = () : unit Figure 7.7: A while-do loop © The termination test is !i<=10, not i<=10. The latter expression would try to compare a value of type int ref with the value 10 of type int and cause a type mismatch. 7.3.5 Exercises for Section 7.3 Exercise 7.3.1: Write expressions that do the following: * a) Create a ref-variable i whose initial value is a reference to 10. b) Create a ref-variable word whose initial value refers to "foo". * c) Change existing ref-variable i to refer to 20. d) Change existing ref-variable word to refer to "bar" Exercise 7.3.2: Write expressions to compute the following functions of the values referred to by ref-variables x and y, which we shall assume refer to reals. * a) The square of the sum of the values referred to by x and y. b) The average of the values referred to by x and y. *! Exercise 7.3.3: What happens in response to the ML code val i= 1; while i<10 do val i = itt; ! Exercise 7.3.4: Early versions of ML had operators inc i and dec i that would increment and decrement by 1 the value referred to by a variable i of type int ref. Write functions inc and dec that have the desired effect.246 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES e 7.3.5: In Pascal, C, and many other languages, there is a linked-list, data structure that we assume is familiar to the reader. There is generally no need to implement this sort of data structure in ML because we have such lists as a primitive, and the implementation of lists in ML is, “behind the scenes,” very much like the standard linked list. However, it is an interesting exercise to mimic the linked list using records and references in ML. That is, each cell of a linked list is a record with an element field carrying the data and a next field that is a reference to the next cell Hint: In other languages, a “nil pointer” is a legitimate value of any pointer type, but we do not have the luxury in ML of such a versatile value (although nil essentially has that versatility for normal ML lists). Thus, we need to create a datatype with two constructors, Nil and Ce11, to indicate whether a next field “points” to another cell or is “nil.” * a) Devise the datatype for cells of “conventional” linked lists. b) Write a function pop that takes a linked list as argument and produces the tail of that linked list. Raise the exception Empty (a built-in exception of ML) if the linked list is empty. * c) Write a function skip that takes a cell Cas argument and changes the next field of C to point to the cell pointed to by the cell that C originally pointed to. Raise the exception BadCel1 if this operation is impossible. d) Write a function that takes a linked list and produces an ML list of all the elements in all its cells. 7.4 Case Study: Hash Tables ‘The hash table is an important data structure that makes it possible to maintain sets by inserting and deleting elements in average time per action that does not grow with the size of the set. Hash tables also allow average-constant-time lookup on the set, to test whether a given element is currently a member of the set. Arrays are essential if we are to make hash tables work efficiently. 7.4.1 The Dictionary Operations ‘A set with the operations insert, delete, and lookup is sometimes called a dic- tionary. We can implement a dictionary as a list. However, if the list grows to length n, then operations will take about n/2 steps on the average, since we must go about half way down the list. We also saw in Section 6.3 that the dictionary operations can be implemented on a binary search tree in time proportional to the logarithm of n. However, the hash table is better than ei- ther of these methods of supporting the dictionary operations; it does the same operations using an average of a small constant number of steps per operation, independent of the size of the set.7.4. CASE STUDY: HASH TABLES 247 0 [Hist for bucket 0 1 [Dist for bucket 1 A(z) b—1 [List for bucket b= 1 Bucket Headers Figure 7.8: A hash table 7.4.2 How a Hash Table Works The idea of the hash table is sketched in Fig. 7.8. At the heart is an array called the bucket headers. The set being represented is divided into some number 6 of buckets, numbered 0 through b— 1. Each bucket is represented by a list of the elements in that bucket. If we pick 6 approximately equal to n, which is the size of the set, then there will be an average of about one clement per bucket. However, in rare cases there could be a large number of elements, or even all the elements, in one of the buckets. Which bucket an element 2 belongs to is determined by a hash function A(z) that produces an integer in the range 0 to b— 1. The hash function can be anything we like, although it is desirable that it “randomize” the buckets so that in any typical set of elements, about an equal number of elements will belong in each bucket. 7.4.3 An Example of Hash Table Implementation We shall build a simple hash table that stores strings in ten buckets (i.e., b = 10). Elements are strings, and the buckets will be represented by lists of strings. Figure 7.9 shows how we first open the structure Array, define the constant b to be 10, and then define a simple hash function for strings, which we call h. Function h uses an auxiliary function h1 that takes a list of characters, applies ord to each, and sums these integers modulo b. The result is always an integer between 0 and b — 1, so it may be used as a bucket number. The function h takes its string argument x, explodes it into a list of characters, and applies hi to this list in order to get the bucket number for string x Following the definition of the hash function is a function insert, which248 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES Arrays and References The elements of an array may be thought of as references, although in practice there is a more efficient implementation of arrays in ML as a block of storage, much like the implementations of arrays in other languages. That is, the picture of an array in Fig. 7.8 is not precisely correct. Strictly speaking, the element for index value 0 should be “reg (list for bucket 0),” and similarly for the other elements. Then, the function sub(A, i) can be thought of as finding the element with index i and applying the ! operator to it. We can think of update(A,i,v) as performing e := v, where ¢ is the clement of the array A having index i. inserts a string into the hash table. It uses an auxiliary insertList, which inserts a string into a list of strings. The working of insertList should be obvious. If the list is empty, it creates a list consisting of only the inserted string. If the list is nonempty, we ask if the element to be inserted is at the head. If so, we are done, and if not we insert the clement into the tail. The function insert (x,A) then works as follows, where z is the element to be inserted, and A is the array of bucket headers. We calculate the appropriate bucket for element x by applying the hash function A(z). We get the list L that is the list in the appropriate bucket, insert x into L, and then update A by replacing the bucket for x by the new list. Function delete similarly uses an auxiliary deleteList that deletes an clement from a list. It assumes that no element appears more than once on the list, which is guaranteed if all insertions are made by insertList. The function delete (x,A) works in a manner similar to insert. Given an element to delete, we compute the bucket h(x), delete from the list of that bucket, and then update the array by replacing the old list by the new one. Similarly, lookup uses an auxiliary lookupList that tests whether an ele- ment 2 ison a list L. First, lookup(x,A) computes the bucket h(z) for element x. Then, Lookup uses lookupList to search for « in the list of bucket h(:r). The final line of Fig. 7.9 creates an array called headers of the appropriate size, using the parameter b that we defined prior to the hash function h. Notice that by using the parameter 6 twice, we are sure that the hash function is suitable for the header array. Now we can execute operations on the dictionary represented by array headers. Here are three examples of these operations. insert ("foo", headers) ; val it = () : unit74. CASE STUDY: HASH TABLES 249 open Array; val b = 10; fun hi(nil) = 0 | hiGx::xs) = (ord(x)+hi(xs)) mod b; fun h(x) = hi(explode(x)); fun insertList (x,nil) | insertList(x,y::ys) if xsy then y::ys else y::insertList (x,ys); (xl fun insert (x,A) = let val bucket = h(x); val L = sub(A,bucket) in update(A, bucket, insertList (x,L)) end; fun deleteList(x,nil) = nil | deleteList(x,y::ys) = if xy then ys else y::deleteList(x,ys); fun delete(x,A) = let val bucket = h(x); val L = sub(A,bucket) in update (A, bucket ,deleteList (x,L)) end; fun lookupList(x,nil) = false | lookupList(x,y::ys) = if x=y then true else lookupList(x,ys); fun lookup(x,A) = lookupList(x,sub(A,h(x))) 5 val headers = array(b, nil: string list); Figure 7.9: Implementing a hash table250 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES lookup("bar", headers) ; val false > bool delete("baz", headers) ; val it = () : unit Note that the operations insert and delete produce a unit as value, since they do their work by a side-effect and do not return a value. 7.4.4 Exercises for Section 7.4 Exercise 7.4.1: Another approach to hashing, called closed hashing, is to store only one element in each bucket, rather than a list of elements. If we want to store an element « in bucket h(z), but that bucket is filled, then we instead try buckets A(z) +1, A(z) +2, and so on. If we reach the last bucket, we go around to bucket 0 and continue searching for an empty bucket. If we come back to where we started, then the table is full, and the insertion fails. To lookup element z, we must search not only bucket A(z), but the following buckets (continuing to bucket 0 if we reach the last bucket), until we find an empty bucket. Moreover, when we delete, we cannot simply mark the bucket as empty. If we did, then lookups might stop too soon. Instead, we need another value that says “this bucket may be filled, but in lookups it should not be considered empty. Write functions insert, delete, and lookup that use the strategy outlined above. Hint: A useful datatype to define for the cells of the array is a general- ization of the option. This datatype has two parameterless data constructors, Empty for a bucket that has never been filled, and Deleted for a bucket that was once filled but whose clement was deleted. In addition, there is a third data constructor, say Filled, that takes a parameter: a value of the type of hash-table elements. ! Exercise 7.4.2: The function insertList of Fig. 7.9 can be made more ef- ficient if we just insert the element onto the front of the list without check- ing whether or not it is already on the list. However, if we do so, then the deleteList function must be modified as well. Why? (Hint: consider what happens if x is inserted, inserted again, and then deleted.) Write revised func- tions to support duplicate elements on a bucket list. 7.5 Case Study: Triangularization of a Matrix The next extended example is intended to give an appreciation of the way references, arrays, and while-loops can be used productively. We consider the problem of turning an n-by-n matrix of reals into an upper-triangular matri (a matrix in which all elements below the main diagonal are 0, as suggested7.5. CASE STUDY: TRIANGULARIZATION OF A MATRIX 251 by Fig, 7.10). The solution uses row operations in which a multiple of one row is subtracted from another. Upper-triangularization is the key step in the algorithm for solving simultaneous linear equations known as “Gaussian elimination.” Figure 7.10: An upper-triangular matrix; shaded area is all 0's 7.5.1 Creating and Initializing the Matrix ‘The creation of a matrix M begins in Fig. 7.11. Line (1) opens the Array structure, which we need for our program. As always, opening Array is optional, and may be inadvisable for several reasons. Instead of opening Array, we could prepend Array and a dot to all uses of array, sub, and update in our code. Line (2) sets n, the dimension of the matrix, to 10. The rest of the code is written with n as the side of the matrix. The matrix M will be represented by an array of length n, each element of which is a row. Each row is itself an array of length n, and its elements are reals. The matrix element Mjj, the element in row i and column j, is obtained by the expression sub(sub(M,!i), 13), assuming i and j are variables of type int ref. Note that we must use the ! operator to get the integer value of such a variable. Line (3) creates the array M with n elements numbered 0 to n~1. Initially, each element has an array of n reals as value; those reals are all initially 0. © We might think we are done with the creation of the matrix, but there is a subtle error. The subexpression array (n,0.0) has created a single array of n reals, and this one array has become the value of each element of M. Should we leave M as it is, changing one element of M would change every element in its column, Figure 7.12 shows the difference between what we have after line (3) and what we want and achieve after line (7). Thus, in lines (4) through (7) we create a new array for each element of M except that with index 0. Line (4) creates a ref-variable i to serve as the iterator. Line (5) begins a while-loop, in which the condition is that the value referred to by i must be less than n. The body of this while-loop does two things. First, line (6) puts a new row-array in the element of M with index i. Note that we do not need tn renlare the array of row 0; the original row-array will serve for this one252 CHAPTER 7. MORE ABOUT ML DATA STRUCTURES (1) open Array; (2) val n = 105 (3) val M = array(n,array(n,0.0)); (4) val i = ref 1; (5) while !icn do ( (6) update(M,!i,array(n,0.0)); mM drs lita (8) i: (9) val j = ref 0; (* initialize M to be a particular matrix +) (10) while !icn do ( (1) while !jb then () else (F(a); for(ati,b,F)); That is, the function for applies function F to each of the integers between a and b. The type of for is int * int * (int -> ’a) -> unit. Intuitively, F is the body of the for-loop, with the current loop index as an argument. *! a) Rewrite the while-loop of Example 7.7 that prints the integers from 1 to 10, using for. !!b) Rewrite the code of Figs. 7.11 and 7.13 using for to avoid all use of references.Chapter 8 Encapsulation and the ML Module System One of the great themes of modern programming language design is facilitating the encapsulation of information, that is, the grouping of concepts such as types and functions on those types in a cluster that can be used only in limited ways. ‘The limitation on use is not intended to make programming difficult, but rather: © To prevent data from being used in unexpected ways that result in hard- to-discover bugs. « To encourage reuse of code by allowing the definitions supporting a com- mon idea to be packaged with a simple and precisely defined interface. In this chapter, we shall learn about the features of ML that support encapsu- lation: structures, signatures, and functors. Together, these concepts are called the ML module system. There are a number of other features of ML that. support encapsulation, some involving the module system and some not. We shall also cover these ideas — local definitions, abstract types, and structure sharing — in this chap- ter. 8.1 Why Modules? The ML module system has three major building blocks: 1. Structures are collections of types, datatypes, functions, exceptions, and other elements that we wish to encapsulate. The definitions of these ele- ments appear in the structure. We have actually met certain structures that appear in the ML standard basis, such as Int or TextI0. In Sec- tion 8.2 we shall learn how to create and use structures of our own.258 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM 2. Signatures are collections of information describing the types and other specifications for some of the elements of a structure. 3. Functors are operations that take as arguments one or more elements such as structures and produce a structure that combines the functor’s arguments in some way. In effect, a signature is a “type” for a structure, and the syntax of ML reflects this view. That is, we can attach a signature to a structure with a colon, just as we attach a type to an expression with a colon. An alternative, and similar view is that the signature is a declaration, while the structure is a definition. 8.1.1 Information Hiding One important capability of the module system in ML and other languages is information hiding. We hide information by arranging that certain definitions within a package are not usable outside the package. Those terms that are not hidden, and thus are available outside the package, are said to be ezported by the module. The structure is one important kind of package we may use to hide information. A number of other mechanisms for information hiding will be taken up in Section 8.5. Example 8.1: In Section 6.3 we discussed a datatype btree and gave three useful functions for implementing binary search trees: lookup, insert, and delete. We also defined an exception EmptyTree and an auxiliary function deletemin that helps with the implementation of delete in Fig. 6.12. The binary search tree is a common concept that might be packaged and used in many programs. Ina binary-search-tree package, we might want to hide deletemin because it is not an operation we typically need with binary search trees. Hiding this function has the advantage that we can be sure no one will use it other than through a call to delete. Recall that deletemin fails when given the empty tree as an argument, but in delete, we were very careful to call deletemin only on nonempty trees. A user of deletemin might not know of this problem and might not be so careful. Moreover, if we hide deletemin we can also hide the exception EmptyTree, since there is no way for the user to cause the corresponding error. ‘We might even want to hide the data constructors Empty and Node for binary search trees, The motivation is similar. If we make the constructors available outside the package, an unknowing programmer might use them to build binary trees that did not obey the BST property. On the other hand, if we limit the construction of binary search trees to the insert and delete functions, we can be sure that the BST property will be preserved. We do, however, need to add another function create that takes no argument and returns the empty tree, or else we would never be able to get started building binary search trees8.1. WHY MODULES? oe outside the package. Figure 8.1 suggests what the binary-search-tree package would look like from the outside if we hid the constructors, the exception, and the function deletemin. We shall return to this example and to the subject of information hiding in Section 8.5. 0 Visible Outside EnptyTree insert deletemin tree delete Node Lookup Empty create BST Structure Figure 8.1: Exporting only the essentials of the binary-search-tree 8.1.2 Clustering Connected Elements In addition to hiding capabilities that we do not want to offer the user, ML offers us capabilities to group related elements properly. To see the problem, let us again consider the matter of functions on binary search trees. In Section 6.3 we wrote each of the functions lookup, insert, and delete to take a function parameter 1t that implements the particular less-than needed for a particular binary search tree. However, how do we know that these three functions will be called with the same 1t? A slightly safer approach is to remove the parameter 1t from lookup, insert, and delete. First define a function 1t, and then define lookup, insert, or delete to refer to this function 1t. In the future, all compar- isons within the three functions will all use this 1t, even if 1t is subsequently redefined. Example 8.2: Figure 8.2 shows versions of the functions insert, delete, and lookup. We have removed the parameter 1t from each of the three functions that used in it Section 6.3, although the three functions still refer to 1t when they need to compare elements. We have also written them in non-Curried form, since Currying without the parameter 1t is less compelling than if we have the opportunity to partially instantiate the functions by binding 1t. Finally, we have reversed the order of the tree and label arguments, because clarity is260 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM datatype ‘label btree = Empty | Node of *label * ’label btree * ’label btree; fun lower(nil) = nil | lower(c::cs) = (Char.toLower c)::lower(cs); fun 1t(x,y) = implode (lower (explode(x))) < implode (lower (explode(y))); fun lookup(x, Empty) = false | lookup(x, Node(y,left,right)) = if 1t(x,y) then lookup(x, left) else if 1t(y,x) then lookup(x, right) else (* x=y *) true; fun insert(x,Empty) = Node(x,Empty,Empty) | insert(x, T as Node(y,left,right)) = if 1t(x,y) then Node(y, insert (x,left) ,right) else if 1t(y,x) then Node(y,left, insert(x,right)) else (* xy *) T; (* do nothing; x was already there *) (* exception EmptyTree and function deletemin are defined exactly as before *) fun delete(x, Empty) = Empty | delete(x, Node(y,left,right)) = if 1t(x,y) then Node(y,delete(x,left) right) else if 1t(y,x) then Node(y, left delete(x,right)) else (* x=y *) case (left,right) of (Empty,r) => r | (2,Empty) => 1 | (,r) => let val (z,r1) = deletemin(r) in Node(z,1,r1) end; Figure 8.2: Removing 1t from the functions that access binary search trees8.2. STRUCTURES 261 enhanced when we put the label being searched for in front of the often complex tree that is the second argument. Instead of defining a function strLT to use as a parameter to lookup and the other functions, we use the identical definition of a comparison function, but we call it 1t. © ML provides a way to generate versions of lookup, insert, and delete using a template called a functor that we shall take up in Section 8.3. With the proper functor, we can turn a particular 1t function into a structure that contains the functions of Fig. 8.2 but restricted to use this function 1t. 8.2 Structures We have actually met structures in one guise: the built-in structures of the ML standard basis that provide collections of related functions, exceptions, and constants. These structures are generally associated with a particular type, and they are not intended to be changed by the user. The same grouping and organization that the designers of ML used for the ML standard basis is available to the application programmer who uses the structure-defining statement of ML. A structure definition has the following form: structure = struct end There are a number of different kinds of elements that may appear in a structure. The ones we shall use principally are: 1. Function definitions, 2. Exceptions, 3. Constants, and 4, Types. However, there are several others. Section 9.6.8 has a complete listing of the elements that may appear in structures. The elements of the structure optionally may be ended by semicolons. We shall adopt the same “Pascal-style” convention that we use for elements of a let-expression and follow each but the last by a semicolon. Example 8.3: Let us reconsider the mapping type introduced in Example 6.2. The mapping is a list of pairs of the type (’d,’r), where ’d is the domain type and ’r the range type. We make the tacit assumption that for any domain value, there is at most one pair on a list with that value as the first component of a pair. There are three functions we need to use a mapping:262 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM 1. create to produce the empty list and get us started. 2. lookup to find the range value associated with a given domain value, 3. insert to take a domain and range element, d and r, and make r the unique range value associated with d. Figure 8.3 shows the definition of a suitable structure for a mapping, along with the ML response. Line (1) begins the structure declaration for a structure named Mapping. The first element of the structure is an exception, declared on line (2). Then, line (3) introduces the identifier create. The name create is provided by the structure to produce the empty mapping (represented by the empty list). We may view create as a function with zero parameters that returns the empty mapping when you “call” it, but it is, in fact, an ordinary variable. « Recall that there is no such thing as a zero-parameter function in ML. However, sometimes, we see a function such as foo(), which is really a function named foo whose argument type is unit. Lines (4) through (7) define the function Lookup (4,M), which finds the value r paired with din the mapping M. We shall not go into the details of how it works. Similarly, lines (8) through (11) define a function insert (d,r,M), which makes r the unique value paired with d in the mapping M. After the end keyword comes the ML response, which gives the “signature” of this structure. A signature names the elements of the structure and their types. We shall have more to say about signatures shortly, but let us notice what ML has deduced about the types of the structure elements. It sees that create is a list of some type, expressed by the type ’a list. For insert and Lookup, ML notes that the domain type in each case must be an equality type, which it represents as ’?a. Recall that type variables starting with two quote marks can only be instantiated to equality types. The reason an equality type is needed is that in lines (6) and (10), the equality operator = is applied to values of the domain type of each function. 0 8.2.1 Signatures An identifier denoting a structure, such as identifier Mapping of Example 8.3, has a signature that serves as the “type” of the structure. As we saw in Exam- ple 8.3, the signature gives the types of the structure elements. A signature has the form sig end Some important kinds of specifications are listed below. We shall discuss others later, and the complete syntax for specifications is in Fig. 9.21.8.2. STRUCTURES 263 (1) structure Mapping = struct (2) exception NotFound; (* create the empty mapping +) (3) val create = nil; (* lookup(d,M) finds the range value r such that (a,x) is a pair in mapping M +) (4) fun lookup(d,nil) = raise NotFound (8) | lookup(d, (e,r)::es) = (6) if dee then r mM else lookup(d,es) ; (* insert(d,r,M) puts (d,r) in mapping M and removes any other pair (d,s) that was present in M *) (8) fun insert(d,r,nil) = [(d,r)] (9) | insert(d,r,(e,s)::es) = (10) if d=e then (d,r)::es (a1) else (e,s)::insert(d,r,es) end; structure Mapping : sig exception NotFound val create : ’a list val insert: "a *’) * ("a * 'b) list + ("a * ) list val lookup : "a * ("a *’) list + end Figure 8.3: The Napping structure and its signature264 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM structure Versus struct Note the difference between keywords structure and struct. The first is a declaration word like fun; structure precedes an identifier being declared to be a structure. On the other hand, struct is paired with end to bracket the elements of a structure. 1. type, followed by an identifier, possibly parametrized by type variables. Two examples are type foo and type (’a,’b) bar. 2. eqtype, followed as in (1). This keyword declares that the named type must. be an equality type. A datatype in a structure can correspond to fa type or (if the datatype definition does not involve function types) an eqtype in the signature. 3. exception, followed by an exception name. 4. val, followed by an identifier, a colon, and a type expression. Examples were seen in the response of Fig. 8.3. The type may be arbitrary, including function types. There is no special keyword to introduce declarations of functions in signatures the way fun or fn do in other contexts. We can bind an identifier to a value that is a signature by signature = sig end Here are a few important points to remember about signatures: * Keywords signature and sig are related like structure and struct. Word signature introduces a signature definition, while sig, along with end, brackets the specifications in the signature. © Note in (1) and (2) above that type names do not begin with a quote mark; they are the type constructors. However, any type-valued parameters, such as the parameters ’a and ’b in the hypothetical type bar of (1) above, are represented by type variables and do begin with a quote mark. # As for structures, specifications of a signature may optionally be ended with a semicolon. We shall adopt the Pascal style for semicolon use. 8.2.2 Restricting Structures Through Their Signatures In analogy with types and ordinary identifiers, the signature can be used to restrict a structure. To begin, here is a simple example of how types restrict the value of an identifier; no structures are involved in this example.8.2. STRUCTURES 265 Example 8.4: We might define a polymorphic function £00(x) to be of type va -> ’b, that is, a function from some type to another type. When we use it, we may wish to or need to restrict the parameter x to a particular type, say by using it as foo(x: int). Or, we might wish to restrict it partially by a use such as f00(x:’¢ list), which restricts the argument to be some kind of list. 0 Now, let us extend the type-restriction idea to structures and their signa- tures. There are two principal ways that a signature can restrict the structure to which it is attached. 1. The signature can specify a more restrictive type for an identifier than is implicit in the structure definition. 2. The signature can omit certain identifiers, thus hiding them in any struc- ture defined to have this signature. Example 8.5: If we did not want a user to be able to modify a mapping, we might eliminate all mention of create and insert in the Mapping structure. An appropriate signature is: sig exception NotFound; val lookup : ’’a * (??a * ’b) list -> ’b end o Example 8.6: Suppose we want to have a structure that is a mapping, spe- cialized to the case of Example 6.2, where the domain is strings and the range is integers. We shall call this kind of mapping a “string-int mapping.” We can define a structure based on the Mapping structure from Fig. 8.3 by defining a signature in which the types of the functions are restricted to have string do- mains and integer ranges. Figure 8.4 shows the definition of a suitable signature SIMAPPING. signature SIMAPPING = sig exception NotFound; val create : (string * int) list; val insert : string * int * (string * int) list -> (string * int) list; val lookup : string * (string * int) list -> int end; Figure 8.4: A signature for string-int mappings ‘We can now use the signature SIMAPPING of Fig. 8.4 to restrict the structure Mapping of Fig. 8.3. We do so bv defining another structure, which we shall266 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM call SiMapping, to be equal to Mapping, but with the signature SINAPPING. The declaration structure SiMapping: SIMAPPING = Mapping defines the new structure. The functions create, insert, and Lookup from the SiMapping structure can only be applied to string-int mappings. 0 ‘The definition of structure SiMapping above illustrates another useful form of structure definition, where instead of defining a structure explicitly, with struct --- end, we define one structure equal to another structure. We then attach a signature to the first structure with a colon, to restrict the newly defined structure. Another option is to define a signature in advance and attach it with a colon to the name of the structure as it is being defined. Example 8.7: We could also have defined structure SiMapping directly by: structure SiMapping: SIMAPPING = struct (* same as lines (2)-(11) of Mapping definition *) end; Here, we append a colon and a signature to the structure SiMapping being defined. We have chosen to use the signature SIMAPPING from Fig. 8.4, re- ferring to it by name. However, we could also have used a signature defined explicitly by sig. . .end in place of SIMAPPING. The material appearing between struct. ..end is exactly what appeared in lines (2) through (11) of Fig. 8.3. o 8.2.3 Accessing Names Defined Within Structures Executing a structure-statement causes the names defined within the structure to become part of the environment. However, in the environment, these names are qualified by being prefixed by the structure name and a dot. Example 8.8: Suppose we have defined the structure SiMapping as in Exam- ple 8.6. Having executed the statement structure SiMapping: SIMAPPING = Mapping preceded by the definitions of structure Mapping and signature SINAPPING, we can then yse string-int mappings. We might, for example, initialize an empty string-int mapping m by val m = SiMapping.create; val m = nil : (string * int) list8.2. STRUCTURES 267 Long Identifiers A structure name followed by a dot and a variable is called a long iden- tifier. Formally, the long identifiers in ML are sequences of alternating structure names and dots, followed by a variable name. Since structures may be components of other structures, these sequences can make sense. For example, A.B. foo is the variable foo belonging to the structure B, which is a substructure of structure A. Then, we can insert pairs into mapping m. For example: val m = SiMapping. insert ("in",6,m); val m = [(”in”, 6)] : (string * int) list val m = SiMapping.insert("a",1,m); val m = [("in”, 6), (a", 1) : (string * int) list Last, a lookup operation like SiMapping.1ookup("'in",m) ; val it = 6 allows us to obtain information from the mapping. © 8.2.4 Opening Structures Using long identifiers — that is, attaching the structure name to the functions and other elements of a structure — helps us avoid some mistakes. For example: ‘* Function names like insert and lookup were used above as operations on mappings, but in Section 6.3 they were used for different operations on binary search trees. It is possible that structures based on both the mapping and the binary search tree would be useful in one program. To which would names insert and Lookup refer? « The built-in structures of the standard basis sometimes have different functions of the same name. For example, toString appears in the struc tures Int and Real, among others. The structures List and Array both have a function length. By specifying both the operation and the structure, we avoid having one mem- ber of a programming team refer to the wrong function, perhaps unaware of the existence of the other. However, it is cumbersome to repeat the structure name every time we refer to one of its elements. So, ML allows a structure to be opened by the declaration268 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM An Alternative to Opening Structures There is a risk in using open, because a structure written by someone else may contain declarations you are not aware of, and thereby some variable you use may have its meaning changed accidentally. With a little more effort, we can protect ourselves against such an error by defining only the identifiers we know about and need from the structure, for example val create = Simapping. create; val insert = SiMapping. insert; and so on. Now, create and insert will refer to elements of structure SiMapping, although other elements of that structure must be referred to by their long name. open ; This statement causes all the names exported by the structure to be added to the current environment, where they shield from view any other name with the same identifier. However, identifiers appearing in another structure can still be referenced by prepending the structure name and a dot. Example 8.9: If we execute open SiMapping; then the identifiers NotFound, create, insert, and Lookup will refer, respec- tively, to the exception, variable, and functions with those names belonging to the structure SiMapping. We can then replace the statements of Example 8.8 by removing “SiMapping.” everywhere it appears. O 8.2.5 Exercises for Section 8.2 Exercise 8.2.1: Define a structure Tree with a datatype tree representing general trees as in Section 6.4 and the following operations: 1, create(a) returns a one-node tree with label a. 2. build(a,L) returns a tree with a root labeled a and list of subtrees L for the root. 3. find(i,T) finds the ith subtree of the root of tree T and raises the ex- ception Missing if there is no such subtree.8.2. STRUCTURES 269 * Exercise 8.2.2: Note that in Exercise 8.2.1 create(a) means the same as build(a,nil). We may thus wish to define a new structure SimpleTree that has all the elements of structure Tree except create. Also, we may choose to restrict simple trees to have integer labels. Write a signature SIMPLE that makes these restrictions. Then use SIMPLE and Tree to define structure SimpleTree. * Exercise 8.2.3: Use your structure SimpleTree from Exercise 8.2.2 to con- struct a tree with a root labeled 1 and three children labeled 2, 3, and 4. Apply function subtree to obtain the second subtree of the root of your tree. Exercise 8.2.4: Design a structure Stack that represents a stack of elements of some arbitrary type. Include the functions: create (return an empty stack), push (add an element to the top of the stack and return the resulting stack), pop (delete the top element and return the resulting stack), isEmpty (test whether a given stack is empty), and top (return the top clement). Also include an exception EmptyStack to catch attempts to read or pop the top element of an empty stack. Exercise 8.2.5: Design a suitable signature that will allow us to create from Stack of Exercise 8.2.4 a structure StringStack whose stacks have elements that are strings, and that omits the operation top. * Exercise 8.2.6: Design a structure Queue that represents a queue of elements of some arbitrary type. Include operations: create (return an empty queue), enqueue (add an element to the end of the queue and return the result), dequeue (return a pair consisting of the first element on the queue and the rest of the queue), and isEmpty (tell whether the queue is empty). Also include the ex- ception EmptyQueue to catch attempts at dequeueing from the empty queue. Exercise 8.2.7: Design a suitable signature that will allow us to create from Queue of Exercise 8.2.6 a structure PairQueue whose queues have elements that are pairs consisting of a string and an integer. Do not omit any of the functions. Exercise 8.2.8: Write a structure that can serve as a simple matrix package, modeled on the operations used in Section 7.5. For example, you will want to include functions such as: 1. create(n) returns ann x n matrix of 0.0's. 2. assign(M,i,j,x) sets element Mjj to 2. 3. assignRow(M,i,L) sets the ith row of matrix M to the list of elements L. 4. row0p(M,c,i,j) subtracts c times the ith row from the jth row of matrix M. 5. columnOp(H,¢,i,,) subtracts c times the ith column from the jth col- umn. What other functions would be useful to have?270 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM For C++ Fans Only One can see an ML structure as a generalization of the idea of a class. Typically, a structure involves a single type, like the class, and the struc- ture offers some functions (methods) applicable to that class. However, structures may define many different types or datatypes, and may provide functions that apply to any of these types or to different types altogether (analogous to “friend” classes in C++). Similarly, an ML functor generalizes the idea of a template in C++. Templates are parametrized classes that can be instantiated by designating particular types for the parameters of the template. Functors can do the same, but also can transform or combine the types or structures that are its arguments in ways that are limited only by the programmer's imagination. 8.3 Functors In this section we shall introduce a powerful ML tool called the “functor.” This idea is probably unfamiliar to users of other languages. Having written a structure, we might wonder whether it is possible to create a large number of similar structures, perhaps each providing the same operations on a different type, in a manner that is easier than rewriting the structure many times. The functor provides this capability in a surprising way. A functor is actually a higher-level function! that takes structures or certain other kinds of elements as arguments and returns a structure as a result. 8.3.1 Motivation for Functors Often we want a structure to take some “input,” which helps determine some features of the structure. For example, in Fig. 8.2 we wrote functions to operate on a binary search tree, using an externally specified function 1¢ to compare elements of the label type of the trees. If we simply define a structure that refers to 1t, without there being any object in the current environment with that identifier, we shall cause an error. However, if we first write a suitable definition for 1t and then define a structure using 1t, this structure will always use that definition of 1t, even if the identifier 1t is redefined later. While we shall see better ways to handle the problem, this approach does allow us to write one structure definition that, if retyped in different environments with different structure names, results in structures with different meanings for the name 1t. When we use externally defined names in a structure, those names are said to be imported. "Not to be confused with the higher-order functions discussed in Section 5.4.8.3. FUNCTORS 271 + Note that, as with other sorts of definitions, all names in the current environment may be used when a structure or signature is defined. Im- ported names like 1t have their values incorporated into the definition of the structure so that, even if an imported name is redefined after the definition, it is still the original value that is used when elements of the structure are invoked. Example 8.10: Let us define a structure StringBST that incorporates the definitions and functions of Fig. 8.2. This definition is sketched in Fig. 8.5. We have completely omitted the definitions of the various functions and the auxiliary functions for 1t, which are all the same as Fig. 8.2. fun 1t(x:string,y) =... 5 val It = fn: string * string + bool structure StringBST = struct datatype ‘label btree = Empty | Node of ’label * ’label btree * ’label btree; fun lookup(x,T) =... 5 fun insert(x,T) = ... exception EmptyTree; fun deletemin(T) =... ; fun delete(x,T) =... 5 end; structure StringBST : sig datatype ‘a btree = Empty | Node exception EmptyTree val delete : string * string btree + string btree val deletemin : ‘a btree + 'a * ‘a btree val insert : string * string btree + string btree val lookup : string * string btree > bool end Figure 8.5: Defining a structure that imports a value for 1t The definitions of insert, delete, and lookup use the definition of 1¢ that appears at the top of Fig. 8.5. Notice that in the response to this structure def- inition, ML gives it a signature that is as general as possible. It has determined from the use of this 1t that insert, delete, and lookup involve strings and string btree’s, but it has not determined that deletemin requires any special type for the labels of its btree’s, and in fact it does not because deletemin only navigates in the tree and does not examine labels.272 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM Figure 8.6 is an example of how we might create an empty binary search tree, populate it with two strings, and perform some operations. Notice that at the second line, we must give the empty tree ti the appropriate type, string btree, since ML cannot tell the type of the labels from the data con- structor Empty. O open StringBST; val ti = Empty: string btree; val tt = Empty : string btree val t2 = insert("foo", t1); val t2 = Node("foo”, Empty, Empty) : string btree val t3 = insert("bar", 2); val t3 = Node("foo”,Node(”bar”,Empty,Empty),Empty) : string btree Lookup ("bar",t3) ; val it = true : bool val t4 = delete("baz",t3); val t{ = Node("foo”,Node(”bar”,Empty,Empty),Empty) : string btree Figure 8.6: Examples of binary search tree operations 8.3.2 Using Functors to Import Information There are certain undesirable features of the approach to importation suggested by Example 8.10. 1. The typing of elements in the structure is rather haphazard, being what- ever ML can deduce from the clues given. Compare, for example, the types of delete and deletemin. 2. We never really created an object that is “a binary search tree that works on any type with a less-than function.” Rather, we created a structure that in effect is a binary search tree with string labels (although we could8.3. FUNCTORS 273 retype the same structure definition in another environment to create binary search trees with another label type). It is dangerous to have the meaning of a structure definition change, depending on what code precedes it. ML provides a way to handle both of these problems through a mechanism called the functor. A functor typically operates on structures to produce other structures. We can define a functor that takes as its argument a structure defining a type T and a less-than operation 1t on type T. The result of this functor is a binary-search-tree structure that incorporates the given 1t and T to provide versions of insert, delete, and lookup, that expect node labels of the given type T and compare labels using the function 1t. The idea of “a binary search tree working on any type with a less-than function” is embodied by the functor. This functor may be applied to any number of structures, each of which specifies a type and a suitable 1t function. The steps we must take to create the functor and the example of binary search trees with string labels is outlined below. 1. Define a signature, which we shall call TOTALORDER, that is satisfied only by structures that are suitable as functor inputs. That is, the structure must have a type and a function that takes pairs of elements of this type and returns a boolean. 2. Define a functor, called MakeBST, that takes a structure S with signature TOTALORDER as its argument and produces a structure as a result. The resulting structure defines binary search trees whose labels are of the type described by the structure S. 3. Define a structure String that describes character strings with a function 1t to compare strings. The signature of String is TOTALORDER. 4. Apply the functor MakeBST to the structure String, to produce the desired structure: StringBST. ‘We shall show how to perform these steps in a sequence of examples. Defining a Signature for the Functor’s Parameter Example 8.11: Here is a suitable definition for the signature TOTALORDER. signature TOTALORDER = sig type element; val lt : element * element -> bool end; ~Fechnically, we expect more than a type T and a function of type T + T —+ bool. We also expect that the function will define a total order on values of type T. However, the signature cannot specify arbitrary properties of functions, so we may wind up applying our functor to structures that do not represent total orders274 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM We first name a type element, which is intended to be the type of labels in binary search trees. This is the type we referred to as T in our introductory remarks. We expect in later examples that the type element will be string. The only operation we require for the type element is the function 1t, which takes two elements and produces true or false as a value. That is all we need to know about 1t at this point; we do not need to know how it computes its boolean-valued result. 0 « Note that the name element of the type in signature TOTALORDER is an ordinary identifier, not a type variable beginning with a quotation mark. Defining a Functor To define a functor that transforms one structure into another, we use a defini- tion of the form functor ( : ) = An optional colon and signature describing the result of the functor may appear immediately before the equal-sign. The following example illustrates this form as it applies to the problem of defining binary search trees. Example 8.12: In Fig. 8.7 is a sketch of the definition of the functor MakeBST. In line (1) we see the beginning of the functor definition. The parameter name is Lt, and the signature for this parameter is TOTALORDER, the signature from Example 8.11. In lines (2) through (8) we see the definition of a signature for the structure that is to be produced by the functor MakeBST. Specifying the signature here is, optional, but we include it for instructional value. Notice that in the signature, line (2) refers to the datatype btree as a “type,” not a datatype. The fact that it takes a type parameter, which we call ‘label as usual, is indicated. However, the existence of constructors Node and Empty is not mentioned. The usual definition of this datatype appears in the structure definition at line (10). Following the signature describing the functor's result is the required = sign and the structure definition itself. We open Lt in line (9), so uses of the function 1t in the unseen code for insert and other functions will refer to 1t in the structure Lt (otherwise, these functions would have to refer to Lt .1t). At line (11) we have added a new variable create, whose value is an empty tree. Recall that there is a problem if we try to assign to a variable the value Empty of type Label btree, because the ML compiler cannot know the type of "abel. The problem is similar to using nil as a value of a list, without specifying the type of the list. However, by putting create in the structure that is the output of functor MakeBST, we are actually defining a value for create after a concrete structure is substituted for the structure-parameter Lt and therefore a concrete type has8.3. FUNCTORS 275 (1) functor MakeBST(Lt: TOTALORDER) : sig @) type ’label btree; @) exception EmptyTree; @) val create : Lt.element btree; () val lookup : Lt.element * Lt.element btree -> bool; (6) val insert : Lt.element * Lt.element btree -> Lt.element btree; mM val deletemin : Lt.element btree -> Lt.element * Lt.element btree; (8) val delete : Lt.element * Lt.element btree -> Lt.element btree end struct (9) open Lt; (10) datatype ’label btree = Empty | Node of ‘label * ’label btree + ‘label btree; a1) val create = Empty; (12) fun lookup(x, Empty) = (13) fun insert(x,Empty) = . (14) exception EmptyTree; (15) fun deletemin(Empty) B (16) fun delete(x, Empty) ; end; functor MakeBST : Figure 8.7: Definition (sketch) of the functor MakeBST276 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM been substituted for the type element. For instance, we shall soon see an example where element becomes string, and therefore, the type of create in the resulting structure is string btree. Since the type of create is declared in line (4) of the signature to be Lt-element btree, ML will deduce that the type of Empty is string btree in the resulting structure. ¢ If we had not included the signature of lines (2) through (8) in Fig. 8.7, then in the structure that is output from the functor MakeBST the type of create would involve a type variable, and we could not use create without specifying the correct type. The definitions of the other functions are as in Fig. 8.2 and are again omitted. Notice the succinct response of ML to this functor definition at the end. © Defining a Functor Argument Next, we need to define a particular structure that can be the argument corre- sponding to the parameter Lt in the functor MakeBST. Example 8.13: An appropriate definition is shown in Fig. 8.8 The first line in Fig. 8.8 says that String is a structure, and its signature is TOTALORDER. The structure specification begins by defining the type element. That is, in structure String, the type element mentioned in the signature TOTALORDER is defined to be the type string. Here the type definition is an ordinary type abbreviation introduced by the keyword type. It would also have been possible to replace the line type element = string; by a datatype definition. However the number of type parameters in the sig- nature and structure must agree. So in this case, since element was defined in the structure to be a parameterless type, the datatype would likewise have to be parameterless like the datatype fruit of Example 6.3. ‘The remainder of Fig. 8.8 gives a definition for function 1t; this definition is the one we have used several times previously. Notice that we have defined the auxiliary function lower to be local to 1t by using a let-expression. Since the signature TOTALORDER defines the type of 1t to be element * element -> bool and element has been defined to be string, the function 1t is properly written so its type is string * string -> bool. O Applying the Functor The last step in our process is to apply the functor MakeBST to the structure String to produce the structure StringBST, which is an appropriate structure representing binary search trees with string labels. The form of this functor application is8.3. FUNCTORS 277 structure String: TOTALORDER = struct type element = string; fun 1t(x,y) = let fun lower(nil) = nil | lower(c::¢s) = (Char. toLower c) lower(cs) ; in implode (lower (explode(x))) < implode (lower (explode(y))) end; Figure 8.8: The structure String structure = () An optional colon and signature may appear before the equal sign to describe the new structure. Example 8.14: The following functor application: structure StringBST = NakeBST(String) ; produces the desired structure StringBST. If we open StringBST, operations like insert have their desired meaning; they apply only to binary search trees with string labels. Even if we do not open StringBST, we can get these operations by names like StringBST. insert. 8.3.3 More General Forms for Functor Parameters and Arguments In Section 8.3.2, we used a simple form for defining one-parameter functors. ‘The parameter is an identifier standing for a structure, followed only by a colon and a signature describing the structure. An example was given in line (1) of Fig. 8.7. When we apply the functor, we have only to provide an actual structure as argument. For instance, we provided the structure String as argument in Example 8.14. One extension is that we may provide the argument structure explicitly, instead of by name. For example, we could have skipped the definition of String in Fig. 8.8 and instead have written the declaration of structure StringBST in278 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM structure StringBST = MakeBST( struct type element = strin fun 1t(x,y) = let fun lower(nil) = nil | lower(c::cs) = (Char.toLower c)::lower(cs) ; in implode (lower (explode(x))) < implode (lower (explode(y))) end; end Figure 8.9: Applying a functor to an explicit structure Example 8.14 as in Fig. 8.9. That is, the entire structure definition appears as the argument of the functor. There are more flexible ways to write the parameters and arguments of functors. We may have more than one parameter, and parameters may be any declarable element such as a value, function, or exception. The entire syntax of functor declarations is in Fig. 9.25, and the syntax of functor use is in Fig, 9.24. To begin, we can declare structure parameters of a functor using the keyword structure. The form is functor (structure : ) = As always, an optional colon and signature may appear before the equal sign to describe the result of the functor. When we use the word structure in the definition of the parameter of a functor, then when we apply this functor we need to provide its argument in a somewhat different form: ( structure = ) The argument may be a structure name or the explicit definition of a structure, using struct... .end. Example 8.15: We may begin the definition of functor MakeBST by replacing line (1) of Fig. 8.7 by:8.3. FUNCTORS 279 functor MakeBST(structure Lt: TOTALORDER) : If we do so, then we must change the application of functor MakeBST in Exam- ple 8.14 to: structure StringBST = MakeBST(structure Lt = String); a More generally, a functor can have several structure parameters, each paired with its signature using the syntax functor (structure $;:S; and ... and Sp:Sn) where the S's are structures and the 5's are signatures. We may also have, as parameters for the functor, several specifications sepa- rated by optional semicolons. A specification may involve one or more structures in the form above. A specification may also tell about a value, function, or in fact be of any of the forms for specifications that may appear in signatures. ‘The complete syntax for specifications is in Fig. 9.21. Example 8.16: To illustrate some of the possible forms, let us define two simple signatures by: signature INT = sig val i: int end; signature REAL = sig val r: real end; Signature INT describes a structure consisting of one integer called i, and sig- nature REAL describes a structure with a real number r. Here are some possible beginnings of functor definitions. In each case we have not continued past. the equal sign and thus omit defining the result of the functor. (1) functor Foo(structure I: INT and R: REAL) = (2) functor Foo(structure I: INT; structure R: REAL) (3) functor Foo(structure I: INT and R: REAL; val x : int) = Definition (1) says that functor Foo has two arguments, which are structures I and R, with signatures INT and REAL respectively. Definition (2) says exactly the same thing but uses separate structure specifications for the two struc- ture parameters. Definition (3) says that functor Foo has these two structure parameters but also has a third parameter, which is an integer x. 0 The rule regarding parameter and argument forms, illustrated in Exam- ple 8.15, generalizes to functors whose parameters are defined using structure and/or other specifications. When we apply such a functor, we use the same specification keyword, such as structure or val, and follow it by280 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM = More generally, several parameters may be bound to their corresponding argu- ments following one use of a keyword such as structure, if we separate the parameter-argument pairs with and. Several groups of bindings may be sepa- rated by optional semicolons. Example 8.17: Let us define two structures structure Int = struct val i = 0 end; structure Real = struct val r = 0.0 end; to match the signatures INT and REAL of Example 8.16 Here are several ways a structure Bar could be defined by applying one of the functors of Example 8.16. Either of the definitions structure Bar = Foo(structure I = Int; structure R = Real); structure Bar = Foo(structure I = Int and R = Real); can be used with either of the functor declaration forms (1) or (2) of Exam- ple 8.16. The following definitions structure Bar = Foo(structure I structure Bar = Foo(structure I Int; structure R = Real; val x = 2); Int and R = Real; val x = 2); are appropriate with definition (3) of Example 8.16. 8.3.4 Exercises for Section 8.3 Exercise 8.3.1: In place of the structure String of Fig. 8.8, write a structure that defines elements to be tuples of three real numbers. For the 1t ordering on triples, say that (a,b,c) < (x,y, 2) if either 1. a = or of the form sharing = = --- = The first form, type sharing, allows us to assert that two or more types men- tioned in the signature must actually be the same type. The second form, structure sharing, allows us to assert that two or more substructures mentioned in the signature are “the same.” ‘¢ Remember that the keyword type appears after the keyword sharing for type sharing, but there is no keyword analogous to type for substructure sharing. In earlier versions of ML, both structure and type sharings were defined independently. In ML97, however, only the type sharing is a basic con- struct, and the form of structure sharing described above is permitted as a shorthand for the sharing of identically named types within the equated structures. Structure sharing does not imply that the structures are iden- tical. * As a consequence, although sharing of types is transitive, the sharing of structures is not. For example, one structure-sharing statement might assert Sj = Sz, and a second might assert S) = Sq, and yet there is a type found in structures $; and S3 (but not in S) that are not thereby equated. Thus, S; = S; and S = S3 does not necessarily imply $; = $3, when $1, S2, and $3 are structures.8.4. SHARINGS 283 8.4.2 Substructures In order to use sharings, we need another kind of specification, in which we declare a structure to have a substructure. The basic form of this specification within a signature is structure : which asserts that the identifier is a structure with the given signature. Op- tionally, we can assert the existence of several structures, each with a specified signature, if we connect groups of the form : by the keyword and. In addition, structures can define substructures within themselves. The form of a substructure declaration within a structure (as opposed to within a signature) is structure : = struct end The struct, the signature definition, and the end can be replaced by the name of a previously defined structure. The colon and signature are optional in structure definitions, but not in structure specifications that occur in signatures. There is a sound reason for this difference. In a structure definition, a suitable signature can be deduced from the definition of the substructure itself, but in a signature we have no way of deducing the signature for a substructure if we do not declare that signature. 8.4.3 Sharing of Types Let us now see how the first kind of sharing, the specification that two types are the same, is accomplished. Example 8.18: Consider the top two signatures in Fig. 8.10. First, signa- ture ELEMENT in lines (1) and (2) describes a structure that has a type called element and a function similar on that type. As two examples from among an unlimited number of possibilities, function similar could be equality, or it could be equality of the first components if the type element were a pair. In realistic examples, we would expect there to be more functions than one within the signature. ‘Then in lines (3) through (9) we have another signature BTREE that describes a structure for binary trees. In line (3) we see there is a substructure Element whose signature is ELEMENT; that signature is the one we just saw in lines (1) and (2). Then in line (4) we specify a type elt that is local to the signature BTREE. We have decided to require that this local type be an equality type,284 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) @ (8) (9) (10) (i) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (a7) (18) (a9) signature ELEMENT = sig type element; val similar : element * element -> bool; end; signature BTREE = sig structure Element: ELEMENT; eqtype elt; sharing type elt = Element.element; datatype btree = Empty | Node of elt * btree * btre: val leaf : elt -> btree; val build : elt * btree * btree -> btree; val lookup : elt * btree -> bool end; signature TREE = sig structure Element: ELEMENT; eqtype elt; sharing type elt = Element.element; datatype tree = Tree of elt * tree list; val build : elt * tree list -> tree; val lookup : elt * tree -> bool end; signature ALLTREES = sig structure Btree: BTREE; structure Tree: TREE; sharing Btree.Element = Tree.Element; sharing type Btree.elt = Tree.elt end; Figure 8.10: Signatures that equate types and substructures8.4. SHARINGS 285 and we so indicate by using the keyword eqtype rather than type. A possible reason is that we believe the function lookup requires an equality test. However, we also wish to require that the type element mentioned in the signature ELEMENT be the same as the local type elt. Hence, at line (5) there is a sharing specification that requires these two types to be the same. Should the functions in lines (7) through (9) refer to both the types Element .element and elt, we can be sure these are the same type in any structure that matches the signature BTREE. An additional effect of the sharing on line (5) is that Element element is forced to be an equality type wherever it is used in lines (7) through (9) because it has been equated to the equality type elt. 8.4.4 Sharing of Substructures The other kind of sharing specification allows us to require that types of the same name within two substructures be the same. Example 8.19: Continuing with our discussion of Fig. 8.10, we see in lines (10) through (15) another signature TREE. Like BTREE, it uses a substructure with signature ELENENT, specifies a local equality type called elt, equates the local type and the type element of the substructure by a type sharing specification, and then specifies a datatype and some functions. ‘Then in lines (16) through (19) we see a final signature ALLTREES. This sig- nature describes a structure that has two substructures. The first, on line (16), is called Btree and has BTREE for its signature. Line (17) adds a structure Tree with signature TREE. We must find a substructure Element within structure Btree and within structure Tree, because their respective signatures require that substructure. However, there is no reason to believe that these two substructures are the same. In principle, element could refer to different types in each, and/or the function similar could be differently defined in each. The purpose of the structure- sharing statement on line (18) is to say that at least the types element within each of the two substructures called Element must be the same, The two substructures called Element could have different functions similar, however. Finally, we note on line (19) an additional type sharing that equates the types elt belonging to the two substructures Tree and Btree. This sharing specification is legal, although it happens to be redundant. The fact that these types are equated to Btree.Element .element and Tree.Element element at lines (5) and (12), respectively, forces them to be equal because the latter two types were equated by line (18). 0 8.4.5 Exercises for Section 8.4 * Exercise 8.4.1: Give an example of a structure S that can be Element in line (3) of Fig. 8.10 and a structure with signature BTREE (as defined in lines (3) through (9) of that figure) that uses structure S at line (3) and satisfies the286 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM type-sharing constraint of line (5). Then, give another example of a structure with signature BTREE that uses the structure S but does not satisfy the sharing constraint. Exercise 8.4.2: Give examples of a) Structures with signatures BTREE and TREE, as defined in Fig. 8.10, that satisfy the type-sharing constraints of lines (5) and (12) in that figure. b) Structures that do not satisfy these type-sharing constraints. 8.5 ML Techniques for Hiding Information The ML module system — structures, signatures, and functors — facilitates the design and reuse of software. We can implement a package of definitions, such as datatypes, functions, and exceptions, as a structure and reuse it many times in many different programs. Several programmers can work on structures independently and agree on a shared interface. ML helps these processes is several ways. Signatures allow us to enforce certain requirements on a structure or functor. For example, signatures may require that functions and other elements be present and that these elements have specified types. Functors make it easy for us to abstract common parts of related structures and produce any of a family of structures without re- peating common code. Using substructures and type sharing, as described in Section 8.4, we can control this interface quite flexibly and accurately. However, there are several other features of ML that also assist in the struc- turing and validation of large, complex bodies of code. In this chapter we shall discuss techniques for information hiding, that is, making all, or certain parts of, a package of definitions inaccessible to the user. Information hiding improves the effectiveness of encapsulation, since it limits the ways in which the elements of the package can be used. Other auxiliary functions or definitions may exist within a package. However, they are not usable from outside the package, and the user is therefore prevented from applying these auxiliary elements in ways unanticipated by the designer of the package. As a result, we minimize the chance of an error due to misunderstanding between the implementor and user of the encapsulated facilities. There are many ways to hide information. We shall discuss: 1. De ing a signature that fails to mention the hidden elements. 2. Using an “opaque” signature to hide certain structure elements. 3. Using an “abstract type” in place of a datatype to make its data con- structors invisible. 4. Using “local” definitions within an abstract type or structure to hide certain elements.8.5. ML TECHNIQUES FOR HIDING INFORMATION 287 8.5.1 An Information-Hiding Problem Let us begin by describing a particular problem we would like to solve. We shall focus on our running example of binary search trees. We want to offer the user a binary-search-tree package that allows for creation of empty trees, insertion, deletion, and lookup in binary search trees, but nothing else. The picture was suggested in Fig. 8.1. If we use our standard representation of the btree datatype, then the user should not be able to use the function deletemin, the exception EmptyTree, or the data constructors Empty and Node. In fact, it should appear to the user only that some implementation of a dictionary (set with insert, delete, and lookup) is being used, perhaps a binary search tree; perhaps not. No scheme for information hiding is foolproof. Someone could always get control of the relevant code and use it in unintended or improper ways. However, the mechanisms described in this section each prevent a specific set of common actions that could lead to misuse of code. 8.5.2 Using Signatures to Hide Information We may define one structure S2 to be equal to another structure $1, but with a specific signature S. As was discussed in Section 8.2.2, the form of the definition is structure S,: S = S, For instance, we saw in Example 8.5 that signature S can omit some elements that appear in the structure $1. These elements will not be available to users of the structure Sp. However, should a function that is exported by Sp use in s body a function of $; that is not exported by Sz, the needed function is available and no error is caused. Example 8.20: Let us see how to write a variant of the structure StringBST that we generated in Section 8.3.2 by applying the functor MakeBST of Fig. 8.7 to the structure String of Fig. 8.8. The structure StringBST makes available all the elements in lines (10) through (16) of Fig. 8.7: the datatype btree with its data constructors Empty and Node, the value create, the exception EmptyTree, and the functions create, lookup, insert, delete, and deletemin. We want our new structure to hide the function deletemin and the excep- tion EmptyTree. Recall that the motivation for doing so is that deletemin is a function that is only needed by delete. Because deletemin does not work ‘on an empty tree, it is best not made available to the user. When we make deletemin unavailable, we can also hide the exception, since its sole purpose is to catch erroneous uses of deletemin, which now cannot occur. Figure 8.11 shows the signature that we need for our new structure. It makes visible the functions we want, while not exporting the function deletemin or the exception EmptyTree.288 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM signature NEW_STRING_BST = sig type ’label btree; val create : string btree; val insert : string * string btree -> string btree; val delete : string * string btree -> string btree; val lookup : string * string btree -> bool end; Figure 8.11: Signature to hide deletemin and EmptyTree Binding Type Variables in Datatype Definitions Note that in the signature of Fig. 8.11 it is sufficient to refer to btree as a “type” rather than a “datatype.” We might be tempted to describe the type btree as type string btree However, a concrete type like string may never be used as a type param- eter in a type or datatype declaration. We must use a type variable, such as the variable *label that was used in Fig. 8.11. On the other hand, it would make sense first to define a new alias stringBtree, with no param- eter, to stand for the type string btree and define types of clements in signature NEWSTRING_BST as val create : stringBtree; and so on. Now let us create a new structure that has the signature of Fig. 8.11 by the structure definition: structure NewStringBST: NEW_STRING_BST = MakeBST(String) ; This statement is almost identical to that of Example 8.14. The only difference is that we have specified a signature for the resulting structure. The effect of the signature NEW.STRING.BST on the structure NewStringBST is that elements we want hidden are hidden, and those we want accessible are accessible. If we then open the new structure with open NewStringBST; we can use the elements mentioned in the signature NEW_STRING BST of Fig. 8.11, as in8.5. ML TECHNIQUES FOR HIDING INFORMATION 289 insert ("foo", create); val it = Node(”foo”,Empty,Empty) : string btree which creates an empty tree and then inserts the string "foo". Similarly, a call to delete is permitted. This call results in a call to deletemin, even though the user is not permitted to call deletemin directly. That is, if we try to use deletemin, as in deletemin (create) ; Error: unbound variable or constructor: deletemin we are told that there is no meaning for the identifier deletemin. Further, since the data constructors Empty and Node are not mentioned in the signature NEW-STRING.BST, we cannot use them outside the structure NewStringBST. The following responses may seem surprising: val t = Empty; val t = Empty : exn val t = Node("foo", Empty, Empty); Error: unbound variable or constructor: Node What has happened is that Empty is interpreted as the exception in the top- level environment that is ML’s response to erroneous uses of hd or t1, like hd(nil: int list). However, Node has no meaning in the top-level environ- ment, so ML complains about its use. On the other hand, the type constructor btree is exported by the structure NewStringBST. We can use it in limited ways, such as type foo = int btree; type foo = int btree However, there is no way to use the type foo, since its data constructors Empty and Node are not available. O 8.5.3 Abstract Types An abstract type is essentially a datatype that hides its data constructors. We use the keyword abstype to define an abstract type with almost the same syntax as we use to define a datatype. However, for the abstract type we must follow it by the keyword with to introduce the only functions, variables, exceptions, and types that have access to the data constructors. The form of an abstract tvne definition is290 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM abstype with end Example 8.21: Figure 8.12 shows an abstract type similar to the structure StringBST of Fig. 8.5. Asin Fig. 8.5, we have used a previously defined function 1t to compare strings. We have also restricted the datatype to have string labels by not using a type parameter ’label. Instead, we have embedded the type string into the definition of the abstract type sbtree fun 1t(x,y) : val It = fn: string * string + bool abstype sbtree = Empty | Node of string * sbtree * sbtree with val create = Empty; fun lookup(x,T) = fun insert(x,T) =... exception EmptyTree; fun deletemin(T) = ... 5 fun delete(x,T) =... 5 end; type sbtree val create sbtree val lookup = fn: string * sbtree + bool val insert = fn: string * sbtree + sbtree exception Empty Tree val deletemin = fn : sbtree > string * sbtree val delete = fn : string * sbtree + sbtree Figure 8.12: String binary search trees defined as an abstract type There is one other difference between Figs. 8.12 and 8.5. We have defined a variable called create, whose value is the empty tree. The reason for doing so is that the data constructors of the abstract type sbtree will not be visible to users of sbtree. They are only visible between the keywords with and end. As a result, we shall not be able to start a new binary search tree by setting it to Empty. On the other hand, the variables and functions defined between with and end, such as create and lookup, are available to the users of the abstract type sbtree. Thus, we can get an empty binary search tree by referring to the variable create.8.5. ML TECHNIQUES FOR HIDING INFORMATION 291 local Versus let Do not confuse the local-in-end form with the let-in-end form. The former has a list of definitions between the in and end, while the latter has a list of expressions there. For example, a val-declaration may not follow the keyword in in a let-expression, while it may in a local-declaration For instance, we can write insert ("foo" ,create) ; val it =~: string btree to obtain a binary search tree containing the one string "foo". Notice ML does not print the value of tree Node(""foo" , Empty Empty) , because it would reveal the constructors by so doing. In contrast, when we concealed the data construc- tors by signature, as in Example 8.20, we could see what those constructors were but not have access to them. However, should we try to use the data constructors of an abstract type, as, in Node("foo" ,Empty Empty) ; Error: unbound variable or constructor: Node we get the error message as in Example 8.20. 0 8.5.4 Local Definitions We can hide some elements in an abstract type definition or a structure defini- tion by using the construct local in end The second group of definitions can use the definitions in the first group, but only the second group of definitions is exported; the first group is hidden. Example 8.22: In Fig. 8.13 we see a revision of Fig. 8.12, in which the defini- tions of EmptyTree and deletemin are made local to the definition of delete. Notice that EmptyTree and deletemin do not appear in the ML response to this abstract type definition. We could also make a similar change to the structure definition for the structure StringBST in Fig. 8.5. That is, the definitions of EmptyTree and292 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM fun 1t(x,y) = .. val It = fn : string * string + bool abstype sbtree = Empty | Node of string * sbtree * sbtree with val create = Empty; fun lookup(x,T) = fun insert(x,T) local exception EmptyTree; fun deletemin(T) =... ; in fun delete(x,T) =... 5 end end; type sbtree val create = - : sbtree val lookup = fn : string * sbtree ++ bool val insert = fn : string * sbtree -> sbtree val delete = jn : string * sbtree + sbtree Figure 8.13: Hiding the exception EmptyTree and the definition of deletemin deletemin could be placed in a local-declaration for the function delete. If we did, then the signature in the ML response would omit EmptyTree and deletemin. O 8.5.5 Opaque Signatures ML87 introduces a way to hide certain components of a structure, even if they are mentioned in its signature. An opaque signature is attached to a structure by using the symbol :> rather than a single colon. The significance of using :> is that types defined abstractly in the signature — that is, by a type name such as element in Example 8.11, rather than by a concrete type such as int — are not available outside the structure in which those types are used. To be more precise, when we have an abstract type T in the signature, all variables of type T that belong to the structure, and all functions in the structure that take a value of type T as an argument, may be used outside the structure. However, these are the only variables and functions that may involve type T. Any attempt to use a variable or function with another type $ in place of T will fail, even if T was defined in the structure to be the same as type S.8.5. ML TECHNIQUES FOR HIDING INFORMATION signature SIG1 = sig val i: int; type ti val x: t val y: t val £: t * t -> bool end; signature SIGI = sig val i: int type t val x: t val y:t val f: t * t+ bool end structure Struct = struct val i type t val x val y fun f(a,b) = (a=b) end; structure Structl : sig type t val f : structure Struct2: SIGi = Struct1; structure Struct2 : SIGI structure Struct3:> SIG1 = Struct1; structure Struct3 : SIGI Figure 8.1 A signature and three of its possible structures 293294 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM The following example illustrates how opaque signatures can control access to the components of a structure. We shall see a function f whose arguments are really integers, but because the arguments are declared to be of an abstract type ¢, which happens to be int in our example, the function f can only apply to values that are declared in the structure to have the same abstract type t. Function f cannot be applied to arbitrary values of integer type. Example 8.23: In Fig. 8.14 is the definition of a signature S1G1. It describes an integer i, a type t, and two variables x and y, both of type t. Finally, it defines a function f that takes a pair of elements of type t and returns a boolean. For example, f might test if its arguments are equal, but we don’t know at this point what function f does any more than we know the value of integer i. ‘We then define a structure Struct1 that contains an integer i whose value is 3. Struct also defines the type t to be int, and gives values 4 and 5 to the variables x and y. Finally, it defines the function f to test if its arguments are equal. Notice that all these elements conform to the signature SIG1, although additionally f requires an equality type for its arguments, as we notice from the signature for Struct reported in Fig. 8.14. At the end of Fig. 8.14, we define two additional signatures. Struct? is just Struct1 with its signature required to be SIG1. That requirement puts no constraints on Struct2, because Struct1 already conforms to S1G1. The final structure, Struct3, is also defined to be Struct with signature SIG1. However, in this case, the :> symbol makes $IG1 an opaque signature for Struct3. The differences between Struct2 and Struct3 can be seen by comparing the responses to similar expressions in Figs. 8.15 and 8.16. In Fig. 8.15 we open Struct2. The response indicates that x and y are of type t. If we then compare x and y using f, we are correctly told that these values are unequal. When we next compare integers i and y, ML understands that in Struct2 ¢ is int, so the call f (i,y) is type-consistent and correctly produces the value false. Now, look at Fig. 8.16, where we have instead opened structure Struct3. Although i is identified as having type int and value 3 (because SIG1 declares i to be an integer), variables x and y are not shown with their integer values 4 and 5. When we compare z and y using the function f in Fig. 8.16, everything works correctly. Even though z and y have only the abstract type t, SIG1 declared f to work on two values of that type, so x and y are legitimate arguments for f. However, when we next compare i and y, we get a mismatch of types. That is, é is an integer, not a value of type ¢. Function f expects a pair of t’s, and it got an integer and a t, so we get the usual error message for a type mismatch. The fact that “behind the scenes” ¢ is int is not sufficient to allow f to take an integer argument. 8.5.6 Exercises for Section 8.5 !1 Exercise 8.5.1: A 2-3 tree is a search tree in which each node that is not a leaf has either two or three children. The labels. which for simolicity we shall take|. ML TECHNIQUES FOR HIDING INFORMATION 295 open Struct2; open Struct? val i= 3: int val © t val y= 5: t val f = fn: t*t—> bool f(x,y)5 val it = false : bool £Ci,y)i val it = false : bool Figure 8.15: A structure without an opaque signature open Struct3; open Struct? val i= 3: int val =-:t val y val f = fr: t * t+ bool f(x,y); val it = false : bool f(i,y)i Error: operator and operand don’t agree [tycon mismatch] operator domain: t * t operand: int *t in expression: Siu) Figure 8.16: The same structure with an opaque signature296 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM An Application of Opaque Signatures One way that opaque signatures are important is in creating tokens that cannot be accidentally or intentionally “forged.” Following on Exam- ple 8.23, suppose that the type ¢ was intended to be a token that is granted by some mechanism to authorized users. The token is later presented and compared with the correct value using the equality-testing function f. Suppose we are using Struct3, which we recall was created from Struct using SIG1 as an opaque signature, in such a token-managing mechanism. Then suppose a “hacker” gets a copy of the text of Struct1 and signature SIG1, and uses them illicitly to create Struct2. The hacker then creates Struct2.x and tries to present this x as the x from Struct3. That is, the hacker executes Struct3.f(Struct3.x, Struct2.x) ‘The hacker is thwarted, because although both 2’s are ostensibly of type t and have the value 4, the ML system regards the type t belonging to Struct3 as distinct from any other type whatsoever, even from another type called t, standing for int, and created from the same underlying structure and signature. to be integers, appear only at the leaves. The subtrees of a node preserve order; that is, the labels in the first subtree are less than those of the second subtree, which are less than the labels of the third subtree if it exists. A node with two subtrees has one separator, an integer equal to the lowest of the labels of the second subtree. A node with three subtrees has two separators, one giving the lowest label of the second subtree and the other giving the lowest label of the third subtree. Thus, as we search down the tree for a given integer <, the separators tell us which way to go, just as the labels at interior nodes do for a binary search tree. Figure 8.17 suggests the structure of a 2-subtree and a S-subtree node, 2.3 trees allow fast insertion, deletion, and lookup, just like binary search trees. However, 2-3 trees remain balanced; that is, all leaves remain the same distance from the root if insertion and deletion are performed properly. That balance guarantees time per operation that is proportional to the logarithm of the number of nodes in the tree, while in the worst case, binary-search-tree operations can be linear per operation. In this exercise, we shall deal only with lookup and insertion. The insertion algorithm is complex. The idea is that if we are to insert into the tree T rooted at some node N, there are three cases. 1. If N is a leaf, we return a pair of 2-3 trees; one consists of the leaf N and8.5. ML TECHNIQUES FOR HIDING INFORMATION 297 (a) Node with two subtrees. ZEN (b) Node with three subtrees. Figure 8.17: Nodes of a 2-3 tree the other consists of a leaf with label x. We shall call this form of return value a pair. 2. IFN has two subtrees, use the separator to tell where x should be inserted and recursively insert 2 into that subtree. The value returned is either a pair of trees or a single tree. If it is a single tree, that tree replaces the subtree into which the insertion was made. If the result is a pair, those trees become subtrees of N, which now is a 3-subtree node. Adjust the separators appropriately. Note that in order to have the proper separators, when a pair of trees is returned a third component must be returned as well to separate the two trees. 3. If N has three subtrees, use the separators to tell into which subtree © must go, and recursively insert x there. If a single tree is returned, substitute it as in case (2). However, if a pair is returned, N now has four subtrees. Split them into two groups of two subtrees, and split N into two nodes that become the roots of two new trees. Then return the resulting pair of trees. The situation is suggested by Fig. 8.18, where we assume the insertion has been in the middle subtree. If at the root a pair is returned, create a new root with these trees as anbtrees. For a more detailed explanation of how 2-3 trees work, see A. V. Aho,298 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM OQ. 1 4 > A » A 4 Figure 8.18: Splitting a 3-subtree node into two 2-subtree nodes J. E. Hopcroft, and J. D. Ullman, Data Structures and Algorithms, Addison- Wesley, Reading MA, 1983. In this exercise, you are asked to write a structure that supports the opera- tions of create (create a tree consisting of one leaf with a given integer label), lookup, and insert on 2-3 trees. We shall not deal with deletion here. Start with a datatype having no parameters and three data constructors, for leaves, 2-subtree nodes, and 3-subtree nodes. Note the labels of leaves are integers, so there is no need for type parameters in this datatype. Next, create a datatype that wraps either a single tree in data constructor $ or wraps a pair of trees and an integer separator in the data constructor P. You will need a number of aux- iliary functions including, but not limited to, a function we shall call insert1. This function takes an integer ¢ to be inserted and a tree T into which the insertion occurs and returns a wrapped tree (in S) or a wrapped pair of trees (in P). Consult the solutions if you cannot write this code, since it is necessary for the exercises that follow. Exercise 8.5.2: Write a signature that will not allow the functions other than create, lookup, and insert to be available through your 2-3-tree structure of Exercise 8.5.1. Then, create a new structure that will offer the user 2-3 trees with only these three functions available. Exercise 8.5.3: Accomplish the same goal as Exercise 8.5.2 without a new signature by making auxiliary functions local. Exercise 8.5.4: Show how to make the data constructors of the datatypes used in your solution to Exercise 8.5.1 unavailable by using an abstract type. Exercise 8.5.5: Specify a structure Hash similar to the result structure for the functor MakeHash of Exercise 8.3.3. However, your structure should incorporate the elements of the hash table designed in Fig. 7.9 and work for elements that are strings. Your structure will need: 1. The number of buckets, b, 2. The hash function h defined as in Fis. 7.9.8.6. CASE STUDY: FEEDBACK SHIFT REGISTERS 209 3. The functions lookupBucket, lookup, insertBucket, insert, delete- Bucket, and delete, as in Fig. 7.9, 4. A function create() that returns an empty hash table. * a) Which of the above elements is it appropriate to make available to users of the structure Hash? * b) Show how to hide the inappropriate elements [as determined in part (a)] by using a signature. c) Show how to hide the inappropriate elements by using local definitions. 8.6 Case Study: Feedback Shift Registers A simple way to generate a sequence of random bits is to use a feedback shift register with a well selected feedback function. We may think of a feedback shift register as in Fig. 8.19. There is a sequence of n “cells,” wherein bits are kept. In Fig. 8.19, n = 4, and the current sequence of bits is 1000. Output 0 1 2 3 Figure 8.19: A small feedback shift register 8.6.1 Operation of a Feedback Shift Register In one step of operation, we do the following: 1. Output the bit in the rightmost (n — Ist) cell. Let. us call this bit f; it is both the output bit and the feedback bit. 2. Shift all the bits right one position, so what was in cell i moves to cell i+] fori=0,1,....n-2 3. Put the bit 0 in cell 0. 4. If f = 0, do nothing else. However, if f = 1, then complement those cells to which the output is “fed back.” In Fig. 8.19 we indicate feedback to cell 0 by the line running from the output to cell 0. We also indicate feedback to cells 2 and 3 with the lines running to a “sum-mod-2 gate” (the circle and plus) from the output. A sum-mod-2 gate has the effect of complementing the bit being shifted right from the previous cell if f = 1 and it has no effect if f = 0. There is no feedback to cell 1 in Fig. 8.19.300 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM Example 8.24: Let us trace the contents of the four cells of Fig. 8.19 for several cycles of operation. The contents of the four cells for the first seven cycles is shown in Fig. 8.20. When the contents are 1000, the output and feedback bit f is 0. Thus, we just shift everything right and bring in a 0 at the left end. That gives us the second line 0100. The same argument explains the next two lines 0010 and 0001. Round Cell 0 Cell 1 Cell 2. Cell 3 1) 1 0 0 0 2) ° 1 ° 0 3) 0 ° 1 0 4) ° 0 ° 1 5) 1 0 1 1 6) 1 1 1 0 7) 0 1 1 1 Figure 8.20: Operating the feedback shift register of Fig. 8.19 At line (4), the output bit is 1, and we must apply the feedback function. We shift right to get 0000, and then complement the first, third, and fourth bits. That gives us 1011 as in line (5) of Fig. 8.20. To get line (6), we observe that the feedback bit is again 1. We shift line (5) right and bring in a 0, giving us 0101. We must again complement the first, third, and fourth positions, giving us 1110, as in line (6). Line (7) is obtained by shifting line (6) right, as the feedback bit in line (6) is 0. When we work on line (7), we first shift to get 0014 and then complement positions one, three, and four to get 1000. Since this is the same as line (1), the feedback shift register has cycled. It will repeat the cell contents of Fig. 8.20 forever, and it will output the rightmost column of that figure, 0001101 repeat- edly. This sequence of bits is not very “random,” but it is close to the best we can expect with a tiny shift register of four cells. In principle, we might hope that an n-cell shift register would run through 2" — 1 different contents before looping back on itself. In this example, we find that in addition to the loop of length seven shown in Fig. 8.20, there are two loops of length one — 0000 and 1101 — and another loop of length seven. Unless we start with one of the two self-looping bit vectors, we get almost as long a sequence as we could possibly expect. More to the point, if we pick a larger shift register, say of size 32, we are likely to get loops whose length is in the millions or billions before repetition, and the sequence of output bits will look very “random.” 0 Sit cannot run through all 2” possible contents, because all-0's always loops back to itself.8.6. CASE STUDY: FEEDBACK SHIFT REGISTERS 301 8.6.2 A Functor to Create Random Number Generators We shalll write a functor that takes a description of a feedback shift register and produces from it a structure that implements this feedback shift register. The structure will actually offer only two functions: 1. init, which initializes the feedback shift register to have all 0°s except for a 1 in the rightmost bit. 2. genBit, which produces the next random bit, performing one cycle of the shift register as it does so. In Fig. 8.21 we see a signature that describes what we need to specify a feedback shift register. We need: 1. An integer n, the number of cells in the shift register. 2. A list of integers called feed. This list indicates the positions that get complemented when the feedback bit is 1. It is desirable that this list include position 0, the leftmost position, because otherwise we shall always have 0 in that position after the first cycle. For instance, the feedback shift register of Fig. 8.19 would be described by n = 4 and the list feed = [0,2,3]. signature RANDOM_DATA = sig val n : int; val feed : int list; end; Figure 8.21: The signature for structures that describe feedback shift registers Figure 8.22 begins the definition of the functor MakeRandom. It takes a structure parameter Data, whose signature is RANDOM_DATA of Fig. 8.21. That is, Data will provide n and the feedback positions. We have attached to the functor a signature, lines (2) and (3), that spec- ifies the two functions init and getBit that are exported by any structure generated by the functor. Note that this strategy follows the idea outlined in Section 8.5.2: using a signature to hide elements that we do not want exported. However, here we have attached the restricting signature to the functor, so every structure it generates will have the restriction. In contrast, in Example 8.20 we restricted only one structure by applying a restrictive signature when we generated structure NewStringBST. In line (4) we open the input structure Data, and in line (5) we open the structure Arrav. which we'll need for the functions in the output structure,302 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM (1) functor MakeRandom(Data: RANDOM_DATA) : sig 2) val init: unit -> unit; @) val getBit: unit -> int; end struct @ open Data; 6) open Array; (6) val register = array(n,0); (7) fun feedbacki(nil) = () (8) | feedbacki(x::xs) = ¢ (9) update (register ,x, 1-sub(register,x)); (10) feedback! (xs) 3; (1) fun feedback() = feedback (feed) ; (12) fun shifti(0) = update(register,0,0) (13) | shift1(i) = ¢ (14) update(register,i,sub(register,i-1)); (15) shifti(i-1) D3 (46) fun shift() = shifti(n-1); Figure 8.22: The functor NakeRandom (beginning)8.6. CASE STUDY: FEEDBACK SHIFT REGISTERS 303 Line (6) defines an array called register that represents the n cells of the feedback shift register in its own n cells, Lines (7) through (11) define the function feedback, which complements certain cells of the array register according to the list of positions given by the list feed. Recall feed is an element of the input structure Data. The work is actually done by the function feedbackt of lines (7) through (10). This function takes an arbitrary list of integers and complements each position on the list. Observe especially line (9), where we take the head element on the list, find the bit in cell x of register with sub(register,x), compute the complement of that bit by subtracting it from 1, and then update cell x of register with the complemented bit as value. Notice that the type of feedback is unit -> unit. The () as argument. to feedback in its definition on line (11) is the unit, not an absence of parameters. Function feedback returns a unit because feedback1 does so. Lines (12) through (16) define function shift, whose job is to shift the array register one position right. The work is done by the recursive function shift1, which not only shifts the bits but sets register[0] to 0 as the basis case on line (12). ‘The functor definition continues in Fig. 8.23. Lines (17) through (23) give us the function init, whose work is done primarily by function init1. The latter function counts down, and in the recursive part of lines (20) through (22) puts 0 in one cell and then calls itself recursively on the cell with the next lower number. In the basis of lines (18) and (19), init puts 1 in the highest-numbered cell (n ~ 1) and 0 in the lowest-numbered cell (0), to end the initialization. The call of init1 by init at line (23) puts 0's in all cells from n—2 down and 1 in cell n — 1. Thus, the initial contents of the shift register is always 00. . .01. Function getBit of lines (24) through (28) implements the basic cycle of the shift register. It stores the feedback bit in variable bit at line (25). Then, shift is called at line (26) to shift the register one position right. Line (27) tests whether the feedback bit is 1. If so, a call to feedback complements all the positions on the list feed, and if not, then nothing is done. Finally, line (28) makes the return value for getBit be the feedback bit, which is also the output bit. 8.6.3 Generating a Feedback Shift Register Figure 8.24 gives an example of how functor MakeRandom could be used. In lines (1) through (3) appears the definition of a structure MyData that can be input to the functor, since it conforms to the signature RANDOM_DATA. Line (2) says that the shift register has length 20, and line (3) gives the positions for feedback.304 CHAPTER 8, ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM ar) fun initi(0) = ¢ (as) update (register ,n-1,1); (ag) update(register ,0,0) > (20) | initt (i) = ¢ (21) update(register,i,0 (22) init1(i-1) ds (23) fun init() = initt(n-2); (24) fun getBit() = let (28) val bit = sub(register,n-1); in ¢ (26) shift() (27) if bit=1 then feedback() else (); (28) bit ) end; end; Figure 8.23: The functor MakeRandom (continues Fig. 8.22) Line (4) applies the functor to the structure MyData. The result is a structure Random that implements this particular feedback shift register. Because all structures generated by MakeRandom have the limited signature of lines (2) and (3) of Fig. 8.22, the only functions we get when we open Random on line (5) of Fig. 8.24 are init and getBit. Those are all we need, however, to write the functions we want. In lines (6) through (10) we see function random1 (i), which generates i random bits. The basis, line (6) says that if i = 0, just print a newline character. In the inductive part, we check at line (8) if ¢ is a multiple of 72, and if so, print a newline. This step is not necessary, but it is convenient if we want to view the output, which otherwise would come out as a single enormous line. Line (9) calls getBit, which executes one round of the feedback shift register’s operation and also returns the output bit. This bit is printed, and the recursion occurs at line (10), where i — 1 more bits are generated and printed. Lines (11) through (13) define the “real” function random(i), which calls init to initialize the shift register and then calls random1(i) to generate i8.6. CASE STUDY: FEEDBACK SHIFT REGISTERS 305 (1) structure MyData: RANDOM_DATA = struct (2) val n = 20 (3) val feed = [0,2,4,6,7,14,17,19]; end; (4) structure Random = MakeRandom(MyData) ; (5) open Random; (6) fun random1(0) = print("\n") (7) | random1(i) ¢ (8) if i mod 72 = 0 then print("\n") else (); (9) print (Int. toString(getBit())); (10) random (i-1) 5 (11) fun random(i) = ¢ (12) init; (13) random1 (i) (14) random(1000) ; Figure 8.24: Generating and using a random bit generator random bits. In line (14) we see a call to random(1000), which will cause 1000 random bits to be generated. 8.6.4 Exercises for Section 8.6 Exercise 8.6.1: Find all the cycles of contents of the four cells that a feedback shift register with four cells (n = 4) can enter, if the list feed of feedback positions is: *a) [0,1,3]. b) [0,1]. c) (0,1,2]. 4) [0,1,2,31.306 CHAPTER 8. ENCAPSULATION AND THE ML MODULE SYSTEM Exercise 8.6.2: Rewrite the functor MakeRandom so it only exports the func- tion random(i), as described in Fig. 8.24. Exercise 8.6.3: Rewrite the functor MakeRandom so that it may be initialized to any desired contents of the cells, instead of only to 00...01.Chapter 9 Summary of the ML Standard Basis As we illustrated in Fig. 4.3, all the features of ML are grouped into structures, and these structures form the standard basis. Some of these features are present in the top-level environment and some need to be accessed through their struc- ture, either by giving their long name (including the structure) or by opening the structure. We have seen almost all of the types, datatypes, exceptions, operators, and functions in the top-level environment. In this section, we shall review them, fill in the few that have not been covered elsewhere, and discuss a few unifying issues such as the way precedence and associativity of operators are controlled. We then look at the entire standard basis. A description of the contents of each of the required structures and the optional ones (structures that may or may not be included in a given ML implementation) could fill a book by itself. Fortunately, book-sized, on-line documentation for the standard basis exists and is available on the web or by anonymous ftp (see Section 1.4 for directions on how to get this material). Therefore, in this chapter we shall only give highlights and an overview of what is available should you need these features. We then close with a summary of the syntax of the ML97 language. The principal syntactic categories are represented graphically by a collection of syn- tax diagrams. 9.1 The Infix Operators Functions like + that are used as binary (two-argument) infix (between-the- operands) operators in arithmetic expressions are a staple of almost every pro- gramming language, and ML is not an exception. The binary-infix style of expressions is useful because there are familiar conventions, embodied in asso-308 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS ciativity and precedence rules, that allow us to group operands to their opera- tors, with relatively few parentheses needed to force grouping. In this section, we review the infix operators of the top-level environment. ML also allows us to extend the power of infix notation to operators that we define as functions and to data constructors of a datatype. Likewise, built-in two-argument functions of the standard basis may be made infix if we like. Additionally, we can change the grouping strategy for existing operators, and we can turn infix operators back into ordinary functions. This section discusses the mechanisms for doing so. 9.1.1 Precedence It is conventional to give infix operators a precedence, which is an integer as- sociated with that operator. When we group operands to operators, we group the higher-precedence operators first. To group an occurrence of an operator to its operands, we look to the immediate right of the operator. We then find the shortest sequence of operators, operands, and parentheses that form an ex- pression with balanced parentheses; this sequence is the right operand. Looking to the immediate left of the operator we find the left operand, which is the shortest sequence of symbols on the left that constitutes a well-formed expres- sion. These left and right operands are grouped with the operator occurrence by placing a left parenthesis just before the left operand begins and placing a right parenthesis just after the right operand ends. Example 9.1: Consider the expression a + b—c. If we choose to group the + first, we look to the right and find the symbol 6, which is an expression by itself. Thus we need go no further; b is the right operand. Similarly, looking to the left. of the + we find that a is the shortest well-formed expression and thus constitutes the left operand. We group the operands of the + by rewriting the expression as (a +b) — ¢. Now, let us group the operands of the — operator. The right operand is c. Looking left, we first find a right parenthesis. We must go as far left as the matching left parenthesis, and we therefore identify (a +b) as the left operand. The grouping for — thus gives us the fully parenthesized expression ((a+6)—c). o The order in which we choose to group an operator occurrence to its oper- ands usually affects the value of the expression, so we must know the proper order to do the grouping. One important convention is that of operator prece- dence. We assign to each binary infix operator a precedence, and we group the operator occurrences in order of their precedence, highest first. Bach language has its own policy regarding precedence of operators, but they tend to be fairly similar. Multiplicative operators such as * and / have higher precedence than the additive operators + and -. These arithmetic operators have higher prece- dence than the comparison operators like <=, and the comparison operators have higher precedence than the logical connectives like andalso.9.1. THE INFIX OPERATORS 309 9.1.2 Precedence Levels in ML Figure 9.1 gives the precedence levels of the infix operators. Precedence levels are represented by nonnegative integers. The operators are positioned as shown, with nothing at levels 1 and 2. Since it is possible for the user to define new operators, levels 1 and 2 can be populated, as can levels above 7. We may also add new operators at the levels 0 or 3 through 7. PRECEDENCE | OPERATOR | SECTION | COMMENTS: 0 before Second argument executed only for side-effects 3 5.6.2 | Function composition 7.3.3 _| Assignment for ref values 7 2.14 | Comparison operators 5 244 | Concatenation and cons for lists 6 = ‘Additive operators : String concatenation 7 ah Multiplicative operators div, mod Figure 9.1: Precedence of binary infix operators We have seen all of the operators in Fig. 9.1 except for the before operator. This operator evaluates its left argument, then its right argument, but it returns the value of its left argument. Thus, the right argument is executed only for side effects. Example 9.2: fun f(x) = x before print ("hello world\n"); val f = fn: a> a £(0); hello world val it = 1; int Notice that while the second argument of before is executed during evaluation of expression £ (1), resulting in the printing of “hello world,” the value returned by £(1) is not the unit, as it would be if f just printed the message. Rather, the value returned by £(1) is the left argument of before, which is 2, or 1 in this case. O310 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS Complicating matters is the fact that not all the symbols we think of as binary infix operators are represented by the “main sequence” of precedences represented by Fig. 9.1. The complete story appears in Fig. 9.13. If we look ahead to Section 9.6.3, we find that the keywords andalso and orelse' are deemed to have precedence below that of any operator on the main sequence, with andalso having higher precedence than orelse. In effect, we can think of andalso as having precedence —1 and orelse as having precedence —2. In addition, we see in Fig. 9.13 that the operation of applying a function to its argument, which is represented by juxtaposition of expressions, has higher precedence than any on the main sequence. It is as if function application had infinite precedence. 9.1.3 Associativity of Operators Precedence is only one of the two ways that order of evaluation is controlled. We normally group operators of equal precedence from the left; such operators are said to be left-associative. It is also possible to have operators group from the right; these operators are right-associative. Example 9.3: In Fig. 9.1 all the operators are left-associative except for :: and @, which are right-associative. Thus 3 — 4 — 5 is grouped from the left as (3-4) —5. Its value is —6 rather than 4, as would be the case if we incorrectly grouped from the right as 3 — (4-5). On the other hand, a::b::cs groups from the right as a::(b::¢s). Thus this expression makes sense if a and b are elements of some type T and cs is a list of elements of type T, as we have conventionally assumed. If we were to group from the left as (a: :b) ::¢s, we would have to interpret a as an element. of some type T, b as a list of elements of type T, and cs as a list of lists of elements of type T. ‘There is another example of a right-associative operator from the type ex- pressions of ML. The operator ->, which constructs function types, is right- associative. Thus T + S + R is interpreted as T + (S -+ R), that is, a function whose domain type is T’ and whose range type is the set of functions from type S to type R. O 9.1.4 Creating New Infix Operators We can define any function, data constructor, or exception constructor to be an infix operator by using the statement inf ix Here is the precedence level, a nonnegative integer. The operator or operators being defined to have this precedence form the . "Which technically are not “operators,” because they may not evaluate both of their operands.9.1. THE INFIX OPERATORS 311 These operators will be left-associative. Of course, each function or constructor so declared must be binary; that is, it must have two arguments. Some useful points about infix declarations are: If we wish an operator or operators to be right-associative, we use the keyword infixr in place of infix. We may omit the from the declaration, in which case the prece- dence level is taken to be 0. ‘© To remove the infix property from an identifier or identifiers, use the keyword nonfix followed by the list of identifiers we wish to turn back into ordinary identifiers. # It is also possible to turn an identifier temporarily into a nonfix function name by preceding it by the keyword op, as discussed in Section 5.4.4. Example 9.4: Suppose we define the function comb in our conventional way as in Fig. 3.6. We can then declare it to be a left-associative infix operator by infix 2 comb; infie 2 comb We have given comb precedence level 2, so its arguments are grouped after any of the usual arithmetic operators. For instan: 5 comb 2 comb val it = 210 : int This expression is grouped as (5 comb 2) comb 4, or () 4 Since (3) = 10 and (?) = 210, we see that the correct result is computed. The identifier comb no longer has its normal syntax as a function. If we try to use it that way, we get an error message: comb (5,2) 5 Error: expression or pattern begins with infix identifier comb” If we wish to turn comb back into such an identifier, we may declare nonfix comb; nonfiz: comb312 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANI ARD BASIS Alternatively, we could leave comb as an infix operator, but use it once as a function by writing op comb(5,2). The infix operator comb can also be used with other infix operators. For instance 5 comb 2 comb 2 + 2; val it = 210 : int Notice that +, with precedence 6, takes precedence over comb, with precedence 2, so the subexpression 2 + 2 is grouped first. However, functions that are not defined to be infix apply to their operators before binary infix operators are applied. For example, suppose we define the function square to apply to integers: fun square(x) = x#x; val square = fn: int + int ‘Then we could write an expression like square 2 comb 2 comb 4; val it = 15: int ‘The use of square is grouped with its operand first, so this expression is inter- preted as or 15. O Example 9.5: We can also make built-in functions become infix operators if they take two arguments. For example, if we have opened the structure Array, then infix 3 sub; infit 3 sub declares the sub(A, i) function from the structure Array to be a left-associative, infix operator. Then we can write the more natural A sub i in place of sub(A,i). As another example, line (20) of Fig. 7.13, which is the program to upper-triangulate a matrix, could then be written val ratio = (M sub !j sub !i)/(M sub !i sub !i); instead of the original val ratio = sub(sub(M,!j),!i)/sub(sub(M,!i),!i);9.1. THE INFIX OPERATORS 313 The left-associativity of sub gives this expression the correct interpretation, Because we have defined the precedence level of sub to be 3, which is lower than that of the arithmetic operators, we get a specific behavior of expressions that involve sub. For example, A sub i+ is grouped as A sub (iti). If we would prefer to have such an expression grouped as (A sub i)+1, then we need to give sub a high precedence, such as 8 or 9. 9.1.5 Infix Data Constructors If in the definition of a datatype we use a data constructor that takes two arguments, we may declare this constructor to be an infix operator and write instances of the datatype in a form similar to arithmetic expressions. Example 9.6: In Fig. 9.2 we see a variant of the binary tree that we discussed in Section 6.3. Here, only leaves have labels. The definition of datatype btree is in lines (1) and (2). In line (1) the data constructor T is defined; it has two arguments, both of which are binary trees. This data constructor is used for interior nodes. Line (2) has the data constructor Leaf, which takes a label of the arbitrary type ?a. In line (3), we define data constructor T to be a binary infix operator of low precedence. Thus, although Leaf will still precede its argument, the construc- tor T will be placed between the left and right subtrees that form the tree it constructs. Lines (4) through (10) describe a function print Tree that prints the leaves of a binary tree, from left to right. This function requires that the labels be of type integer. Line (4) handles the basis case where the tree is a leaf; we simply print the label. Line (5) covers the case of a tree constructed by T. Note that the pattern on line (5) shows T between its operands, as it must be. In lines (6) through (10) we call print Tree recursively on the left and right subtrees. A comma is placed between the results at line (8) and the entire output is surrounded by parentheses on lines (6) and (10). Line (11) creates a value of type int btree. Since constructor T associates from the left, the value of identifier t represents the tree shown in Fig. 9.3 On line (12) we print the leaves of this tree from the left. They appear with the proper parentheses to suggest the structure of the tree. Since for simplicity we have not printed a newline after the complete tree, the response of ML giving the value of it appears on the same line, A more complicated example of a tree is shown in lines (13) and (14). Here parentheses are used to guide the order of grouping for the various occurrences of constructor T. This grouping is reflected in the output on line (14). The grouping of leaves 2 and 3 is implicit in the left-associativity of T. 0314 (a) (2) (3) (4) (8) (6) mM (8) (9) (10) an (12) (13) (14) CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS datatype ’a btree = T of ’a btree * ’a btree | Leaf of ’a; datatype ’a btree = Leaf of ’a| T of ’a btree * ‘a biree infix 2 T; infix 2T fun printTree(Leaf(x)) = print (Int.toString(x)) | printTree(ti T t2 print("("); printTree(t1); print (","); printTree(t2); print (")") 5 val print Tree = fn : int btree + unit val t = Leaf(1) T Leaf(2) T Leaf(3); val t = Leaf 1 T Leaf 2 T Leaf 3 : int btree printTree(t); ((1,2),3)val it = () : unit val t = Leaf(1) T (Leaf(2) T Leaf(3) T (Leaf(4) T Leaf (5))); val t = Leaf 1 T (Leaf 2 T Leaf 3 T (Leaf 4 T Leaf 5)) : int btree printTree(t) ; (1,((2,3),(4,5))Jual it = () : unit Figure 9.2: An infix tree-construction operator9.1. THE INFIX OPERATORS 315 Figure 9.3: The binary tree defined on line (11) of Fig, 9.2 9.1.6 Exercises for Section 9.1 Exercise 9.1.1: If we instead define infixr 3 T at line (3) of Fig. 9.2, would the interpretation change for * a) Line (11)? b) Line (13)? ! Exercise 9.1.2: Suggest a way to redefine the precedence and/or associativity of + and * so that * a) a+becis interpreted as (a+b) *c, and a*b+cis interpreted as (a*b) +c. b) a+6*c+d is interpreted as a + ((b*c) +d). * Exercise 9.1.3: Figure 3.27 gave three functions that operated on polynomi- als: padd (polynomial addition), smult (multiplication of a scalar by a poly- nomial), and pmult (multiplications of polynomials). Each is a function of two parameters, so we can make them be infix operators. a) Suggest a way to define these operators so that pmult takes precedence over padd. smult takes precedence over pmult. All three are left-associative. seNe The arithmetic operators on reals take precedence over the polyno- mial operators. For example, 2.0 + 3.0 smult P is interpreted as (2+3)P rather than an erroneous attempt to add 2 to the polynomial 3P. b) Show how to write the expression (P+2Q) x R, where P is the polynomial 3x1 + 5x? — 6, Q = 2° + 2x? — 30 +4, and R = 2 +1, using the infix operators and using parentheses only when necessary. Exercise 9.1.4: Repeat Exercise 9.1.3 but require that all operators be right- associative and that polynomial operators take precedence over arithmetic op- erators.316 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS Exercise 9.1.5: For the binary tree datatype of Fig. 9.2, write a function that * a) Sums the labels of the leaves of a tree, assuming labels are reals. 1'b) Sums the labels of those leaves that have a leaf for a sibling. Siblings are nodes that have the same parent. Exercise 9.1.6: Let E; and E, be ML expressions. Explain the difference between E, before Ey and (Ei; E2). 9.2 Functions in the Top-Level Environment In this section we shall review the functions available in the top-level envi- ronment. Most of these functions have been seen before, and those that were not will be introduced briefly here. Note that the infix operators discussed in Section 9.1.2 are also functions available at the top level. 9.2.1 Functions on Integers In addition to the infix comparison and arithmetic operators on integers dis- cussed in Section 9.1.2, the top level provides the following unary operators: 1. The negation operator ~. 2. The absolute-value operator abs. For instance, abs ~3 equals 3. 3. The operator real, which converts an integer to an equivalent real; see Section 2.2.2. 4. The operator chr, which converts an integer to the character with that integer as its ASCII code; see Section 2.2.3. 9.2.2 Functions on Reals In addition to the infix comparison and arithmetic operators, which work for reals as well as integers, there are the following top-level functions that we may apply to reals: 1. The functions ~ and abs, which we mentioned in Section 9.2.1 for integers, apply to reals as well, 2. The functions floor, ceil, trunc, and round, which we discussed in Section 2.2.2, convert real numbers to approximately equivalent integers in various ways.9.2. FUNCTIONS IN THE TOP-LEVEL ENVIRONMENT 317 9.2.3. Functions on Booleans In addition to the connectives andalso and orelse, which we discussed in Section 9.1.2, the ML top-level environment provides the unary operator not. Recall that andalso and orelse are really shorthands for case expressions, as, discussed in Exercise 5.1.4. Thus, these keywords are essentially the equivalent of functions on booleans. All three functions were covered in Section 2.1.5. 9.2.4 Functions on Characters The top level of ML’s environment offers the following operators on characters: 1. The function ord converts a character to its integer, ASCII code; see Section 2. 2. The function str conver of that one character; s s a character to a string of length 1 consisting Section 2.2.4. 3. The function implode converts a list of characters to a string containing those characters, in order; see Section 2.4.5. 9.2.5 Functions on Strings In addition to the operator ~ for concatenating strings, which we covered in Section 9.1.2, the top-level environment has the following functions on strings: 1. Function print prints the value of a string; see Section 4.1.1. 2. The function explode takes a string and returns a list of the characters in the positions of that string; see Section 2.4.5. 3. The function concat takes a list of strings and produces the one string that is the concatenation of all these strings; see Section 2.4.5. 4, The function size(s) returns the integer that is the length of string 5. For instance: size "abc"; val it = 3: int 5. If s is a string, and i and j are integers, then substring(s,i,j) is the string of length j formed by taking the j positions of s starting at position i, Note that positions of a string are numbered beginning at 0, not 1 Thus: substring("abcdefg", 2, 3); val it = “ede” ; string This use of substring asks for the 3 positions starting at position 2. Notice that a is in position 0, b in position 1, and c in position 2.318 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS 9.2.6 Functions on Options We introduced in Section 4.2.5 the type constructor option. Recall that if T is a type, then the type T option has values NONE and SOME v, where v is a value of type T. The top-level environment has the following three operators on options, the first two of which we illustrated in Section 4.2.5. 1. Function isSome retur returns false otherwis s true if its argument is of the form SOME v and 2. Function val0f returns v if applied to SOME v. When applied to NONE, it raises the exception Option. 3. Function getOpt takes a pair of arguments. The first argument is of type T option for some type T, and the second is of that type T. If the first argument is of the form SOME v, then v is returned. If the first argument is NONE, then the second argument is returned. For instance: getOpt (SOME 3, 4); val it = 3: int getOpt (NONE, 4); vat it = 4; int In each case, the arguments are an integer-option and an integer. In the first use of getOpt, the presence of SOME in the first argument causes the integer inside the option to be used as the result. In the second case, the presence of NONE makes the second argument be the result. 9.2.7 Functions on References There are also three operators involving references in the top-level environment. We met each of them in Section 7.3. One is the assignment operator :=, from Section 7.3.3. Since it is an infix operator, we also mentioned it in Section 9.1.2. The other two are: 1. Function ref takes a value v and produces a reference to v; see Sec- tion 7.3.1 2. Function ! takes a reference to a value v and returns v; see Section 7.3.2. 9.2.8 Functions on Lists The infix operators and @ on lists were mentioned in Section 9.1.2. The functions concat, implode, and explode, mentioned in Sections 9.2.4 and 9.2.5, are also functions that involve lists. The additional functions on lists found in the top-level environment are:9.2. a . Functions hd and t1 return the head and tail of a list; see Section 2. FUNCTIONS IN THE TOP-LEVEL ENVIRONMENT 319 . Function null returns true when applied to an empty list and returns false if applied to any other list. . Function length returns the length of a list. For instance: length ["a", "b val it = 2: int |. Function rev returns the reverse of a list. For instance: rev [1,2,3]; [32,1] + int list val it . Function map takes a function as argument and returns a function that . We dis applies the same function to every clement of a lis Section 5.6.3. ‘ussed map in . Functions foldr and foldl “fold” the elements of a list in the sense discussed in Section 5.6.4. . Function app takes a function f whose range type is unit and produces a function that applies f to every element of a list. Thus, app is similar to map, but specialized to a function that returns a unit. Also, the function on lists produced by app itself produces a unit rather than a list of some type. For instance, val printList = app print; makes printList a function that takes a list of strings and prints each one. . Function vector takes a list and produces a “vector” of the elements. We shall discuss vectors in Section 9.4.9. Roughly, vectors are arrays that cannot be updated (often called immutable arrays). Vectors are represented like lists, but with a # prefix. For instance: vector [1,2,3]5 val it = #/1,2,3] + int vector320 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANI 9.2.9 Functions on Exceptions ‘There are two functions in the top-level environment that take exceptions as arguments. Neither has been discussed previously. 1. Function exnName applies to an exception and returns a string that is the name of that exception. Usually, the name returned is the exception constructor itself, However, since one exception can become the value of another, the name returned could be different. 2. Function exnMessage applies to an exception and returns, as a string, the message that the system will produce if that exception is not handled by the program. This message is implementation dependent. (1) exception Foo of string; exception Foo of string (2) exnName(Foo "bar") ; val it = "Foo” : string (3) exnMessage(Foo "bar") ; val it = "Foo” ; string (4) val Foot = Foo; val Fool = fn: string > en (5) exnName(Fooi “bar"); val it = "Foo” : string Figure 9.4: Exception names and messages Example 9.7: In Fig. 9.4 are some exception declarations and uses of the functions exnName and exnMessage. Line (1) shows the declaration of an ex- ception Foo that takes a string argument. At line (2) we apply exnName to this exception with a string argument The name of the exception is identified as "Foo"; the string argument "bar" is not part of the name. Line (3) shows that the message associated with the user-defined exception Foo in the SML/NJ implementation is also "Foo". The string argument "bar" is not considered part of the message in this implementation. Then, at line (4) we define Foo1 to be equal to the exception Foo. The response characterizes9.2. FUNCTIONS IN THE TOP-LEVEL ENVIRONMENT 321 Foot as a function from strings to exceptions, which incidentally is exactly the type assigned to Foo. When we ask for the name of Fooi("bar") at line (5), SML/NJ gives us the original name Foo. 9.2.10 Functions Affecting Return Values There are two operators whose job is to change the expected type of the return value. We mentioned one of them in Section 9.1.2, the infix operator before. Recall that before causes both arguments to be evaluated, but the value of the entire expression is the value of the left argument rather than the right. The second operator is ignore. Applied to any expression, the result is the unit. Of course, side effects in the expression still have their effect. (1) fun inc(x) = ( (2) x (3) ix ds val inc = fn: int ref + int +4; (4) val i = ref 1; val i = ref 1: int ref (5) ignore(inc(i)); val it = () : unit (6) inc(i); val it = 3: int Figure 9.5: Ignoring a function changes its return value to () Example 9.8: Figure 9.5 shows a function inc in lines (1) through (3) that increments an integer reference and returns the incremented value. Line (4) initializes i, an integer reference to refer to 1. At line (5) we apply inc to i, but we ignore its return value so the value of the expression is () rather than 2, which is the value of inc(i) at that point. At line (6) we see that i was correctly incremented, since a second use of inc, this time without ignore, returns value 3. 0 9.2.11 Exercises for Section 9.2 * Exercise 9.2.1: Without using the if-then-else operator, write an expression322 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS equivalent to if x>0.0 then x else 0.0. *I! Exercise 9.2.2: Is it possible to implement if 1>3.0 then x else 0.0 us- ing only the abs operator and arithmetic? Exercise 9.2.3: Give the values of the following: * a) substring("123456",1,2). 0,4). 0). b) substring("12345 c) substring("123456" *d val0f (SOME "abc"). * e) getOpt (SOME “abc f) getOpt (NONE, "123"). ! Exercise 9.2.4: Write a function that constructs a list of the prefixes of a given string using the substring and size operators. ! Exercise 9.2.5: Use app to write a function that prints a list of lists. Exercise 9.2.6: Write a function addToRef (r,x) that adds x to ref r, re- turning the unit * a) Using ignore. b) Using before. ©) Using neither ignore nor before. ! Exercise 9.2.7: What is the difference between the functions app print and map print? Exercise 9.2.8: Several of the functions of the top-level environment can be defined by using other functions of the top-level environment. Write the follow- ing in terms of other top-level functions: * a) isSome. b) valor. *c) getOpt. d) null. *te) ignore. f) before.9.3. TOP-LEVEL TYPES AND EXCEPTIONS 323 1g) app. h) not. i) The dereferencing function !. !j) substring. 9.3 Top-Level Types and Exceptions In this section we review the built-in types that are provided by the ML top- level environment. There are a few that we haven't seen before, and we study those in detail. We shall also enumerate the built-in exceptions and explain when they get raised by the system. 9.3.1 Primitive Types The following are the primitive types available in the top-level basis. There are certain other types that are actually datatypes or type constructors, rather than primitive types. 1, unit, the type with the single value (). This type is used when no other type is appropriate, such as when a function like print, which does its work by side-effect, needs to return some value. The unit is also used as the “argument” to a zero-argument function. 2. int, the integers. 3. real, the real, or floating-point, numbers. 4. char, the characters. 5. string, the strings of characters. 6. exn, the exceptions. 7. substring. This type, which we have not seen before, is an abstract representation of the triples (base string, beginning position, length) that we discussed in connection with the function substr ing in Section 9.2.5. Note, however, that the function substring in the top-level environment that we discussed in Section 9.2.5 returns a value of type string, not a value of type substring. The substring type will be covered in Sec- tion 9.4.6. 8. word. We have not seen this type before. It consists of unsigned integers, and we shall introduce the type briefly in Section 9.4.2.324 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS ‘There may be some surprising omissions on the list above. For example, we mentioned instream and outstreamas primitive types in Chapter 4. However, these are only available through the structure TextI0; they are not part of the top-level basis. Also missing is the type bool. Technically, bool is a datatype, as we shall see in Section 9.3.3. 9.3.2 Primitive Type Constructors There are also three type constructors in the top-level environment: 1. ref constructs a reference type from any concrete type. For instance, int ref is the type whose values are references to integers. 2. array constructs an array type whose elements are of any concrete type. For instance, (int * real) array is the type of an array whose el ments are pairs consisting of an integer and a real. Note that although the type constructor array is available in the top-level environment, the function array that creates an array, along with the other functions, such as update, that operate on arrays, are only available through the structure Array. 3. vector constructs a vector type whose elements are vectors (immutable arrays) of any concrete type. We mentioned the vector type in Sec- tion 9.2.8. We shall cover the concept and its structure Vector in more detail in Section 9.4.9. 9.3.3 Primitive Datatypes There are four datatypes built into the top-level environment. Three of them we have met before. 1. The datatype bool has the definition: datatype bool = true | false; That is, true and false are the data constructors, and there are no type parameters. 2. The datatype list is defined by: datatype ‘element list = nil | of ‘element * *element list; That is, nil and :: (cons) are the data constructors, and there is one type parameter, the type of list elements. Notice that :: constructs a list, from a pair consisting of an element (the head) and a list of elements (the tail).9.3. TOP-LEVEL TYPES AND EXCEPTIONS 325 3. The datatype option has definition: datatype ’a option = NONE | SOME of ’a; Here, NONE and SOME are the data constructors. 4, The datatype order is a parameterless datatype that we have not seen previously. Its definition is: datatype order = LESS | EQUAL | GREATER; This datatype is present in the top-level environment for the convenience of those who need to write a comparison function that returns one of these three outcomes. We shall see an example below. Values from this datatype are returned by certain functions in the standard basis. However, application programmers are free to use this datatype or not in their own programs. In a sense, datatype order is no different from any other datatype, like fruit of Example 6.3, that has three values. fun f((a,b),(c,d)) = if ac then GREATER (* here a=c *) else if bd then GREATER else EQUAL; val f = fr: (int * int) * (int * int) + order £((1,2),(3,4))5 val it = LESS : order £((1,3),(1,2))5 val it = GREATER : order £((4,5), (4,5))5 val it = EQUAL : order Figure 9.6: A function that returns a value of datatype order326 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS The Equality Types Each of the primitive types mentioned in Section 9.3.1 is an equality type, with the exception of substring, real, and exn. Also, the type constr tors and datatypes of Sections 9.3.2 and 9.3.3 construct equality types if they are applied to equality types. Example 9.9: In Fig. 9.6 we sce a function f that takes as argument two pairs of integers and orders them lexicographically. That is, f first sees if the corresponding first components a and c are different, and if so orders the pairs according to the order of the first components. If the first components are equal, then f compares the second components, ordering the pairs according to their second-component values. Following the definition of f are three uses of this function. The first is resolved by first components; the second requires that the second components be compared, and the third is an example of the comparison of equal pairs. 0 9.3.4 Top-Level Exceptions There are several exceptions that are part of the top-level environment. De- pending on the implementation, we may or may not see these raised, since the system may instead print the associated message (which we can discover by applying function exnMessage to the built-in exception name. We shall list below the exceptions of the top-level environment and give some examples of responses in SML/NJ. 1. The exception Bind means that an attempt to bind a value to a pattern in a val-declaration has failed. For instance: val x::xs = nil; raises this exception. 2. Exception Match is raised during a match if there is no pattern that matches the given value, Recall that when writing such a match we get the message Warning: match nonechaustive However, raising Match is more serious. It means that at run time we have actually tried to use the match in a way that we had not expected possible (or else we would have written a pattern to cover that case). For instance, if we write the function definition9.3. TOP-LEVEL TYPES AND EXCEPTIONS 327 fun £(0) = 1; we get the warning of a nonexhaustive match, since we cover only the argument 0 in our trivial match. If we then say £(2); we get from SML/NJ the message uncaught exception Match [nonexhaustive match failure) Note, incidentally, that the message “nonexhaustive match failure” is the message SML/NJ associates with exception Match, as the following re- sponse shows: exnMessage (Match) ; val it = "nonezhaustive match failure” : string Exception Div indicates a division by 0. Exception Chr is the response to an attempt to create a character whose code is outside the range of legal codes. For instance, chr (500) will raise this exception if the ASCII code, with values between 0 and 127 only, is in use. In cases other than these, exception Domain is raised if a built-in function is applied to a value for which it does not make sense, such as the square root of a negative number. Functions that create a value outside the range representable by the ma- chine will raise the exception Overflov. Exception Size is raised by attempts to create a data structure whose size is either impossible (e.g., negative) or so large that it violates some machine constraint. For instance array(A, “1, 0) will raise this excep- tion. Similarly, exception Subscript is raised if we try at run time to access an clement outside the bounds of a structure, For example, if array A is de- clared by array(A, 10, 0), then sub(A, 10) raises Subscript. Recall that an array of length 10 has elements numbered 0 through 9. The exception Fail of string328 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS is an exception that is provided for the user who does not wish to define his or her own exceptions. For instance, the following function doesn’t like the argument fun f(x) = if x<>0 then x else raise Fail("yucch"); It provokes the response: £(0); uncaught exception Fail (Fail: yucch] 9.3.5 Exercises for Section 9.3 * Exercise 9.3.1: Write a function that takes two lists of integers, compares them lexicographically, returning a value of type order. ! Exercise 9.3.2: Write a function f(s,t,i) that tells if the last i positions of string s are lexicographically less than the last i positions of string t, returning a value of type order. If either or both of s and ¢ are shorter than i, use the entire string as the “last i positions.” ! Exercise 9.3.3: Write a function that takes as arguments a function f and a value v. The output of your function should be a function g that acts just like J, but if there are any binding errors in f, function g should produce the value a 9.4 Structures of the Standard Basis The standard basis for ML includes a large number of structures; there are 38 structures required in any implementation of ML97 and another 44 optional structures defined. Some of these we have seen partially, either because like Int they have some of their functions in the top-level environment, or because, like Array or Text IO, we have already discussed some of the important capabilities one gets from these structures. Since there are so many structures, and some of them contain many functions, types, constants, and exceptions, we are not going to enumerate the entire standard basis. Fortunately, there exists complete On-line documentation for the standard basis, enumerating each element of each structure; see the references in Chapter 1 (Section 1.4) for guidance on obtaining this documentation. Thus, in this section we “hit the highlights,” discussing only the most important or representative structures, and covering only some of the elements of these structures.9.4. STRUCTURES OF THE STANDARD BASIS 329 Accessing Structure Elements Recall the rules for accessing the components of a structure. We may either: 1. Open the structure, in which case all its elements may be referred to by their (short) name, This choice makes use of these clements easier, but it obscures other elements of the same name, including those of the top-level environment. 2. Not open the structure, in which case structure elements must be referred to by their long name, which is the name of the structure, a dot, and the name of the element, e.g., Array-update. In this section, we shall refer to elements by their short name when the structure to which they belong is clear. However, in code examples, we shall use the long name of the element. 9.4.1 The Structure Int In addition to the type int, the arithmetic and comparison operators, and the operator abs discussed in Section 9.2.1, here are some of the functions that are available in the structure Int. 1. quot is a variant of div that behaves differently when the result is nega- tive. That is, while div always produces the next lower integer when the result is nonintegral, quot produces the integer that is closer to 0. For instance, 8 div “3 has value ~3, while 8 quot ~3 has value ~2 2. remis a variant of mod that behaves differently when the result is negative. To be precise, a mod b is the integer we must add to b x (a div 6) to get a, for any positive or negative integers a and b. In contrast, a rem b is the integer we must add to b x (a quot 5) to get a. The following table illustrates the difference: 8 mod 3=2 ~8 mod 3 Bren 3=2 “8 ren3 2 "2 1 8 mod “3 “8 mod ~3 “2 Srem“3=2 “8 rem “3 3. Functions min and max return the smaller and larger, respectively, of two integers. For instance: Int.max (3,4); val it = 4: int 4, Function sign (4) returns the integer “1, 0, or 1, depending on whether integer i is negative. 0. or positive. resnectively330 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS 5. Constants minInt and maxInt are the most negative and most positive in- tegers representable. However, the value is returned as an integer-option, since it is possible that there is no limit (see the discussion of the optional structure Int Inf below), in which case NONE is returned. The values of these constants are dependent on the ML implementation and perhaps the machine. For instance, SML/NJ running on a SUN workstation produces: Int .maxInt; SOME 1073741823 That is, 30-bit integers plus a sign bit are supported in this implementa- tion. There are also several structures related to integers that are included or optional in the standard basis. The structure LargeInt is required. It has the same signature as Int, but there may be a larger range of values allowed. For instance, SML/NJ on a SUN has twice as many values available for large integers, as witnessed by the following response: LargeInt .maxInt; SOME 2147483647 which should be compared with the response to Int .maxInt in item (5) above. Another optional structure is Int Inf. This structure has values that behave like integers, but also includes the value inf representing the infinite integer. This value is used in places where an exception would be raised in the structure Int, such as 1 div 0. SML/NJ version 109.30 does not provide structure IntInt. 9.4.2 The Structure Word The type word in ML designates unsigned integers. Values of this type are represented by the characters Ow followed by either a decimal integer, or the character x and a hexadecimal integer. Recall our discussion in Section 2.1.1 of the hexadecimal representation. Example 9.10: Here is an assignment of a word constant to variable w: val w = 0w123; val w = Owx7b : word Notice that unlike integers, where ML prefers the decimal representation, the hexadecimal representation is preferred for words. The response gives the hex- adecimal equivalent of the decimal constant 123 in its response, and indicates that the type of the value is word. O9.4. STRUCTURES OF THE STANDARD BASIS 331 2’s Complement Notation The most common way to represent positive and negative integers in an n-bit computer word is to represent nonnegative integers in the range 0 to 2"-! — 1 by their n-bit binary representation. Note that all these numbers have a leading 0. A negative number i in the range —1 to —2"-! is represented by writing the n-bit binary representation of 2” — i, Note that all these numbers have a leading 1. Thus, the first bit functions as the “sign bit.” For example, if n = 6, then we can represent numbers between —32 and +31. The number 6 is represented by 000110, while —6 is represented by writing the integer 2° — 6 = 58 in binary. This number is 111010. Note that it is not necessary to open the structure Word in order to use constants of type word. Also, the operations of the top-level environment that make sense on words, such as + or <, will work on words without opening the structure. However, there are a number of specialized operators that apply to words but not integers. These are found in the structure Word. Here are some of the most important operators on words: 1. Function toInt converts a word to the equivalent positive integer. Since words often have more bits than (signed) integers, exception Overflow is raised if the word cannot be represented as an integer. For instance: Word.toInt 0w1234; val it = 1234 : int Word.toInt Owx7FFFFFFF ; uncaught exception Overflow [overflow] In the first example, a word of modest size is converted to an integer. In the second example, the word, which is 31 1’s, is legitimate, but its value, 23! — 1, is too big to be an integer.” 2. The function toIntX converts a word to a positive or negative integer, assuming that the word represents an integer in 2’s-complement notation (see the box “2's Complement Notation” for a definition of this notation). For instance, Word.toIntX Owx7FFFFFFF; val it “1: int FAIS PME SAILS ma Bl it for words and 30 bits plus a sgn for ntogers, x0 nie More Preise, SMI ether ML, implementations could give another response,332 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS 3. Function fromInt turns an integer into the corresponding word. A nega- tive integer is assumed represented in 2’s complement. For example, Word.fromInt 1234; val it = Ows4d2 : word Word.fromInt “1234; val it = Owz7ffffb2e : word 4, Functions andb, orb, and xorb perform the logical AND, OR, and exclu- sive-OR, respectively, bitwise on words. For example, Fig. 9.7 shows the declaration of two words a and b whose last twelve bits are respectively 010101010101 and 000000110011. Then, we apply the bitwise logical AND to these words and get the result 000000010001 in the last twelve bits. These bits are represented by 11 in hexadecimal. Similarly, the bitwise logical OR of a and 6 is 010101110111, or 577 in hexadecimal, and the bitwise exclusive-OR is 010101100110, or 566 in hexadecimal. val a = Owx555; val a = Owx555 : word val b = 0wx33; val b = Owr33 : word Word. andb(a,b) ; val it = Owrl1 : word Word.orb(a,b) ; val it = Owx577 : word Word.xorb(a,b) ; val it = Ow2566 : word Figure 9.7: Logical operations on words 5. The function <<(w,k) shifts word w left by k bits. However, k must be represented by a word, not an integer. 0’s are brought in from the right, and bits shifted left past the left end of the fixed length word are lost. For instance, suppose that words are 31 bits long as in SML/NJ, and let val a = Owx2AAAAAAA; That is, a is alternating 0’s and 1's, starting with a 0. Then <<(a,0w5) shifts a five bits left, yielding 0wx55555540.9.4. STRUCTURES OF THE STANDARD BASIS 333 6. The function >>(w,k) shifts word w right by k bits. Bits shifted past the right end are lost, and 0’s are brought in from the left. Thus, if word a is as above, then the result of >>(a,0w5) is Owx1555555. 7. Similarly, function ~>> is like >>, except that instead of bringing in 0's from the left, the leftmost bit is duplicated. There is no difference if the leading bit is 0, but if the leading bit is 1, then the effect of “>> is to bring leading 1’s in from the left. For example, suppose val b = 0wx55555555; This word is 31 alternating bits starting with a 1. Then the result of ~>>(b,0w5) is Owx7eaaaaaa, 9.4.3 The Structures Real and Math ‘The structure Real contains familiar operations on real numbers such as arith- metic operators, comparison operators, and the operators for converting from reals to integers, such as floor, that we learned in Section 2.2.2. The operators min, max, and sign that we learned in Section 9.4.1 for integers apply as well to reals. ‘There are many other functions in the structure Real that we shall not cover in this book. However, within the structure Real is a substructure called Math that is a library of important mathematical functions. We shall survey this substructure here. 1. Function sqrt takes the square root of a real number. For example: Real.Math.sqrt (4.0); val it = 2.0: real Real.Math.sqrt(~4.0); val it = nan : real The second response reminds us that there is no number that is the square root of @ negative number. 2. Functions sin and cos take the sine and cosine of angles measured in radians. 3. Function atan computes the arctangent of a number; the result is returned in radians. 4. Function exp(x) returns e*. 5. Function 1n(x) returns the natural logarithm of x.334 CHAPTER 9, SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS 9.4.4 The Structure Char In the structure Char are a number of useful functions on characters that we have not seen before. Here are some of them: 1. Function toLower converts any character that is an upper-case letter to the corresponding lower-case letter. Other characters are unchanged. Similarly, toUpper converts a lower-case letter to its upper-case version and leaves any other character unchanged. 2. There are a number of predicates (functions from characters to booleans) that tell whether a given character is in a certain class of characters. Some of these are: (a) isAlpha: an upper- or lower-case letter. (b) isDigit: a digit. (c) isSpace: a whitespace character. The whitespace characters are the space, tab, newline, carriage return, vertical tab, and formfeed. (d) isPrint: a printable character. 3. The function contains takes a string and a character and returns true if and only if the character appears at least once in the string. This function is defined in Curried form, so it can be applied to the string. The result will be another function that takes a character as argument and tells whether the character appears in the given string. Example 9.11: Line (1) of Fig. 9.8 shows a use of function contains. We have asked if the character a appears in "hello world"; it does not, so the response is false. Note that because contains is Curried, we must pass the two arguments without punctuation. Line (2) shows a partial instantiation of contains using the string "abe". The resulting function f will tell us whether any character is either a, b, or c. We see in line (3) an application of the function f. 0 An optional structure called WideChar has the same signature as Char. How- ever, “wide characters,” if supported by a given ML implementation, may ex- tend the ASCII set, perhaps to 8 bits or more. Examples of possible wide character sets are the 256-character HTML set and the 16-bit Java set. 9.4.5 The Structure String In addition to the comparison operations on strings, the concatenation operators * and concat, the conversion operators implode and explode, and the function substring introduced in Section 9.2.5, the structure String contains these constants and functions:9.4. STRUCTURES OF THE STANDARD BASIS 335 (1) Char.contains "hello world" #"a’ val it = false : bool (2) val f = Char.contains "abc"; val f = fr char -+ bool (3) £G#"b"); val it = true ; bool Figure 9.8: The function contains 1. The constant maxLen is the longest allowable length of a string in the ML implementation. For example, SML/NJ gives the following response: String.maxLen; val it = 33554431 : int That number is 27° — 1, incidentally. 2. The function sub(s,i) produces the character in position i of string s. As always, we count positions starting at 0. For instance: String. sub("abedetg", 2); val it = #%e” ; char Notice that sub on strings has a meaning analogous to that for sub on arrays, We shall see in Section 9.4.9 that strings are really vectors of characters, and vectors in turn are arrays that cannot change their values. Thus, the connection is more than coincidence. 3. The function tokens takes a predicate on characters and a string. The string is broken into tokens, which are maximal sequences of characters that do not satisfy the predicate. Thus, the predicate describes “punctu- ation” characters that separate tokens, and the function tokens produces a list of the tokens themselves. Since tokens is written in Curried form, with the predicate first, it is convenient to apply tokens to a predicate alone and return a function that breaks a string into a list of tokens ac- cording to that predicate. Example 9.12: Let us consider an example in which we want tokens to consist of letters only. We can define a predicate that is the negation of the predicate isAlpha that we discussed in Section 9.4.4. This predicate, defined as an anony- mous function, is applied thusly:336 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS val f = String.tokens (fn x => not (Char.isAlpha x)); val f = fn: string -+ string list to produce function f. The function f takes a string and produces from it a list of the maximal substrings of letters. For instance, £("if x <= y then x else y"); "ip, "2”,"y”,"then”,"2”, "else”,"y” val it = : string list In this example string, each token is separated from the next by a single blank, except for the first x and the first y, which are separated by the sequence of four characters " <= ", each of which satisfies the predicate. O Incidentally, there is also in structure String a function fields related to tokens. The difference is that “fields” can only be separated by one punctuation character, not any sequence of punctuation characters. As a result, some fields may be empty strings, while tokens are always nonempty strings. For example, had we defined f using fields instead of tokens in Example 9.12, the result ‘ould have changed by the addition of three empty strings between the first "and "y" in the output list. 9.4.6 The Structure Substring A substring is an abstraction whose values are not visible to the programmer. However, we may think of a value of type substring as representing the fol- lowing triple of type string * int * int: a) A base string, b) A position in the base string where the substring begins, and ©) The length of the substring. The type substring and a number of useful functions on substrings are con- tained in the structure Substring. Here are some important elements in Substring. 1. Function substring takes as argument a triple consisting of a string s and two integers i and j. It returns an abstract representation of the substring consisting of the j positions of string s beginning at position i For example: val ss = Substring.substring("abcdefg", 2, 3); val ss = - : substring9.4. STRUCTURES OF THE STANDARD BASIS 337 String.substring Versus Substring.substring The reader should remember from Section 9.2.5 that the top-level envi- ronment contains a function called substring. This function is from the structure String, not substring. Both functions named substring take the same arguments, but String.substring returns the substring itself, as a string, while Substring. substring returns some abstract represen- tation of the substring. Since String. substring is in the top-level environment, we must be especially careful that when we need Substring. substring we have either opened Substring or use its long name. Otherwise, there will appear to be a function of that name, but it will be the wrong function, returning a string instead of an abstract substring. Notice that no value for this substring is visible; only a dash appears where there should be some representation of a value. The true representation is some internal, implementation-dependent data structure. In some sense, the value of ss is the substring "cde" of "abcdefg", because that is the substring of length 3 beginning at position 2 (recall positions begin at 0). 2. Function base takes a substring and returns the triple it represents. For instance, if we have defined ss as we did in connection with the function substring above, then we can apply base to it as: Substring. base ss; val it = ("abedefg”,2,3) : string * int * int 3. The function getc takes a substring and separates it into its first character and the substring that is the remaining characters. In a sense, getc splits a string the way hd and t1 split lists. More precisely, getc applied to a substring ss returns a value of type (char * substring) option. The value is NONE if ss is the empty string. Otherwise, the value is SOME(c, ssi), where cis the first character of ss and ss1 is the substring that represents all but the first character of ss. Example 9.13: The function printChars of Fig. 9.9 prints each of the char- acters of a string, one to a line. It takes a substring ss and applies getc to it in a case-statement at line (2). The first case, line (3), is where the substring ss is empty. Then, we are done printing characters and return the unit. In the case where ss is not empty, starting at line (4), we print the first character ¢ at line (5), print a newline at line (6), and recursively print the remainder of the substring at line (7)338 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS (1) fun printChars(ss) = @) case Substring.getc(ss) of @) NONE => © | @ SOME (c, ssTail) ¢ (5) print (str(c)); (6) print("\n"); mM printChars(ssTail) % val printChars = fn : substring + unit (8) printChars (Substring. substring("abcdefg", 2, 3)); c d e val it = () : unit Figure 9.9: Printing a string of characters vertically Finally, at line (8) we use printChars by applying it to the abstract sub- string formed by taking positions 2 through 4 of the base string "abcdefg". We see those characters printed vertically as a response. 0 9.4.7 The Structure List We have already seen many of the important functions in the structure List. These include the basic operations to take the head and tail, concatenate or “cons” lists, reverse lists, and compute the length of the list. We have also seen some of the higher-order functions that are available for lists, such as map and the two versions of folding: foldr and foldl. There are a number of other functions worth mentioning. 1. Function take(L,i) returns the first i elements of the list L. For instance: List.take([1,2,3,4,5], 3); val it = /1,2,3) : int list 2. Symmetrically, function drop(L,i) returns what is left when the first i elements are removed from list L. Thus: List drop([1,2,3,4,5], 3); val it = [4,5] : int list9.4. STRUCTURES OF THE STANDARD BASIS 339 3. Function nth(L,n) returns the nth element of list L, counting from 0 as the first element. For example: List-nth([1,2,3,4,5], 3); val it = 4 ; int 4, Function tabulate takes a pair consisting of an integer n and a function f that has an integer domain, and returns the list [f(0), f(1),-..5 f(n—1)]- For example: List.tabulate(5, fm x => x#x); val it = [0,1,4,9,16] : int list 5. Recall that in Section 5.4.5 we wrote a simple higher-order function called filter that takes a predicate p and a list L and returns the list of all those elements of L that satisfy predicate p. There is a function List .filter that is similar, but related to our filter as the ML function map (de- scribed in Section 5.6.3) is related to the simple map function of Sec- tion 5.4.2. That is, List .filter takes a predicate p and returns a func- tion fp. Function fy takes a list L as argument and returns the sublist of elements satisfying p. For example, suppose we say val f = List.filter(fn x => x<10); val f = fn: int list + int list We may then use f as in £([9, 10, 6, 5, 201); val it = [9,6,5] : int list 6. Function partition is a generalized “filter” that takes a predicate and returns function gp. The function gp takes a list L and returns a pair of lists. The first list of the pair is the elements of L that satisfy p; this list is what filter would return. The second list is the elements of L that do not satisfy p. Here is an example of the use of partition: val g = List.partition(fn x => x<10); val g = fn: int list > int list * int list We may then use g as in g([9, 10, 6, 5, 20]); val it = ((9,6,5), (10,20) : int list * int list340 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS 9.4.8 The Structure Array Structure Array contains a number of functions besides the principal tools — array, sub, and update — that we met in Section 7.2.2. We shall mention here only a few; all but the first are analogs of functions of the same name that we have seen for lists: 1. Function fromList takes a list L and creates an array of the same length whose elements are the elements of L, in order. For instance: val A = Array.fromList [1,2,3]; val A = /\1,2,3|) ; int array 2. Function Array.length returns the length of an array. Note that the function length in the top-level basis applies to lists, not arrays. 3. Array. tabulate takes an integer n and a function f whose domain is inte- gers and produces the array whose ith element is (i) for i = 0,1,....n—I. In comparison, List .tabulate does the same but produces a list of these values, 4, Functions Array. foldr and Array. fo1d1 behave like the functions foldr and fold] of the top-level environment that we described in Section 5.6.4. However, these functions operate on arrays rather than lists. That is, their type is (Ca * ’b) -> ’b) -> ’b -> ’a array -> ’b 9.4.9 The Structure Vector ‘As we have mentioned, the type constructor vector creates immutable (un- changeable) arrays of elements of a certain type. Thus, one finds essentially the same operations in the structure Vector that exist in the structure Array. The major difference is that function Array -update has no analog in the structure Vector. Values of type T vector are represented by a list of elements of type T, preceded by the pound sign #. For instance: val v = #[1,2,3]5 val v = #(1,2,3] : int vector Notice that the notation for vectors is available without opening or otherwise accessing the structure Vector. One important operation we can perform on vectors is to extract slices, which are almost like substrings of a string. A slice is a triple consisting of: a) A base vector v,9.4. STRUCTURES OF THE STANDARD BASIS co Slices and Substrings Let us observe the similarities and differences between slices and sub- strings. First, the similarity should be expected, since a string is essentially achar vector, that is, a vector of characters. Both slices and substrings have a base — a vector for slices and a string for substrings. The second component is the starting position for the slice in both cases. The third component of a substring is an integer length, while for the slice the third component is an integer-option, allowing either a length or “to the end” to be specified. We can obtain the added flexibility of the integer option for strings as well as vectors. There is a function String.extract that is analogous to the function Vector.extract that we discussed for vectors. String.extract(s, i, SOME j) means the same as String.substring(s, i, j), while String.extract(s, i, NONE) pro- duces the string beginning at position i of string s, until the end. Moreover, there is a function Substring.slice that behaves like extract on substrings. That is, Substring.slice takes a substring, an integer, and an integer option and produces the appropriate (abstract) substring. b) An initial position i, and ©) An integer-option, either NONE or SOME j If the integer-option is SOME j, then the slice represents the j positions starting at position i of the base vector v. If the integer-option is NONE, then the slice is all positions from i until the right end of vector v. As always, positions are counted starting at 0. Example 9.14: If v is #[1,2,3,4,5,6], then the slice (v, 2, SOME 3) is the vector #[3,4,5]. The slice (v, 2, NONE) is the vector #[3,4,5,6]. 9 To obtain a slice of a vector, we use the function extract. The type of extract is (a vector * int * int option) -> ’a vector so it takes the specification of a slice as argument and returns the vector desig- nated by that slice. c s] ins Example 9.15: Here are two examples of the use of extract, corresponding to the slices of Example 9.14. Vector. extract (#[1,2,3,4,5,6], 2, SOME 3);342 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS Vector.extract (#[1,2,3,4,5,6], 2, NONE); val it = #/3,4,5,6] : int vector o The structure Array also has a function extract. This function produces a vector, not another array. That is, the type of Array. extract is (a array * int * int option) -> ’a vector 9.4.10 The Structure 0S There is a structure 0S that is designed to deal with operating systems and file systems in a machine- and system-independent way. This structure contains a new type, syserror, and the exception SysErr of (string * syserror option) which gets raised when functions in the 0S structure or its substructures go wrong. The arguments of SysError are a string error message and an optional error code of type syserror. Here are a few examples of the substructures and functions available through the 0S structure. 1. There is a substructure FileSys that allows us to manipulate files and directories. The function getDir in this substructure returns the path name of the current directory. For instance, as I write this chapter, I am working in directory /dfs/sole/3/ul1man/m12/ch9. Here is the response I get to getDir: 0S.FileSys.getDir(); val it = "/dfs/sole/3/ullman/ml2/ch9” : string Notice that getDir takes the unit as argument and returns a string. 2. Function mkDir, also in the substructure FileSys, attempts to make a new directory with the pathname specified by its string argument. For example, if Tam in the directory above, I can say: 0S.FileSys.mkDir "foo/bar"; uncaught exception SysErr: [SysErr: No such file or directory [noent]] OS.FileSys.mkDir "foo"; val it = () : unit9.4. STRUCTURES OF THE STANDARD BASIS 343 In the first case, there is no subdirectory foo of my ch9 directory, so a system error occurs, and the SysErr exception is raised. In the second example, I successfully created a subdirectory foo. I could then reissue the first command to create a subdirectory bar or foo. 3. The substructure Process has functions for dealing with processes. It contains the type status, which is int in the SML/NJ implementa- tion, There are two constants success and failure, of type status. In SML/NJ, success is 0 and failure is 1, as is consistent with the UNIX approach to representing success or failure of a system call. Sub- structure Process also has a number of functions for managing processes. One simple but useful example is function system, which interprets its string argument as an operating system command, and executes it as. a side-effect. For example, the expression: 0S.Process.system "1s -1"; executed under a UNIX operating system causes the current directory to be listed as a side-effect. Assuming the execution of 1s ~1 was successful, the value returned by system is success of type status. 9.4.11 The Structures Time and Timer The structure Time contains a type time that represents abstract amounts of time. These times are represented in the form TIME { sec = , usec = } This form looks like a data constructor TIME applied to a record structure. However, it cannot be dissected using pattern matching or the # operator. Rather, we can convert to and from real numbers to create constants of type time. Examples are: val t = Time.fromReal 4.000001; val t = TIME {sec = 4, usec = 1} : Time.time Time.toReal t; val it = 4.000001 : real The structure Timer allows us to time processes, using either wall-clock time or CPU time. There are two types provided by this structure, real-timer and cpu-timer, for real and CPU timing, respectively. A real timer produces a value of type time, while a CPU timer produces a record structure consisting of three fields, each of whose values is a time: a) gc is the amount of garbage-collection time taken by the process.344 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS: b) sys is the amount of system time taken. ©) usr is the amount of user time taken; this amount includes the time taken by the garbage collector that was reported by gc. We initialize and examine these timers by the following functions in the structure Timer: 1, startRealTimer takes the unit as argument and returns a real timer (ie., a value of type real_timer). 2. checkRealTimer takes a real timer as argument and returns, as a value of type time, the amount of wall-clock time since that timer was started. 3. startCPUTimer takes the unit as argument and returns a CPU timer. 4. checkCPUTimer takes a CPU timer as argument and returns a record with the fields ge, sys, and usr. This record represents the amount of time consumed under these three categories since the CPU timer was started. Example 9.16: In Fig. 9.10 is a function run that starts a real timer, runs until the timer reaches at least 10 seconds, and prints the number of times it has checked the timer. At line (1), the timer t is initialized. The response gives the current clock time, although at that point the timer ¢ will begin to count from 0. (4) val t = Timer.startRealTimer() ; val t = RealT (TIME sec=859494139,usec=8794 76) : real.timer (2) fun run(n) = let (3) val ct = Time.toReal(Timer.checkRealTimer t) in (@) if ct < 10.0 then run(nti) else n end; val run = fn: int + int (5) run(0) ; val it = 1771860 : int Figure 9.10: Counting 10 seconds Lines (2) through (4) are the function run. This function takes an argument n representing the number of calls it has made to itself. In line (2). the timer t9.4. STRUCTURES OF THE STANDARD BASIS 345 is checked, and the abstract time it returns is converted to a real number. This real is compared with 10.0 at line (4). If 10 seconds have not elapsed, then run adds 1 to its argument and calls itself recursively. If 10 seconds have elapsed since line (1) was executed, then instead n is returned and run ends, In line (5) we see a call to run(0). Ten seconds later, the call ends. At that time, run has called itself almost 2 million times. Machines are fast these days, and so is the output of an ML compiler. 0 9.4.12 What If I Lose a Name? From time to time, you may lose a function or other element of the top-level environment. For example, you may open a structure that has another function of the same name, or you may write a function of your own with the same name. You can get the name you want back, either by opening its structure or by using its long name. As a general rule, a function whose parameter(s) are of type T will be in the structure for type T. For example, in the structure Real we find functions like trunc, < on reals, and + on reals, There are a few exceptions, however: The structure List contains not only functions on lists like hd, but the higher-order functions like map. © The function str is in String, not Char, even though its argument is a character. String also has the functions implode and explode, which involve both strings and character lis Function real, from integers to reals, is in Real, not Int. ¢ Likewise, both ord and chr, involving both integers and character in Char, not Int. © Function print is in TextIO, not String. « Function vector is in Vector, as you would expect, but its long name is, Vector. fromList, not Vector.vector. « There is a structure General that holds all the functions that work on values of arbitrary types, like before or o. The functions on references — ref, !, and are in General. Also in General are all the exceptions and the functions exnName and exnMessage that operate on exceptions. 9.4.13 Exercises for Section 9.4 Exercise 9.4.1: Give the values of the following: * a) “14 quot “5. *b) 714 rem “5.346 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS c) 714 quot 5. d) 714 rem 5. Exercise 9.4.2: Write equivalents to the following expressions on real numbers using only the sign function and arithmetic operators: * a) abs(x). Mb) if 223.0 then x else 0.0. Exercise 9.4.3: Find the values of the following expressions involving words. When necessary, assume that words are 31 bits long. * a) Word.toInt OwxABC. b) Word.fromInt ~20, * c) Word.toIntX 0wx40000003. d) Word.<<(OwxFF, Ow3). * e) Word.>>(OwxFF, 0w3). f) Word.~>>(OwxFF, Ow3). * g) Word.andb(0w12, Ow5). h) Word.orb(0w12, Ow5). i) Word.xorb(Ow12, Ow5). Exercise 9.4.4: Write a function mask (w, i,j) that takes a word w and masks out (sets to 0) all positions except for the j positions starting at position i. When counting positions, start at the right end with position 0. Exercise 9.4.5: Write a function f(x,a) = a*, using the functions exp and In from the structure Real Math. Exercise 9.4.6: Write the following functions using contains from the struc- ture Char: * a) A function that tells whether a character is a vowel. b) A function that tells whether a character is an even digit. c) A function that tells whether a character is a 1-point letter in Scrabble. Exercise 9.4.7: Using functions tokens or fields from the structure String, write a function that breaks a string into tokens separated by: * a) One or more white-space characters,9.4. STRUCTURES OF THE STANDARD BASIS 347 b) Single slashes (/), as are used to separate elements of a path name in UNIX. Exercise 9.4.8: Use operations from the structure Substring to write func- tions that: * a) Reverse a string. b) Produce the odd-numbered positions of a string. For example, given “abcdef", produce "bdf". Exercise 9.4.9: If L is the list [0,1,4,9,16,25,36], give the value of the following: * a) List.take(L,4). b) List.drop(L,4). *c) List .nth(L,1). d) List nth(L,4). Exercise 9.4.10: Use the function List .partition to write functions that do the following: a) Given a list of strings, divide the list into those strings that are 10 char- acters or longer and those that are shorter than 10 characters. *1b) Given a list of integers, divide the list into three lists, consisting of those integers that are divisible by 3, those that leave a remainder of 1 when divided by 3, and those that leave a remainder of 2 when divided by 3. Mc) Given a list L of integers and an integer m, produce the list of lists (Lo, L1,-.-,Lm—1}, where L; consists of those integers on list L that leave a remainder of i when divided by m. ! Exercise 9.4.11: Using functions from the structure Array, write functions to do the following * a) Produce an array of 26 elements initialized to the characters #"a" through #2", b) Find the largest element of an integer array. Exercise 9.4.12: Let V be the vector #[0,1,4,9,16,25,36]. Give the values of the following expressions: * a) Vector.extract(V, 1, SOME 5) b) Vector.extract(V, 1, NONE).348 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS c) Vector.extract(V, 3, SOME 2). Exercise 9.4.13: Write a function that operates on vectors, performing the analog of the function Substring .getc on substrings. Then, use your function to write another function that finds the maximum element in an integer vector. Exercise 9.4.14: Find the value of the following: * a) Time. fromReal 1.234. b) Time.fromReal 10.5. *c) Time.toReal {sec=3, usec=200}. d) Time.toReal {sec=0, usec=123456}. 9.5 Additional Features of SML/NJ All implementations are expected to provide the “required” structures, the most important of which we surveyed in Section 9.4. Implementations may also provide optional structures that conform to the ML97 standard for those struc- tures. Beyond that, implementations are free to provide nonstandard structures to support features that are not part of the standard. SML/NJ provides one structure, called SMLofNJ, in which are found several additional capabilities. The most important of these features are ways to create executable pro- grams. When we develop a program in any language, we need to compile the program and store the compiled program in an executable file. By so doing, we avoid having to waste time recompiling the program every time we run it. The structure SMLofNJ provides two functions that allow us to create such executable files: exportFn and exportML. 9.5.1 Exporting Functions The function exportFn takes two arguments: 1. The name f of a file in which to write the compiled program. 2. A function F. When executed, the file f does exactly what the function F would have done if executed in the environment that existed when exportFn was called. The type of function exportFn is fn: string * (string * string list -> 0S.Process.status) -> ’a9.5. ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF SML/NJ 349 That is, the first argument, the file name, is a string. The second argument, the function F, has to be of the type that takes a string and a list of strings as, arguments and returns a process status. Function exportFn may be deemed to return a value of any type, but some type must be specified. To understand what the arguments of the function F are, we have to recall how UNIX handles commands. When you type a command in response to the UNIX prompt, the system treats the first string on the command line as the name of the file to be executed. Any other strings on the command line are arguments to be passed to the executing program. The main program of each file executed by UNIX has an array parameter argv that is the list of strings on the command line. The first of these, argv(0], is the name of the file being executed, and the remaining strings, argv(1] through argy[n], are the n arguments to the command. In the function F, its first argument is the string argv[0], i.e., the name of the file being executed. Usually, this argument is ignored, but there are some applications that need to know it. The second argument of F, the list of strings, is argv[1] through argv[n], the list of arguments to the command. Example 9.17: Let us take a simple example of the use of exportFn. In Fig. 9.11 we see an ML program that, when executed, will create a file called combfile. When executed, combfile computes ("") for the integers n and m that appear on the command line. For instance if in response to the UNIX prompt we type, combfile 10 5 combfile will be executed. It will print the value of ('?) and halt. Lines (1) through (7) contain the definition of the combinatorial function we have seen several times before. The only difference is that we have renamed the function comb1. Lines (8) through (14) define the function comb, which is the function we actually export. Function comb must take its arguments from the UNIX shell, so its first argument is the name of the executing file, which we ignore, and the second argument is the list of two strings received from the shell, such as "10", "5"] in the command line illustrated previously. ‘¢ Note that comb is written in such a way that if the exported file is called from UNIX with anything but two arguments, there will be no matching pattern, and the exception Match will be raised. ‘¢ A more careful design would have a second pattern for comb, say pattern comb(.,-), with an associated action to print an error message. Alterna- tively, we could handle the Match exception by printing the error message. On Lines (9) and (10) comb converts each of the character strings n and m to the equivalent integer using Int .fromString, a convenient function in the etandard hasie that we have not nrevionsly disenseed This function converts350 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS (1) fun combi(n,m) = let (2) exception Badl @) exception Bad) in (4) if n <= 0 then raise BadN (8) else if m< 0 orelse m > n then raise Bad (6) else if m=0 orelse m=n then 1 @ else combi(n-1,m) + combi (n-1,m-1) end; val comb1 = fn: int * int + int (8) fun comb(_,[n,m]) = let (9) val nInt = val0f(Int.fromString(n)); (10) val mint = val0f(Int.fromString(m)); (11) val answer = combi(nInt, mInt) in ¢ (12) print (Int.toString(answer)); (13) print("\n"); (a4) 0S.Process.success ) end; val comb = fn * string list + ?.0S.Process.status (15) SMLofNJ.exportFn("combfile",comb) : unit; Figure 9.11: Exporting the comb function9.5. ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF SML/NJ 351 a string that represents an integer into an integer-option; for example, "123" would be converted into SOME 123. A string that doesn’t represent an integer would be converted to NONE. In lines (9) and (10) we take a chance that the strings on the command line really do represent integers by applying the valot operator to extract the integer from the option. Should m or n not represent an integer, the exception Option would be raised. Having made these conversions, comb then applies comb1 to the integers n and m at line (11). The result is printed at line (12) and followed by a newline at line (13). Finally, line (14) returns the status success. Line (15) is the export statement. It takes two arguments: 1. The file name combfile into which the executable code is to be placed, and 2. comb, the ML function that constitutes the program in the file combf ile. After SML/NJ executes the program of Fig. 9.11, we shalll find, in the same directory from which ML was called, a file named combfile. As mentioned previously, if in response to the UNIX prompt we type combfile 10 5 then the result 252, which is ('?), will be printed. What actually happens is that a compiled version of the function comb is called with first argument equal to “combfile" and the list ["10","5"] as second argument. O 9.5.2 Exporting the ML Environment SML/NJ also allows us to create executable files with the function exportML. This function takes one argument, a string that names the file into which the compiled program is written. The difference between exportFn and exportML is that the former produces code to execute a particular function. The latter reproduces the ML system with its environment equal to whatever it was when the exportML function was executed. If we export the ML system into a file foo and execute foo at the UNIX level, the ML system is called with the environment that existed when file foo was created. We then get the ML prompt, -, and may proceed to execute ML code in the existing environment. Example 9.18: Figure 9.12 shows a simple use of exportML. We begin with our usual definition of the combinatorial function; we have returned to calling it comb. The definition of comb is now part of the environment. ‘At the last line, we export the ML environment into the file newsm1. Note the response of the system. The function exportML is of type string -> bool. It returns false when it is called with a file it did not previously create, in which case it actually creates the file newsm1 that will serve as an ML environment. When we execute newsml in response to the UNIX prompt, we get the response352 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS Invoking Executable Files in SML/NJ Version 109.30 There is, in Version 109.30, a somewhat different mechanism for execut- ing an exported file than the straightforward, command-line approach de- scribed in the body of the text. A later version will allow direct command- line execution as suggested by Example 9.17. However, in Version 109.30 ‘one must say: sml @SHLload= For example, using a SUN workstation and executing the pro- gram of Fig. 9.11, the actual name of the executable file is combfile.sparc-solaris. To execute this file and compute ('?), we issue the UNIX command: sml @SMLload=combfile.sparc-solaris 10 5 The same modification must be made in Version 109.30 for the function exportML. For example, the exported file newsml from Example 9.18 is actually executed on a SUN workstation by: sml @SMLload=newsml . sparc-solaris val it = true The value true tells us that we are running a file created by exportML rather than creating such a file. We get the ML prompt and are now able to write top-level expressions in an environment where comb is defined. For example, we may type comb(10,5) ; val it = 252 We may also type any definitions or expressions we wish, just as we can when we invoke sml from UNIX. 0 9.5.3 Exercises for Section 9.5 Exercise 9.5.1: Modify the program of Fig. 9.11 to handle all exceptions, e.g. command arguments that are not integers, or arguments that are integers but raise exception BadN or BadM. Print an appropriate error message and have comb return the status failure. Remember that local exceptions, such as BadN and BadM cannot be handled outside their scope.9.6. SUMMARY OF ML SYNTAX 353 fun comb(n,m) = let exception BadN; exception BadM; in if n <= 0 then raise BadN else if m< 0 orelse m > n then raise Bad else if m=0 orelse m=n then 1 else comb(n-1,m) + comb(n-1,m-1) end; val comb = fn: int * int + int SMLofNJ.exportML("newsm1") ; val it = false Figure 9.12: Exporting the ML system with a loaded comb function * Exercise 9.5.2: Write and export a function that takes a list of any number of integers on the command line and computes their sum. Exercise 9.5.3: Write and export a function that takes on the command line 1. A real number z represented by digits with a decimal point somewhere in the middle, followed by 2. An integer y, and prints 24, 9.6 Summary of ML Syntax We shall now summarize the structure of the ML language. We begin with the lexical features — the way identifiers, constants, and other simple classes are formed. Then, we give the syntax of the language, using the grammatical notation that was introduced in Section 5.7. In this notation, we use capital letters to indicate syntactic categories; these are either lexical concepts like ID (identifier), or syntactic concepts defined by a graph like that of Fig. 5.24. 9.6.1 Lexical Categories Tn our description of ML, we shall refer to the following classes of character strings without giving a grammatical description.354 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS . Identifiers (ID). The alphanumeric and symbolic identifiers were described in Section 2.3.1, However, we exclude from the class ID those identifiers that begin with an apostrophe and therefore represent types, per item (5) below, 2. Constants (CONST). These are integers, reals, character strings, char- acters, booleans, and the unit (). Their legal forms were described in Section 2.1. 3. Labels (LABEL). These are either identifiers or positive-integer constants, as described in Section 7.1 4. Infiz operators (INFIX). These are the usual arithmetic and other opera- tors that we mentioned in Section 9.1.2, plus any other identifiers defined to be infix by the infix or infixr declarations that we described in Section 9.1. 5. Type variables (TYVAR). These are identifiers that begin with an apos- trophe and stand for types. 6. Integers (INT). There is a context where only an integer constant is per- mitted, and we indicate that constraint by the class INT. 9.6.2 Some Simplifications to the Grammatical Structure To eliminate some of the complexity in describing the syntactic structure of ML, we begin by establishing some understandings about identifiers. These modifications to the possible forms of identifiers will then be omitted from the grammatical description throughout this chapter. 1. We shall not distinguish between long identifiers (those with a sequence of ‘one or more structure names and dots) and ordinary identifiers introduced in Section 2.3.1. 2. An infix identifier can be made to have the syntax of a normal function ap- plication by preceding it by the keyword op as mentioned in Section 5.4.4, The use of op binds tighter than any other symbol, so it applies only to the identifier that follows. We shall speak only of identifiers in what fol- lows; the reader should understand that if it makes sense to do so, the identifier may be preceded by op. 3. An identifier, expression, or pattern can be followed by a colon and a type. This colon acts like an infix operator, but its precedence is lower than that of any of the operators listed in Fig. 9.1. It is, however, higher than the precedence of andalso or orelse or of other keywords that appear in expressions. Thus, for example, x+y: int is grouped (x+y): int, but x andalso y:bool is grouped x andalso (y:bool).? Note, however, that in these examples ML can infer the types of x and y regardless of how the grouping is done.9.6. SUMMARY OF ML SY 9.6.3 Expressions Figure 9.13 presents the grammatical diagram for expressions (EXP) in ML. As a general convention, we list the alternative forms for a syntactic category in order of highest precedence first, from the top of the diagram. Since many of the forms are more complex than infix operators applied to two expressions, the notion of precedence is not precise. However, as a rule, to parse an expression, we form the subexpressions of the higher paths in the diagram before the lower paths. Example 9.19: Because the expression form EXP orelse EXP is above the form while EXP do EXP in Fig. 9.13, we group an expression like while E, do Ey orelse Ey as while E; do (E orelse Ey) not as (while E; do Ey) orelse Ey o The paths through the diagram of Fig. 9.13 represent the following forms of expressions, from top to bottom of the diagram. The numbers in the following enumeration are keyed to path numbers along the left edge of Fig. 9.13. 1. An identifier. 2. A constant. 3. A label preceded by a pound sign. This type of expression produces a record selector, which is a function for extracting the value of the field with this label from records, as discussed in Section 7.1.2. 4. A record, consisting of curly brackets surrounding one or more fields; each field consists of a label, an equal sign, and an expression. The fields are separated by commas. Record expressions were discussed in Section 7.1 5. A parenthesized, comma-separated list of expressions, representing a tu- ple. As a special case, if there is only one expression in the list, then we have an ordinary parenthesized expression, rather than a tuple. As a special case, zero expressions is the unit. Tuples were discussed in Sec- tion 24.1 ted list of expressions. surrounded by square brackets. jons as discussed in Section 2.4.3. 6. A comma-separ These are list356 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS Figure 9.13: Structure of expressions9.6. SUMMARY OF ML SYNTAX 357 7. A parenthesized, semicolon-separated list. of expressions, which is a se- quence of “statements” as discussed in Section 4.1.3. 8. A let-expression, consisting of the keyword let, a DECS — that is, a list of declarations of a form to be described in Section 9.6.6 — the keyword in, a semicolon-separated list of expressions, and the keyword end. The form of this expression was introduced in Section 3.4, but the most general form is as given in Fig. 9.13. 9. A pair of expressions, juxtaposed with no intervening symbol. This form represents function application. The first expression must denote a func- tion, and the second is its argument. Recall all ML functions have only one argument, although this argument may be a tuple (i.e., of form 5 described above). 10. Two expressions separated by an infix operator. This form represents the “main sequence” of operators that appeared in Fig. 9.1, along with any other identifiers declared to be infix operators. 11. Two expressions separated by the keyword andalso. 12, Two expressions separated by the keyword orelse. 13. An expression, followed by the keyword handle and a MATCH. The mean- ing of this expression form, whereby we “handle” an exception, was de- scribed in Section 5.2.3. We shall give the grammar for the syntactic cat- egory MATCH in Section 9.6.4, but the intuitive structure was described in Section 5.1.1. 14. An expression preceded by the keyword raise, which is an expression that raises an exception. The value of the expression following raise must evaluate to an exception, as discussed in Section 5.2. 15. An if-then-else expression, as described in Section 2.1.6. 16. A while-do expression, as described in Section 7.3.4. 17. A case-expression, as described in Section 5.1.4, 18. The keyword fn followed by a MATCH. The result is a value that is a function, as discussed in Section 5.1.3. 9.6.4 Matches and Patterns We discussed the notion of a match in Section 5.1. Its formal structure is described by the lower diagram of Fig. 9.14. A match consists of one or more groups of the form PAT => EXP, where PAT is a pattern and EXP is an expression. Each group is separated from the next by a vertical bar.358 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS CaD—Con > MATCH Figure 9.14: Structure of matches and patterns The syntactic category PAT is defined recursively with the related syntactic category APAT, or atomic pattern. We see from the upper diagram in Fig. 9.14 that a PAT has one of the following three forms, keyed to the numbers of the paths in that diagram. 1. An atomic pattern optionally preceded by an identifier. This form repre- sents any atomic pattern as defined in Fig. 9.15. It also represents a data or exception constructor preceding an atomic pattern. For example, if Node is a data constructor that takes two arguments, then Node(t1,t2) is a pattern. Here, (t1,t2) is an atomic pattern and node is a single identifier preceding this atomic pattern. 2. Two patterns connected by an infix operator. Most of the common infix operators, such as arithmetic or comparison operators, cannot appear in patterns because they make no sense. However, the infix operator could be ::, and as we have seen, patterns like x::xs are very common. It could also be a data or exception constructor that has been defined to be an infix operator. 3. An identifier x followed by keyword as and a pattern P says that identifier x must be bound to any value matched by the pattern P. The pattern P is interpreted according to the rules for PAT. Atomic patterns include most of the pattern forms we have seen. Note that a PAT can bean APAT, and an APAT can be a parenthesized PAT, so the only real difference between the two is in the use of parentheses that they require. Here are the forms of atomic pattern, in order of highest precedence. The numbers of the forms are keyed to the numbers on the diagram of Fig. 9.15.9.6. SUMMARY OF ML SYNTAX Figure 9.15: Structure of atomic patterns360 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS: 1. An identifier, which matches anything. 2. A constant, which matches only itself. 3. The wildcard symbol . that matches anything. The difference between an identifier and the wildcard is that the latter cannot be referred to elsewhere, and every use of the wildcard represents a different, anonymous identifier. 4. A list of one or more patterns separated by commas and surrounded by parentheses. This form represents a tuple pattern. In the special case that there is one pattern only, it is simply a parenthesized pattern. . A list of zero or more patterns separated by commas and surrounded by square brackets. This form represents a list pattern. a 6. A comma-separated list of one or more elements, surrounded by curly braces. This form of pattern is a record pattern. Each element represents a field in one of several forms: (a) The usual form is LABEL = PAT, that is, a label representing a field, followed by the pattern that the value of this field must match. (b) Another possible form is a single identifier. Recall from Section 7.1.5 that identifier x in this context stands for x=x; that is, x is both the label and the pattern for that field. (c) An identifier x may be followed by keyword as and a pattern that the field value must match. Such an identifier x may also be preceded by a label and equal-sign, or x may be both the label and a pattern, as in case (6b) ‘We also see from the complicated sixth group of paths in Fig. 9.15 that this list of elements may optionally be followed by a comma and the wildcard for fields ... . 9.6.5 Types Another essential element of ML programs is an expression that denotes a type. Types can be concrete like int, or parameterized like ’a list. They can be built into types of arbitrary complexity using the grammar of Fig. 9.16. The forms of a type expression are as follows, from highest to lowest prece- dence. Again, the numbers below are keyed to the numbers on paths in Fig. 9.16. 1. A type variable, that is, an identifier beginning with an apostrophe. 2. A record type consisting of a comma-separated list of elements, sur- rounded by curly brackets. Each element defines the type of a field. The field name, a LABEL, is followed by a colon and the type expression describing the field.9.6. SUMMARY OF ML SYNTAX Figure 9.16: Structure of types362 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS: 3. An identifier, which is a type constructor, optionally preceded by one or more type expressions. If there are two or more preceding type ¢ pressions, they must be surrounded by parentheses. If there is only one type expression, the parentheses are optional. This form includes con- crete types like int, where the identifier (int) is not preceded by any type expressions. It also includes forms like ?a list, (’a) btree, and (int, real) mapping. 4, Two types separated by #’s. This form represents product types. Recall that grouping of components of tuples is significant. For instance, a type like int * int * int should not be confused with (int * int) * int. We can create cither form by using rules (4) and (6) in the proper order. Rule (6) introduces whatever parentheses are desired. 5. Two types separated by the operator ->. This form allows us to construct, function types; it defines a type that is a function from the first type to the second. Recall that -> is right-associative. Also, * takes precedence over ->, as we can infer from the fact that the path for * is above the path for -> in Fig. 9.16. 6. A parenthesized type. 9.6.6 Declarations Let us now take up the structure of declarations in ML. Because this structure is complex, we shall first look at four important kinds of value bindings defined in ML. In general, a value binding associates a variable or variables with values of the appropriate kind(s). A value binding is preceded by a keyword such as val to form a declaration. In Figs. 9.17 and 9.18 we see the diagrams for the four most complex forms of value bindings; simpler forms are included in Fig. 9.19, where we define the syntactic category DEC of declarations. The top diagram of Fig. 9.17 shows value bindings that can follow the key- word val, and at the bottom of that figure is a diagram of the value bindings that may follow fun. One surprising point is that it is permissible to follow val or fun by one or more type variables; two or more need to be parenthesized, as usual. Any type variables placed there have a scope that is limited to this statement alone, which occasionally prevents an error hecause the type variable used has a scope extending beyond the statement. For example, we may say fun ’a makeNil x = nil: ’a list; and be sure that ’a is a local variable and not the same as any other use of ’a elsewhere. The body of the value binding for a val-statement consists of a pattern, an equal-sign, and an expression. This declaration binds the variables appearing in the pattern to whatever values they acquire by matching the pattern with the expression in the manner described in Section 3.2.5, Several9.6. SUMMARY OF ML SYNTA. 363 Figure 9.17: Value bindings for val and fun value bindings can be made with one val-declaration if they are separated by and. Also, the word rec (recursive) optionally may appear before a pattern: it is essential if the value being described is a recursive function. ‘The lower diagram in Fig. 9.17 is the function binding. This form follows the keyword fun, The binding for a single function with optional type variables, consists of one or more groups separated by |. In cach group is an ID (the function name), followed by one or more atomic patterns, an equal-sign, and an expression. The atomic patterns are the arguments of the function. Tt is common for there to be only one atomic pattern and for this atomic pattern to be @ paren thesized pattern representing all the arguments of the function. However, as discussed in Section 5.5, it is possible to write a function definition in Curried form, where the function name is followed by cach of its arguments with no parentheses or commas. In this case, cach argument is an atomic pattern by Following the atomic patterns is the equal sign and an expression. The expression is the definition of the function for those arguments that match the364 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS given pattern (and do not match a previous pattern). ‘The groups separated by | form the definition of one function, and the name of this function must be the ID in each group. However, several functions may be defined in one function binding, and if so, these definitions are separated by and. Now, let us consider the diagrams of Fig. 9.18. At the top is the diagram for type bindings (TBIND). These value bindings, which were described informally in Section 6.1, must be preceded by the keyword type to define a new type. The simplest form of binding consists of an identifier (the name of the new type), an equal sign, and a type expression. An example is ilist = int list. Here, ilist is the ID, and int list is the type expression. As with the value bindings in Fig. 9.17, a type binding can have one or more type variables as parameters preceding the identifier that names the type. Two or more type variables must be surrounded by parentheses, although parenthe- ses are optional for a single type variable. Additionally, a type binding may be a sequence of type bindings of the above forms, separated by the keyword and. The lower diagram of Fig. 9.18 shows datatype bindings (DTBIND). These are preceded by the keyword datatype or abstype to describe a datatype. The informal description of this ML feature is in Section 6.2. The simplest form consists of an identifier, the name of the datatype, and an equal-sign, followed by one or more elements separated by vertical bars. Each element defines a data constructor for this datatype and is an ID optionally followed by the keyword of and a type expression. Here, the ID is the data constructor, and the TYPE describes the type of the values to which the constructor is applied. Example 9.20: The binding tree = Leaf | Node of tree * treeisof this form. Here, tree is the datatype name, and Leaf and Node are two data constructors. The latter has an optional of followed by the type of nodes, which is a pair of trees. O Datatype bindings may also be preceded by one or more type variables as parameters. The form of these parameters is the same as for the other value bindings; parentheses around one type variable are optional, but they are required for two or more type variables. Finally, it is also possible for a datatype binding to be several datatype bindings of the type described above, separated by keyword and. In Fig, 9.19 is the structure diagram for declarations (DEC). This syntactic category is mutually recursive with the category DECS, or list of declarations, which has the simple definition shown in Fig. 9.20. That is, a list of declara- tions is zero or more declarations separated by optional semicolons. (Nothing separates declarations if the semicolon is not there.) The forms of declarations given in Fig. 9.19 are as follows. Again, the numbers below are keyed to the numbers on the paths of Fig, 9.19. 1. Value declarations. The keyword va1 is followed by a VBIND, as described in the too of Fig. 9.17.9.6. SUMMARY OF ML SYNTAX 365 Figure 9.18: Type and datatype value bindings366 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY OF THE ML STANDARD BASIS Gun ~CFBIND 3} +e) ———>CGa) +} 4} Gainey Cp +S) Garner —-C 0) J ge Gam Co Cam Ceenesps) Ceneses) Figure 9.19: Structure of declarations9.6. SUMMARY OF ML SYNTAX 367 Function declarations. The keyword fun is followed by a function binding, The latter is the structure described in the bottom of Fig. 9.17. . Type declarations. The keyword type is followed by a type binding. The latter was described in connection with the first diagram of Fig. 9.18. Datatype synonyms. This declaration, has not been discussed previously. The keyword datatype and an identifier may be followed by an equal sign, another occurrence of the keyword datatype, and another identifier. Only the second of the identifiers may be a long identifier, and a common purpose of this declaration is to give a datatype defined in some structure a local name. For instance, if you need the datatype dt1 in the structure Struct, then instead of opening Struct, with its possible unexpected consequences regarding accessibility of names, you can say: datatype myDT = datatype Struct.dt1; and henceforth myDT will be a synonym for Struct .dti, even in contexts where Struct itself is not accessible. . Datatype declarations. The keyword datatype is followed by a datatype binding as described in connection with the second diagram of Fig. 9.18. This binding optionally may be followed by the keyword withtype and a type binding. The latter clause, which we have not previously discussed, allows us to define some types as abbreviations and use them in the def- inition of the datatype itself, For example, the following datatype has values consisting of one or two string-integer pairs, and we use the type pair as an abbreviation for string * int. datatype oneOrTwoPairs = One of pair | Two of pair * pair withtype pair = string * int; Abstract type declarations. The keyword abstype is followed by a data- type binding and an optional withtype-clause, just as for datatype decla- rations described in (5) above. Recall that the abstract type, described in Section 8.5.3, is like a datatype but with the possibility that functions on this type are used to encapsulate the type. These functions are defined following the datatype definition. They are preceded by the keyword with and followed by end. . Exception declarations. The keyword exception is followed by the dec- laration of one or more exceptions. The simplest form of an exception binding is an identifier, which becomes the name of the exception. We can also add the keyword of and a type expression to give the exception a parameter of a particular type. Another form of exception binding is