Seu ose aoa Rapa Oa ROBERT J. DIXSON GRAMMAR Itest \'test\n ls or evaluation : i. result of erg tet Ztest vb 1: to put ye he) undergo or ete high in ge tes-taement \'tes : either of two |TESTS AND DRILLS ENGLISH GRAMMAR (Revised Edition) by ROBERT J. DIXSON, M.A. A Latin American Institute Press Book REGENTS PUBLISHING COMPANY DIVISION OF SIMON & SCHUSTER, INC.Copyright © 1957 by SIMON & SCHUSTER, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be re- produced in any form without permission in uriting from the publisher. Published by SIMON & SCHUSTER, Inc. 200 Park Avenue South New York, N.Y. 10003, REGENTS PUBLISHING COMPANY DIVISION Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 57-10673 Printed in the United States of AmericaHow To Use This Book The efficiency of this book will depend greatly upon the skill of the teacher who uses it. The book is planned very simply, so that there is no real problem of organization of materials. Each lesson is so arranged that the teacher simply starts with the first exercises of each lesson and proceeds through the remain- ing exercises. But the problem arises from the following: many teachers, and particularly the inexperienced teacher, consider the exercises to be simple and obvious, and they are unaware of the profound difficulty of these exercises to the foreign student. It is true that the exercises in themselves are not difficult to do. The theory behind the various grammar exercises is also not complex. English grammar, on the whole, is relatively simple. But the real teaching problem arises from the fact that the teacher must lo much more than simply explain the exercises and repeat them once or twice with the students. The students must be taught to use what they are studying. They must be given sufficient practice and repetition so that everything that they study is retained and made an active part of their everyday conversation. This is the basic problem. It may be helpful to the teacher if she keeps the following in mind: Leaming to speak 2 foreign language is more or less a matter of acquiring a skill. It is a skill similar to the skiif acquired in learning to typewrite or to play the piano. It is therefore an ability which comes only with much practice and repetition. The theory involved is generally quite simple. One can understand the theory of typewriting, for example, after only a few minutes study of the typewriter keyboard—but to learn to typewrite well then requires months of patient prac- tice. So it is with learning to speak and understand a foreign language. A student can understand the theory of most of the English grammar” principles in this book after a few minutes study—but to be able to use these principles later in speaking English will require constant practice and repetition.How can this practice and repetition be given within the limits of the usual grammar lesson without tiring or boring the student? This is the task of the teacher. The following suggestions are offered: First, repeat all exer- cises several times. Each time go over the exercises a little faster, demanding from the students speed and accuracy. Also, don’t try to cover too many exercises each day. Half a lesson is enough for the average class to cover in one day. Second, ask students to close books and then have them do the same exercise orally—possibly several times. You will have to guide the students in this, and some exercises do not lend them- selves to this treatment, but it can be done with the majority of the exercises. Third, tell the class that you are now going to ask them some questions using the particular grammar principle involved. For example, if you are studying the exercise on to be supposed to (Lesson 43, rule 87), ask the students ten or twelve questions using this phrase which they must answer. “What time are you supposed to come to class each day?” “Where are you supposed to meet your friend tonight?” “What time is the train for Washington supposed to leave?”"—etc. Fourth—and this is very important. In the case of each gram- mar principle studied, have some simple oral drill of your own invention ready for use. These supplemental oral drills are very easy to develop. For example, if you are teaching negatives, it is very easy to say to the class, “Now I am going to give you a series of sentences orally and I want you to change them to negative form.” You then give each student a simple sentence such as “I went to the movie last night”, and he has to change it to negative form. If the class has already studied question form, you can also make the students put the same sentence into question form for further oral practice. You can next give them a list of negative sentences and make the students change them to positive form. Any such oral device will serve thepurpose of giving the class additional practice in using what they are studying. On the elementary level the drills can be very simple. On the advanced level, with a little imagination, they can often be made quite interesting as well as practical, For example, in teaching the perfect form of the auxiliary should (should have), which is a rather difficult form for foreign students to use (Exercise—Lesson 42), 1 always proceeded as follows: First, I would run over the exercises several times until the students could do the exercises in the book perfectly. However, I knew from many years of experience in this work that there is a great difference between a student’s being able to do the exercises in the book and being able to use the particular prin- ciple in speaking the language. Consequently, 1 then always explained to the class that I was going to give them a little additional oral drill so that they could practice using this form in their everyday conversation. I would then give them a series of statements which they were to consider as statements of error. They were to correct each of these statements using in their answers, first, should have in the negative form and, second, should have im the positive form, For example, I would say to the first student, “I waited for you last night on the corner of 33rd Street.” He had to reply, “You shouldn’t have waited for me on the corner of 33rd Street. You should have waited for me on the corner of 42nd Street.” To the next student I would say, “I sent that letter by ordinary mail.” He then had to answer, “You shouldn’t have sent that letter by ordinary mail. You should have sent it by airmail.” To the third student I would make a similar statement, and thus I would pass all around the class until each student had had one or more practice exer- cises using shouldn't have and should have. I would also con- tinue this drill for several days during the review section of later lessons. Naturally, after a week or so of this kind of practice, every student in the class understood the principle well and could also use it in his everyday speech. Furthermore, the stu- dents always enjoyed such drills, They found them fun to do, and they felt that they were actually speaking the language rather than just learning grammar theory from a textbook.Fifth, institute some regular system of review so that a good part of each lesson is devoted to the repetition of material of earlier lessons. In this way things learned today are not forgotten tomorrow. Instead, everything which has been studied is kept constantly fresh and active. Sixth, for purposes of variety, occasionally dictate exercises to the class and make the students write as you dictate. They can fill in correct verb tenses, correct mistakes, change to negative or interrogative form, etc. If the above suggestions are followed, I am sure that the teacher will find that her lessons will become much more effective. The teacher need not adopt all the points mentioned here; she can add other ideas which may fit her particular class situation better. But if, in general, she follows this oral approach and adheres less rigidly to the exercises in the book, she will find that her lessons will be more animated, her students will respond more eagerly to the task at hand. The students will also be able to make practical use of everything which they study, and thus the purpose of this book, as I have conceived it, will have been well achieved. Nore: For further conversational practice with the grammar principles of this book, the textbooks Direct English Conversa- tion for Foreign Students, Books I and II, are strongly recom- mended as supplemental texts. The books havé been written to accompany each other, and the exercises of this book parallel the exercises of the conversation books, lesson for lesson. RJD.33. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42, 45. 44, 45. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. TABLE OF CONTENTS Simple Negative and Question Form Verb To Be Simple Plurals Possessive Adjectives Position of Adjectives There is—There are Verb To Have Present Tense of Verbs Imperative Form Past Tense—Verb To Be Personal Pronouns: Objective Case Past Time—Regular Verbs Indefinite Articles Past Time—Irregular Verbs Articles— (Continued) Articles— (Continued) Relative Pronouns—Who, Which Negative and Question Form Articles— (Continued) Negative and Question Form- (Continued) Use of Say—Tell Articles— (Continued Negative and Question Form—Past Tense Exclamatory Form Negative and Question Form—Past Tense Negative Question Should—Ought Future Tense Future Tense—Verh To Be Who—Whom—Whose .... Shortened Answer Form Also—Too~Either Why—What For This—That; These—Those Expressions of Necestity (Have To) Have To (Negative and Question Form) Comparison of Adjectives Comparison of Adjectives—Superlative Degree Contractions Contractions~ (Continued) Comparison of Adjectives—Equality Use of Infinitives Some—Any Position of Indirect Objects . Use of Infinitives> (Continued) Idiomatic Phrase—It_ Takes Special Plural Forms Someone, Anyone, etc. Use of Auxiliary Verb May Present Tense—Simple and Continuous Forms Present Continuous Tense— (Continued) Present Continuous Tense—Idiomatic Use Articles— (Continued) Many—Much Few—Less Very—Too Mine, Yours, Hers, etc. No~Not Between—Among Tag Endings . Page 10 un 12 13 4 V7 19 19 25 25 27 27 30 . 32 33 35 38 39 41 41 47 . AT 50 53 53 56 56 56 58 59 61 65 66 68 69 R 72 72 7 5 2B 79 a2 85 87 88 91 a1 91Rule Page 61. Formation of Adverbs 101 62. Comparison of Adverbs 101 63. Use of So lol 64. Good—-Well ae) 85. Adverbs: Comparison of Equality . 104 66, Exclamatory Form 105 67. Reflexive Pronouns = 107 68. Expletives . 108 69. Present Perfect Tense MW 70. Present Perfect Tense—Negative and Question Form ug 71. Present Perfect Tense— (Continued) .. 14 72. For—Since a 73. Present Perfect Tense—Continuous Form 15 74. Unemphatic Future: To Go Plus an tnfinitive 18 75. To Go Plus an Infinitive—Past Tense 118 76. Position of Adverbs 119 77. Past Continuous Tense 121 78. Position of Adverbs— (Continued) 122 79. Past Perfect Tense 124 80. Future Perfect Tense - 125 81. Future Continuous Tense 128 82. Passive Voice ; fore D 83. Passive Voice— (Continued) 132 84. Interrogative Words: Which—What 188 85. Rule of Sequence of Tenses 136, 86. Should—Ought To; Past Form ... 137 83. Idiomatic Verb Phrases—Supposed To 140 88. Idiomatic Verb Phrases—Used To 40 89. Idiomatic Verb Phrases—Would Rather—Had Better 141 90. Present Tense After If . 14 91. Expressions of Quantity: A Lot Of, Lots Of, A Great Deal Of, etc. .144 92. Use of Else : 145 93. Conditions 148 94. Conditions—Past-Unreal 152 95. As If—As Though . 152 96. Subjunctive After Wish vo BBB, 97. Subjunctive Mood-Present Tense . . 156 98. Incomplete Conditions 156 99. Direct and Indirect Speech 160 100. Indirect Speech—Statements 160 101. Indirect Speech—Questions Senne BT 102. Indirect. Speech-Commands 161 103. Causative Form . 164 W04. Special Use of Auxiliary Verbs With Too and So 164 105. Special Use of Auxiliary Verbs With Either and Neither in Negative Sentences 165 106. Participles : 168 107. Use of Gerunds : 168 108. Gerunds as Objects of Prepositions . 7 109. Must—Must Have: Special Use 171 110. May Have \72 111. Infinitives oT 112. Infinitives Without To 175 11§. Still—Any More (Any Longer) od 76 U4. Adjectives After Certain Verbs 178 115. Emphatic Form 179 116. Despite—In Spite Of v9 117. Use of One 179 118. Diffieule Verbs: Lay-Lie; Raise-Rise; Set-Sit 182 119. Position of Prepositions . 183 120. Negative Openings . 184LESSON 1 1, SIMPLE NEGATIVE AND QUESTION Form. a) In English, we form the negative of the verb to be by placing not directly after the verb. He is a teacher, He is not a teacher. This is a book. | This is not a book. b) We form questions with the verb to be by placing the subject after the verb. He is a teacher. Is he a teacher? This is a book. Is this a book? EXERCISES A. Change to Negative Form: 1. This isa pencil. 2. This isa book. 3. This is a pen. 4. This is a notebook. 5. This isa chair. 6. This is a window. 7. This is a door. 8. This isa room. 9. This is a table. 10. This is a telephone.* B. Change to Question Form: 1. This is a book. 2. This isa pencil. 3. This is a pen. 4. This is a notebook. 5. This is a chair. 6. This is a window. 7. This is a door. 8. This isa room, 9. This isa table. 10. This is a telephone.* C. Fillin the blanks of the following: 1. This is a book. 2. This is a chair. a. This is book. a, is a chair. b. is a book. b. This is a This is ao. c. This a chair, d. This a book. @. This is chair. 3. This is a pencil. 4. This is a telephone. a. This a pencil. a. This is.....,... telephone. b. This is pencil b. is a telephone. Ban is a pencil. c. This........a telephone. d. This is a d, This is a “The teacher can add to this basic vocabulary if she wishes by pointing to other objects at hand or in the room.D. Give Short Answers to Each of the Following: (Follow the example given after the first sentence.) 1. Is this a book? (Yes, it is.) 2. Is this a pencil? 3. Is this a pen? 4. Is this a notebook? 5. Is this a chair? 6. Is this a window? 7. Is this a door? 8. Is this a room?* E. Give Short Negative Answers to Each of the Following: (Follow the example given after the first sentence.) 1. Is this a book? (No, it isn’t.) 2. Is this a pen? 3. Is this a notebook? 4. Is this a telephone? 5. Is this a chair? 6. Is this a room? 7. 1s this a window? 8. Is this a door?* LESSON 2 2. Vers To Be. a) The verb to be has the following forms in the present tense. Iam We are You are You are He, she, it is They are b) Under rule la it was stated that we form the negative of the verb to be by placing not directly after the verb. This is true for all three persons, singular and plural. He is a teacher. He is not a teacher. You are a student. You are not a student. We are students. We are not students. c) Under rule 1b it was stated that we form questions with the verb to be by placing the subject after the verb. This is also true for all three persons, singular and plural. He is a teacher, As he a teacher? You are a student. Are you a student? jere again the teacher, at her discretion, can add to this vocabulary, indicating other objects at hand or in the room. 103. Stmpte Piurats. We form the plural of nouns in English by adding s to the singular. There are a few irregular plurals. one pencil two pencils one book two books one man — two men one woman two women EXERCISES A. Fill in the Blanks With the Correct Form of the Verb To Be: 1.1 a teacher. 2. John a teacher. 3. William a student. 4. This . . a book. 5. This not a pencil. 6. John and Mary students. 7. Two and three five. 8. We students. 9. John ............ a man. 10. Mary a woman. 11. Three and two five. 12. ] busy. 13. John . busy. 14. Mary busy. 15. Mr. and Mrs. Smith . busy. B. Change to Negative Form: 1. I ama teacher. 2. This is a book. 3. We are students. 4. Two and three are six. 5. John is a teacher. 6. Mr. Smith is a student. 7. She isa man. 8. This is a good book. 9. They are students. 10. John and Mary are good students. C. Change io Question Form: 1. She isa student. 2. We are good students. 3. John is busy. 4. Mr. Smith is a teacher. 5. Four and two are six. 6. Mary is a woman. 7. Mr. and Mrs. Smith are busy. 8. They are teachers. 9. John is a student. 10. [am busy. D. Give the Plural Form of the Following: 1. One book, two .... . 2. One table, three . 3. One man, two 4. One chair, two . 5. One teacher, two . 6. One pencil, two - 7, One woman, two . 8. One room, two . 9. One student, three 10. One window, five . Il, One room, two ll. 12. One notebook, three . 13. One telephone, two . 14. One pen, two E. Choose the Correct Word: 1. 1 (am, is) a teacher. 2. They (are, is) busy. 3. This (is, are) a book. 4. John and Mary (is, are) good students. 5. Five and three (am, are) eight. 6. We (is, are) students. 7. William (is, are) a student. 8. Mary (is, are) a woman. 9. John (is, are) not a teacher. 10. (Are, is) this a book? 11. They (am, are) not busy. 12.1 (is, am) busy. F. Answer these Questions: 1. 1s John a good student? 2. Are you a student or a teacher? 3. Is this a notebook or a pencil? 4. Are you busy today? 5. Is Mary a good student or a bad student? 6. Are you a good student or a bad student? 7. Are John and Mary busy today? 8. Is George a good student or a bad student? 9. Is this a desk or a chair? 10. Is Mr. Smith a man or a woman? LESSON 3 4, Possessive Apjectives. The possessive adjectives in English (with their corresponding personal pronouns) are as follows: I-my We-our You—your You-your He-his They-their She—her This is my book. She is in her room. He walks to his chair. a) We form the possessive of all nouns in English (com- mon and proper) by adding ’s. Examples: book’s, Mary's, Mr. Smith's. This is Mary's book. The dog’s tail is very long. 125. Position or Apjectives. An adjective in English always precedes the word it modifies. Adjectives also have only one form and do not change form when they modify singular or plural nouns or nouns of different gender. This is a good book. He is a good student. They are good students. EXERCISES A. Fill in the Blanks With the Correct Possessive Adjec- tive: 1. I walk to .... (my) ... chair. 2. John walks to chair, 3. You walk to chair. 4. Mr. Smith walks to desk. 5. Mary walks to ..... seat. 6. Mrs. Smith walks to seat. 7. The boy walks to seat. 8. The girl walks to seat. 9, They walk to ............ chairs. 10. The teacher writes with ............ pen. 14. I write with pen. 12. The students write with pens. B. Change the Words in Italics to Possessive Form: (Fol- low the example given in the first sentence.) 1. This is the book of John. (This is John’s book.) 2. This is the pen of Helen. 3. The desk of the teacher is new. 4. That is the home of my teacher. 5. The friend of my sister is very sick. 6. The office of Mr. Smith is very large. 7. This is the note- book of William. 8. He is the teacher of Helen. 9. He is also the teacher of my friend. 10. This is the room of Mr. Smith. C. Change the Following to Negative Form: 1. They are good students. 2. He is miy teacher. 3. John and Mary are students. 4. He is a good teacher. 5. This is my pencil. 6. Mr. Smith is in his office. 7, We are teachers. 8. Seven minus three is two. 9. Five times two is nine. 10. This is their class- room. D. Change the Following to Question Form: 1. They are good students. 2. He is in his office. 3. She is a good student. 4. They are busy. 5. Six and one are seven. 6. This is his room. 7. This is their classroom. 8. This is John’s office. 139. They are in the office. 10. He is busy. 11. She is busy. 12. She is in class. E. Choose the Correct Form: 1. William (is, are) in his room. 2. (Is, are) this your book or my book? 3. This (is, are) his desk. 4. (Am, are) you a good student or a bad student? 5. I (am, are) busy. 6. My book (is, are) on the desk. 7. My books (is, are) on the desk. 8. They (are, is) in the office. 9. This (is, are) my seat. 10. We (are, am) busy today. F. Answer these Questions: 1. Is this your pen or my pen? 2. Is Mr. Smith your teacher or Mary's teacher? 3. Is this your seat or John’s seat? 4. Is John a good student or a bad student? 5. Is he a tall boy or a short boy? 6. Are John and William in your English class now? 7. Is this my note- book or your notebook? 8. Is Mr. Smith a teacher or a student? 9. Is he a young man or an old man? 10. What is the plural form of book? Of man? Of woman? LESSON 4 6. THERE Is—Tuere Are. a) We seldom say in English, “A book is on the table.” We say, instead, “There is a book on the table.” Thus, the existence of any indefinite person or thing is usually introduced by there is or there are. (Com- pare the similar use of French il y a or the Spanish and Portuguese hay.) Note that we use there is with singular nouns; we use there are with plural nouns. There is a book on the table. There are two pencils on the desk. There is aman in the room. b) The negative form of there is and there are is obtained by placing not after the verb. The question form is ob- tained by placing there after the verbs. (Note that in all questions in English a question mark is placed at the end 14of the sentence. No mark is placed before the sentence as in Spanish.) ‘There is a book on the table. a. There is not a book on the table. ‘There are two pencils on the desk. a. Are there two pencils on the desk? EXERCISES A. Choose the Correct Word: 1. There (is, are) a book on the desk. 2. There (is, are) three men in the room. 3. There (is, are) many people in the office. 4. There (is, are) flowers on the table. 5. There (is, are) a picture on the wall. 6. There (is, are) a desk in the room. 7. There (is, are) a notebook on the desk. 8. There (is, are) many stu- dents in our class. 9, There (is, are) many windows in our room. 10. There (is, are) a yellow pencil on the desk. B. Improve the Form of the Following Sentences by Intro- ducing there is or there are. (Follow Example Given in First Sentence): 1. A magazine is on the chair. (There is a mag- azine on the chair.) 2. Two men are in Mr. Smith’s office. 3. Many trees are in the park. 4, Many people* are in the street. 5. Many students are in my English class. 6. A vase of flowers is on the table. 7. Two windows are in the room. 8. Only one door is in the room. 9. A dog is in the garden. 10. Many animals are in the park. C. Change to Negative Form: 1. There is a book on the desk, 2. There are many people in the room. 3. There is a blue book on the desk. 4. There is a table in the room. 5. There are two flowers on the table. 6. There are many students in our class. 7. There are many people in the office. 8. There is a picture on the wall. 9. There are three men in the room. 10. There are many windows in our room. D. Change to Question Form: 1. There is a table in the room. 2. There are two men in the office. 3. There is a chair * Note that the word people is always plural in English. 15in the room. 4. ‘There is a notebook on the desk. 5. There are flowers on the table. 6, There are many windows in our room. 7. There are many students in our room. 8. There is a yellow pencil on the desk. 9, There are two students in the room. 10. There is a man in the office. E. Change the Following to Questions and Begin Each Question with How Many. (Follow the example given with the first sentence.) 1. There are two tables in the room. (How many tables are there in the room?) 2. There are three men in the office. 3. There are four windows in the room. 4. There are six students in our class. 5. There are three pencils on the desk. 6. There are many books in our room. 7. There are six men in the office. 8. There are five chairs in the room. 9. There are three pictures on the wall. 10. There are two pens on the table. F. Complete the Following in Your Own Words: 1. There isa v1 2. There are many . 3. There isa : 4. There are two . . 5. There is not a . 6. Is there a ? 7. Are there ? 8. Are there many ? 9. There are three . 10, There is a G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. John (is, are) a good student. 2. How many books (is, are) there on the desk? 3. (Is, are) this your book or my book? 4. There (is, are) two men in the office. 5. There (is, are) many students in the class. 6. I (is, am) busy today. 7. There (is, are) many people in the office. 8. There (is, are) a large desk in the room, 9. Three (womans, women) are in our class. 10. How many tables (there are, are there) in your room? H. Answer These Questions: 1. How many students are there in your English class? 2. How many boys are there in your class? 3. How many girls are there in your class? 4. How many windows are there in your classroom? 5. How many doors are there? 6. How many chairs are there? 7. Is there a map on the wall of your classroom? 8. Are there 16pictures on the walls of your classroom? 9. How many pic- tures are there? 10. Is there a calendar on the wall? LESSON 5 7. Vers To Have. a) The verb to have has the following present tense forms: I have We have You have You have He, she, it has They have b) The negative form of to have is obtained by placing the word not after the verb, In conversation, however, the contracted forms haven’t or hasn’t are always used. Ihave not (haven't) a book. I haven't a pen. She hasn’t a hat. ©) The negative form of to have may also be obtained by use of the word no, as in the following examples: I have no book. She has no hat. d) The question form of to have is obtained by placing the subject after the verb:* He has a hat. a. Has he a hat? They have two books. a. Have they two books? EXERCISES A. Supply the Correct Form of To Have. 1. John a pen. 2. We new books. 3. She a yellow pencil. 4. I a new hat. 5. He a good office. * As we will study later, both the negative and the question forms of have are also obtained by use of the auxiliary verbs do and does. 176. We a good teacher. 7. They many books. 8. We a large room, 9. I a good notebook. 10. John a new teacher. 11. I much work today. 12. He ... a new notebook. B. Change the Following to Negative Form by Placing Nor After the Verb: (Use contracted forms.) 1. I have a book. 2. They have many books. 3. John has a new teacher. 4. I have two pens. 5. They have a new room. 6. He has a large office. 7. Mary and John have new hats. 8. He has a good notebook. 9. Mary and I have a good teacher. 10. Mr. Smith has many students. 11. She has a new hat. 12. They have many friends. C. Change to Negative Form by Using the Word No: 1, John has a pen. 2. I have a book. 3, Helen has a teacher. 4. We have a room. 5. They have copybooks. 6. He has a small office. 7. He has students. 8. She has a pencil. 9. We have books. 10. They have hats. 11. They have friends. 12. She has money. D. Change to Question Form: 1. John has a new suit. 2. They have a new room. 3. He has many friends. 4. You have a new notebook. 5. Mary and John have new hats. 6. Mr. Smith has many students. 7. You have a new teacher. 8, He has a red pencil. 9. Mary has a blue pen. 10. Mr. Smith hasa small office. E. Change the Word Tuis in the Following to Plural Form; Then Make Whatever Other Changes Are Necessary: (Follow example given in first sentence.) 1. This is my pen. (These are my pens). 2. This is John’s pencil. 3. This is your book. 4. This is Mary’s hat. 5. This is my desk. 6. This is our room. 7. This is his office. 8. This is my note- book. 9. This is her pen. 10. This is John’s book. 11. This is his pen. 12. This is William’s copybook. F. Choose the Correct Form: \. Mary (has, have) a new book. 2. These pens (is, are) Mary's also. 3. His shoes (is, are) brown. 4. I (is, am) a good student. 5. How many stu- 18dents (there are, are there) in your class? 6. They (have, has) no teacher today. 7. How many windows (have, has) your room? 8. There (is, are) many students in our class. 9. (Is, are) these your books or my books? 10. There (is, are) many people in the room. G. Answer these questions: 1. How much money have you with you? 2. Have you many friends or few friends? 8. Has John black hair or brown hair? 4. Have you many English books or few English books? 5. How much money has John with him? 6. Has your father a new car? 7. Have you a fountain-pen? 8. Have you brown eyes or blue eyes? LESSON 6 8, PRESENT TENSE OF VERBS. Verbs in English have the following present tense forms: I work We work You work You work He, she, it works They work This form of the present tense, which is known as the Simple Present Tense, is used to describe an action which goes on every day or in general.* He always comes to school on the bus. They speak English well 9. Imprrative Form. a) The imperative form in English, which is used to express a command or request, corresponds with the second person singular of the present tense of the verb. The subject (you) is understood but not expressed. (You) Walk slowly. Come back later. ©The teacher should explain at this point that for an action which goes on now or at the present time, we use a different form of the present tense, namely, the Present Continuous Tense—See Lesson 27. 19b) The negative form of the imperative is obtained by placing do not (usually contracted to don’t) before the sec- ond person of the verb. Do not (Don't) walk so slowly. Don't come back later. c) The imperative form is often softened in everyday con- versation by the use of please. Please is placed either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. Please sit here. Sit here, please. Please don’t walk so fast. Don't walk so fast, please. EXERCISES A. Supply the Correct Form of the Verb in the Following Blanks: 1. He (work) very much. 2. I (study) very hard. 3. She (speak) very fast. 4. They (walk) very slowly. 5. John (walk) very fast. 6. They (speak) English well. 7. This pen (work) well. 8. Helen and John (speak) English well. 9, He (like) meat. 10. They (drink) much coffee. 11. I (drink) much tea. 12. 1 (like) to study English. B. Change Each of the Following So That It Begins With He Instead of I: 1. I like to study. (He likes to study.) 2. Iam busy. 3. I have a book. 4. I work very much. 5. I am a student. 6. I walk very slowly. 7. I have a good teacher. 8. I speak English well. 9. I have a new hat. 10. I drink milk for dinner. 11. 1 like to study. 12. I have no money. C. Change Each of the Following so That it Begins With I Instead of He. Change a Second Time, Beginning with Tuey: J. He speaks English well. (I speak English well.) 2. He comes to school on the bus. 3. He walks very fast. 4. He has many friends. 5. He likes to study English. 6. He drinks 20much tea. 7. He works very hard. 8. He writes many letters. D. Change to Imperative Form: 1. You walk slowly. 2. You drink milk. 3. You eat many eggs. 4. You speak slowly. 5. You have a cup of coffee. 6. You have bread and butter. 7. You eat slowly. 8. You drink slowly. 9. You study very much. 10. You speak English well. 11. You write well. 12. You write slowly. E. Change the Following Imperative Sentences to Nega- tive Form: 1. Speak slowly. 2. Drink your milk. 3. Eat my bread and butter. 4. Eat fast. 5. Walk slowly. 6. Work very much. 7. Speak fast. 8. Drink much coffee. 9. Drink much tea. 10, Work slowly. 11. Write slowly. 12. Walk with John. F. Add PLEASE to Each of the Following Imperative Sen- tences. Read Each Sentence Twice, Once Putting PLEASE at the Beginning of the Sentence and Once Putting PLEASE at the End of the Sentence. Follow Example. 1. Wait for John. (a. Please wait for John, b. Wait for John, please.) 2. Come back later. 3. Sit here. 4. Walk slowly. 5. Stay in line. 6. Don’t mention it. 7. Don't tell Helen about it. 8. Speak more slowly. 9. Drink your tea. 10. Don’t sit on this chair. 11. Don't wait here. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. (Has, have) John a new book? 2. What color (is, are) Mary's hair? 3. John (speak, speaks) English well. 4. We (like, likes) New York. 5. (These, this) are my books. 6. Don’t (walk, walks) slowly. 7. They (drink, drinks) much coffee. 8. He (have, has) a new hat. 9. How many books (have, has) you? 10. There (is, are) two pens on the desk. 11. He (go, goes)* there every day. 12. They (has, have) many books. '* Most verbs ending in the letter o (go, do) form the third person singular by adding es (goes, does). Verbs ending in an s sound (5, sh, ch, x, or 2) also add es in the third person singular (wish, wishes; catch, catches) . Verbs ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add es (study, studies; marry, marries). 21LESSON 7 10. Pasr TENse—Vers To Be. a) The verb to be has the following Past TENsE forms: (Yesterday) I was We were You were You were He, she, it was They were b) The negative form of the past tense of to be is obtained in the same way as the negative form of the present tense, by placing not after the verb. He was a teacher. a, He was not a teacher. They were busy, a, They were not busy. c) The question, form of the past tense of to be is also obtained in the same way as the question form of the present tense, by placing the subject after the verb. He was a teacher. a. Was he a teacher? They were busy. a, Were they busy? 11. PERsoNAL PRoNouns: OsjEcTIvVE Case. The personal pronouns have the following forms in the objective case. (We use the objective case for all direct and indirect objects, objects of prepositions etc.) Singular Plural (Nominative) (Objective) (Nominative) (Objective) I me we us you you you you he him they them she her at it He speaks with me. I know him. I understand her very well. John likes them very much, ete. 22EXERCISES A. Change the Following Sentences to Past Time: 1.1 am busy. 2. John is a good student. 3. He is sick today. 4. He is at the movie. 5. William and Henry are at the movie. 6. They are good students. 7. Mary is sick today. 8. They are at the lesson. 9. Mr. Smith is in the office. 10, The book is on the desk. 11. There is a man in the room. 12. There are many students in our class. B. Fill the Blanks With the Correct Past Tense Form of the Verb To Br: 1. John busy yesterday. 2. We at the movie last night. 3. There ..... many students in our class yesterday. 4. I sick yesterday. 5. Mary also sick yesterday. 6. There two men in the office. 7. John not at the lesson yesterday. 8. He sick. 9. The books on the table. 10. john in Mr, Smith’s office, 11. He in Chicago last week. 12. We with him at the movie. C. Change to Negative Form: 1. John was in the office. 2. We were at the movie last night. 3. Mary and John were with us at the movie. 4. There were many students in class today. 5. I was sick yesterday. 6. John was sick yesterday. 7, We were very busy yesterday. 8. He was here last night. 9. The book was on the desk. 10. The teacher was in the room. 11. They were in Chicago yesterday. 12. They were with us. D. Change to Question Form: 1. We were at the lesson yesterday. 2. John was sick yesterday. 3. The notebook was on the desk. 4. Mary was sick yesterday. 5. We were at the lesson yesterday. 6. They were very busy last week. 7. John was here last night. 8. There were many students at the lesson. 9. I was at the lesson. 10. The teacher was at the lesson. 11. Mary was at the lesson. 12. I was with her. E. Choose the Correct Form: 1. John is with (I, me). 2. I like (he, him) very much, 3. He studies with (us, we). 4. I know (she, her) very well. 5. I want to study with (they, 23them). 6. 1 understand (him, he) very well. 7. He speaks with (we, us) in English every day. 8. He studies in the same class with (me, I), 9. I go to school with (them, they). 10. [know (he, him) very well. F. Substitute for the Italicized Word or Words the Correct Pronoun: 1. John likes Mary. (Ex.:—John likes her.) 2. William studies the book. 3. She speaks with John. 4. I un- derstand the teacher very wel]. 5. The teacher likes Mary and William very much. 6. He studies his book every day. 7. He goes with Mary and me to the lesson. 8. I like this book very much. 9. He goes with John and William to the university. 10. He speaks with Helen in English. 11. I know William and John very well. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1, They (speak, speaks) English well. 2. We (was, were) at the lesson yesterday. 3. What color (is, are) his suit? 4. John (like, likes) New York very much. 5. He (work, works) very much. 6. (This, these) books are John's. 7. These pencils (is, are) also his. 8. There (is, are) a calendar on the wall. 9. (Has, have) you many friends? 10. How many windows (are, is) there in this room? 11. They (like, likes) their teacher. 12. We (was, were) at the lesson yesterday. H. Answer these Questions. 1, Where were you at ten o'clock last night? 2. Was Helen in class yesterday? 3. Were John and William in class? 4. Why was your brother not at the lesson yesterday? 5. Were there many students or few students absent yesterday? 6. What day was yesterday? 7. Was yesterday Tuesday? 8. Where were you last Saturday? 9. Who was with you at the movie last night? LESSON 8 12. Pasr Tim—E—RecuLaR VeRBs. We form the past tense of most verbs in English by adding ed to the simple (infini- 24tive) form. All such verbs which form their past tense in this way are known as regular verbs. (to work) I worked We worked You worked You worked He, she, it worked They worked 13, INDEFINITE ArTICLEs. a) The indefinite article a, which is placed before all nouns of general or indefinite meaning, is not used before plural nouns. Before plural nouns of general or indefinite meaning, no article is used. Teat a sandwich every day. I eat sandwiches every day. However, the indefinite article is often replaced in the plural, when a certain number or quantity is indicated, by such words as some, many, several. I haye a book. a. [have some books. b. Ihave many books. c. [have several books. b) Note that in English the indefinite article is used before all predicate nouns which show the nationality or profession of the subject. He is a Spaniard. Mr. Smith is a teacher. EXERCISES A. Change to Past Time: |. I walk into the room. 2. John opens the window. 3. I look out of the window. 4. Mary opens her book. 5. I look at my note-book. 6. The teacher closes the window. 7. She likes this book. 8. John talks with the teacher. 9. We study English every day. 10. He walks to school every day. B. Fill in the Blanks With the Correct Tense of the Verb in Parentheses (Present or Past Tense): 1. John 25(walk) to school every day. 2. John and I (walk) to school yesterday. 3. John (study) English with me yesterday. 4. John (study) with me every day. 5. Lalways (open) my book at the lesson. 6.1 (open) my book at the lesson yesterday. 7. I (talk) with John last week. 8. John (talk) with the teach- er every day in English. 9. I (study) my lesson last night. 10. 1 ............ (study) English every day. C. Change From Past to Present Tense: 1.1 opened the window. 2. He walked to school. 3. She liked the book. 4. I talked with the teacher. 5. He studied* every day. 6. They walked to school. 7. She studied with me. 8. John closed the window. 9. I looked out of the window. 10. Mary looked out of the window. D. State in The Past Tense; Also Complete Each Sen- tence with Words of Your Own Choosing. (In Your Answers Make Use of Such Expressions as YesTERDAY, Last NIGHT, Last Weex, Last Montu to Indicate Past Time.): 1. We (study) (Example: We studied this same lesson yes- terday.) 2. John (open) 3. We (walk) 4. They (like) 5. Helen (close) 6. Mr. Smith (work) 7. They (talk) 8. John (study) 9. They (live) 10. She (marry) 11. They (arrive) 12. We (dance) E. Change the Words in Italics to Plural Form: (Follow example). 1, A table has four legs. (Tables have four legs.) 2. A chicken is a bird. 3. A carrot is a vegetable. 4. A cow is a domestic animal. 5. A lion is a wild animal. 6. A tiger is also a wild animal. 7. A cat has a long tail. 8. A dog has a long nose. 9. A baseball is round. 10. A football is not round. I1. A leaf is green in color. 12. A banana is yellow in color. F. Change the Italicized Nouns in the Following to Plural * When the present tense form of the verb ends in y, preceded by a con- sonant, the y is changed to i before adding ed in the past tense. (Examples: study, studied; marry, married) . 26Form and Introduce SoME, MANY, or SEVERAL in Place of the Indefinite Article: 1. I have a book. (I have several books). 2. John has a cigarette. 3. There is a man in the office. 4. There was a book on the table. 5. We have a large room. 6. I write a letter every day. 7. Have you a copy-book? 8. There is a window in our room. 9. I have a yellow pencil. 10. There is a new student in our class. 11. He has a new copy-book. 12. There is a letter for you in the office. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. 1 (was, were) at the lesson yesterday. 2. John (has, have) many cigarettes. 3. (This, these) books belong to me. 4. He (like, likes) to smoke. 5. John (walks, walked) to school yesterday. 6. I talked with (he, him) about it. 7. How many windows (there are, are there) in your room? 8. I walked with (they, them) to school yesterday. 9. I write many (letter, letters). 10. There (is, are) several people in the office. 11. We (was, were) very busy yesterday. 12. They (speak, speaks) well. LESSON 9 14. Pasr Time—IrrEGuLAR Veres, Although most verbs in English form their past tense by adding ed to the simple, infinitive form— (See last lesson), there is a large group of common verbs which form their past tense in special, irreg- ular ways. Such verbs are known as “irregular verbs”. The past tense form of these verbs must be memorized. Verb: to see (Yesterday) T saw We saw You saw You saw He, she saw They saw (See appendix for complete list of all irregular verbs, with their corresponding past tense forms.) 15. Arricies— (Continued). The definite article (the), which is placed before all nouns of particular or definite 27meaning, is used in the plural in the same way that it is used in the singular. The book which I want is on the table. The books which I want are on the table. EXERCISES A. Change to Past Time: 1.1 sit at this desk. 2. John drinks much coffee. 3. I get up at eight o'clock every day. 4. I eat my lunch at one o'clock. 5. At two o'clock I begin to read my newspaper. 6. I buy many English books. 7. I often go to the library for books. 8. 1 come home at six o'clock every night. 9. I write many letters. 10. I read my English book every night. B. Change to Past Time: (Note that these Sentences all Contain Regular Verbs) 1. We talk with the teacher in English every day. 2. John opens the window for the teacher. 3. We like this book. 4. We study English every day. 5. He walks to school every day. 6. I like to study English. 7. We walk to school together. 8. I often look out of the window. 9. He smokes many cigarettes. 10. They like to go to the movie. C. Fill in the Blanks With the Proper Past Tense Forms of the Verbs in Parentheses: 1. I (write) several letters last night. 2. John (talk) with Mr. Smith yesterday. 3. 1 (eat) my breakfast at seven o'clock. 4.1 (buy) a new English book yesterday. 5. The teacher (close) the window. 6. I (walk) to school with John this morning. 7, I - (go) to the library yesterday. 8. I (come) home very late last night. 9. We (begin) our lesson early. 10. We (read) the newspaper in our lesson yesterday. 11. Tw. (talk) with her about it. 12. He (buy) this book Jast summer. D. Change From Past to Present Tense: 1. He wrote a letter. 2. LU sat at this desk. 3. I got up early. 4, I ate my lunch. 5. He read his book. 6. I went to the library. 7. John 28bought a new book. 8. Mary began to study English at ten o'clock. 9, He drank much coffee. 10. 1 drank much milk. E. State in the Past Tense; Also Complete Each Sentence with Words of Your Own Choosing. (In Your Answers Make Use of Such Expressions as YESTERDAY, Last NicnT, Last Week, Last MontH to Indicate Past Time): 1.1 (get) up (Example: I got up early yesterday morning.) 2. We (eat) 3. He (buy) . 4. He (write) 5. John (read) 6. The lesson (begin) . 7. We all (go) 8. They (come) 9. We (have) 10. She (speak) 11. We (see) 12. She (bring) 13. They (sing) 14. He (drink) F. Change the Italicized Nouns in the Following From Singular to Plural; Then Make Other Changes When Neces- sary. 1, The book is on the table. 2. I have the cigarette. 8. The pencil is on the desk. 4. The student is in the room. 5. The teacher is in the office. 6. I read the newspaper every day. 7. I read the letter from my friend. 8. The window is open. 9. The door is closed. 10, The man is in the office. 11. The letter is on the table. 12. The room is dark. G. Choose the Correct Word: 1. Last night I (eat, ate) dinner at seven o'clock. 2. They (was, were) busy yesterday. 3. They (speak, speaks) French well. 4. (Is, are) your books new? 5. He arrived (in, at) the lesson very late. 6. There (is, are) many people in the room. 7. How many English books (have, has) you? 8. How many days (is, are) there in a week? 9, He (speak, speaks) English well. 10. (Have, has) she a pencil? 11. (Was, were) you at the lesson yester- day? 12. They (go, goes) to the movie every night. LESSON 10 16. Arricirs— (Continued). a) The indefinite article a is used before all nouns of general or indefinite meaning 29beginning with a consonant (or consonant sound). The in- definite article an is used before all nouns of general or indefinite meaning beginning with a vowel (or vowel sound). T have a glass of milk. I have an apple. He ate an egg. b) Note that no article at all is used before nouns which stand for some indefinite quantity or quality (i-e., water, air, metal, honesty, truth, etc.). When such nouns, however, are used to indicate some particular quality or quantity, then the definite article the is used. Water is good for the health, The water in this cup is not good. Gold is an important metal. The gold .in this ring is expensive. 17. RELATIVE Pronouns—Wuo, Wuicn. We use the rela- tive pronoun who when we refer to a person. We use the relative pronoun which when we refer to a thing. ~The woman who came with him is The man who spoke to me is Mr. The books which I bought are English books. The movie which I saw was good. EXERCISES A. Fill in the Blanks With A or AN: 1. My teacher is American, 2. Mr. Lopez is Spaniard. 3. John is ..... student. 4. I ate . apple. 5. Yesterday I bought .. sandwich. 6. I ate egg. 7. He is good student. 8. This is old book. 9. There is man in the office. 10. There is orange on the table. 11. Mrs. Smith is Englishman, 12. This is ......... English book. B. Put the Correct Indefinite Article (A or An) before these Words: 1. .. pencil 2. apple 3. 30egg 4. envelope 5. orange 6. hour* a honest man 8. house 9. banana 10. big banana 11. exercise 12. difficult exercise 13. easy exercise 14. uni- versity** 15. big university 16. used car 17. old car 18. new car 19. young woman 20. old woman C. Supply the Definite Article (The), Where Necessary in the Following: 1. fresh air is good for the health. . air in this room is not good. 3. history is an interesting subject. 4. We studied history of France. 5. We must have good light in our class- room. 6. light in this room is not good. 7. I always drink water with my meals. 8. water in this glass is dirty. 9. leather in these shoes is very good. 10. We get leather from the skins of animals. 11. We all need fresh air. 12. air in large cities is not very fresh. D. Fill in the Blanks With Wuo or Wuicu: 1. The girl is with him is his sister. 2. The book I want is on the table. 3. The man came with me is my father. 4. Is this the pencil you bought? 5. Is that the bus . we must take? 6. This is the chair on I sat. 7. John is the student speaks English well. 8, Was it William ate lunch with you? 9. The movie we saw was very good. 10. Is this the newspaper you read in class? 11. Are these the pencils you want? 12. Are these the boys study with you? E. Fill in the Blanks With the Correct Prepositions: 1, John walks the room. 2. There are four chairs this room. 3. How many books are there the table? 4. The blackboard is the wall. 5. The Since the letter ht in the word hour is silent, the word begins with a vowel sound; therefore we say, “an hour”. Also, “an honest man” etc. ** The word university, although beginning with a vowel, is actually pro- nounced as though it began with the consonant sound y (as in you); therefore we say, “a university”. Also, “a used car” etc. 31boy drank a glass milk. 6. There is a pen the table. 7. I waited him the corner. 8. I want a cup coffee. 9. I look the window. 10.1 always walk school. 1. I look my book at the lesson. 12. I write my copybook. F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. John is (a, an) Spaniard. 2. The books (which, who) I want are on the table. 3. The windows (is, are) open. 4. Yesterday I (got, get) up very early. 5. John (has, have) dinner at six o'clock every day. 6. (This, these) books belong to Helen. 7. Mr. Smith is (a, an) old man. 8. Yesterday (was, were) Sunday. 9. There (is, are) two men in the office. 10. He is (a, an) honest man. Il. (Was, were) they busy yesterday? 12. They (studies, study) English every day. G. Answer these Questions: 1. Are you an American or a Mexican? 2. Have you a new English book or an old one? 3. Is that an orange or a lemon on the table? 4. Who is that man who is with Helen? 5. Was the movie last night a good one or a bad one? 6. Is Mr. Lopez an American or a Mex- ican? 7. Is fresh air good or bad for the health? 8. Is the air in this room fresh or stale? 9. Are the books which you bought English or French books? 10. Is this an English text-book or a French text-book? LESSON 11 18. NEGATIVE AND QUESTION Form. a) With the verb to be and with all auxiliary verbs such as can, may, must, etc., the negative form is obtained simply by placing the word not after these verbs. John is a student. a. John is not a student. He can speak Spanish. a. He can not speak Spanish. She must talk in the lesson. a. She must not talk in the lesson. 32,b) With,the verb to be and with all auxiliary verbs such as can, may, must, etc., the question form is obtained by placing these verbs before the subject. John is a student. a. Is John a student? He can speak Spanish. a. Can he speak Spanish? She must talk in the lesson. a. Must she talk in the lesson? (Note that after all auxiliary verbs in English the infini- tive form of the main verb is used+and that this infinitive form always remains the same regardless of any changes in person, number, or tense of the auxiliary verb.) 19. Articres— (Continued). There is no article at all used in English before the names of cities, states, countries, streets, persons etc.—when these names are used alone as proper nouns. He lives on Fifth Avenue. New York City is a very large city. Mr. Smith is going to France, Italy, and China. (Exception: However, with the names of rivers, seas, mountain chains, and countries, when such names have an adjective before them, the definite article is used. Examples: the Mississippi River, the Atlantic Ocean, the Rocky Moun- tains, the United States, the Soviet Union, the Dominican Republic etc.) EXERCISES A. Change to Negative Form: 1. John is a good student. . He can speak French well. 3. He must do the work today. They are busy today. 5. She can write English well. . There is a pencil on the desk. 7. Today is Wednesday. . Sunday is the second day of the week. 9. They must finish this exercise today. 10. The first month of the year is February. 11. There are six students in the class. 12. John can speak Italian. Conn 33B. Change to Question Form: 1. He is a very good stu- dent, 2. The students can speak well. 3. They can also speak Spanish well. 4. There are seven days in a week. 5. Sunday is the first day of the week. 6, Today is the eighth of January. 7. Monday is the last of the month. 8. Mr, Smith is a teacher of English. 9. The students in our group can study in the morning. 10. He can be here in an hour. 1]. They are in the office. 12. There is a book on the desk. C. Change to Positive Form: 1. He cannot speak English. 2, There are not seven days in a week. 3. Is he busy today? 4. Can he speak well? 5. The first month of the year is not February. 6. Today is not Tuesday. 7. Is John in class? 8. Must you go to class today? 9. She cannot come to the lesson. 10. They are not busy. 11. Can he speak Spanish? 12. He must not go there. D. Supply the Definite Article (The), Where Necessary: 1. We plan to spend our vacation in Mexico. 2. Later we want to visit .... Dominican Republic. 3. Hudson River lies west of New York City. 4. United States and Soviet Union are both large coun- tries. 5. Some ships can cross .... Atlantic Ocean from France to United States in a few days. 6. You should take a trip sometime to West Indies. 7. Panama Canal joins Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 8. The principal city of Germany is Berlin. 9, He spent several weeks in . Italy and sev- eral weeks in Spain. 10. We live on Madison Avenue. E. Fill in the Blanks With the Correct Preposition: 1. Monday is the first day the week. 2. I saw John the day yesterday. 3. I want a cup coffee, 4. Mary came the room .......... John. 5. I always have an egg breakfast. 6. I drink coffee acup. 7, We walked school yesterday. 8. There are many stu- dents our group. 9. I eat soup a spoon. 10. 34I always study the morning. 11. What did you have breakfast? 12. I eat breakfast half past eight. F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. (Is, are) your friend an American? 2. (This, these) book is John’s. 3. Yesterday I (get, got) up early. 4. Is this (a, an) new book or (a, an) old one? 5. There is (a, an) apple on the plate. 6. At ten o'clock yesterday I (begin, began) my lesson. 7. John (smoke, smokes) very much. 8. There (is, are) many pictures in the room. 9, I (was, were) at the lesson yesterday. 10. I spent (a, an) hour on my homework. 11. William sits near (we, us) at the lesson. G. Answer these Questions. Give Negative Answers Only: 1. Is John a good student? 2. Can you speak English? 3. Can John and Mary speak English well? 4. Must I write my exercises in pencil? 5, Should Henry smoke so much? 6. Were you at school yesterday? 7. Were Helen and Ruth absent from school today? 8. Are they good students? 9. Are you a good student? 10. Is today Sunday? 11. Are there many students in your class? 12. Is it ten o'clock yet? LESSON 12 20. NEGATIVE anp QuEsTION Form— (Continued). a) In sentences where the verb to be or the auxiliaries may, can, must, etc., are not used, the negative form of the present tense is obtained by introducing the special auxiliaries do and does. Do is used for all persons singular and plural except the third person singular. Does is used for the third person singular. The word not then follows these auxiliaries. We study English. a. We do not study English. They speak well. a. They do not speak well. He lives on Fifth Avenue. a. He does not live on Fifth Avenue. 35b) The question form of such sentences as those described above (where the verb to be or the auxiliaries can, may, must, etc., are not used) is also obtained by use of the special auxiliaries do and does. These auxiliaries are placed before the subject. We study English. a. Do we study English? They speak well. a. Do they speak well? He lives on Fifth Avenue. a. Does he live on Fifth Avenue? c) When question words such as Where, When, Why, How much, What time, etc. are used, the order of the words remains the same as in simple question form, i.e., the auxil- iary verb is placed before the subject. He can come later. a. When can he come? ‘They study English, a. What language do they study? He lives on Fifth Avenue. a. Where does he live? EXERCISES A. Change to Negative Form: 1. They study English every day. 2. John studies English with us, 3. They walk to work, 4. She lives in the United States. 5, He comes here every day. 6. They always eat in the cafeteria. 7. He goes home early every day. 8. He often talks in English with the teacher. 9. They read the newspaper in class. 10. I like to look out of the window. 11. John walks to wark. 12, They speak French. B. Change to Question Form: 1. They come here every morning. 2. He comes here at two o'clock. 3. They always walk to work. 4. John drinks much tea. 5. They like to study English. 6. John speaks French well. 7. He often goes to the movie. 8. I like to talk with him. 9. He eats in the 36cafeteria every day. 10. He gets up early every morning. 11. They live in New York. 12. He likes Chicago. C. Change to Question Form and Begin Each Question with the Question Word Which Appears in Parentheses after the Sentence, Follow Example: 1. He lives on Madison Avenue. (Where) (Example: Where does he live?) 2. She eats lunch in the cafeteria. (Where) 3. Our lesson begins at nine o'clock. (What time) 4. They buy many books in that store. (What) 5. He visits us every Friday night. (When) 6. He speaks French. (What language) 7. He eats in that restaurant because the food is good there. (Why) 8. She speaks English very well. (How well) 9. He comes to school by bus. (How) 10. He goes to the movie every night. (How often) 11. The train arrives at five o'clock. (What time) 12. I meet him on the corner every morning. (Where) 13. They read the New York Times in class. (Which newspaper) 14. He speaks English with all his friends because he needs the practice. (Why) D. Change to Question Form. Begin Each Question with Some Question Word of Your Own Choosing such as Wuy, WHEN, WHERE, WHAT Time, How, How Mucn, How Many etc: 1. She lives in Venezuela. 2. He visits us every week-end. 3. They go to school by bus. 4. He goes to the park in order to see the animals. 5. The plane arrives at noon. 6, They always meet him in the airport. 7. They spend much time on their English. 8. He reads many Eng- lish books and magazines. 9. He goes to the hospital every day to see his friend. 10. He gets up at six o'clock every morning. E. Change to Positive Form: 1. They do not speak well. 2. John does not like her. 3. Do they read well? 4. She does not write many letters. 5. Does John like New York? 6. They don’t study English every day. 7. Do they always eat here? 8. He does not walk to work. 9, Do they speak French? 10. Does Mary speak French? 11. Mary does not speak French. 12. Does she read English well? 37F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. There (is, are) seven days in a week. 2. John usually (get, gets) up early. 3. John (has, have) many friends. 4. Yesterday they (go, went) to the park. 5. How many English books (you have, have you)? 6. We (was, were) very busy yesterday. 7. (Is, are) there eight days in a week? 8. We always drink coffee (in, from) a cup. 9. Is John (a, an) American or (a, an) Spaniard? 10. I (get, gets) up at eight o’clock every morning. 11. I (eat, ate) lunch early yesterday. 12. I (come, came) home Jate last night. G. Answer these Questions. Give Negative Answers Only: 1. Do you live in Chicago? 2. Does John live in Chicago? 8. Does Helen speak English well? 4. Do we always arrive at the lesson on time? 5, Does Friday come before Thurs- day? 6. Does the month of February come before the month of January? 7. Do you get up early every morning? 8. Do you always prepare your lessons well? 9. Does John get good marks on his examinations? 10. Do you drink much coffee? 11. Do you live near John? LESSON 13 21. Use or Say-Trtt. The verbs say and tell differ in the way they are used. Say is always used when the words of a speaker are given directly. John said: “I am busy today.” Mary said: “He is a good student.” When the words of a speaker are given indirectly, both say and tell may be used. Say, however, can be used only when the person to whom the words are spoken is not men- tioned. When the person is mentioned (i.e, when there is an indirect object) tell is used. John said that he was busy. John told me that he was busy. 38Mary said that be was a good student. Mary told us that he was a good student. 22. ArticLEs— (Continued). Under rule 19 it was stated that no article is used before the names of cities, states, countries etc._when these are used alone as proper nouns. However, when these names are not used alone but are used as adjectives to modify other nouns, then an article is used. Mexico has a warm climate. The Mexican climate is warm. New York is a large city. The New York subways go very fast. EXERCISES A. Fill in the Blanks With SAY or TELL: 1. John that he is very busy today. 2. Yesterday I my teacher that 1 liked my lessons. 3. John yesterday, “I am a good student.” 4. Yesterday John me all about his country. 5. He that English is very difficult for him. 6. Mary that her mother is sick. 7, The teacher that he likes the spring. 8. Mary that she does not like hot weather. 9. Can you me where the office is? 10. Please John that I cannot* meet him today. Ll. Yesterday John ..... me that he was sick. 12. Please Mary that 1 cannot see her tomorrow. B. Change SAY to TELL. Then Make Whatever Other Changes Are Necessary. Follow Example: 1. He said that he was sick. (Ex.: He told me that he was sick.) 2. Mr. Smith said that he was too busy to go with us. 3. John said that he could** not go with us to the park. 4. She said that she could speak French. 5. William said that his brother was sick. 6. Helen said that she liked to swim. 7. I said that I was too tired to go with them. 8. The teacher said that George was a good student. *Can not is usually written as one word cannot. In everyday conversation the contraction can’t is generally substituted. ** Could is the past tense form of can. 39C. Change TELL to SAY. Then Make Whatever Other Changes Are Necessary. Follow Example: 1. He told me that he could speak French well. (Ex.: He said that he could speak French well.) 2. I told him that I liked to swim. 3. The teacher told us that our compositions were very good. 4. Mr. Smith told us that he knew how to play tennis. 5. I told him that 1 knew how to play too. 6. John told us that his father was an engineer. 7. 1 told Helen that I could not wait for her. 8. Mary told us that her mother was ill. D. Fill in the Blanks With the Correct Articles, Where Needed: 1. He lives in ........... Mexico. 2. Mexican climate is warm. 3. We walked along . Broadway. 4. Broadway street-cars are slow. 5. New York subways are very fast. 6. New York is a large city. 7. .... England is a small country. 8. English language is easy. 9. Europe is a large continent. 10. European war began in 1914. 11. Broadway isa long street. 12... Broadway theatres are very good. E. Fill in the Blanks With the Correct Preposition: 1. There are four seasons a year. 2. Spring is the first season the year. 3. Spring begins March 21st. 4. It is often hot summer. 5. .... Whom did you speak? 6, Do you go school every day? 7, What are the days ........... the week? 8. He is a teacher Spanish. 9. We have our lesson the morning. 10. He studies . our class. 11. He told me his trip. 12. We walked . Broadway. F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. Does spring (come, comes) before summer? 2. What time does John usually (get, gets) up? 3. We (was, were) at the movie last night. 4, John (has, have) a new suit. 5. There (is, are) many people in our class. 6. William is (a, an) Frenchman. 7. John is (a, an) Englishman. 8. What time (do, does) your lesson begin? 9. Whose books (is, are) these? 10. Is (this, these) your book? 11. We (have, has) much work to do today. 12. John (said, told) me he was busy yesterday. 40G. Answer the Questions: 1. Who said that William was sick today? 2. Who told you that William was sick today? 3. Who said that Helen was absent from class this morning? 4, Who told you that Helen was absent from class this morn- ing? 5. Can you tell me what time it is? 6. Can you tell me where John lives? 7. Does Mexico have a warm climate or a cold climate? 8. Is the Mexican climate warm or cold? 9. Is English easy or difficult to learn? 10. Is the English language easy or difficult to learn? 11. Is New York City a large city or a small city? 12. Are the New York City subways fast or slow? LESSON 14 23. NEGATIVE AND QUESTION ForM—Pasr TEnsE. a) With the past tense forms of the verb to be (was, were) and with the past tense forms of all auxiliary verbs such as can, may, etc. (could, might, etc.) the negative form is obtained by placing not directly after these verbs. Twas busy yesterday. a. Iwas not busy yesterday. I could meet you. a. Icould not meet you, b) With the past tense forms of the verb to be (was, were) and with the past tense forms of all auxiliary verbs such as can, may, etc. (could, might, etc.) the question form is obtained by placing these verbs before the subject. John was here yesterday. a, Was John here yesterday? He could meet you. a, Could he meet you? 24. ExcLaMaTory Form: We express exclamations in English by use of What followed by the appropriate noun* —as shown in the following examples: *Exclamatory form with adjectives and adverbs is expressed with How (Examples: How hot it is today! How well she speaks English.) 41What a large tree! What'a pretty girl! Note that, in accordance with the correct use of articles, no article is used in such exclamations before plural nouns or nouns of indefinite quantity or quality (See rules 13a and 16b). What large trces! What strength he has! EXERCISES A. Change to Negative Form: 1. John was busy yesterday. 2. John is busy today. 3. Mary can come to the lesson today. 4. Mary could come to the lesson yesterday. 5. You may smoke here. 6. John was at the lesson last night. 7. We were at the movie yesterday. 8. I may be late for the lesson. 9. John must speak Spanish in the lesson. 10. The books were on the table. 11. 1 can see you tomorrow. 12. He could do it well. B. Change to Question Form: 1. Mary was here at two o'clock. 2. Mary is here now. 3. John can see you tomorrow. 4, John could speak well last year. 5. We may sit here. 6. We must write in ink. 7. The students were in the office. 8. Mr. Smith is in Washington today. 9. He was also in Washington yesterday. 10. She can speak English well. 11. She could study in the evening last year. 12. There were many pictures on the wall. C. Change to Question Form: Begin Each Sentence With Some Question Word Like WHEN, WHERE, WHY, WHAT ‘Time, etc. 1. Mary was at the lesson this morning. 2. John can meet us at two o'clock. 3. There were three books on the table. 4. You may smoke in this room. 5. She could speak English well last year. 6. John was busy yesterday. 7. We may study in this room. 8. You must be here at three o'clock. 9. There are twelve students in our class. 10. There were many students in class yesterday. 11. We can study in this room. 12. We must be at the lesson at two o'clock. 42D. Supply Waar or Wuat A in the Following Exclama- tory Sentences: 1. good idea! 2. beautiful day! 3. pretty eyes she has! 4. strange thing to say! 5. easy exercise! 6. difficult lesson! 7. funny name to give to a dog! 8. good coffee! 9. happy child! 10. happy children! 11. beautiful music! 12. large room! 13. foolish mistake! 14. hot day! 15. beautiful weather! E. Complete the Following Exclamatory Sentences In Your Own Words. 1. What a beautiful { 2. What large 1 8. What a pretty ! 4. What a hot ! 5. What an easy ! 6 Whata difficult i 7. What good ! 8. What a good ! 9. What a large ! 10. Whar strange ! 11, What a happy ! 12. What happy ! F. Fill in the Blanks With the Correct Preposition: 1. Were you the lesson yesterday? 2. What kind fruit do you like? 3. What are the four seasons the year? 4. I like to look the window. 5. Does John go school Sunday? 6, January comes February. 7. March comes February. 8. There are four seasons a year. 9. We eat soup a spoon. 10, We eat soup a bowl. 11. I like to walk school. 12. I saw him two o'clock the after- noon. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. There (is, are) two men in the office. 2. I always eat (a, an) egg for breakfast. 3. They (was, were) not in class yesterday. 4. I (can, could) not be at the lesson yesterday, 5. I (eat, ate) lunch with John yesterday. 6. Is this the book (who, which) you want? 7. Mr. Smith is the one (who, which) wants to sce you. 8. Where (do, does) John live? 9. John (said, told) me that he could not come to the lesson. 10. How many books (have, has) William? 11. Henry likes to (speak, speaks) English. 12. Do John and Mary always (walk, walks) to school? 43LESSON 15 25. NEGATIVE AND QuEsTION Form—Pasr TENsE. a) In past time sentences, where the verb fo be or the auxiliaries can, may, etc., are not used in their past form, the negative form is obtained by use of the special auxiliary verb did. (Compare with use of do and does in the present tense: see rule 20.) The word not then follows this auxiliary. He studied with us yesterday. a. He did not study with us yesterday. They saw Mr. Smith last night. a. They did not see Mr. Smith last night b) In past time sentences, where the verb to be or the auxiliaries can, may, etc., are not used in their past form, the question form is also obtained by use of the special auxiliary verb did. Did, as is customary with all auxiliary verbs, is placed before the subject to form the question. He studied with us yesterday. a, Did he study with us yesterday? ‘They saw Mr. Smith last night. a. Did they see Mr, Smith last night? c) In all questions in the past tense, as in the present tense, if some question word like why, where, when, what time, etc., is used, the regular question form is still retained, ie, the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. He studied with us yesterday. a. Did he study with us yesterday? b. When did he study with us? c. Why did he study with us yesterday? He was here at two o'clock. a. Was he here at two o'clock? b. What time was he here? . Why was he here at two o'clock? EXERCISES A. Change to Negative Form: 1. I walked to school yes- 44terday. 2. John ate his lunch in the cafeteria. 3. We studied English at home last night. 4. Our lesson began at nine o'clock. 5. I went home at six o’clock. 6. We read the news- paper in class yesterday. 7. 1 came to school early this morn- ing. 8. I liked the movie last night. 9. He spoke to me about it. 10. I drank much coffee yesterday. 11. I got up early this morning. 12. Mr. Smith said that he was busy. B. Change to Question Form: |. John ate lunch with me yesterday. 2. Later we went to the movie. 3. We liked the movie very much. 4. Our lesson began on time this morning. 5. I came to school by bus this morning. 6. I went home last night by street-car. 7. I drank milk with my lunch. 8. He studied English in South America last year. 9. I saw John yesterday. 10. We read our compositions in class, 11. Mr. Smith went to Washington yesterday. 12. I heard what he said. C. Change to Question Form. Begin Each Question with the Question Word Which Appears in Parentheses after the Sentence. Follow Example: 1. He left for school at ten o'clock. (What time) (Ex.: What time did he leave for school?) 2. 1 saw him this morning. (When) 3. I saw him in the cafeteria this morning. (Where) 4. He bought his book on Fifth Avenue. (Where) 5. He paid two dollars for it. (How much) 6, I slept ten hours last night. (How many hours) 7. We ate lunch in the cafeteria. (Where) 8. They came to school by bus. (How) 9. They lived in France for ten years, (How long) 10. 1 got up at six o'clock this morning. (What time) 11. He left because he was angry. (Why) 12. He promised to meet me on the corner. (Where) 13. He learned English before he came here. (When) 14. He said that he was busy. (What) D. Change to Question Form. Begin Each Question with some Question Word of Your Own Choosing such as WHEN, Wuere, Way, Waat Time, How, How Mucn, etc. 1. He left for New York on Wednesday. 2. He went by plane. 3. We ate lunch in the restaurant on the corner, 4. John’s 45father just bought a new Chevrolet. 5. He sold his old car for two hundred dollars. 6. I got up at six o'clock this morning. 7. John went to the hospital to see his friend. 8. He stayed with his friend for two hours. 9. They operated on his friend for appendicitis yesterday, i0. I slept more than ten hours last night. 11. Helen put all her books on her desk. 12. The teacher told her to put them inside the desk. E. Change to Positive Form: 1. He did not eat with me. 2. Did Mary see John yesterday? 3. We did not like the movie. 4. Did he come early? 5. He did not speak about it. 6. I did not drink tea. 7, He did not go home with us. 8. Did they come with you? 9. Did you get up early? 10. Did he read the newspaper? 11. He did not tell us about it. 12, Did you hear what he said? F, Choose the Correct Form: 1. (Did, does) John eat lunch with you yesterday? 2. (Did, does) John eat lunch with you every day? 3. What time (do, did) you get up yesterday? 4. What time (do, did) you get up every day? 5. What time (was, were) John here yesterday? 6. Men (see, sees) with their eyes. 7. This is the man (who, which) wants to see you. 8. Do you want (a, an) apple or (a, an) banana? 9. Yesterday John (put, puts) his book on his desk. 10. John (get, gets) up every morning at eight o'clock. 11. (This, these) books are new. 12. Does a man (walk, walks) with his hands or with his feet? G. Answer these questions. Give negative answers only: 1. Did you arrive at school on time this morning? 2. Did John walk to school with you? 3. Did you sleep well last night? 4. Do you read the newspaper every morning? 5. Did you read the newspaper this morning? 6. Do you prepare your homework every night? 7. Did you prepare your home- work last night? 8. Do you eat lunch in the cafeteria every day? 9. Did you eat lunch in the cafeteria yesterday? 10. Were you absent from school yesterday? 46LESSON 16 26. NEGATIVE QUESTION:. a) Negative questions, in all tenses, are formed regularly like simple questions, that is, the auxiliary verb (or some form of the verb to be) is placed before the subject. The word not remains in its normal position. John did not see him, a, Did John not see him? b. Why did John not see him? John was not here. a, Was John not here? b. Why was John not here? b) In conversational English, however, the contracted form of the negation is much more common in questions and is now used almost universally rather than the more formal form described above. John didn’t see him. a. Didn't John see him? b. Why didn’t John see him? John wasn’t here a. Wasn't John here? b. Why wasn’t John here? 27. SHoutp—Oucut. Should and ought are important auxiliary verbs, used to express obligation. They have the same meaning and can be used interchangeably. They are weaker in force than must and sometimes have even a negative significance. Note that ought is followed by the in- finitive with to. I should study tonight (but it is possible that I will not study). I ought to study tonight He should not smoke so much, He ought not to smoke so much. 47EXERCISES A. Change to Question Form: (Use only contracted form as shown under rule 26b above). 1. We weren't at the lesson yesterday. 2. John doesn’t speak English well. 3. We didn’t go to the movie yesterday. 4. John hasn't a book. 5. Mary isn’t in the office. 6. She doesn’t study with us. 7. They weren't at the movie with us. 8, He isn’t busy. 9. She can’t speak French, 10. They don’t know how to speak Spanish. 11. She can't meet us tonight. 12. He didn’t eat in the cafeteria at noon. B. Change to Question Form: Begin Each Sentence With the Question Word Wuy: 1. He didn’t meet us in the cafe- teria. 2. John didn’t come to the lesson yesterday. 3. Mary doesn’t know John well. 4. They don’t walk to school. 5. Jobn and Mary don’t like their teacher. 6. They weren't at the meeting last night. 7. John wasn’t at the lesson this morning. 8. Mary can’t come to the lesson today. 9. John couldn’t meet us yesterday. 10. We didn’t go to the park on Sunday. C. Read once using SHouLp and once using Oucur To. 1. Helen (study) more. 2. I (spend) more time on my English. 3. He (see) a doctor immedi- ately. 4. You (study) all the new words. 5. She (take) her medicine every day. 6. He (visie) his friends more often. 7. We ”. (pay) more attention in class. 8, Every child (obey) his parents. 9. She (be) more careful of what she says. 10. He (be) more polite to strangers. D. Change to Negative Form: 1. You should tell him about it. 2. She ought to mention it to him. 3. They ought to spend more money on English lessons. 4. He ought to buy a new car. 5. She should try to reduce. 6. He should join the army. 7. We should get seats in the first row. 8. You ought to call her late at night. 9. We should wait here for her. 10, He ought to go by plane. 48E. Review:—Change, first, to Negative Form and, Second, to Question Form. 1. Most vegetables grow on vines. 2. Some grow in the ground. 3. Tomatoes grow on vines. 4. John was here yesterday. 5. He told me about his trip. 6. They were at the lesson this morning. 7. John can speak French well, 8. January is the first month of the year. 9. Sunday comes before Monday. 10. There are seven days in a week. 11. We paid our fare on the bus. 12. We arrived in time for the lesson. 13. He should tell her about it. 14. He told her about it. F. Review—Change to Question Form: Begin Each Ques- tion with the Question Word which appears in Parentheses at the End of the Sentence. 1. They came to school by bus. (How) 2. John was here at ten o'clock. (What time) 3. The bus stops near our home. (Where) 4. I got on the bus at 42nd Street. (Where) 5. We paid ten cents for it. (How much) 6. He comes to our house very often. (How often) 7. Mary can speak French. (What language) 8. There are seven days ina week. (How many) 9. There were three men in the room. (How many) 10. We rode through the park in John’s car. (Where) 11. He left on the noon train. (On which train) 12. He usually eats eggs for breakfast. (What) G. Answer these questions: 1. Why doesn’t John attend class regularly? 2. Why didn’t you come to the lesson yester- day? 3. Why don't you come to school by bus? 4. Why wasn't Helen at the lesson yesterday? 5. Why didn’t she go with you to the movie last night? 6. Why can’t William speak French well? 7. Why didn’t you go for a walk in the park yesterday as usual? 8. Why doesn’t Helen like to study English? 9. Why couldn't Helen go to the party last night with you? 10. Why didn’t you prepare your lesson last night? 49LESSON 17 28. Furure Tense. a) The future tense in English is formed by use of the auxiliary verbs shall and will. To these auxiliaries the infinitive of the main verb (without to) is added. I shall see you tomorrow. John will be here at noon. by Classic rules require that shall be used in the first person and will in the second and third person, singular and plural, to express simple future action. In modern American English, however, these formalities are disregarded and will is generally used for all three persons, singular and plural, to express promise or determination, while the phrase “to be going to” (See Lesson 37, Rule 74) is used to express intention or simple future action. I shall (will) study we shall (will) study you will study you will study he, she will study they will study c) The contracted form of both shall and will is ’l. Thus we have the following contractions, in which we join the subject and the auxiliary verb: J’ll, you’ll, he'll, she'll, it’ll, we'll, they'll etc. These contractions are common in present- day English; in fact, the full forms are rarely heard in everyday conversation. The student should therefore practice these contractions and try to use them in his everyday speech.* 2’U meet you at two o'clock. We'll return on Wednesday. John’Il help us with the work. d) Shall and will are regular auxiliary verbs, similar in * Furthermore, whether the contraction "Il represents the contracted form of shall or will is often difficult to decide. Thus, if the student uses only contracted forms, he is saved the necessity of choosing between shall and will. He simply uses ‘I in all cases and is always right. 50function to can, may, must, etc. The negative form of the future tense is thus obtained regularly by placing not after shall or will. The question form is also obtained regularly by placing shall or will before the subject. John will come tomorrow at six. a. John will not come tomorrow at six. b, Will John come tomorrow at six? c. What time will John come tomorrow? EXERCISES A. Supply the Future Tense of the Verb in Parentheses. (You may Use Wit in all Sentences) 1. John (come) at two o'clock tomorrow afternoon. 2. Mary (go) to the movies with us. 3. We (get) on the bus at 70th Street. 4. Then we (pay) our fare. 5. I (go) to school by bus tomorrow, 6. I (eat) lunch with John tomorrow. 7. We (eat) in the cafeteria. 8. I don’t think that Mary (eat) with us. 9. John (come) to school before us. 10. I (get) up early tomorrow morning. 11. I (see) you at the lesson. 12. John (speak) to Mr. Smith about our lesson, B. Repeat the Previous Exercise, Using Only Contracted Forms. C. Change to Negative Form: 1. John will meet us at two o'clock. 2. They will see us at the lesson. 3. I will be back by three o'clock. 4. John will study with us tonight. 5. He will bring his books with him. 6. Mary will meet us after the lesson. 7. We will meet you in the cafeteria. 8. You will soon need a new English book. 9. They will be back soon. 10. We will leave for New York on Wednesday. D. Change to Question Form: 1. They will study with us tomorrow. 2. I will meet you at two o'clock. 3. We will see you in the cafeteria. 4. They will return next month. 5. She will leave for Europe in June. 6. We will spend sev- eral weeks in France. 7. They will write to us every week. 518. John will have lunch in the cafeteria. 9. He will meet us in the cafeteria at twelve. 10. Spring will begin in a few months. 11. Winter will end in a few weeks. 12. Summer will come after spring. E. Supply the Correct Preposition: 1. A man sees his eyes. 2. What kinds fruit do you like? 3. He came the lesson time. 4. He was absent the lesson. 5. I go to school bus. 6. I arrive my school eight o'clock. 7. He arrived time his lesson. 8. Do you like eggs breakfast? 9. How many months are there «a year? 10. Do you drink coffee acup? 11. Do tomatoes grow the earth or a vine? 12. How many cups coffee do you drink every day? F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. Both doors (was, were) closed. 2. He is (a, an) very old man. 3. John sat down and (put, puts) his feet up on a chair. 4. What time (do, did) you meet John yesterday? 5. Were you absent (in, from) class yesterday? 6. Every man (has, have) two eyes. 7. Aman (see, sees) with his eyes. 8. Every day I eat (a, an) egg for breakfast. 9. There (was, were) several men in the room. 10. John (said, told) us about the new teacher. 11. This is the book (which, who) I need. 12. Does the teacher usually (speak, speaks) English in the lesson? G. Answer these questions: 1. At what time will you go to bed tonight? 2. At what time will you get up tomorrow morning? 3. At what time will you leave home tomorrow morning to go to school? 4. Will you walk to school or go by bus? 5. Will your friends go with you or will you go to school alone? 6. At what time will you arrive at school? 7. At what time do you arrive at school every day? 8. At what time did you arrive at school yesterday? 9. At what time do you eat lunch every day? 10. At what time did you eat lunch yesterday? 11. At what time will you eat lunch tomorrow? 52LESSON 18 29. Furure Tense—Vers To Be. a) The future time of the verb ¢o be is formed in the same way as the future time of other verbs, To the auxiliary shall or will the infinitive (without to) is added. John will be here at two o'clock. They will be back before dinner. b) The negative of the future tense of the verb to be is formed regularly by placing not after the auxiliary shall or will. The question form is also obtained regularly by placing the auxiliary before the subject. John will be at the lesson tomorrow. a. John will not be at the lesson tomorrow. b. Will John be at the lesson tomorrow? c. What time will John be at the lesson tomorrow? 30. WHo—WHomM—Wuoss: a) The objective case form of who (used as both a relative and an interrogative pronoun) is whom. We use whom after all prepositions, as direct object of the verb etc. To whom* did he write the letter? The man whom** I met was John’s father. b) The possessive case form of who is whose. We use whose in both interrogative and relative pronoun construc- tions as shown in the following examples: Whose pencil is this? ‘The man whose daughter called is here now. In everyday conversation most people would state this sentence as: “Who did he write the letter to?” Whom, though grammatically correct in such sentences, is fast disappearing from present day usc, being replaced by the more convenient who. Whom, however, is still met in formal speech and particularly in writing; therefore the form must be studied by the student, if for recognition purposes only. ** This sentence would be more often expressed in everyday conversation as ‘The man who I met was John’s father.” or, “The man shat I met was John’s father.” or even more common, “The man I met was John’s father.” See previous footnote. 53EXERCISES A. Supply the Future Tense of the Verb To Be in the Following: 1. Mary at the lesson at two o'clock. 2. Mr. Smith in the office when you come. 3. I at home tonight. 4. The book on the desk. 5. The students in the classroom. 6. The pencils on the table. 7. John in the cafeteria. 8. Vhere several people in the room. 9. Mr. Smith in Washington tomorrow. 10. Miss Jones our new teacher. 11. It warm tomorrow. 12.1 busy tomorrow. B. Change to Negative Form: 1. He will be here at two o'clock. 2. John and Mary will be in class tomorrow. 3. There will be two more students in our class. 4. I shall be in the cafeteria at noon. 5. There will be twenty-eight days in February this year. 6. Henry will be in Washington next week. 7. This will be your room. 8. They will be here at three o'clock. 9. There will be many people there. 10. ‘They will be at the movie with us. 1]. There will be four weeks in this month. 12. I shall be here early tomorrow. C. Change to Question Form: 1. They will be here soon. 2. John will be here at six o'clock. 3. I will be here later. 4. There will be two new students in our class. 5. The maga- zines will be on the table. 6. This will be your seat. 7. I will be back on Tuesday. 8. There will be seats for us. 9. John will be absent tomorrow. 10. He will be here on Wednesday. 11. Mary will be at the lesson tomorrow. 12. ‘The weather will be warm tomorrow. D. Choose the Correct Form: 1. To (who, whom) did you write a letter? 2. With (who, whom) does he want to speak? 3. (Who, whom) is the best student in your class? 4. The man (who, whom) telephoned to you is my father. 5. The man (who, whom) you saw was my teacher. 6. From (who, whom) did you get this money? 7. With (who, whom) are you going to the movie? 8. The girl (who, whom) I met was very beautiful. 54E. Begin Each of the Following Sentences With Wuose. (Follow the example given in the first sentence.) 1. This is John’s book. (Whose book is this?) 2. This is my pencil. 3. This is Mary’s pen. 4. This is her desk. 5. This is my room. 6. This is his notebook. 7. This is my table. 8. She is my teacher. 9. This is his office. 10. This is the teacher’s chair. F. Change These Sentences so as to Use Wsiosz; Follow Example in First Sentence: 1. To whom does this pen be- long? (Example: Whose pen is this?) 2. To whom does that yellow pencil belong? 3. To whom do these books belong? 4. To whom do these magazines belong? 5. To whom does this notebook belong? 6. To whom does that coat belong? 7. To whom does that sweater belong? 8. To whom does this automobile belong? G. Choose the Correct Form: 1.1 (can, could) not come to the lesson yesterday. 2. John will (sit, sits) near us. 3. I like (walk, to walk) in the park. 4. On what day will he (begin, begins) to teach us? 5. What (do, does) the waitress usually bring John for dessert? 6. Where (do, does) the students study English? 7. Is this (a, the) book which you want? 8. John (shall, will) meet us at noon. 9. Mary (have, has) many good English books. 10. John (said, told) that he was very busy yesterday. 11. There (is, are) many pic- tures on the wall. 12. Yesterday I (feel, fele) very well. H. Answer these questions: J. Will you be in class tomor- row? 2. Why won’t Helen be in class tomorrow? 3. What day will tomorrow be? 4. Will tomorrow be Saturday? 5. Where will you be tomorrow night at seven o'clock? 6. Are you busy today? 7. Were you busy yesterday? 8. Will you be busy tomorrow? 9. Will all the students be in class tomor- row or Will some be absent? 10. Will the weather tomorrow be warm or cold? 11. How long wili Mr. Smith be in Wash- ington? 5BLESSON 19 31. SHORTENED ANswER Form. In conversational English, direct answers to questions are often given in shortened grammatical form. In these shortened forms, only the sub- ject, always expressed by a pronoun, and the auxiliary verb are used. Do you like New York? Did you see him yesterday? Yes, I do. Yes, I did. No, I don’t, No, I didn’t. Does Helen speak English well? Was the movie good? Yes, she does. Yes, it was. No, she doesn’t. No, it wasn't. 32. Atso—Too—EirHer. The words also or too cannot be used in negative sentences. These words are replaced in negative sentences by the word either. John also speaks English well. a. John doesn’t speak English well either. I walk to school too. a. I don’t walk to school either. 33. WHy—Wuart For: We often substitute what for in place of why in direct questions in English. Note, however, that in such cases we always put what at the beginning of the sentence and for at the end of the sentence. Why did he go there? or What did he go there for? Why did you say that? or What did you say that for? EXERCISES A. Give Only Shortened Grammatical Answers (as ex: plained under Rule 31) to the Following: 1. Does your teacher speak English well? 2. Can you speak French? 3. Does your teacher live in New York City? 4. Do you live 56in New York City? 5. Can the students in your class speak English well? 6. Does summer always come after spring? 7. Did you study your lesson last night? 8. Did you have an English lesson yesterday? 9. Do you smoke? 10. Does your teacher smoke? 11, Is today Wednesday? 12. Was yes- terday Thursday? B. Change to Negative Form: 1. John also likes New York. 2. Mary can speak English well too. 3. I also eat in the cafeteria. 4. John walks to school too. 5. She comes here also. 6. John went to the movie with us also. 7. He liked the picture too. 8. I also eat lunch at one o'clock. 9. Mary also likes pie for dessert. 10. He goes to the res- taurant on the corner too. 11. I like to eat there too. 12. late there yesterday tao. C. Substitute Wat For for Wuy in these Sentences. Be Sure to Put Wuar at the Beginning of the Sentence and For at the End: 1, Why did you do such a thing? 2. Why did she want to go there? 3. Why did John do that? 4. Why did William bring his sister along with him? 5. Why does he want to study French? 6. Why do you want to go to Chicago? 7. Why did she give him so much money? 8. Why did he stay away so long? 9. Why did you get up so early this morning? 10. Why did you give the waiter such a big tip? D. Substitute Wuy in place of WHat For: 1. What did the child run away for? 2. What does she want to see him for? 3. What does he say such foolish things for? 4. What does he want to study engineering for? 5. What does he spend so much time there for? 6. What did Mr. Smith go to New York for? 7. What did they invest so much money in that business for? 8. What does she walk in the park every afternoon for? E. Review. Change to Past Time (yesterday) and to Fu- ture Time (tomorrow): 1. John goes to that restaurant every day. 2. He sits at the same table every day. 3. The waitress brings him a menu. 4. He looks at the menu. 5. He orders 57his lunch and some dessert. 6. The waitress then brings him a check. 7. John pays the check. 8. Later he leaves the restaurant. 9. I eat in the same restaurant with John. 10. I also sit at the same table. 11. We always do the same thing after lunch. 12. We take a walk in the park. F. Supply the Correct Article Where Necessary: 1. There is book on table in first picture. 2. There is basket under table. 3. John will not be at lesson tomorrow. 4. He will go to Washington. 5. First, he Will go to Pennsylvania Station. 6. Do you like New York City? 7. John often goes to restaurant on corner. 8. He asks |; waitress for menu. 9. He drinks glass of milk. 10. He orders piece of ...>... pie for dessert. 11. Next he pays check and leaves restaurant. 12. What do you usually eat for dessert? G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. I don't like this exercise (also, either). 2. John speaks French well (too, either). 3. There (was, were) many people in the park today. 4. (Did, does) John walk home with you yesterday? 5. Does a man (hear, hears) with his eyes or with his ears? 6. They (was, were) not at the lesson yesterday. 7. I (can, could) not meet you last night. 8. Mary (said, told) that she was sick. 9. How many pencils (has, have) William? 10. Does summer (come, comes) before or after spring? 11. Whose books are (this, these)? 12. want (a, an) English book. LESSON 20 34. Tuis-Tuat; Tuese-Tuosr. The plural form of this is these. This and these refer to things near at hand. The plural form of that is those. That and those refer to things at a distance. This book is mine. These books are mine. 58That book over there on the table is John’s. Those books over there on the table are John’s. 35. Expressions or Necessity (HAVE To). a) Necessity or strong obligation in English may be expressed by must or have to (have plus an infinitive). Must, however, appears to be in use today for expression of orders, commands or very strong obligation on the part of the speaker. Have to seems more in use for everyday expressions of necessity. In many cases, however, both must and have to have the same meaning. I must go to the hospital to see my friend. I have to go to the hospital to see my friend. Johg must work tonight. John has to work tonight. b) Since must has no past form, obligation or necessity in the past is expressed only by the past form of have to. I had to study last night, John had to work very late yesterday. c) Necessity or obligation in the future is similarly ex- pressed by the future tense of have to. He will have to work tonight. You will have to wait a few minutes. EXERCISES A. Fill in the Blanks with Tuis or Turse: 1. book is mine. 2. apples are not good. 3. gentleman wishes to see you. 4. books are not inter- esting. 5. magazine belongs to you. 6. letter is for you. 7. Please mail letters for me. 8. Do you know boy? 9. girls are Mr. Smith's daughters. 10. room is too small for our group. 11. May we use rooms today for our lessons? 12. pictures are quite beautiful. B. Fill in the Blanks With Tar or TuoseE: 1. pencil on the desk is not mine. 2. Whose books are ? 593. book belongs to the teacher. 4. chairs are not comfortable. 5. men in the office are my friends. 6. pictures on the wall are a little too large. 7. rooms are very dark. 8. flowers are beautiful. 9. book is not interesting. 10. Will you please mai) letters on the table? 11. restaurant across the street is not good. 12. I don’t like sandwiches which we had for lunch. C. Substitute the Correct Form of Have To for Must in the Following: 1. I must work tonight. 2. John must go out of town this afternoon. 3. You must read this article. 4, Mary and John must visit their friend who is in the hos- pital. 5. They must stay there at least an hour. 6. I must get up early every day. 7. We must write a composition each night. 8.1 must write many ‘eters. 9. We must prepare our lessons every night. 10. Mary must study French next year. 11. John must also take another language. 12. We must learn many new words every day. D. Read the Following with Must. Then, Change to Past and Future Time. Follow Example. 1. 1 leave at once, (Ex.: a. I must leave at once. b. I had to leave at once. c. I will have to leave at once.) 2. He go to the hospital right away. 3. We make reservations at once. 4. He learn all the new words. 5. We hurry in order to get there early. 6. He spend more time on his English. 7. She attend class every day. 8. I answer this letter at once. 9. We telephone her right away. 10. He stay at home and rest. E. Change to Past and Future Time: 1. I have to work today. 2. John has to be here at two o'clock. 3. Mary has to come with him. 4. We have to study tonight. 5. They have to write many letters. 6. You have to wait a few min- utes. 7. They have to come back later. 8. We all have to write a composition for our English lesson. 9, We have to go to the hospital this afternoon. 10. He has to see a doctor. 6011. John has to stop his English lessons. 12, I have to get up early. F. Choose the Correct Form: 1.1 do not like (that, those) apples. 2. Yesterday I (must, had to) work very hard. 3. John and Mary (was, were) at the movie last night. 4. Mary (said, told) the teacher she could not prepare her lesson. 5. John said that he (can, could) not come to the lesson yesterday. 6. Mr. Reese is (a, an) Englishman. 7. John didn't go to the movie (also, either). 8. They (shall, will) be here very soon. 9. What time (do, does) your English les- son begin? 10. Does a man (see, sees) with his eyes or with his ears? 11. What color (is, are) cherries? 12. Where did John (eat, eats) lunch yesterday? G. Answer these questions: 1. At what time do you have to get up every morning? 2. At what time did you have to get up yesterday morning? 3. At what time will you have to get up tomorrow morning? 4. How much time do you have to spend on your English lessons every night? 5. Do you have to write many or few compositions for your English class? 6. When was the last time that you had to write a composi- tion for your English class? LESSON 21 36. Have To (NEGATIVE AND QUESTION Form). a) The verb to have, as explained under Rule 7B, when used as a regular verb to show possession, may be stated negatively simply by placing not after the verb. However, when to have is used with an infinitive to show necessity or obliga- tion (Rule 35), it can be stated negatively* only by use of the auxiliaries do, does, did. * The difference in feeling between must and have to (See explanation under Rule 35) is more clearly’seen in negative sentences. Thus, “John must work tonight” and “John has to work tonight” have more or less the same meaning. However, “John must not work tonight” is more a command, forbidding John to work, while “John does not have to work tonight” means that, since perhaps today is’a holiday, it is not necessary for John to work tonight. 61I have to work tonight. a. I don’t have to work tonight. Thad to work last night. a. I didn’t have to work last night. b) Similarly, the question form of to have, when used with an infinitive to show necessity or obligation, is formed with the auxiliaries do, does, did. He has to work tonight. a. Does he have to work tonight? b. Why does he have to work tonight? I had to work last night. a, Did you have to work last night? b. Why did you have to work last night? 37. Comparison oF Apgectives. a) The comparative de- gree of all adjectives of one syllable (and a few of two syilables) is obtained by adding er to the positive degree (big, bigger; small, smaller, etc.). The comparative degree is always followed by than. New York is bigger than Washington. Mary is older than John. b) If, however, an adjective has more than two syllables, the comparative degree is formed by the use of more. Positive Comparative beautiful more beautiful interesting more interesting c) A few adjectives have special comparative forms: Positive Comparative good better bad worse far farther Tittle less many more 62EXERCISES A. Change to Negative Form: 1. They have to study very hard. 2. He had to be there at two o'clock. 3. We have to get up early. 4. We have to write a composition tonight. 5. We had to meet him at noon. 6. Mr. Smith has to go out of town. 7. They had to leave early. 8. I have to buy a new fountain pen. 9. We have to work on Sunday. 10, John had to go to the hospital. 11. We have to prepare our homework every day. 12. We will have to learn many new words. B. Change to Question Form: 1. He had to leave at noon. 2. We have to get up early every morning. 3. They have to study every day. 4, They have to rent a new apartment. 5. He has to buy several new books. 6. He had to leave a tip for the waiter. 7. He had to return yesterday. 8. He will have to wait a few minutes. 9. They will have to come back later. 10. He has to ride the bus to school every day. 11. She has to have more fresh air. 12. He has to take more exercise. C. Change the Sentences in Section B above to Question Form again, but this time Begin each Question with some Question Word like Wuen, Wuere, Wuat Time, Way etc. D. Change to Past Time and to Future Time: 1. He does not have to leave right away. 2. We do not have to get there early. 3. They do not have to go by plane. 4, She does not have to return until Wednesday. 5. They do not have to move to a new apartment. 6. I do not have to study very hard. 7. We do not have to write many compositions. 8. I do not have to buy many new books. 9. He does not have to walk to his work. 10. You do not have to leave early. E. Change to Past Time and to Future Time: 1. Do you have to leave early? 2. Does he have to return to the hos- pital? 3. Do you have to speak to the teacher about it? 4. Do you have to learn many new words? 5. Do you have 63to send it by airmail? 6. Does she have to stay at home and rest? 7, Does he have to telephone to her every day? 8. Do you have to take a taxi to your work every day? 9. Does she have to go on a diet? 10. Does he have to tell everyone about it? F. Supply the Comparative Form of the Adjective in Parentheses: 1. Philadelphia is (large) Wash- ington. 2. John is . (short) William. 3. Henry is (tall) I. 4. This book is (old) that one. 5, The weather today is (bad) yesterday. 6. This summer is (hot) last summer. 7. This article is (interesting) that one. 8. Is this exercise (difficult) the last one? 9. These apples are (good) those. 10. Some people are (healthy) others. 11. This room is (light) that one. 12. Is this exercise (important) the last one? G. Complete these Sentences by Using the Adjective Which is the Opposite of the One in Italics. Follow Ex- ample: 1. Henry is not taller than 1; Henry is EX.: Henry is not taller than 1; Henry is shorter than 1.) 2. New York is not smaller than Chicago; New York is 3. Helen is not younger than her sister; Helen is 4. This street is not wider than that street; this street is 5. This exercise is not more difficult than the last one; this exercise is 6. This book is not thicker than my French book; this book is ... 7. This book was not more ex- pensive than my French book; this book was 8. The weather today is not better than it was yesterday; the weather today is ... 9. The weather today is not colder than it was yesterday; the weather today is H. Choose the Correct Form: 1. Chicago is (more big, bigger) than Philadelphia. 2. We (don’t have. to, haven't to) work tomorrow because it is a holiday. 3. There (was, were) many people at the meeting. 4. Mary (said, told) us 64several interesting stories. 5. This is the building (who, which) I (said, told) you about. 6. We drink coffee (in, from) a cup. 7. (Does, do) all these books belong to you? 8. This magazine is more interesting (than, as) the other. 9. (That, those) books belong to Henry. 10. John (hadn’t to, didn’t have to) come to class yesterday. 11. Give me (a, an) apple and (a, an) peach. 12. (These, those) boys on the other side of the street are students. 1. Answer these questions: 1, Are you taller or shorter than your friend? 2. Is Mary taller or shorter than her sister? 3. Is this exercise easier or more difficult than the last exer- cise? 4. Is English grammar easier or more difficult than Spanish grammar? 5. Is the weather today colder or warmer than the weather yesterday? 6. Is the bus faster or slower than the street-car?_ 7. Did you pay less money or more money for your English book than for your other books? 8. Was your English book more expensive or less expensive than your history book? LESSON 22 38. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES—SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. a) The superlative degree of all adjectives of one syllable: (and a few of two syllables) is formed by adding est to the positive degree (big, biggest; small, smallest). The definite article the is always used with the superlative degree. John is the tallest student in the class. New York is the largest city in the United States. b) With adjectives of more than two syllables the super- lative degree is formed with most. (See similar formation of comparative degree with more, Rule 37B) This is the most interesting book in our library. John is the most intelligent student in the class. 65c) A few adjectives have special superlative forms: Positive Comparative Superlative good better best bad worse worst far farther farthest little less least many more most 39. Conrractions. We have already studied certain con- tracted forms. (See Rules 7B and 28C.) Contractions, usually involving auxiliary verbs or the verb to be, are very common in English. In conversational English the full form of such verbs is almost never used and, if used, sounds almost stilted or artificial. Note the following contracted forms: Ido not I don’t We do not We don't He does not He doesn’t It does not It doesn’t He did not He didn’t They did not They didn’t We will not We won't You will not You won't EXERCISES A. In the Following Introduce the Superlative Form of the Adjective in Parentheses: 1. John is (tall) boy in the class. 2. Today is (hot) day of the year. 3. New York is (interesting) city in the United States. 4, New York is also (large) city in the United States. 5. This apple is (sweet) of all. 6. This park is (beautiful) in the city. 7. John is ........... (intelligent) boy in the class. 8. He is also (good) student in the class. 9. Henry is (bad) dancer in the school. 10. Which is (large) city in the country? 11. This room is (light) in the whole building. 12. Which student in your class knows ..... (many) English words? B. State the Adjectives in Parentheses, first, in Compara- tive Form and, second, in Superlative Form. Use Words of 66your Choosing to Complete each Sentence. Follow Example: 1. Henry is (tall) (Ex.: a. Henry is taller than George. b. Henry is the tallest boy in the school.) 2. Grace is (pretty)... 3. William is (in- telligent) 4. This book is .... (interesting) 5. Frank is (young) 6. The Empire State Building is ......... (tall) 7. The Mississippi River is (long) 8. This street is (wide) 9. John isa (good) student 10. This exercise is . (easy) C. State in Contracted Form: 1. We did not like the movie. 2. 1 will not be in class tomorrow. 3. They do not speak well. 4. John does not like her. 5, He will not go with her. 6. They did not see us. 7. I do not know her. 8. They did not attend the lesson. 9. They will not be at the lesson tomorrow. 10. He did not speak to me. 11. I do not know him at all. 12. He did not help us at all. D. Change So As to Introduce the Correct Form of Have To. (Follow the example given after the first sentence.) 1. It is necessary for him to leave early. (He has to leave early.) 2, It was necessary for him to get up at six o'clock. 8. It will be necessary for him to wait. 4. It is necessary for them to take an early train. 5. It will be necessary for you to sit here a while. 6. It is not necessary for them to come early. 7. It was not necessary for me to telephone to him. 8. It was necessary for us to go by bus. 9. It will be necessary for all of you to write a composition for tomorrow. 10, It was not necessary for him to go by plane. 11. Is it necessary for us to come back later? 12. Was it necessary for you to speak to him about it? E. Supply the Correct Preposition: 1. What did you eat dessert? 2. He sat our table. 3. He looked the menu. 4. Do potatoes grow the earth or avine? 5, Will she be the lesson tomorrow? 6. These are the most beautiful all. 7. We live an apartment. 8. They keep food their cellar. 9. He 67studies the morning. 10. He went the movie us. 11. He was late the lesson. 12. He goes to school street car. F. Choose the Correct Form: 1, William is the (biggest, most big) boy in the class. 2. Yesterday we (hadn’t to, didn’t have to) come to school. 3. Helen is taller (as ,than) her sister. 4. How many books (have, has) they? 5. We waited (a, an) whole hour for you. 6. When will John (go, goes) to Chicago? 7. Mary will soon (study, studies) in our class. 8. They can’t speak English (either, also). 9. He needs (a, an) new English book. 10. John (can, could) not come to class yesterday. 11. Whose pencils are (these, this)? 12. The weather today is (more better, better) than the weather yes- terday. G. Answer these Questions: 1. Is New York City larger or smaller than Chicago? 2. What. is the largest city in the United States? 3. What is the largest city in England? 4. What is the largest city in the world today? 5. What is the most interesting subject which you study at school? 6. Do you find languages more interesting or less interesting than mathematics? 7. What is the most difficult subject which you study at school? 8. Is the Pacific Ocean larger or smaller than the Atlantic Ocean? 9. What is the largest ocean in the world? 10. Who is the tallest student in your English class? LESSON 23 40. Contractions — (Continued) Further contracted forms (See Rule 39), involving the verb to be and other special auxiliaries, follow: Iam rm I have Vve You are You're We have We've He is He's ete. We are We're I would ra 68They are They're He would He'd etc, etc. You are not You aren't I can not I can’t He is not He isn't He can not He can't We are not We aren't ete, etc. I would not I wouldn't I was not 1 wasn't He would not — He wouldn't You were not You weren't ete, etc. I could not I couldn't He could not He couldn't ete. 41. Comparison oF Apjectives—EQuatity. a) Equality in comparison of adjectives is expressed in English by the use of as before and after the adjective as shown in the following examples: John is as tall as Henry. This book is as good as txat one. b) The negative form of such contractions may be ex- pressed with so or as, though as seems to be in more common use today. John is not as (so) tall as Henry. This book is not as good as that one, 42. Use or Inrinirives: The student should note the various ways in which we use infinitives in English. a) Cer- tain verbs such as like, want, wish, hope often need an in- finitive to complete their meaning. 1 like to swim. He wants to go with us. b) Infinitives often follow certain adjectives, serving to complete their meaning. It is easy to learn these rules. It will be necessary to leave soon. EXERCISES A. State in Contracted Form: \. 1 can not meet you 69today. 2. John is not here. 3. He could not come to the lesson. 4, 1 am busy today. 5. John is here now. 6. He was not at the meeting. 7. They are in the office now. 8. They could not meet us. 9. We are good students. 10. John and Mary were not at the lesson yesterday. 11. John has not a good pronunciation. 12. They can not speak well. , B. Using Only Contracted Forms, Give Shortened, Nega- live Answers to the Following: (See Rule 31 for discussion of such shortened answers). 1. Did John go to the movie last night? (No, he didn’t.) 2. Were you at the movie last night? 3. Will you be in class tomorrow? 4. Can you speak French? 5. Does John speak English well? 6. Did it rain yesterday? 7. Does it rain every day? 8. Do you go to school by bus? 9. Could you understand what he said? 10. Was yesterday Monday? 11. Did you study last night? 12. Will you eat lunch at noon? C. Restate Each of the Following Sentences So As to Show Equality of Comparison. State Each Sentence First in Posi- tive Form and Then in Negative Form: (Follow the ex- ample given after the first sentence.) \. John is taller than his brother. (a. John is as tall as his brother. b. John is not as tall as his brother.) 2. This street is wider than that one. 3. This exercise is longer than the last. 4. Helen is more beautiful than Mary. 5. New York is more important as a city than Washington. 6. Our apartment is larger than yours. 7. This corridor is larger than the room. 8. The sky is darker than it was yesterday. 9. This book is better than the other. 10. The weather today is worse than it was yester- day. 11. John makes more mistakes than Henry. 12. There are more sentences in this exercise than in the last one. D. Use your own Words to Complete These Sentences (but be sure to use an infinitive construction in each case). Follow example. 1, Helen wants to (Ex.: Helen wants to go with us to the movie.) 2. She likes to 3. George says that he wants to 4, They hope to 705. There is a man in the office who wishes to 6. I like very much to 7. Do you want to 8. He hopes to 9. Helen loves to 10. We both like to E. Use your own Words to Complete These Sentences (but be sure to use an infinitive construction in each case). Follow Example. 1. It is difficult to (Ex.: It is diffi- cult to learn English well.) 2. It is necessary to 3. It is hard for me to 4. It is easy for Margaret to 5. It was very kind of you to 6. I am glad to 7. It was funny to 8. It is too late to 9. It is too cold to 10. I'll be happy to F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. New York is bigger (than, as) Chicago. 2. The weather today is (more bad, worse) than it was yesterday. 3. John (said, told) that he was very busy yesterday. 4. What time (does, did) your lesson begin yesterday? 5. I didn’t like that movie (either, also). 6. He is the man (who, which) asked for you. 7. Mary and John (was, were) not at the lesson yesterday. 8. Does spring (come, comes) before or after summer? 9. (These, those) pencils over there on the table are mine. 10. Is (this, these) your book or John’s? 11. This is (a, an) English book. 12. We (don’t have to, haven’t to) study tonight because we have no lesson tomorrow. G. Answers These Questions. Give Only Negative Answers and Use Contracted Form of the Verbs, as Explained in This Lesson: 1. Do you speak English well? 2. Can Helen speak English well? 3. Did you arrive at school on time this morn- ing? 4. Were you in class yesterday? 5. Will you be in class tomorrow? 6. Did you prepare your lesson last night? 7. Will you walk to school tomorrow? 8. Are you in the same class with John? 9. Was yesterday Saturday? 10. Will to- morrow be Sunday? 11. Is John a good student? 12. Were the students pleased with their marks on the last exami- nation? 7LESSON 24 43. Some—Any. We generally use some only in positive sentences. In negative and interrogative sentences we use any instead of some.* He has some friends in Chicago. a) He hasn't any friends in Chicago. b) Has he any friends in Chicago? 44. Posttion or InpIREcT Opjects. a) If, in English, the indirect object comes after the direct object, the preposition to is used before the indirect object. Henry gave the book to me. Helen sent some flowers to us. b) If, however, the indirect object comes before the direct object, the preposition to is not used before the indirect object. Henry gave me the book. Helen sent us some flowers. 45. Use or Inrinitives (Continued). In the last lesson (See Rule 42), we saw how infinitives are often used to complete the meaning of certain verbs and adjectives in English. We also use the infinitive in English to express the idea of purpose. We may use an infinitive alone in this construction or with in order to. Examples: He went to Chicago in order to see his friend. or He went to Chicago to see his friend. EXERCISES ‘A. Change to Negative Form: 1. He has some money. 2. * Some, although never used in negative sentences, questions when a positive answer is expected. Th money?” rather suggests that a positive answer will be given, perhaps the amount of money needed. This distinction in meaning, how- ever, is a subtle one and need not concern the beginning student at this time. It is equally correct to say “Do you need any money?” 72John gave me some good advice. 3. There are some chairs in the room. 4. I have some books with me. 5. He has some time to study. 6. I wrote some letters last night. 7. I saw some men in the office. 8. There are some pictures on the wall. 9. Put some flowers in the vase. 10. Give some money to him. 11. Bring some money with you. 12. I took some friends with me. B. Change to Question Form: 1. He saw some people in the room. 2. He has some friends in Washington. 3. There are some books on the table. 4. 1 put some chairs in the room. 5. There are some famous cities in Canada. 6. 1 found some answers in the back of the book. 7. We picked some apples from the tree. 8. I bought some new books yesterday. 9. There are some students in the corridor. 10. I brought some friends with me. 11. We read some articles in this magazine every day. 12. He has some cigar- ettes. C. Place the Indirect Object Before the Direct Object: (Follow the example given in the first sentence.) 1. He gave the money to me. (He gave me the money) 2. She brought the book to me. 3. He sent a letter to me. 4. He told the story to us. 5. The teacher gave some dictation to us. 6, He sent some candy to his sister. 7, He sent two cables to her. 8. He gave a ring to his friend. 9. They sent an invitation to us. 10. John lent some money to his friends. 11. Will you lend your pen to me? 12. He gave some ex- cellent advice to all of us. D. Place the Indirect Object After the Direct Object: (Follow the example given in the first sentence.) 1. He gave me some books. (He gave some books to me.) 2. They gave us some magazines to take home. 3. He sent his mother seyeral letters. 4. They brought us many presents from abroad. 5. I gave him the note which you sent. 6. Please give us some dictation today. 7. They sent us invitations to the party. 8. Henry told us the story of his trip. 9. John 73gladly lent me the money. 10. Please lend me your pencil for a few minutes. 11. They sent us the material right away. 12. Please hand me that book. E. Instead of IN Orper To Use the Simple Infinitive to Express the Idea of Purpose: Follow Example. 1. He went there in order to talk with the teacher. (He went there to talk with the teacher.) 2. He came to our home in order to see my father. 3. He ran to the store in order to buy the newspaper. 4. He stopped at the office in order to pick up some letters. 5. He drew a picture of a cow in order to explain to the waiter what he wanted. 6. He went to the movie in order to pass the time. 7. He called by telephone in order to wish me a happy birthday. 8. They are leaving early in the morning in order to get there before evening. F. Introduce IN Orper To in Place of the Simple In- finitive in the Following. Follow Example: 1. We went there to see our friend, (Ex.: We went there in order to see our friend.) 2. He came to the station to see us off. 3. He stopped at the post-office to buy some stamps. 4. She went to the store to buy some groceries. 5. He went to the hospital to see a sick friend. 6. He came here to find work. 7. He goes there every day to practice his English. 8. He studied hard to pass his examinations. 9. We often go there just to pass the time. 10, We went to his home to speak with him in person. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. He wants (go, to go) with us to the park. 2. William isa better student (as, than) Henry. 3. I haven't (some, any) time to talk to you. 4. They (live, lives) in New York City. 5. We haven’t enough time to go there (either, also). 6. John (said, told) us he was a very good student. 7. He said he (can, could) not come to the meeting last night. 8. There (was, were) many people at the meeting. 9. At what time will John (return, returns) tomorrow? 10. John is (a, an) Englishman. 11. They will stay in New York (for, during) six months. 12. Do you go to school (by, on) bus? 74LESSON 25 46. Ipiomatic PHrase—Ir Taxes. a) Duration of an ac- tion is frequently expressed in English by the impersonal it takes or ii took. Examples: It takes me twenty minutes to walk to work. It takes John two hours to prepare his homework. IL took me twenty minutes to walk to school yesterday. It took John two hours to prepare his homework last night. b) The negative and interrogative forms of the impersonal it takes or it took are obtained regularly by use of the usual auxiliaries does and did. It doesn’t take me twenty minutes to walk to work. Does it take you twenty minutes to walk to work? 47, Spectat PLurar Forms. a) Under Rule 3 it was stated that the plural of English nouns is obtained by adding s to the singular form. Words ending in an s sound, however, (s. sh, ch, etc.) form their plural by adding es to the singular. one church two churches one class two classes one dash two dashes b) If a word ends in o preceded by a consonant, the end- ing es is added to form the plural. (Exceptions: pianos, solos, banjos.) tomato tomatoes negro negroes potato potatoes. c) If a word ends in o preceded by a vowel, only s is added. radio radios folio foliosd) Most words ending in f or fe change the f to v and add es in the plural. wife wives knife knives leaf leaves e) Note also the following special plural forms: child children fish fish tooth teeth foot feet EXERCISES A. Change the Following So As to Introduce It Takes or Ir Toox: 1. I come to work on the bus in ten minutes. (It takes me ten minutes to come to work on the bus.) 2. I did my exercise in one hour. 3. I walked to the station in fifteen minutes. 4. We drove to Philadelphia in one hour. 5. I found my mistake in a few minutes. 6. 1 do my home- work every night in a short time. 7, They will build the bridge in two years. 8. She learned to speak English in only one year. 9. I finished the work in an hour. 10. I wrote the letter in a few minutes. 11. They will complete the work in six years. 12. He does his homework every day in one hour. B. Change to Negative and to Interrogative Form: 1. It took him a long time to go there. 2. It takes me seven minutes to walk there. 3. It took them many years to build the road. 4. It takes me only ten minutes to go there by subway. 5. It took him several hours to finish it. 6. It took a month to complete the work. 7. It will take a long time to get there. 8. It will take you a week to read this book. 9. It took them two days to find him. 10. It takes an hour to do this exercise. 11. It takes much time to learn English. 12. It took an hour to discover the mistake. 76C. Change the Above Sentences, in Section B, to Inter- rogative Form Again, but this time Begin Each Question with How Lone. (Example: 1. How Long did it take him to go there? etc.) D. Complete the Following with Words of Your Own Choosing: 1. It took me 2. It takes John 8. It won't take her 4. It took them 5. It takes only 6. It will take 7. It took us 8. It doesn’t take 9. How long did it take 10. How long will it take 11. It takes Mr. Smith only 12. Will it take 13. It didn’t take us 14. It shouldn’t take more than E. Change the Italicized Words in the Following to Plural Form and Introduce SomE, Many, SEVERAL, or VARIOUS in place of the Indefinite Article. (Then make whatever other changes are necessary.) 1, There is a church near my home. (Ex.: There are several churches near my home.) 2. He has a child. 3. I picked a tomato from the vine. 4. We saw a fish in the river. 5. I ate a potato. 6. I attend an English class every day. 7. There is a piano in the room. 8. There is a door in John’s class. 9. The table is one foot long. 10. I have a watch. 11. There is a man in the room. 12. A leaf fell from the tree. F. Review: Change to Past and to Future Time: 1. John writes many letters to his friends. 2. He first goes to his room. 3. Then he sits at his desk. 4. He begins his letter “Dear Carlos”. 5. He tells Carlos that he feels well. 6. He finishes his letter and signs his name. 7. Then he folds the letter. 8. Next, he puts the letter into an envelope. 9. He then addresses the letter. 10. Next, he puts a stamp on the letter. 11. On the back of the letter he puts his return address. 12. He mails the letter on his way to school G. Review. Supply the Correct Indefinite or Definite Ar- ticle where Necessary: 1. There are many countries in world. 2. c England is located on ~ 3continent of Europe. 3. United States is located on continent of North America. 4. people of Soviet Union speak Russian. 5. Most of people in South America speak Spanish. 6. Spanish language is easy to learn 7. Can you speak French? 8. French people are very polite. 9. There isn’t telephone in room. 10. John wasn't in class yesterday. H. Choose the Correct Word: 1. John worked there (for, during) three years. 2. Every man has two (feet, feets). $. John gave (me, to me) the book. 4. I didn’t see (any, some) people there. 5. The teacher (said, told) us about his trip to the museum. 6. Where (do, does) John live? 7. How many days (is, are) there in a week? 8. Were you absent (in, from) class yesterday? 9. Everyday I eat (a, an) apple for my lunch. 10. I have two (radioes, radios) in my home. 11. I picked two (tomatoes, tomatos) from the vines. 12. John brought (to me, me) the package. I. Answer these questions: 1. How long does it take you each night to prepare your English lessons? 2. How long did it take you last night to prepare your English lessons? 3 How long will it take you tomorrow night to prepare your English lessons? 4. How long does it take you to go to school by bus? 5. Does it take you longer to go by bus or by street-car? 6. How long does it take you to walk to school? 7. How long does it take to fly from Mexico City to New York? 8. How long does it take you to eat lunch every day? 9. How long did it take you to eat lunch yesterday? 10. How long will it take you to eat lunch tomorrow? LESSON 26 48. SoMEONE, ANYONE, etc. Under Rule 43 it was stated that some is used generally only in positive sentences, any, in negative and interrogative sentences. Likewise, the de- 8rivatives of some (someone, somebody, somewhere, some- thing, etc.) are used normally only in positive sentences. Anyone, anybody, anywhere, anything are used in negative and in interrogative sentences.* I saw someone in the room. a. I didn’t see anyone in the room b. Did you see anyone in the room? He brought me something to eat. a. He didn’t bring me anything to eat. b. Did he bring you anything to eat? 49. Use or Auxitiary Vers MAY. a) The auxiliary verb may is generally used to show permission—as distinguished from can, which shows physical or mental ability to perform some act. You may smoke here. He can do the work easily. It is not difficult. b) May is also used, however, to.show doubt or possible future action. It is possible John is sick. a. John may be sick. It is possible he will come later. a. He may come later. EXERCISES A. Change to Negative Form: 1. There is someone in the room. 2. I saw somebody in the corridor. 3, Put it somewhere in this room. 4. There is someone at the door. 5. He lives somewhere in New York. 6. He told someone about it. 7. He gave the book to somebody. 8. I put it somewhere in this drawer. 9. Tell somebody about it. 10. * Words derived from some (someone, something, etc.), although never used in negative sentences, are sometimes used in questions when a positive answer is expected. Thus, “Is there someone in the room?” rather suggests that the speaker is aware that there is someone in the room but wishes to know who itis. (See footnote to Rule 43.) 79He said something to her. 11. He has something to do. 12. She lost her purse somewhere in the park. B. Change to Question Form: I saw somebody at the desk. 2. He went somewhere last night. 3. She has something to do. 4. He told somebody about 5. She put it somewhere. 6. There is someone in the next room. 7. Somebody wants to speak to him. 8, I saw somebody I knew. 9. He brought something with him. 10. He gave it to someone. 11. He took them somewhere on Long Island. 12. I liked some- thing about her. C. Re-state the Following “No” Sentences in the More Common “Not-Any" Negative Form: Follow Example. 1. They found nobody at home. (Ex.: They did not find anybody at home.) 2. There is no more coffee. 3. They want nothing to drink. 4. There is nowhere for him to sit. 5. She spoke to no one about it. 6. 1 want no more, thank you. 7. He can see nothing without his glasses. 8. We saw nobody at all in the park. 9. They gave us nothing to eat. 10. We went nowhere after the dance. 11. He has no place to stay. 12. There was nobody in Mr, Smith’s office. D. Change So As to Introduce the Verb May: (Follow the example given in the first sentence.) 1. It is possible that he will arrive later. (He may arrive later.) 2. It is possible that John will be late. 3. It is possible Helen will come with him. 4. It is possible that they will not come at all. 5. It is possible that the weather will not be warm. 6. Possibly Henry is out of town. 7. Possibly he doesn’t know anything about it. 8. Possibly they ate not at home. 9, Perhaps the book is out of date. 10. Perhaps he will not notice it. 11. Possibly they will arrive on time. 12. It is possible that the train is late. E. Choose the Correct Form: 1. 1 didn’t see (anyone, someone) in the room. 2. We didn’t go (anywhere, some- where) last night, 3. We didn’t find (some, any) money 80in the purse. 4. John (may come, may be come) later in the day. 5. They didn’t like the movie and we didn’t (also, either). 6. My hat was more expensive (as, than) Helen’s. 7. (These, this) pencils are of poor quality. 8. (These, those) men on the other side of the street are military officers. 9, Last week I (must, had to) go to the dentist. 10. They (said, told) us that they liked the movie very much. 11. He didn’t tell (anyone, someone) about it. 12. There isn’t (someone, anyone) at the door. F, Answer these questions. Give two answers to each ques- tion, one positive and one negative: 1. Did you see anyone in Mr. Smith’s office? 2. Have you any money with you? 3. Did you tell anyone about it? 4. Did you go anywhere after the movie? 5, Did John say anything to you about it? 6. Are there any students in the hall? 7, Did the teacher find any mistakes in your composition? 8, Did anyone telephone me while I was out? 9, Does Helen know anything about mathematics? 10. Did they go anywhere after the party? 11. Did you bring any money with you? G. Answer these Questions, Using May. Also add “I'm Nor Sure” at the End of Each of Your Answers. Follow Exactly the Form of the Sample Answer Given to the First Question: 1. Will John help us with the work? (Ex.: John may help us with the work—J’m not sure.) 2. Will Henry pass his examination? 3. Is Mary in the garden? 4. Will Mr. Smith be back before noon? 5. Will you go to Mexico again on your next vacation? 6, Will you go by plane? 7. Will you visit other South American countries? 8. Do Mr. and Mrs. Smith own a car? 9. Do they own their own home? 10. Does he teach in the university? 11, Does Henry have any friends in Chicago? 12. Will Grace want to go with us to the party? 81LESSON 27 50. Present TENSE—SIMPLE AND Continuous Forms. a) The simple form of the present tense in English is used to describe an action which goes on every day or in general. John reads the newspaper every day. It often rains in April. b) The continuous form of the present tense is used to describe an action which goes on or continues at the present moment. John is reading the newspaper now. Look! It is raining. ©) The continuous form of the present tense of verbs is formed as follows: to the verb to be, used as an auxiliary, there is added the present participle (ing form) of the main verb, 1 am working We are working You are working You are working He, she, it is working They are working EXERCISES A. Supply the Present Continuous Form of the Verbs in Parentheses: 1. John (do) his homework now. 2. Look! It (snow). 3.1 (read) the New York Times. 4. Mary (play) the piano now. 5. John (smoke) a cigarette now. 6, William (pre- pare) his lessons now. 7. I (read) a very good book at present. 8 Helen (write) on the blackboard. 9. We (speak) English now. 10. The teacher (talk) with Henry and Helen. 11. John (mail) that letter at this moment. 12. It (rain) hard. B. Supply the Correct Form of the Verb in Parentheses: Present Tense Simple or Present Tense Continuous: 1. John (come) here every day. 2. John (come) 82here now. 3. Mr. Smith (smoke) very much. 4. Mr. Smith .. (smoke) a cigarette now. 5. John always (walk) to school. 6. John and Mary (walk) to school now. 7. The wind (blow) very hard now. 8. The wind (blow) very much in autumn, 9. Mary (play) the violin well. 10. Mary (play) the piano now. 11. The telephone (ring) now. 12. The telephone often (ring) during the day. 13. Look! That is John who (cross) the street! 14. Listen! Someone (knock) at the door. C. Change From Simple to Continuous Form: (In your answers make use of such expressions as now, for the present, for the time being, at this moment, etc.) 1. John works here. (John is working here for the present.) 2. He reads the New York Times every morning. 3. She comes here every day. 4. He always sits in this seat. 5. He always gets on the bus at this time. 6. He eats in this restaurant every day 7. The telephone rings very often. 8. He smokes very much. 9. He always walks to his office. 10. He teaches in this room. 11. He has an English lesson every day. 12. The train leaves on time every morning. D. Change from Continuous to Simple Form. In Your Answers Make Use of such Words as Usuatty, OFTEN, AL- ways, Every Day etc.: 1, He is studying hard. (Ex.: He always studies hard.) 2. She is reading the New York Times. 3. He is working here. 4. He is sitting here. 5. He is smoking a cigar. 6. He is writing on the blackboard. 7. He is speak- ing English with the teacher. 8. He is talking with her. 9. I am studying English. 10. They are waiting for her. 11. He is playing the piano. 12. He is having a lesson. E. Complete the Following in Your Own Words. (In Your Answers Make Use of Such Words as Now, Every Day, AL- ways in order to Make Very Clear the Difference in Mean- ing Between the Simple Present and the Present Continuous Tense Forms): 1. Helen is preparing 2. Helen pre- 83pares 3. We are studying 4. We study 5. Mr. and Mrs. Smith are traveling 6. Mr. and Mrs. Smith travel 7. Grace writes 8 Grace is writing 9. Mr. Reese is smoking 10. Mr. Reese smokes LL. William plays 12. William is playing F. Choose the Correct Form: |. The wind always (blows, is blowing) hard in this section of town. 2. John (prepares, is preparing) his homework now. 3. John told (to me, me) the story of the movie. 4. John (walks, is walking) to school every day. 5. We didn’t hear the news and they didn’t (also, either). 6. John is taller (as, than) any of us. 7. We didn't find (any, some) mistakes in the exercise. 8. No one (didn’t come, came) to the door when we knocked. 9. Apparently, there wasn't (anyone, someone) at home. 10. They (have, are having) a big sale in Macy's department store today. 11. I (must, had to) work very late last night. 12. We (haven't to, don’t have to) go to school on Saturdays. G. Answer These Questions: 1. What subject do you study every day at this time? 2. What subject are you studying now? 3. Does it rain often during the month of April? 4. Is it raining now? 5, What is your teacher doing now? 6. What are you doing now? 7. What is John doing now? 8, What kind of cigarettes does Mr. Smith smoke? 9, What kind of cigarette is Mr. Smith smoking now? 10. Is the sun shining now? 11. Who is knocking at the door? 12. At whom is William whistling? LESSON 28 51. Present Continuous TensE— (Continued). The neg- ative form of the present continuous tense is formed regu- larly, i.e., the negation not is placed after the auxiliary verb. The question form is also obtained regularly by placing the auxiliary verb before the subject. 84John is reading the newspaper now. a. John is not reading the newspaper now. b. Is John reading the newspaper now? c. What is John reading now? 52. Present Continuous TENSE — Iplomatic Use. We often use the Present Continuous Tense in English today as a substitute for the Future Tense.* In such cases, an ad- verbial expression of time (tomorrow, next week, Wednes- day etc.) usually accompanies the verb and serves to indicate the exact point of future time. John is leaving for Chicago on Tuesday. They are coming to see us tomorrow night. 53. Articirs— (Continued). A special, idiomatic use of the indefinite article is shown in the following examples: These gloves cost two dollars for each pair. a. These gloves cost two dollars a pair. The train travels at sixty miles per hour. a, The train travels at sixty miles an hour. EXERCISES A. Change to Negative Form: 1. He is working hard now. 2. It is raining. 3. John is preparing his homework. 4. The telephone is ringing. 5. Mr. Smith is teaching us today. 6. We are going to the movies. 7. John is writing a letter. 8. They are delivering the mail now. 9. He is leaving the building now. 10, She is eating in the cafeteria. 11. John is knocking at the door. 12. Helen is having her English lesson now. B. Change to Question Form: (State each question twice, once in simple form and once together with some inter- rogative word like why, where, what, etc.). 1. It is snowing © The attention of the student should be called to the fact that this use of the present continuous tense to show future time, although very common in present day English, does not apply to all verbs; it is generally limited to a few special verbs of action or motion such as go, come, leave, arrive, sail, fly, ete, 85hard now. 2. Mary is reading her book. 3. The sun is shining. 4. John is swimming now. 5. They are sitting in the sun. 6, The teacher is writing on the blackboard. 7. The wind is blowing very hard. 8. The leaves are turning color. 9. The days are growing cool. 10. John is doing his best to learn English. 11. The weather is becoming warm. 12. Our lesson is beginning now. C. Change to Present Continuous Tense: (See Rule 52 above). 1. They will leave for Mexico on Wednesday. (Ex.: They are leaving for Mexico on Wednesday). 2. The boat will sail at two o'clock. 8. They will come to visit us some- time next week. 4. John wil) leave for New York early tomorrow morning. 5. We are going there tomorrow night. 6. He will fly to Chicago on Friday. 7. He will not get back until next week. 8. We will not leave before Wednesday. 9, Henry will bring several friends with him to the party tomorrow night. 10. We will arrive there Monday afternoon. D. Change the Form of Each Italicized Phrase so as to Introduce the Indefinite Articte. (See Rule 53 above). 1. The meat cost sixty cents for each pound. 2. The eggs cost fifty cents for gach dozen. 3. He comes here three times each week. 4, We have lessons four times each week. 5. We drove at sixty miles each hour. 6. The shoes cost five dollars for each pair. 7. He must take this medicine three times each day. 8, The bell rings twice each day. 9. He has to study at least four hours each day. 10. The teacher gives us an examination once each month. 11. I see him about twice each year. 12. The butter costs about fifty cents for each pound. E. Supply the Correct Preposition: 1. Have you any money you? 2. Are there many pictures the wall your room? 3. John often writes letters the evening. 4. He puts the letter an envelope. 5. He prefers to write a pen. 6. The weather often changes the year. 7. It often rains the spring. 868. Do you often go the beach? 9. Do you like to lie 5 the sun? 10. The leaves fall the trees the autumn. 11. John is writing the blackboard. 12. which season the year does it often snow? F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. Look! Someone (comes, is coming) to call on us. 2. Our telephone often (rings, is tinging) during the day. 3. I didn’t see (someone, anyone) in the room. 4. We didn’t have (nothing, anything) to eat. 5. He sent (to her, her) the money. 6. (Was, were) John and Mary at the lesson yesterday? 7. John is (a, an) good English student. 8. John (said, told) me he could not come to the lesson. 9. (Have you, do you have) to go to school on Saturdays? 10. (Those, that) child seems to be sick. 11, The weather today is warmer (as, than) it was yesterday. 12, John is not so (big, bigger) as Henry. G. Answer these Questions: 1. What language are you studying now? 2. Who is that boy who is crossing the street? 3. Listen! Is the telephone ringing? 4. Does the telephone ring often or seldom during the day? 5. When is your friend leaving for Europe? 6. When is he coming back? 7. Is he going alone or is someone going with him? 8. Who is knocking at the door? 9. In what room is Helen having her English lesson? 10. In what room does she usually have her lesson? 11. Is it raining now or is the sun shining? 12. Does it often or seldom rain during the present month? LESSON 29 54. Many-Mucx, Many is used with things which can be counted or enumerated. Much is used with words of indefinite quantity or quality, with things which cannot be counted or enumerated. He reads many books. He drinks many cups of tea. 87He spends much time in reading. He drinks much tea. 55. Few-Less. Few, like many, is used with things which can be counted or enumerated. Less, like much, is used with things which cannot be counted or enumerated. He has few friends. He drinks fewer cups of tea than I. He has less time than I. He drinks less tea than I. 56. VeRy-Too. Students sometimes confuse the use of very and too. Very means much or in a large degree. Very is used before an adjective or an adverb to make it stronger. He is very sick. She sings very well. Too suggests something in excess, more of something than we need or can use. Too, when used with this meaning, is very often followed by an infinitive (too hot to drink, too difficult to do, too fast to catch). He is t00 sick to go to school today. The chair was too heavy for the child to lift. EXERCI: A. Supply Mucu or Many: 1. John eats apples. 2. Do you eat fruit? 3. Mary spends money on her clothes. 4. How ...... times a week do you study English? 5. How time do you spend on your home- work? 6. How coffee do you drink every day? 7. How ........... cups of coffee do you drink every day? 8. He spoke to me about it times. 9. He spent time on that problem. 10. I read books. 11. Do you do cons, Feading? 12. How cigarettes do you smoke each day? B. Supply Less or Few: 1. I eat meat than fish. 2. T have only a English books. 3. John has 88books than I. 4. John spends ............ time on his English than I. 5. I saw her only a times. 6. He spoke to me for only a minutes. 7. I have money today than I had yesterday. 8. He brought a things with him, 9. He seems to be intelligent than she. 10. He-was here a days ago. 11. He has only a friends. 12. He has ...%. friends than I. C. Supply Very or Too, Whichever Seems to Make the Meaning of the Sentence Clearer: 1. I cannot put this ring on my finger. It is small. 2. Miss Smith speaks fast, but I can understand her easily. 3. Mr. Jones speaks fast for me to understand him. 4. Some of these exercises are difficult, but I can do them if I try. 5. However, one of the exercises yesterday was diffi- cult for me to understand. 6. Grace is still sick to go to work. 7, This soup is hot. Be careful when you eat it. 8. This coffee is hot to drink. 9. The weather today is cold, but if we dress warmly we can go out. 10. It is hot today to sit in the sun, D. Re-state these Sentences, Introducing Too: Follow Example. 1. This tea is so hot that I cannot drink it. (Ex.: This tea is too hot for me to drink.) 2. He is so old that he cannot do hard work. 3. The dog was so weak that he could not stand up. 4. The hill is so steep that the car cannot climb it. 5. The stone was so heavy that I could not lift it. 6. The meat was so salty that nobody could eat it. 7. 1 was sg excited that I could not think. 8. The bird was so young that it could not fly. 9. The weather was so bad that we could not play tennis. 10. She was so angry that she could not speak. E, Change these Sentences, Introducing Very instead of Too: Follow Example. 1. The man was foo angry to speak. (Ex.: The man was very angry.) 2. The sky was too dark to take any pictures, 3. She was too excited to tell us about it. 4. The car was too expensive for him to buy. 5. It was too 89late at night to call her. 6. He was too weak to get out of bed. 7. He was too old to get married. 8. The problem was too difficult for him to do. 9. The turkey was too big to go into our oven, 10. Those oranges are too sour to eat. F. Supply the Correct Article (a, AN, or THE), Wherever Necessary: 1. I always speak to teacher when I see him in ..... morning, 2. ... sun is shining now. 3. John is . very good student. 4. Hudson River lies. west. of New York City. 5. We missed you at lesson yesterday. 6. During year, weather changes very often. 7. United States, which is located on continent of North America, is one of largest countries in world. 8. Canada is part of British Empire. 9. Where is capital of Mexico located? 10. Some of exer- cises in this book are easy. 11. We shall open our books to todays’ lesson. 12. I must buy new book. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. He smokes (many, much) cigarettes. 2. He has (less, fewer) books than I. 3. She spends (much, many) time on her English. 4. John brought (to me, me) the letter. 5. John (is sitting, sits) in this seat every day. 6. Last night we all (must, had to) write a composition at home. 7. (These, those) books over there on the table are John’s, 8, I didn’t see (someone, anyone) in the office. 9. How many eyes (has, have) a man? 10. John left (a, an) hour ago. 11. Mary (studies, is studying) her English lesson now. 12. John is much taller (as, than) I. H. Answer these questions: 1. Have you much money or little money with you? 2. How many cups of coffee do you drink every day? 3. Do you drink much coffee or little coffee? 4. Do you have more books or fewer books than John? 5. Do you spend much time or little time on your English? 6, How much time do you spend each night on your homework? 7, How many hours each night do you spend on your homework? 8. Do you read many or few 90books? 9. Do you have many or few friends in the school? 10. Do you read many magazine articles or few magazine articles? LESSON 30 57. Miz, Yours, Hers, etc. The possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, our, their), when used alone as pro- Nouns, have the following forms: my—mine her-hers your—yours our~ours his—his their—theirs This book is my book. a. This book is mine. This room is our room. a. This room is ours. 58. No—Nor. Students sometimes confuse the use of No and Not. No is an adjective and therefore always modifies a noun. He has no money and no friends. Not is an adverb and thus is the usual negative word to modify all verbs (Example: He does not speak English. She will not go with us.) Furthermore, since it is an adverb, not is used to modify the indefinite article, all numerals, and all such adjectives as much, many, enough, any etc. Not a student in the whole school likes her. Not one person came to the meeting. Not many people know about it. 59. Brtwern—Amone. Note that the preposition between is used only when referring to two persons or things. When referring to more than two persons or things, use among. 91I sat between the two boys. The three boys divided the money among themselves. EXERCISES A. Substitute Possessive Pronouns (as under Rule 57 above) for the Italicized Words: 1. This book is my book. (Ex.: This book is mine). 2. This room is her room. 3. This office is John’s office. 4. He took her book and left my book. 5. These newspapers are their newspapers. 6. These are his cigarettes. 7. That copybook is Helen’s copybook. 8. This one is my copybook. 9. Is this pencil your pencil? 10. Is this coat your coat or her coat? 11. These seats are our seats. 12, This desk is the teacher's desk. B. Complete the Following by Adding the Necessary Possessive Pronoun: 1. I have a dog; the dog is (Ex.: I have a dog; the dog is mine. 2. John has a dog; the dog is . 3. Helen has a cat; the cat is 4. You have a fountain-pen; the fountain-pen is 5. Mr. Jones has a new car; the car is 6. Mary has a new fountain-pen; the fountain-pen is 7. We have two English books; the English books are 8. Helen and Mary have two English books; the English books are 9. I have a dog and a cat; the dog and the cat are 10. You have a dog and a cat; the dog and the cat are C. Change So as to Introduce the Correct Possessive Pro- nouns. (Follow the example given in the first sentence.) 1. This hat belongs to her. (This hat is hers.) 2. These books belong to them. 3. Those seats belong to us. 4. To whom do these pencils belong? 5. To whom does this copybook belong? 6. This package of cigarettes belongs to John. 7. It doesn’t belong to me. 8. It doesn’t belong to her either. 9. To whom does this newspaper belong? 10. It belongs to the teacher. 11. It doesn’t belong to us. 12. Does it belong to you? D. Change So as to Use the Verb To BELone Instead of the Verb To Be: (Follow the example given in the first sen- 92tence.) 1. This seat is hers. (This seat belongs to her.) 2. This pencil is mine. 3. It is not yours. 4. Whose seat is this? 5. It is William’s. 6. It is not mine. 7. It is hers. 8. These magazines are ours. 9. Those tables are theirs. 10. Whose room is this? 11. It is ours. 12. It isn’t theirs. E. Supply No or Nor: |. There were chairs in the room. 2. She does speak the language well. 3. Yester- day was Saturday. 4. a person in the room recognized her. 5. He has time to study. 6. There was .. enough gas in the tank even to start the motor. 7. There were many people at the meeting. 8. She is a very good student. 9, He has friends in the school. 10. a single person offered to help us. 11. There are many students absent from class today. 12. There are . students absent from class today. F. Supply the Correct Prepositions: 1. Have you read the story .. the grasshopper and the ants? 2. It is always best to prepare the future. 3. It is better to stay. home such fine weather. 4. We have nothing you. 5. John likes the grammar exercises best ........... all. 6. William, ........... the other hand, prefers the conversation exercises. 7. Do you come to school bus or street car? 8. He puts the letter an envelope. 9. What does John do the letter after he puts a stamp it? 10. John was absent class yesterday. 11. autumn the leaves drop the trees. 12, The United States is composed forty-eight states. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. The two boys divided the candy (between, among) them. 2. He sat (among, be- tween) the two girls. 3. These seats are (our, ours). 4. These are (our, ours) seats. 5. Every day, I (get, am getting) up at the same time, 6. John smokes (many, much) cigar- ettes every day. 7. I didn’t hear (anyone, someone) in the room. 8. The number of people (was, were) very large. 9. They didn't go and we didn’t (either, also). 10. They told (me, to me) the bad news. 11. I (must, had to) study 98very late last night. 12. When will he (return, returns) from his trip? H. Answer these Questions, using Possessive Pronouns, Whenever Possible, in your answers: 1. 1s this book yours or William's? 2. 1s this Helen's pen or mine? 3. Whose notebook is this, yours or mine? 4. In whose room did you leave your hat? 5. Whose hats are those on the floor? 6. Are these seats ours or theirs? 7. Are these cigarettes yours or John’s? 8, Whose umbrella is that in the corner? 9. Whose books are these on the desk? 10. Are these gloves yours or Mary's? 11. Is this newspaper his or yours? 12. Is this newspaper yours or the teacher's? LESSON 31 60. Tac Enpines. a) There is no exact equivalent in other languages for the so-called tag ending in English. The tag ending is a construction added to the end of a sentence in order to express a weak form of question. It is also used to invite confirmation of some fact already known by the speaker. You know him well—don't you? This bus stops at 42nd Street—doesn't it? b) In most foreign languages there is a standard phrase which is used as the ending to such sentences.* In English, how- ever, each tag ending varies with the sentence to which it is attached, It is based upon the main verb of this sentence and is made up of the auxiliary verb which would be normally used if the main verb were stated in question form, plus a personal pronoun which refers back to the subject. John left on Wednesday—didn’t he? Both boys will return next week—won’t they? * Compare No es verdad, n’est-ce pas, nicht wahr, non ¢ vero, nie prawda-li ete. 94c) Note, also, that if the sentence is positive the tag ending is negative. If the sentence is negative, the tag ending is positive. John speaks English well—doesn’t he? John doesn’t speak English well—does he? Both boys will return next week—won't they? Both boys won't return next week—will they? d) Note further that in sentences in the present and past tenses, where the verb to be is the main verb, the same verb is repeated in the tag ending. In other words, no auxiliary verb is used or introduced.* George is a good student—isn’t he? ‘They were late for the meeting—weren’t they? EXERCISES A. Add the Proper Tag Ending: 1. He comes here every day. (He comes here every day—doesn’t he?). 2. She can speak French well. 3. They will be here early. 4. He left at two o'clock. 5. He went home early. 6. He has many books. 7. You live uptown. 8. She studies with you. 9.He will be back later. 10. Henry left at two o'clock. 11. Helen will sail on the same ship. 12. Both men look very much alike. 13. You mailed the letter. 14. Mr. Smith spoke to you about it. B. Add the Proper Tag Ending (Note that all these Sen- tences are Formed with the Verb To Bk, used Either as the Main Verb or as the Auxiliary Verb): 1. John is a good student. 2. They were both absent from the lesson. 3. The wind is blowing very hard. 4. Helen and her sister are both studying English. 5. You are busy today. 6. Helen is sick today. 7. George is a very tall boy. 8. You were absent from class yesterday. 9. It is beginning to rain. 10. Mr. * This is logical since, to form questions with the verb to be in the present and past tenses, we do not use an auxiliary verb; we simply place the verb before the subject—See Rule 2C. 95Smith is out of town. 11. They are leaving early in the morning. 12. There are many students absent today. C. Add the Proper Tag Ending: 1. She goes shopping every day. 2. She is a very pretty woman. 3. She is studying English in our class. 4. William buys his clothes on Fifth Avenue. 5. William is a handsome man. 6. William will be here soon. 7. The traffic on Madison Avenue was very heavy. 8. The sun sets at about six o'clock. 9. The sun is setting now. 10. Your teacher was sick yesterday. 11. They went into the church. 12. The shopping district extends for many blocks. D. Add the Proper Tag Ending: 1. He doesn't come here every day. 2. She isn’t busy now. 3. They didn’t come with her. 4. She can’t speak French. 5. They don’t live uptown. 6. He didn’t visit us last night. 7. She won't be at the lesson tomorrow. 8, They don't know each other. 9. We don’t have to come to school tomorrow. 10. They didn’t have to work yesterday. 11. He hasn't any money. 12. They didn’t arrive on time. E. Add the Proper Tag Ending: 1. John often walks to the post-office. 2. He never goes there in the morning. 3. He first goes to the window miarked “Stamps.” 4. He doesn’t always buy stamps. 5. There are many people ahead of him. 6. There are only a few people ahead of him. 7. He doesn’t always have to wait in line. 8. He didn’t have to wait in line yesterday. 9. He won't have to wait in line tomorrow. 10. He gave him the stamps. 11. John didn’t receive any change. 12. He put a stamp on the envelope. 18. He didn’t mail any packages. 14. But he dropped the letter into the box. F. Change the Following Sentences to Past and to Future Time; Also Add the Necessary Tag Ending in Each Case: 1. He always walks to the post-office. 2. First, he goes to the window marked “Stamps.” 8. There are usually people ahead of him. 4, He stands in line for several minutes. 5. 96‘Then his turn comes. 6. He tells him how many he needs. 7. The man gives him the stamps. 8. John pays him and receives his stamps. 9. He puts a stamp on the letter. 10. He drops the letter into the box. 11. He returns home. 12. He gets home in about ten minutes. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. She never comes to class early— (doesn’t she, does she)? 2. You are married— (don’t you, aren’t you)? 3. John writes to his friend every day— (isn’t he, doesn’t he)? 4. I sat (among, between) two pretty girls. 5. One of them (said, told) me all about the school which she attended. 6. There were many (negroes, negros) at the concert. 7. We couldn’t hear (anything, something) from where we sat. 8. We sat (near, near to) the back of the room. 9. My book is different (from, than) yours. 10. We expect that John (will be arrive, will arrive) soon. 11. They (speak, speaks) Italian quite well. 12. You don’t have to work tomorrow— (do you, have you)? 13. We don’t have to work tomorrow (also, either). 14. He makes (much, many) mistakes when he speaks. 97PART IILESSON 32 61. Formation or ApvERBs. a) Many adverbs in English are formed by adding ly to the corresponding adjective. slow slowly certain certainly quick quickly b) There are, however, many special adverbs with no cor- responding adjective forms: soon, here, there, often, seldom, ever, never, etc. c) Some words, like fast, hard, late, early, etc., may be used both as adjectives or as adverbs without any change of form. He is a fast walker. He is a hard worker. He walks fast. He works hard. 62. Comparison or Apverss. a) Many adverbs are com- pared in the same way that adjectives are compared (See Rule 37) by adding er to the positive degree (soon, sooner; often, oftener) or by use of more. As with adjectives, the comparative form of adverbs is always followed by than. She arrived earlier than I. William came more quickly than Helen. b) A few adverbs have special forms in the comparative degree. Positive Comparative well better badly worse far farther ete. 63. Use of So. A common and important use of so occurs with “I think” “I believe” “I hope” “I'm afraid’ etc—in responses such as the following: (These responses may be 101answers to direct questions or simply a comment upon some statement made by another person.) Helen is coming to the party, isn’t she? “L think so!” or “I don't think so!” Will she be back soon? “1 hope so!” He is too old for such work, “I'm afraid so!” A. Supply the Adverb Form of the Adjective in Paren- theses: 1. John left (quick). 2. She speaks English (beautiful). 3. He always drives (careful). 4. She works very (hard). 5. We arrived (early). 6. He did the work (easy). 7. We walked very (quick). 8. I feel (some) better. 9. He always does his work (good). 10. He speaks very (fast). 11. She prepares her lessons (careless). 12. They acted (bad) in that matter. B. Supply the Proper Form—Adjective or Adverb: 1. He is a very (careful) student. 2. He always does his work (careful). 3. He learns his lesson (quick). 4. This is an (easy) exercise. 5. I can do this exercise (easy). 6. Mary is a (beautiful) girl. 7. She also sings and plays (beautiful). 8. John was very (foolish). 9, He certainly acted (foolish). 10. It is always (wise) to prepare for the future. 11, They acted (wise) in doing that. 12. We drove to the hospital very (fast). C. Express the Words in Parentheses in Comparative Form: (Follow the example given in the first sentence.) 1. John works (careful) 1. (John works more carefully than I.) 2. He comes here (seldom) she. 3. I go there (often) he does. 4. They get up every morning (early) we. 5. He 102comes here (frequent) he did before. 6. She plays (good) anyone else. 7. He can run (fast) 1, 8. John works (hard) 1. 9. He studies (serious) Mary. 10. I go to bed (late) 00... you. 1. He will arrive (soon) they. 12. They came (early) we. D. Using So and also the Verb Given in Parentheses at the End of Each Sentence, Answer or Comment upon the Following: (See Rule 63~also Follow Example.) 1. Do we have time to telephone him? (think) (Example: I think so) 2. John won't be angry with us, will he? (not think) 3. The stores are open on Saturdays, aren't they? (hope) 4. Perhaps he will refuse us the money. (not think) 5. It was Cortez who conquered Mexico, wasn’t it? (believe) 6. He will probably fail his examination. (afraid) 7. I'm sure that you'll soon feel better (hope) 8. He is too sick to go to school (afraid) 9. Will Grace be at the party tonight? (hope) 10. Was he very angry with you? (afraid) 11. Is it too cold to go swimming? (not think) 12. They live near the park, don’t they? (believe) E. Review: Change to Past and to Future Time. 1. John doesn’t often walk to the post office. 2. Does he ever ride to the post office? 3. What does he buy there? 4. He doesn’t go there every day. 5. There aren't any people ahead of him. 6. He doesn’t always have to stand in line. 7. Does he sometimes have to stand in line? 8. How long does he have to wait before his turn comes? 9. He doesn’t tell him any- thing. 10. How much does he pay him? 11. How much change does he receive? 12. He doesn’t drop the letter into the box. F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. Mary always does her work (careless, carelessly). 2. John works very (hard, hardly). 3. She speaks better (as, than) John. 4. This book belongs to John, (isn't it, doesn’t it)? 5. This copybook is (my, 103mine). 6. Whose books are (these, this)? 7. We (must, had to) study hard last night. 8. I didn’t prepare (some- thing, anything) for today’s lesson. 9. How many students (was, were) at the meeting last night? 10, Why (you didn’t, didn’t you) wait for me after the lesson? 11. John spends (much, many) time on his English. 12. Every day Helen (is speaking, speaks) English better. G. Answer these questions: 1. Do you speak English more rapidly or less rapidly than Helen? 2. Do you speak English slowly or rapidly? 3. Do you usually do well or poorly on your English examinations? 4. Did John act wisely or fool- ishly in that matter? 5. Does John visit you more often or less often than he does Helen? 6. Do you generally walk rapidly or slowly? 7. Do you generally walk more rapidly or less rapidly than most of your friends? 8. Did you arrive at the party last night earlier or later than John? 9. Do you seldom or often have to go to the post-office? 10, Do you do these exercises carefully or carelessly? LESSON 33 64. Goop—WeLt. a) Students sometimes confuse good and well. Good is an adjective and must always modify a noun. Weill is an adverb and must modify a verb. John is a good student. John studies well. b) Confusion sometimes occurs because well is also used occasionally as an adjective. It is so used, however, only when it has the meaning of “to be in good health.” How is John? He is well. Mary was sick but now she is weil. 65. Apverss: Comparison or Equatity. a) Equality in comparison of adverbs is expressed in the same way as equal- i04ity in comparison of adjectives, by use of as... as. (See Rule 41.) John speaks as well as Helen. He gets up as early as I. b) The negative form in such comparison may be ex- pressed with so or as (see rule for adjectives 41B) although as is more often heard in everyday speech. John doesn’t speak as (so) well as Heien. He doesn’t get up as (so) early as I. 66. Exctamatory Form. In an earlier lesson (See Rule 24) we learned that we express exclamations in English by use of What followed by a noun (Examples: What a beauti- ful day! What tall trees!) If, however, instead of a noun, an adverb or an adjective is the important word in the exclama- tion, then we use How—as shown in these examples: How beautiful she ist How well he sings! How fast the time Aiest EXERCISES A. Supply Goov or WELL. 1, John is a student. 2. John studies . 3. He isa teacher. 4. He teaches us . 5. Mr. Smith is a educated man. 6. She always prepares her lessons . 7. She is always prepared. 8. The weather today is . 9. Henry is a swimmer. 10, Henry can swim . Lk Mary plays the violin . 12. She is a violin player. B. Express in Full Form, Using Equality of Comparison: (See Rule 65 above.) 1. He goes to bed (late) 1. (He goes to bed as late as I.) 2. He can run (fast) his brother. 3. John speaks English (good) I. 4. He gets up (early) his sister. 5. She sings (beautiful) she plays 1056. He works (hard) he can. 7. He came (quick) he could. 8. The sun is shining (bright) it was yesterday. 9. Speak (softly) possible. 10. He came (early) he could. 11. We drove as (fast) we could. 12. You can do it (easy) lL C. Express in Full Form, Using Equality of Comparison: 1, He doesn’t walk (fast) I, 2. He can't come (early) we. 3. She can't play (good) she can sing. 4. I can’t do it (easy) I did it before. 5. He didn't arrive (early) we expected him. 6. He doesn’t work (careful) she. 7. She doesn’t speak (good) her sister. 8. He doesn’t play tennis ... (bad) he plays baseball. 9. The street-car isn’t (fast) the bus. 10. The grasshopper didn’t act (wise) the ants, 11. You don’t walk (quick) 1 12, Helen does not attend class (regular) Mary. D. Supply How, Wxat (or Wuar A) in the Following Exclamatory Sentences. Follow example: 1. pretty gil (Example: What a pretty gin!) os pretty she is! strange remark to make! 4. well she swims! a hot it is today! 6. hard sentences these arel 7. beautiful eyes she has! 8. beautifully she sings! 9. foolish thing to say! 10. hot weather we are having! 11. hot it is today! 12. ... quickly the time passes! 13. well she speaks English! 14. excellent student he is! E. Change these Sentences to Exclamatory Form by Using How or WHat (Wuar A), as Indicated. Follow Example: 1, She plays the piano well. (Example: How well she plays the piano!) 2. It is a beautiful day. 3. He runs very fast. 4, She plays the violin beautifully. 5. It is very hot today. 6. He is a very tall man. 7. I was very cold last night. 8. She is very pretty. 9. He is a handsome fellow. 10. She 106is wearing a beautiful dress. 11. You have a beautiful new car. 12. It runs very well too. F. Review: Add the Correct Tag Ending. (See Rule 60). 1. He is an excellent student. (He is an excellent student— isn’t he?) 2. He isn’t a regular student. 3. He left early. 4. He brought his brother with him. 5. He always eats at this time. 6. He didn’t speak to you about it. 7. He speaks well. 8. She doesn’t speak well. 9. He will be here early. 10. He won't be here early. 11. You have to work tonight. 12. You don’t have to work tomorrow. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. John studies his lessons (well, good). 2. How (well, good) does she speak English? 8. His writing is very (good, well). 4. She ran more quickly (as, than) he. 5. He does not work as (hard, hardly) as she. 6. He did the work (easier, more easily) than I. 7. He sent (me, to me) the money yesterday. 8. Listen! I think it (rains, is raining). 9. He spends (many, much) time in the park. 10. John always works very hard—(don't he, doesn’t he)? 11. I didn't find (someone, anyone) at home, 12. The boy ran (among, between) the two cars. 13. This book is mine but that one is (her, hers). 14. Every day I (smoke, am smoking) about twenty cigarettes. H. Answer these questions: 1. Do you speak English well or badly? 2. Are you a good or bad student in English? 3. Are you a good swimmer or a poor swimmer? 4, Do you swim well or badly? 5. Do you speak English as well as Helen? 6. Do you get up as early every morning as your father? 7. Is your fountain pen a good one or a cheap one? 8. Does your fountain pen write well or badly? 9. Do you always prepare your lessons as carefully as possible? LESSON 34 67. REFLEXIVE Pronouns. a) The reflexive pronouns in English are as follows: 107I-myself it—itself you—yourself we-ourselves he—himself you (plur.)—yourselves she—herself they—themselves b) Reflexive pronouns are used in two ways: 1) reflexively, that is, to refer back to the subject; 2) emphatically. (Reflexive use) He cut himself. They shot themselves. (Emphatic use) He-himself will go. I myself will do it. c) Reflexive pronouns are also used idiomatically with the preposition by to give the meaning of “alone.” He lives by himself. John studies in a group but I study by myself. 68. Expetives: THERE and It. There and it are used at the beginning of sentences in several ways. A few uses are idiomatic. In general, however, there is used as explained under Rule 6 to express a state or condition. (Ex.—There is a book on the table. There are two people in the room.) It is used with expressions of weather, time, distance etc. (Examples: It is raining. Zt is cold today. It is two o'clock. It is ten miles from here to New York.) It is also used common- ly in sentences like the following, where the verb to be is followed by an adjective-infinitive construction. It is easy to learn English. It was interesting to meet her. EXERCISES A. Supply the Correct Reflexive Pronoun: 1. John hurt when he fell. 2. The baby cannot dress .... eae Helen cut with a knife. 4. William shaves every day. 5. We enjoyed at the concert. 6. She looked at in the mirror. 7. Some people like to 108talk about .+ 8. Do you like to talk about we 9. The little girl burned . With a match. 10. I shave every morning. 11. The poor man killed ~ 12. He fell and hurt on the ice. B. Supply the Correct Reflexive Pronoun (Emphatic Use): 1.1 will do it. 2. Helen will deliver the speech. 3. He said that he -.. could meet us. 4. They will deliver the merchandise. 5. We will wait for you. 6. The President came to the meeting. 7. Miss Smith ............ will speak to us. 8. The ambassador will sign the agreement. 9. John . wrote to me. 10, Mary will attend. 11. You must speak to him. 12. We . have to do it. C. For the Word ALone Substitute the Preposition By With the Correct Reflexive Pronoun: 1. John lives alone. (John lives by himself.) 2. She likes to study alone. 3. I went to the movie alone. 4. Do you like to go to the movie alone? 5. He likes to walk alone in the park. 6. My aunt lives alone. 7. He works alone in a small office. 8. He prefers to work alone. 9. I do not like to eat alone. 10. I do not think he can do it alone. 11. The boys study alone and the girls study alone. 12. He wrote the entire book alone. D. Change the Word in Italics to Plural Form; Then Make the Necessary Changes in the Reflexive Pronoun. Fol- low Example: 1. I myself will do it. (Ex.: We ourselves will do it.) 2. The boy himself will help you. 3. He hurt himself when he fell. 4. You yourself will have to do the work. 5. The child dresses itself every morning. 6. I have to do this work by myself. 7. J enjoyed myself at the party last night. 8. She has made herself very popular with the other students. 9. The teacher has lunch in a separate room by himself. 10. The woman looked at herself in the mirror. E. Supply Ir or Ture: 1. Do you think will rain tomorrow? 2. were many people in the park. 3. is difficult to find him at this time. 4. was 109John who took the book. 5. was in April that the war began. 6. were many children in the park. 7. is beginning to snow. 8. is snow on the ground already. 9. is easy to do that. 10. was ten o'clock when we left. 11. was too early to get up. 12. are several pictures on the wall. F. Complete the Following Sentences with your Own Words by Adding Infinitive Constructions. Follow Example: 1. It is easy to (Ex.: It is easy to learn English.) 2. It was interesting to 3. It is hard to 4. It will be difficult for me to 5. It was easy for John to 6. It was too late to 7. It won't be easy for me to 8. It is too early to 9. It was very kind of you to 10. It was clever of him to U1. It will be necessary for you to 12. It is customary to G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. John likes to live by (hisself, himself). 2. (It, there) was much work to do. 3. The girls wish to study by (themselves, theirselves). 4. Do you boys want to study by (yourself, yourselves)? 5. We (haven't co, don’t have to) study tonight because tomorrow is a holiday. 6. John is bigger (as, than) Henry. 7. John doesn’t speak so (good, well) as Helen. 8. He hasn't (some, any) friends at all. 9. Henry hasn't many friends (also, either). 10. How many people (was, were) at the meeting? 11. John (said, told) us that he didn’t understand the exer- cise. 12. Frank wasn’t at the meeting either—(was he, wasn't he)? H. Answer these questions: 1. Do you live by yourself or with your family? 2. Do you like to go to the movies by your- self or do you prefer to go with someone? 3. Why does that old man live by himself? 4. Does Mr. Smith shave himself every morning or does he go to a barber? 5, How did John cut himself so badly? 6. Why does William like to walk by himself in the park? 7. Do you prefer to study English by 110yourself or in a group? 8. Do children often or seldom hurt themselves when they fall? 9. Can you study better by yourself or with someone? LESSON 35 69. Present Perrect Tense. a) The present perfect tense in English is formed as follows: The verb to have is used as an auxiliary verb, and to this auxiliary there is added the past participle of the main verb. (Past participles of all regular verbs end in ed and are identical with the past tense form; for past participles of irregular verbs, see appendix.) I have seen We have seen You have seen You have seen He has seen They have seen b) The present perfect tense has several important uses in English. First, it is used to describe an action which took place at an indefinite time in the past. (Examples: I have read that book. I have studied that lesson. You have done these exercises well.) Note that in such sentences, we are placing emphasis upon the completion of the action rather than upon the time of the action. Thus, the Present Perfect Tense is really a kind of present tense because we are inter- ested in the effects of the action at the present moment—not in when the action took place. Notice the difference, there- fore, between the use of this tense and the simple past tense, which always describes an action at some definite time in the past. John has seen that movie. (Present Perfect Tense—here we place emphasis upon the completion of the action at the present time. We thus connect a past action with the present time.) John saw that movie last week (Simple Past Tense—here we definitely place the action in the past and disconnect it completely from the present.) WLc) The Present Perfect Tense is also used to describe an action repeated several times at indefinite periods in the past. Here again, however, the emphasis is upon the com- pletion of the action and its effects at the present moment rather than upon the time of the action. I have read that book several times. Thave often seen her on the street. 70. Present PERFECT TENSE—NEGATIVE AND QUESTION Form: The negative form of the present perfect tense is obtained regularly by placing not after the auxiliary verb. The question form is also obtained regularly by placing the auxiliary verb before the subject. They have read that book. a. They have not read that book. b. Have they read that book? EXERCISES A. Supply the Present Perfect Tense of the Verb in Paren- theses: 1. He (visit) us many times. 2. She (finish) that exercise. 3. I (be) in Chicago several times. 4. He (take) the money. 5. They (deliver) the merchandise. 6. I (see) that museum. 7. She (bring) the papers. 8. We (try) that restaurant. 9. He (finish) his dinner. 10. They (build) the bridge at last. 11. He (write) the letter already. 12. She (break) the dish. B. Supply Whichever is Correct, Past Tense or Present Perfect Tense: 1. 1 (saw) that movie yesterday. 2. John .. (see) that movie several times. 3. I (read) that book. 4. I (read) that book last summer. 5s you ever (read) that book? 6. He (be) in Philadelphia yesterday. 7. He (be) in Phil- adelphia very often. 8. I (see) Mr. Smith last night. 91 (meet) them on my way home. 10. you ever (meet) Mr. Jones? 11. I (speak) to him 112about it yesterday. 12. I ............ (speak) to him about it repeatedly. C. Change From Past to Present Perfect Tense: (In your answers make use of such expressions as often, many times, several times, repeatedly, never, etc.) 1.1 met him last week. 2. I saw him yesterday. 3. He helped me last week. 4. He wrote to her yesterday. 5. He told us the same story this morning, 6. We met her when we were in Philadelphia. 7. He gave me a lesson last week. 8. I spoke to him about them yesterday. 9. He crossed the country last summer. 10. They visited us yesterday. 11. I saw that exhibition last week. 12. I asked him for it last night. D. Add the Proper Tag Ending to these Present Perfect Tense Sentences. Follow Example: 1. Mr. Smith has left for Chicago— ? (Ex.: Mr. Smith has left for Chicago— hasn’t he?) 2. You have seen that movie— ? 3. Helen and Grace have both finished their lunch— 2 4. You have been to Washington— ...........? 5. John has already had his English lesson— ? 6, The boys have already left for the park— ? 7. You have eaten in that restaurant several times— ? 8. They have learned a lot in that class— ? 9. John has made good progress in English— ? 10. Mr. Miller has been in Mexico several times— ? E. Change to Negative and to Interrogative Form: 1. He has found his book. 2. I have spoken to him about it. 3. They have lost their way. 4. I have often visited them. 5. He has been here many times. 6. She has been to class twice. 7. I have read it. 8. He has gone out. 9. She has left the building. 10. He has seen it. 11. He has told us about it. 12. They have gone to Washington. F. Change Each of the Following to Past Tense (YESTER- DAY), Future Tense (Tomorrow), and Present Perfect Tense (Many Times). Follow Example: 1.1 eat in that restaurant every day. (Ex.: a. I ate in that restaurant yesterday. b. I 113will eat in that restaurant tomorrow. c. I have eaten in that restaurant many times.) 2. I see her on the bus every day. 3. He comes to see us every day. 4. I read the New York Times every day. 5. He helps her with her homework every day. 6.1 go to the park every day. 7. He plays tennis with me every day. 8. I speak with him in English every day. 9. He goes there every day. 10. He waits for her after class every day. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1.1 (have seen, saw) her yesterday. 2. He (has been, was) here last night. 3. They hurt (theirselves, themselves) when they fell. 4. Can the boy dress (himself, hisself)? 5. Everyday he (comes, is com- ing) to class late. 6. He doesn’t speak as (well, good) as you. 7. They arrived later (as, than) we. 8. This is yours but that one is (my, mine). 9. John drinks (much, many) cups of coffee every day. 10. There (was, were) many students absent from class. 11. Up to the present time I never (was, have been) in Chicago. 12. She is married— (isn’t she, doesn’t she)? LESSON 36 71. PResENT PErFEct TeEnsE—(Continued.) The present perfect tense is also used to describe an action which began in the past and which continues up to the present time. He has worked here for two years. John has lived here since 1939. Note the difference: John studied English for two years—in 1929 and 1980. John has studied English for two years. (He is still studying English now.) 72. For—Since. In using the Present Perfect Tense to describe an action which began in the past and continues. up to the present time we often use the prepositions for and 114since. We use for to indicate the length of time of an action: we use since to indicate the exact time when the action began. Mr. Smith has worked here for five months. Mr. Smith has worked here since January. 73. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE—ConTINUous Form. The present perfect tense has a continuous form which is com- posed of the present perfect tense of to be, used as an aux- iliary, and the present participle of the main verb. 1 have been working We have been working You have been working You have been working He, she has been working They have been working The continuous form of the present perfect tense is used only to describe an action which began in the past and continues up to the present time. Thus, in most cases, the simple form and the continuous form can be used inter- changeably. We may say, with no difference in meaning, “He has lived here for two years” or “He has been living here for two years.” Note, however, the difference in the following sentences, where, in the first sentence, the action does not continue up to the present time. Ihave read that book. (I have read and finished it.) I have been reading that book. (I am still reading it and have not yet finished it.) EXERCISES A. Supply the Correct Tense, Past or Present Perfect: 1. Mr. Smith (work) in that company in 1925 and 1926. 2. Mary, who is in the hospital, (be) there for two weeks. 3. John (be) in Florida last winter. 4.1 (live) in New York since 1930. 5. We are now living on Riverside Drive, where we (live) for five years. 6. Henry (come) to this country two years ago. 7. Since that time, he (work) as a carpenter. 8. My present teacher is Miss Reese. I (study) with her one year. 9. My former teacher was Miss Jones. I 5(study) with her six months. 10. Mary speaks English well because she ........... (speak) English all her life. 11. We (buy) our automobile two years ago. 12. We (drive) it ten thousand miles since then. B. Change From Simple to Continuous Form: 1. He has lived here two years. 2. They have worked here many years. 3. He has studied English for six months. 4. He has sat here for two hours. 5. He has stood there ten minutes. 6. I have waited for you for an hour. 7. He has walked in the park for two hours. 8. He has read that book all evening. 9. He has written his exercises all evening. 10. They have lived in Chicago ten years. 11. He has worked in this office six months. 12. We have talked for ten minutes. C. Change to Negative and to Interrogative Form: 1. He has been living here for two years. 2. He has been working in California. 3. She has been reading her book. 4. He has been waiting an hour. 5. I have been waiting one week. 6. They have been standing in line. 7. He has been writing a letter. 8. He has been sitting here. 9. She has been living in Florida. 10. They have been feeling well. 11. She has been working at night. 12. He has been making good progress. D. Supply Since or For, Whichever is Correct. 1. He has lived here two years. 2. She has worked here 1929. 3. I have been waiting here three o'clock. 4. I have been waiting here three hours. 5. He has been living in New York 1929. 6. He has been here only two days. 7. She has been in the hospital Tuesday. 8. I have known him ... Many years. 9. I have known him ............ 1939. 10. We have been waiting for you ........... three o'clock. 11. They have been waiting for him more than an hour. 12. We have known each other many years. E. Change For to Since in these Sentences: Then Make Whatever Other Changes are Necessary. Follow Example: 1161, He has worked here for six months. (Ex.: He has worked here since April.) 2. She has been sick for a month. 3. He has had that same car for ten years. 4, She has not been feeling well for several weeks. 5. John has been studying music for five years. 6. They have been living in New York for fifteen years. 7. He has been a teacher in that school for only a year. 8. We have been waiting for you for an hour. 9. He has been in that business for about ten years. 10. I have had this same cold for a month. F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. He (worked, has worked) here for two months last summer. 2. I have been here (since, for) an hour. 3. I (saw, have seen) him yesterday. 4. He has worked there (for, since) three years. 5. Listen! I believe Mary (plays, is playing) the piano. 6. She plays the piano (good, well). 7. He comes here as (often, oftener) as he can. 8. This book is mine but those pencils are (her, hers). 9. Mary is sick in bed. She (was, has been) sick for about two weeks. 10, Helen speaks English well— (don't she, doesn’t she)? 11. Did they send (to you, you) the merchan- dise? 12. When (have you seen, did you see) him? G. Answer these questions: 1. How long have you studied English? 2. When did you begin to study English? 3. How long has John worked in that office? 4. How long have you known Helen? 5, Have you ever been in Washington? 6. How many times have you been there? 7. How long have you studied English with your present teacher? 8. How long did you study English with your last teacher? 9. Have you found this lesson to be easy or difficult? 10. Did you find the Jast lesson to be easy or difficult? 11. How long have you lived at your present address? 12. How long did you live at your last address? H. Answer Each of these Questions Twice, Once Using For and Once Using Since: 1. How long has Helen been studying English? 2. How long has Mr. Smith been a teacher in your school? 3. How long have you been living at your 7present address? 4. How long has Grace been ill? 5. How long has your friend been a professional musician? 6. How long has it been raining? 7. How long have you and John been good friends? 8. How long have you been in your present English class? 9. How long have you known Helen? 10. How long has Mr. X been principal of your school? LESSON 37 74. Unempuatic Furure: To Go Pius AN INFINITIVE. a) The present continuous form of the verb to go, with an accompanying infinitive, is now normally used instead of the regular future tense to express simple future action.* He is going to stay at the Hotel Taft. Iam going to visit some friends in Chicago next week. (The regular future tense, using will for all three persons, singular and plural, continues in use to express promise or strong determination.* Example: “I will meet you in an hour.” “We will come as soon as we can.” See Rule 28B.) b) Note how, in the following, the infinitive to go is dropped and only the shortened “going” phrase remains: 1 am going (to go) to the movie tomorrow. He is going to Canada next week. What time are you going to the opera tonight? 75. To Go Pius AN InrFinitivE—Past TENSE. The same phrase, the continuous form of to go with an accompanying infinitive, is used in the past tense to describe an action which was planned but did not happen. * The difference in feeling between the simple future tense and to be going to may be seen clearly in these two sentences, “I'll meet you on 42nd Street at three o'clock,” in which some promise is implied and “I’m going to meet John on 42nd Street at three o'clock,” in which simple intention to perform some future act is expressed. 118X was going to play tennis yesterday but it rained. We were going to take a walk in the park but it was too cold. 76. Position or Apverss. Adverbs of time (yesterday, last night, etc.) normally come at the end of an English sentence. They never come between the verb and the direct object as in some languages. For example, it is wrong in English to say, “I saw yesterday Mr. Smith” or “I studied last night my lesson.” The correct form is, I saw Mr. Smith yesterday. I studied my lesson last night. EXERCISES A. Introduce Gone To to Express Future Time: 1. He (visit) us tomorrow. 2. She (meet) me at noon. 3, We (have) dinner in town. 4. He (come) here later. 5. I (get) up early tomorrow. 6 He (wait) an hour for us. 7. He (study) at the university. 8. She (play) the piano for us. 9. We (go) to Canada on our vacation, 10. He (accompany) us to the theatre. Il. He (study) to be a doctor. 12. The teacher (give) us an examination tomorrow. B. State in Negative and in Question Form: 1. They are going to meet us tonight. 2. He is going abroad next month. 3. She is going to leave for Europe soon. 4. He is going to learn to swim. 5. 1 am going to take the bus to school. 6. I am going to stay at home tonight. 7. He is going to take a walk in the park. 8. I am going to meet him at eight o'clock. 9. We are going to get up early tomot- row. 10. He is going to study French. 11. He is going to enter the university in the fall. 12. They are going to build many new roads there. C. Change the sentences in Section B to question form again, but this time begin each question with some question word like WHERE, WHY, WHEN, Wuar For, How etc. 119D. Supply the Proper Tag Ending. Follow Example: 1 John is going to New York on his vacation— ? (Ex: John is going to New York on his vacation—isn’t he?) 2. They are going to leave for Europe soon— ? 3. He is going to study medicine— ..? 4, John and Henry are going to enter the university in the fall— ? 5. You are going to wait for me after the lesson— ? 6. Helen is going to the party with George— ? 7. You are going to be at home tonight— ? 8, We are going to have an examination on Wednesday— ? 9, The teacher is going to be surprised at the results— ? 10. You are all going to the party tonight— ? E. Substitute the Past Form of Goune To for the Italicized Verbs: 1. I intended to call you yesterday. (I was going to call you yesterday.) 2. I planned to go to the beach but it rained. 3. We planned to telephone you but we couldn't find your number. 4. We intended to wait but we had to leave. 5. I planned to come back later. 6. I intended to go home early. 7. We intended to walk in the park but it was too cold. 8. I intended to write you a letter last week. 9. We planned to eat early. 10. He intended to go to a movie first. 1]. We planned to study for our examination but some guests came. 12. They intended to leave New York yesterday. F. Correct the Word Order: 1.1 read yesterday the news- paper. 2. He was last night at our house. 3. I saw him on Wednesday here. 4. He gave me this morning the message. 5. He this morning went to Chicago. 6. I met last night Mr. Smith on the street. 7. He was this morning here. 8. We were last night at the theatre. 9. He brought me today the package. 10. He left early the house. 11. We received on Tuesday the good news. 12. I met him on Wednesday there. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1.1 (have seen, saw) that movie last week. 2. He has lived here (since, for) many years. 3. I (know, have known) him for a long time. 4. He 120(is studying, has been studying) English for several years. 5, We (were, was) going to visit you last night but it rained. 6. He ig the man (whom, which) I saw. 7. How many people (was, were) in the accident? 8. John has (much, many) friends. 9. Helen didn’t attend class yesterday (also, either). 10, The teacher gave (us, to us) an examination yesterday. 11, George (said, told) that he could not come to the lesson. 12. Does Helen speak Spanish as (good, well) as Mary? H. Answer these questions: 1, What time are you going to the movie tonight? 2. Where are you going to go after the lesson today? 3. In what hotel is your friend going to stay? 4. When is your father going to leave for Canada? 5. Where are you going to have lunch? 6. Are you going to eat alone or with friends? 7. Where is John going on his vacation? 8. Where are you going on your vacation? 9. What language are you going to study after you finish studying English? 10. With whom are you going to the party to- morrow night? LESSON 38 77. Pasr Continuous TExsk. a) The past continuous tense is formed as follows: The verb to be is used as an auxiliary verb and to this auxiliary there is added the present participle of the main verb. (Compare with formation of the present continuous tense, Rule 50C.) L was working We were working You were working You were working He, she was working ‘They were working b) The past continuous tense is used to describe an action which was continuing at some definite point of time in the past. Thus we say, “I was working when he came.” The past continuous form, “I was working” suggests a pro- longed or continuous action, longer in duration than the 121simple past tense action “when he came.” Note that the past continuous tense is not used alone but is always used together with some definite past action or past time, either stated or implied. He was sleeping when I arrived. While I was walking home, I met an old friend, 78. Postion oF ApvERBS-- (Continued). a) Although definite adverbs of time are placed at the end of an English sentence, (see Rule 76), indefinite adverbs of time, such as always, seldom, ever, never, frequently, rarely, usually, gen- erally, etc., are placed before the main verb.* John always arrives on time. He seldom studies his lesson. b) If an auxiliary verb is used, indefinite adverbs of time are still placed before the main verb. John does not always arrive on time. He has seldom studied his lesson. EXERCISES A. State in Past Continuous Form: 1. John (sleep) when we telephoned. 2. Mary and John (talk) when the teacher came in. 3. They (eat) when. we got there. 4. At four o'clock, when we arrived, they (take) an examination. 5. At seven o'clock, I (have) dinner. 6. When you telephoned, 1 (study) my lesson. 7. We .. (sit) in the park when it started to rain. 8. They (swim) when we saw them, 9. The maid (clean) the room when I entered. 10. Mary (talk) with the teacher when I came. 11. The other students (read) when I came in. 12. It (rain) when I left home. *An exception to this rule occurs with the verb fo be in the present and past tenses. In these tenses, with the verb to be, the adverb follows the verb. (Ex.: He is always late. They are never happy.) 122B. Supply Whichever Is Correct, Past Tense Simple or Past Tense Continuous: 1.1 (go) to the movie last night. 2. While I (go) to the movie, I met Mary. 3.1 (talk) with John when Mr. Smith entered. 4. I (talk) with John yesterday. 5. I (study) very hard last night. 6. 1 (study) last night when you called. 7. I (sleep) when the phone rang. 8. I (sleep) well last night. 9. She (play) the piano when we came. 10. She (play) the piano for us last night. 11. I (take) an English lesson last night. 12.1 (take) an English lesson when they came. C. Supply the Correct Past Tense (Simple or Continuous Form) of the verbs in Parentheses: 1. They (eat) dinner when we (arrive). 2. He (fall) while he (run) for a bus. 3. When the phone (ring), I (take) a bath. 4. We (have) dinner when the lights (go) out. 5. He (walk) along Broad- way when I (meet) him. 6. They (live) in the south of France when the war (break) out. 7. He still (sleep) when I (arrive) at his home at eleven o'clock in the morning. 8. It (rain) hard when I (get) up this morning. 9. The wind (blow) hard when we (leave) the house. 10. When I last (see) him, he (live) in Chicago. D. State the Following in Negative and in Question Form: 1. He was singing when we arrived. 2. I was telephoning when I thought about it. 5. It was raining when I got up. 4. The snow was falling when we went out. 5. They were playing cards when we came. 6, He was driving very fast when the accident happened. 7, They were having dinner when we arrived. 8. He was reading the newspaper when I saw him. 9. She was sleeping when I called her. 10. They were playing tennis when we got there. 1]. It was beginning to rain when we started. 12. He was talking with Mary when I entered. E. Place the Adverb in its Proper Position: 1. He arrives on time (never). 2. He has been a good student (always). 1283. Have you spoken to him (ever)? 4. He prepares his lessons (seldom). 5. She has been in our home (frequently). 6. Do you go for a walk in the park (ever)? 7. We go for a walk on Sunday (usually). 8. He has spoken English well (always). 9 I have spoken to him about it (often). 10. He comes to our house (often). 11. He stays a long time (seldom). 12. Has he been Sate for class (always)? F. Choose the Correct Form: 1, He (slept, was sleeping) when we arrived. 2. I (slept, was sleeping) well last night. 3. He has worked here (since, for) many years. 4. He (is. living, has been living) in New York a long time. 5. He (was, has been) in Washington last week. 6. He always pre- pares his lessons (well, good). 7. She is married— (doesn’t she, isn’t she)? 8. John is taller (as, than) I. 9. Look! It (begins, is beginning) to rain. 10. When I came in, they (talked, were talking). 11. We (haven't to, don’t have to) work on Satur- day afternoons. 12. John (said, told) that he was very busy yesterday. G. Answer these questions: 1. What were you doing last night when I telephoned to you? 2. Whom were you talking to when I saw you in the hall? 3, What were you doing at six o'clock \ast night? 4. Was it raining when you got up this morning? 5. Was the sun shining when you left home this morning? 6. What was the teacher doing when you entered the room? 7. What were the other students doing? 8. How fast was the car going when the accident happened? 9. Was John driving or were you driving? LESSON 39 79. Past PerrEct Tense. a) The past perfect tense in English is formed as follows: The past tense of the verb to have (had) is used as an auxiliary verb, and to this auxiliary there is added the past participle of the main verb. 124Compare with formation of the present perfect tense (Rule 69). Thad seen We had seen You had seen You had seen He, she had seen They had seen b) The past perfect tense is used to describe an action which took place before some definite and specified point in past time. The past perfect tense is thus never used alone but is used together with some past tense, stated or implied. John had left when she arrived yesterday. They had alteady begun when we saw them. He said that he had seen the movie. c) The past perfect tense has a continuous form which is occasionally met. It is used similarly to the simple form but always describes some continuing action up to the time of the past tense verb of the sentence. Like all continuous tenses, the past perfect continuous is formed from the verb to be, as an auxiliary, and the present participle of the main verb. (See appendix for full conjugation.) He had been living there two years when the war began. He had been working there a long time when the accident happened. 80. Furure Perrect Tense. The future perfect tense is formed from the future tense of the verb to have, used as an auxiliary, and the past participle of the main verb. (See appendix for full conjugation. Also note similarity of forma- tion to present perfect and past perfect tenses.) The future perfect tense is used to describe a future action which takes place or is completed before some definite and specified point in future time. The future perfect tense is thus similar in function to the past perfect tense which describes a past action which took place before some definite point in past time.* (See above, rule 79.) * The future perfect tense is not often used in English and therefore is not of great importance to the student. Yet it must be studied, if for recognition purposes only, since it is sometimes met in writing and formal speech. 125John will have left when she arrives tomorrow. (Compare with past perfect sentence: John had lef! when she arrived yesterday.) They will have visited thirty cities by June firs. EXERCISES A. Supply the Past Perfect Form of the Verbs in Paren- theses: 1. Mary (go) when we arrived. 2. They already (start) when we came. 3. John (finish) the work by the time I saw him. 4. When we arrived, she already (leave). 5. By the time we came, they (disappear). 6. He told me that he (look) every- where for it. 7. She said that she (be) there the night before. 8. When they reached home, they saw that someone (steal) certain things. 9. He visited the place where he (live) as a boy. 10. I saw that we (take) the wrong road. 11. They arrived ten minutes after John (leave). 12. Did he find out that you (be) there? B. State in Negative and in Question Form: 1. He had left when we arrived. 2. They had finished by the time we got there. 3. They had spent all their money before they came. 4. He had lived there two years when the war began. 5. She had told me about it previously. 6. He had worked there for two years when the accident happened. 7. She had come and gone when we arrived. 8. He had studied with Miss Smith previously. 9. He had been there when I telephoned. 10. He had seen the movie before. 11. They had already sent the letter when I spoke to them. 12. He had been a good student previously. C. Change From Past Perfect Simple to Past Perfect Con- tinuous Form: 1. He had read the paper when we arrived. 2. He had slept when we got there. 3. She had taken a walk when we met her. 4. They had talked when we came. 5. John had played the piano when we entered the room. 6. He had worked a long time before he made his discovery. 1267. He had waited an hour when we arrived. 8. She had walked in the park when it started to rain. 9. He had had a lesson when we called him. 10. They had had dinner when we arrived. 11. He had lost money in his business previously. 12. He had had trouble with it for a long time. D. Supply the Future Perfect Tense of the Verb in Parentheses: 1. When you arrive, they (leave). 2. By August the flowers (die). 3. If you come at noon tomorrow, we (finish) the work. 4. If he gets here at six o'clock, they (go). 5. If he doesn’t hurry, they (leave) when he comes. 6. By June we (finish) this book. 7. I (be) in this country two years next June 1. 8. By tomorrow I (forget) all these rules. 9. When he becomes a man, he (learn) many things. 10. By this time next month, you (forget) all about it. 11. Before he leaves, he (visit) every show in town. 12. By two o'clock he (come) and (go). E. Supply the Necessary Tag Ending. 1. John had al- ready left when you arrived— ? (Ex.: John had already left when you arrived—hadn’t he?) 2. You had already seen that movie— ? 8. The police had already caught the thief— ? 4. He had been living in France for many years when the war began— ? 5. He had finished the work when you spoke to him— ? 6. She had told you all about it previously— ? 7. He had read the book before— ? 8. He had previously been the best student in the class— ? 9. He had worked there for many years when the accident happened— ? 10. They had left before you got there— ? F. Supply the Correct Preposition: 1.1 go school every day but my sister stays home. 2. The man threw himself the lake. 3. The dog jumped the fence, 4. He says that he is very good health. 5. My wife must go a diet. 6. The train left midnight Chicago. 7. He sat his arm 127her waist. 8. We got the elevator and went . the tenth floor. 9. The child is hiding his mother. 10. You can wear this sweater your coat. 11. Count one ten your fingers. 12. You will catch cold if you go the rain a coat or hat. 13. They plan to take a trip the world June. 14. He lives his parents not far here. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. John said that he (saw, had seen) the movie previously. 2. He already (left, had left) when we arrived. 3. When we came in, he (slept, was sleeping). 4. He has worked here (since, for) many years. 5. They did not do the work by (theirselves, themselves). 6. She does not play the piano (good, well). 7. She speaks English well— (isn’t she, doesn’t she)? 8. He is much more clever (as, than) she. 9. He spends (much, many) time on his English. 10. He said he (was, had been) there the night before. 11. She said she (studied, had studied) English for two years. 12. When you arrive tomorrow, they will already (finish, have finished) the work. 13. John told (to me, me) the whole story of the movie. 14. John (is sitting, sits) in this seat today. 15. He (is working, has been working) on that problem for many years. LESSON 40 81. Furure Continuous TEnsz. The future continuous tense is formed from the future tense of the verb to be, used as an auxiliary, and the present participle of the main verb. (See appendix for full conjugation; also compare with conjugation of present continuous and past continuous tenses.) The future continuous tense is used to describe an action which will be continuing at some point in future time. It is thus identical in function with the past continuous tense which describes an action continuing at some point in past time. 128When he arrives tomorrow, they will be sleeping. (Compare with past continuous form: When he arrived yesterday, they were sleeping.) If you come at six o'clock, he probably will be studying. 82. Passive VorcE. a) The passive voice is formed from the verb to be, used as an auxiliary, and the past participle of the main verb. There is a corresponding passive form for all the six regular active tenses in English. Active (Present) He delivers the mail. (Past) He delivered the mail. (Future) He will deliver the mail. (Pres. perfect) He has delivered the mail. (Past perfect) He had delivered the mail. (Fut. perfect) He will have delivered the mail. Passive (Present) The mail is delivered (by him). (Past) The mail was delivered. (Future) The mail will be delivered. (Pres. perfect) The mail has been delivered. (Past perfect) The mail had been delivered. (Fut. perfect) The mail will have been delivered. b) In the active voice, the subject of the sentence per- forms the action. (Example: John delivers the mail.) In the passive voice, the subject is acted upon by someone or some- thing. (Example: The mail is delivered by John.) Normally, the passive voice is used only when the agent who performs some action is not known or is not important. This newspaper is published in New York. This letter was mailed two days ago. EXERCISES A. Supply the Future Continuous Tense of the Verb in Parentheses: 1. When you come, I (work). 2. If he comes at noon, we (eat). 3. If you telephone at 129six, he (have) dinner. 4. We .. (have) our lesson at ten o'clock. 5. When you arrive, I probably (work) in my garden. 6. When you come, they (leave). 7. If you come at noon, he (finish) the work, 8. At eight o'clock we (pass) through Chicago. 9. If you come tomorrow at six, we (eat) dinner. 10. If you come at seven, we probably (finish) dinner. B. Change the Verbs in the Following from Future Per- fect Tense to Future Continuous Tense: (Also Explain the Change in Meaning in Each Case.) 1. Uhey will have eaten their dinner when you arrive. (Ex.: They will be eating their dinner when you arrive.) 2. He will have left when you get there. 3. She will have finished the work when you come, 4, If you come at ten, we will have had our lesson. 5. When you arrive, I probably will have started the job. 6. By eight o'clock, we will have passed through Chicago. 7. They will have had their lunch when we see them. 8. They will have played tennis when we arrive. 9. The baby will have learned to walk by that time. 10. When you see him, he will have worked in his garden. C. Change to Passive Voice: 1. He took the money. 2. He will deliver the merchandise. 3. She ate the cake. 4. Mr. Smith wrote the book. 5. She has taken the newspaper. 6. Mr. Smith teaches that class. 7. They will leave the tickets for you. 8. Somebody has taken my book. 9. The wind blew the smoke away. 10. She broke the plate on purpose. 11. They will bring the boy tomorrow. 12. They had finished the work by noon. 13. We saw the accident. 14. They have found the child. 15. He will do the work. 16. People will forget it in a few days. 17. People speak English all over the world. 18. They fought a big battle here many years ago. 19. They. made this gun by hand. 20. Someone has put all the chairs in the next room. 21. He broke his leg in an accident. 22. They will send the book next week. 23. A car ran over our dog. 24. They left the wounded soldiers behind. 130D. Change to Active Voice: 1. The book was found by Mary. 2. The money was stolen by a thief. 3. The mer- chandise will be delivered (by them) tomorrow. 4. The city has been destroyed (by the enemy). 5. The book will be published next spring (by the publisher). 6. The lecture ‘was attended by many people. 7. Our exercises are corrected each night by our teacher. 8. He was struck by an automo- bile. 9. The work had been finished by June (by him). 10. The town will have been captured (by them) by Wednes- day. 11. The house was built in 1910 (by someone). 12. The books will be brought by John. 13. America was dis- covered in 1492 (by Columbus). 14. Our class is taught by Mr. Smith. 15, This book was written by Mr. X. E. Change to Negative and to Question Form: 1. The work will be done by Mr. Smith, 2. The book was written by Mr. X. 3. The lesson is taught by Mr. Smith. 4. The book has been returned by John. 5. The dish was broken by the maid. 6. The cries of the child were heard clearly. 7. The money had been stolen by one of the children. 8. America was discovered in 1492. 9. It was discovered by Christopher Columbus. 10. The house was struck by light- ning. 11. The book will be published in June. 12. The money has been found. 13. The city was destroyed by bombs. 14. The work will be completed tomorrow. 15. The telegram was delivered this morning. F. Change to Question Form, beginning each Question with the Question Word Given in Parentheses at the End of the Sentence: 1. America was discovered in 1492. (When) 2. The house was destroyed by fire. (How) 3. The work will be completed next month. (When) 4. The child was finally found in the park. (Where) 5. The tree was planted by my father. (By whom) 6. The book will be published in June. (When) 7. The mail is delivered at ten o'clock every day. (What time) 8. He was injured in an automobile accident. (In what kind of accident) 9. The house was built 181in 1945. (In what year) 10. The money was stolen by one of the servants. (By whom) G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. When he comes at six o'clock tomorrow, they (will eat, will be eating). 2, When he came at six o'clock yesterday, they (ate, were eating). 3. John (has been working, is working) in this city a long time. 4. She has studied French (since, for) many years. 5. He (is, has been) in this country since 1945. 6. When I arrived, John already (left, had left). 7. Helen (worked, had worked) there sevetal years when the war began. 8. She (started, has started) to work there in 1944. 9. We (come, are coming) to class on time every day. 10. This book doesn’t belong to you— (does it, doesn’t it)? 11. This book (will publish, will be published) in June. 12. The money (has taken, has been taken) by someone in the house. 13. Your lesson was (well, good) prepared. 14, We didn’t hear (any, some) good music. 15. Last night I (must, had to) study very late. H. Answer these questions: 1. By whom was America discovered? 2. In what year was America discovered? 3. When was this book published? 4. Where was this book published? 5. By whom was the money stolen? 6. Where was the child finally found? 7. By whom will the dinner be prepared? 8. By whom are your exercises corrected? 9. Why was the train delayed? 10. Where was the money hidden? 11. Wheri was the telegram delivered? 12. When will the work on that new building be completed? 13. Where were they married? 14. In what country was Helen born? 15, By whom was the plate broken? 16. Where was the money put? 17. How long was the man held by the police? LESSON 41 83. Passive Vorcr—(Continued). a) The passive voice of the present and past tenses, continuous form, is obtained 132by use of the continuous form of the verb to be, used as an auxiliary, (am being, are being, is being, etc.) and the past participle of the main verb. ‘They are preparing that material now. (Passive) That material is being prepared by them now. ‘They were building the road when I was there. (Passive) The road was being built when I was there. b) The passive voice of verbs using the special auxiliaries can, may, must, should and so forth is obtained simply by addition of the infinitive be and the past participle of the main verb. Regular infinitives also have a passive form which is obtained similarly by use of be and the past par- ticiple. ‘They must finish this today. (Passive) This must be finished by them today. He can do this work easily. (Passive) This work can be done by him easily. ‘They have to send this today. (Passive) This has to be sent today. 84. INTERROGATIVE Words: WHICcH—WHAT. Students are sometimes confused by the use of WuicH and Wuar in questions. We use which to indicate a choice among several possibilities. Which (among all these umbrellas) is yours? Which boy won the prize? What is used to ask questions of a general nature; when we use what there is no reference to any particular choice among several objects. What is wrong with your watch? What does she want? What time is it? 133Confusion sometimes arises because there are occasions when either which or what may be used in the same sen- tence. In such cases the choice between which or what simply depends upon what the speaker has in mind. Thus one may ask, “Which bus do 1 take to go to Central Park?” or also. “What bus do I take to go to Central Patk?” Both sentences are possible, depending upon the speaker's point of view; both are also correct. EXERCISES A. Change to Passive: 1. They are sending the material today. 2. They are considering that question now. 3. She is typing that letter now. 4. They were discussing the ques- tion when I went in. 5. They are sending troops there today. 6. He is finishing the work now. 7. They were cleaning the office this morning. 8. They are examining him now. 9. We are using this room. 10. They are defending the city well. 11. They are holding the meeting today. 12. They are transferring him to another class. B. Change to Passive: 1, We can finish this right away. 2. They may send it tomorrow. 3. We must lose no time. 4. You can use this room for the lesson. 5. We have to write these exercises at home. 6. He should send this right away. 7. They cannot put those things here. 8. They may deliver the goods tomorrow. 9. He has to do it immediately. 10. We must help him. 11. He cannot finish this today. 12. The police may hold him for several days. C. Change to Passive: 1. John brings the mail every day. 2. John brought the mail yesterday. 3. John will bring the mail tomorrow. 4. John has brought the mail every day. 5. John is bringing the mail now. 6. John may bring the mail tomorrow. 7. John has to bring the mai) every day. 8. They have put the chairs in the room. 9. They are sending the merchandise today. 10. He sent the telegram last week. 11. They have to deliver the books today. 12. We must find him immediately. 134D. Change to Negative and to Question Form: (State each question twice, once in simple form and once with some question word like why, where, by whom, how, etc.) 1. He was killed in an accident. 2. The story is being pub- lished today. 3. This must be finished today. 4. It can be delivered tomorrow. 5. It has to be sent right away. 6. This room can be used for our lesson. 7. The letter has already been sent. 8. This book was published in 1945. 9. The material is being prepared by Mr. Reese. 10. It should be sent immediately. 11. It has to be done at once. 12. The class is taught by Mr. Smith. E. Supply the Correct Question Word Wuo, Wrucn, or Wuat in the Following: 1. is going with you to the movie tonight? 2. of those three girls is the youngest? 3. is the matter with him? 4. has taken my English book? 5. invited you to the party? 6. wrote the book? 7. student* in your class speaks English best? 8. ... bus goes to Central Park? 9. Here are the books! is yours? 10. is your telephone number? 11. knows the answer to that question? 12. subject do you like best at school? 13. color is your new dress? 14. seat is yours and .. is mine? F. Supply the Correct Preposition: 1. This book was written Mr. X. 2. whom is the mail delivered? 3. He cuts the meat .... a knife. 4. John lives himself. 5. Domestic animals live the fields or farms. 6. He has lived there five years. 7. John has worked here 1940. 8. I met him yesterday the first time. 9. I see him time time. 10. His * Note that when who, which, or what are question words and form the subject of the sentence or part of the subject, then no auxiliary verb is tused to form a question (Examples: Which of those boys studies with you? What month comes after February?) . These special cases, however, are the only exceptions to the strict rule that, in order to form a question in English, you must always use an auxiliary verb (or some form of the verb to be) before the subject. 185vanity will lead him destruction. 11. Are you going to eat home or a restaurant? 12. There is a divan the room which several people may sit one time. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1, The question (is con- sidering, is being considered) today. 2. This work has (to do, to be done) today. 3. John brought (me, to me) all the material. 4. He didn’t attend the meeting (also, either). 5. They (will arrive, will be arriving) at six o'clock. 6. If you come at six o'clock, they (will have, will be having) dinner. 7. When I arrived, they (had, were having) dinner. 8. John (was, has been) here yesterday. 9. How long (are you living, have you lived) in this country? 10. (For, since) how many years have you studied English? 11. Mary is prettier (as, than) Helen. 12. John (has, is having) his lesson now. LESSON 42 85. RULE OF SEQUENCE OF TENSES. a) The rule of se- quence of tenses in English requires that, if the main verb of an English sentence is in the past tense, all the dependent verbs must also be in the past tense. She says that* she knows him, a. She said that she knew him. He says that his first name is Robert. a. He said that his first name was Robert. b) Note that shall, will, can, and may, when part of the dependent verb, are changed under this rule to their corre- sponding past tense forms, should, would, could, and might. * Note that the word that, when used as a subordinate conjunction to join two clauses, is frequently omitted in English, especially in everyday con- versation. Thus we may say, “She says that she knows him,” or “She says she knows him.” Both forms are used and both are correct. 136He says that he will go. a. He said that he would go. He thinks that he can come. a. He thought that he could come. 86. SHouLp—Ovucurt To; Past For. In a previous lesson (Lesson 16-Rule 27) we learned that should and ought to are used as special auxiliaries in English to express a weak form of obligation (Examples: John should study more. You should not smoke so much. She ought to spend more time on her English.) Should and ought to, used with this meaning, have a past tense form which is also frequently used. This past tense form is obtained with have and the past participle of the main verb. Note that in their past time form these verbs have a definitely negative force. I should have started to study English long ago (but I did not). You should have telephoned me yesterday (but you did not). He ought to have come earlier. EXERCISES A. Change to Past Tense, Following Rule of Sequence of Tenses: 1. He says he will be here at noon. 2. I think I can meet you. 3. He hopes he can be there. 3. I think it may rain. 4. He wants to know where she is. 5. He says he is busy. 6. He tells me he is married. 7. I think he will come. 8. I think he will be there. 9. He believes he can do it. 10, The weather man predicts it will rain tomorrow. 11. He says he has to work. 12. I know where she lives. B. Choose the Correct Form: 1. He said he (will, would) be here. 2. He thinks he (can, could) do it. 3. He asked me where I (live, lived). 4. I didn’t know what the word (means, meant). 5. The newspaper says it (will, would) rain tomorrow. 6. She said she (was going, is going) away to- morrow. 7.1 told him that I (cannot, could not) go. 8. He 137said he (has been, had been) a soldier for two years. 9. She said she (does not, did not) feel well. 10. I don’t know what his name (is, was). 11. I didn’t know what his name (is, was). 12. She said she (may, might) be late. C. Supply the Proper Past Tense Form of SHouLD or Ovucut. Read Each Sentence Twice, Once Using SHouLD and Once Using OvucHt: 1. He (study) before he took his examination. 2. You (telephone) me yes- terday. 3. You .. (go) to the opera with us last night. Tt was excellent. 4. He (come) at ten o'clock last night instead of twelve. 5. You (tell) me that you were not able to come. 6. He (begin) to study Eng- lish a long time ago. 7. You .. (say) nothing to her. 8. You (telephone) to the police as soon as you reached home, 9. You (hear) the lecture last night. It was very interesting. 10. You . (give) that money yesterday to Mr. Smith. 11. You’ not (give) it to John. 12.1 not (go) to bed so late last night. D. Complete the Following in Your Own Words, Using Constructions with SHouLD Have or Oucut To Have: Fol- low Example. 1. He waited for me on the corner of 42nd Street but he should . (Ex.: He waited for me on the corner of 42nd Street but he should have waited for me on the corner of 57th Street.) 2. He sent the package by regular mail but he should ... 3. She gave John the money but she should 4. He left the books in Room 10 but he should ... 5. You telephoned him at his office but you ought ............ 6. We sent her a telegram but we should 7. He invested his money in real estate but he ought 8. He studied engineering in college but he should 9. We went to Mexico on our vacation but we should 10. They sent us the merchandise by parcel post but they should ..... E. Read the Following Sentences, Omitting Tuat: (See footnote on page .... Also follow example.) 1. John said 138that he was too busy to go. (Ex.: John said he was too busy to go.) 2. She told me that she could not go to the party. 8, The teacher said that he was going out of town next week. 4, I told them that I would meet them later. 5. We told the girls that we had no money to spend on them. 6. George said that he was not feeling well. 7. I told him that I could not walk so fast. 8. He was afraid that he would not be able to go with us. F. Read the Following Sentences, Introducing THAT as a Subordinate Conjunction: (See Footnote on page Also follow example.) 1. She said she was too tired to go. (Ex.: She said that she was too tired to go.) 2. The news- paper says it is going to rain tomorrow. 3. He said he had no time to type the manuscript. 4. I hope you can go to the party with us. 5, I didn’t think I could get there on time. 6. I was afraid I was going to be late for the lesson. 7. 1 don’t believe I know the answer to that question. 8. They told us they would be here at nine o'clock. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. You (should wait, should have waited) for me last night. 2. He ought (to ask, to have asked) permission before he left the room. 3. He said he (will, would) be here at noon. 4. Where did you say that you (are, were) going? 5. I (had to write, should have written) this letter several days ago but I forgot about it. 6. 1am late for my lesson because 1 (had to go, should have gone) to the bank first. 7. He told me he (may, might) come later. 8. When I met him, he (walked, was walking) in the park. 9. When you meet him tomorrow, he (will walk, will be walking) in the park. 10. This letter (should write, should be written) immediately. 11. That cable (should be sent, should have been sent) yesterday. 12. This book (was writ- ten, has been written) two years ago. 13. John (was, has been) here yesterday. 14. He (is, has been) in this class for two months. 15. If you come at seven o'clock tomorrow night, we (will already finish, will already have finished) our dinner. 139H. Answer these questions: 1. Why did John say that he wouldn’t come to the lesson? 2. When does the teacher say she is going to give you an examination? 3. When did the teacher say she was going to give you an examination? 4. Does your friend say that he can or cannot speak English well? 5, Did your friend say that she could or could not speak English well? 6. What time did the newspaper say that the President would arrive? 7. Why did you say you thought it was going to rain today? 8. Why should you have studied harder before taking that examination? 9, Why should John have asked permission before leaving the room? LESSON 43 87. Ipiomatic VERB PurasEs—SupposED To, The verb phrase supposed to, which occurs frequently in English, is used to show obligation on the part of the subject to fulfill some promise or expectation. (Example: “John is supposed to come here at two o'clock.” “They are supposed to send the goods tomorrow.”) Note that the phrase is passive in form and that the obligation arises because the subject is expected or supposed by someone else to perform the action. The phrase is used in the present and past tenses only. Helen is supposed (by us) to arrive today. The ship was supposed (by the public and by the officials) to arrive last night. He is supposed to be here now. 88. Ipsiomatic VERB PHRAsEs—UseEp To. The phrase used to describes an action which continued habitually or for some period of time in the past but which does not take place now. 1 used to smoke. (ie. I smoked for some time in the past but now I do not smoke.) He used to buy his clothes in Macy's, (Now he buys them somewhere else.) 14089. Ipiomatic VERB Purases — Woutp RartHEr-Hap Better, Two other common and useful idiomatic verb phrases are would rather and had better. Both are equivalent to two word auxiliaries and are followed by the simple (infinitive) form of the main verb. Both refer to present or future time. I would rather watch television (means I prefer to watch television.) You had better see a doctor right away (means it is advis- able that you see a doctor right away.) a) In everyday conversation both would rather and had better are usually stated in contracted form—as follows: I'd vather see a movie than go to the opera. He'd better see a doctor immediately. b) The negative form of these phrases is expressed as follows: I'd rather not go at all than go with them. You'd better not mention it to anyone. EXERCISES A. Supply the Correct Form of Surrosrn To: 1. They (leave) at ten o'clock. 2. He (come) tomor- row at five. 3. They (deliver) the merchandise last week. 4. He (send) this letter yesterday. 5. He (be) here now. 6. The train (be) faster than the bus. 7. John (be) a better student than Henry. 8. He (call) me tomorrow. 9. He (meet) us in Macy's. 10. He (be) here yesterday at three o'clock. 11. He (know) her well. 12. The mer- chandise (send) tomorrow. 13. This book (publish) last year. 14. This cable (send) yesterday. 15. These chairs (put) in the next room. B. Change So As To Iniroduce Surrosep To; Follow Example Given After First Sentence: 1. We expect John 141to come at six o'clock. (John is supposed to come at six o'clock.) 2. They expect the train to arrive at four o'clock. 8. We expect her to bring the book with her. 4. We expected. him to arrive last night. 5. They expected the war to be over sooner. 6. We expect our lesson to finish at ten o'clock. 7. We expect our lesson to last one hour. 8. We expect the parade to begin soon. 9. We expect the bus to stop here. 10. We expect the weather to be hot tomorrow. 11. We expect him to leave for Europe next week. 12. We expect the bank to open at nine o'clock. C. Change To Negative and To Question Form: (State each question twice, once in simple form and once with some question word like when, where, what time, etc.) 1. He is supposed to leave in the morning. 2. He was supposed to bring it last night. 3. They are supposed to start the work soon. 4. They are supposed to finish tomorrow. 5. The package was supposed to be delivered yesterday. 6. He is supposed to live somewhere on this street. 7. He was sup- posed to telephone me yesterday. 8. We were supposed to meet them on 42nd Street. 9. The book is supposed to be published in the spring. 10. The President is supposed to visit the city tomorrow. 11. He is supposed to arrive on the ten o'clock train. 12. They are supposed to send everything today. D. Introduce Usepv To By Changing the Italicized Verbs: (Explain the change in meaning in each case.) 1. He walked to work. (He used to walk to work.) 2. He worked here yesterday. 3. She came to class on time. 4. He was a good student. 5. He rode the subway to work. 6. He brought me some flowers. 7. He played the piano last night. 8. He studied well. 9. He helped us very much. 10. I lived on Fifth Avenue. 11. I went to that school. 12. I knew her well. E. Change These Sentences So As To Introduce Woutp Ratner: Follow Example. 1.1 prefer to wait here. (Ex.: Fd rather wait here.) 2. She prefers to come back later. 3. 142I prefer to drink tea with my meals, 4. They prefer not to wait outside. 5. I prefer to stay at home and watch tele- vision. 6. We prefer not to say anything to him about it. 7. 1 prefer to go to South America on my vacation. 8. John prefers to go to the party with Helen. 9. I prefer not to go to the party alone. 10. They prefer to speak to him at his home. F. Change These Sentences So As To Introduce Hap Better: Follow Example. 1. It will be better if you come back later. (Ex.: You'd better come back later.) 2. It will be better if he goes to a doctor at once. 3. It will be better if you rest a while. 4. It will be better if he takes private lessons. 5. It will be better if she spends more time on her homework. 6. It will be better if we send him a telegram right away. 7. It will be better if we don’t mention it to him. 8. It will be better if you don’t work so hard after your illness. 9. It will be better if we don’t stand so close to the curb. 10. It will be better if Helen begins to spend more time on her English. G. Supply the Correct Article, Where Necessary: 1.1 went to school on bus. 2. I did not hear alarm clock this morning and overslept. 3. My shoes are covered with mud. 4. It is useless to clear them in such bad weather. 5. He asked reason for this. 6. There was no food on table for him. 7. 1 met . stranger who told me way to museum. 8. This exercise is easier than last. 9. Which is the hottest month of year? 10, Have you telephone? 11. I often call up my friends on telephone. 12. Is fruit sold in fruit store or in grocery store? H. Choose the Correct Form: 1. John (supposed, is sup- posed) to be here now. 2. The tables are supposed (to put, to be put) in this room. 3. Mary (sits, is sitting) at this desk today. 4. She generally (sits, is sitting) at that other desk. 5. Mary is a very good student— (isn't she, doesn’t 143she)? 6. She always prepares her work well—(isn’t she, doesn’t she)? 7. John plays the violin very (good, well). 8. How long (is he studying, has he been studying) music? 9. When I arrived, the train already (left, had left}. 10. The teacher gave (us, to us) a difficult assignment. 11. John prefers to study by (hisself, himself), 12. I (have seen, saw) Helen on Fifth Avenue yesterday. LESSON 44 90. Present TeNse AFTER Ir. a) The present tense—not the future—is used after if to indicate future time. If John comes (not will come), he will see her. If it rains (not will rain), they will not go. b) The present tense is likewise used after when, until, as soon as, before, unless, and similar words when these words are used as subordinate conjunctions to introduce dependent clauses. When John comes, he will see her. As soon as John comes, he will see her. Wait here until Mary comes. 91. Expressions oF Quantity: A Lot OF, Lots Or, A Great DEAL Or, etc. In positive sentences* such as, “He has much money,” there is a strong tendency in English today to replace much with a lot of, lots of, a great deal of etc. John has a lot of free time. She spends a great deal of time on her English. A lot of, and lots of may be used to replace either much or many, that is, with both singular and plural nouns. How- *In negative sentences it is quite permissible to use muck. Thus, it natural to say, “He doesn’t have much free time.” However, in a positive sentence, as explained above, we tend to avoid much, using instead a lot of, @ great deal of etc. (Examples: He has a lot of free time. They have a great deal of money.)ever, @ great deal of can be used only with singular nouns, that is, to replace much. much free time. ohn hi: a lot of free time. John has + ots of free time. a great deal of free time. {ri friends. John has } a lot of friends. lots of friends. 92. Use or Exse. a) Else is frequently added to the deriva- tives of some and any (someone, anyone; somewhere, any- where; something, anything etc.) as a convenient substitute for some other person, any other person, some other place, any other place etc. Someone else (that is, some other person) will take care of you Was there anything else (that is, any other thing) that you need? b) Else is also used as a substitute for the conditional if not (or the word otherwise). We must hurry or else (that is, if we don’t) we will be late. He'd better wait here or else (that is, if he doesn’t) he'll miss her. You'd better tell him about it or else (that is, otherwise) he'll be angry with you. EXERCISES A. Supply the Correct Form of the Verb in Parentheses: 1. If he (arrive) on time, he can go with us. 2. If it not (rain), we may go to the beach. 3. If he (be) late, they will not wait. 4. When he (come), please let me know. 5, Call me as soon as he . (get) here. 6. Do not leave before I . (tell) you. 7. If he (like) the job, he will keep it. 8. If the weather (be) good tomorrow, we shall go to the beach. 9. As 145soon as he (telephone), give him the message. 10. Do not call me unless he (come). 11. I will not go unless you (go) too. 12. If he not (come) soon, we will have to leave without him. B, Insert the Missing Conjunction (UntiL, WHEN, AS Soon As, As Lone As, WHILE, Berork, etc.): 1. We will not leave you are ready. 2. I'll write to you I get to New York. 3. You must wait the light changes to green. 4, They will stay there the war lasts. 5. We will wait here you telephone. 6. You can stay here we go to the movie. 7. You will know him you see him. 8. We'll come to see you you leave on your vacation. 9. Please wait here the doctor arrives. 10. I'll believe it I see it. C, Read Each of the Following Sentences Three Times, Once with A Lot OF, Once with Lots Or, and Once with A Great Dear Of, Where Possible. (Remember that A GreaT DEAL OF Cannot Be Used with Plural Nouns): 1. 1 don’t have money with me. 2. He spends time with his little brother. 3. I met old friends at the party. 4. You use ». Sugar in your coffee. 5. They have money but few friends. 6. I have work to do this week-end. 7. Cuban people speak English well. 8. Mr. Smith has English books in his library. 9. I have seen ...... good football games but never one as good as this. 10. In South America the people drink coffee. D. Substitute the Correct Expression with ELsE for the Words in Italics: Follow Example. 1. Did they go any other place? (Ex.: Did they go anywhere else?) 2. No other person helped him with the work. 3. You must ask some other person about it. 4. Haven't I met you some other place? 5. They have never sold that merchandise in any other place: 6. Did you see any other thing that you liked? 7. Let’s do some other thing tonight. 8. I didn’t tell any other 146person about it. 9. Can I show you any other thing, Mrs. Smith? 10. There was no other person in the room at the time. 11. Have you any other thing to tell us about him? E. Join the Following Pairs of Sentences, Substituting Or Etse for the Words in Italics: Follow Example. 1. We must hurry. If we don’t, we'll be late. (EX.: We must hurry, or else we'll be late.) 2. You must do as your mother says. If you don’t, she'll punish you. 3. We had better hurry. If we don’t, we'll miss the train. 4: Turn off the radio. If you don’t, you'll wake the baby. 5. Save your money. Jf you don’t, you won't be able to go away on your vacation. 6. You must study hard. Jf you don’t, you won’t pass the course. 7. You must practice your English every day. If you don’t, you will soon forget it. 8. I must go home right away. If I don’t, my mother will be angry with me. 9. Helen must rest more. If she doesn’t, she may have a nervous breakdown. 10. Put the dog outside. f you don’t, he will bark and wake everyone up. F. Repeat the Previous Exercise, but this time substitute the Word OTHERWISE for the Words in Italics: (Example: 1. We must hurry; otherwise we'll be late.) G. Supply the Correct Preposition: 1. The picture hangs the fireplace. 2. The teacher's desk is the class. 3. which season do we gather fruit the trees? 4. What dessert did you have dinner? 5. Did you come to the United States your- self or your family? 6. He went the drug store to get something ..... a headache. 7. He became angry the druggist. 8. What did he ask the druggist > 9. The book was written Mr. X. 10. Do you go to school bus or street car? 11. what street do you get the bus? 12. His shoes were cov- ered mud. H. Choose the Correct Form: 1. If it (is, will be) a nice day, they will go to the park. 2. If I (have, will have) time, 147I may go shopping. 3. 1 am afraid it will be too late when he (will come, comes). 4, Call me as soon as he (comes, will come). 5. John (supposed, is supposed) to be here now. 6. I (saw, have seen) John yesterday. 7. He gave (me, to me) your message. 8. He said he (will, would) be here at two o'clock. 9. He speaks English very (good, well). 10. Of course, he (is, has been) in this country many years. I. Answer these questions: 1. If it rains tonight, will you stay at home or go to the movie? 2. If it rains tomorrow, will you stay at home or go to school as usual? 3. When you arrive at school each day, what is the first thing you do? 4. When you arrive at school tomorrow, what will be the first thing that you will do? 5. As soon as you finish this book, will you begin to study a new one? 6. What other language will you begin to study after you learn to speak English well? 7, Do you spend little time or a great deal of time on your English homework? 8. Do you have little trouble or a lot of trouble doing some of these exercises? LESSON 45 93. Conprtions. a) A conditional sentence is a sentence consisting of two clauses, a dependent clause beginning with if and a main clause or answer to the if clause. Example: If John comes, he will see her. Conditional sentences are of three forms: 1. Future—pos- sible. 2. Present—unreal. $. Past—unreal. b) A future—possible condition is one in which a present tense is used in the if clause and a future tense in the second or answer clause. If John has a car next summer, he will drive to California. (A possible future situation is suggested here in which John may have a car next summer or he may not. In any case, 148I may go shopping. 3. I am afraid it will be too late when he (will come, comes). 4. Call me as soon as he (comes, will come). 5. John (supposed, is supposed) to be here now. 6. I (saw, have seen) John yesterday. 7. He gave (me, to me) your message. 8. He said he (will, would) be here at two o'clock. 9. He speaks English very (good, well). 10. Of course, he (is, has been) in this country many years. I. Answer these questions: 1. If it rains tonight, will you stay at home or go to the movie? 2. If it rains tomorrow, will you stay at home or go to school as usual? 3. When you arrive at school each day, what is the first thing you do? 4. When you arrive at school tomorrow, what will be the first thing that you will do? 5. As soon as you finish this book, will you begin to study a new one? 6. What other language will you begin to study after you learn to speak English well? 7. Do you spend little time or a great deal of time on your English homework? 8. Do you have little trouble or a lot of trouble doing some of these exercises? LESSON 45 93. Conprtions. a) A conditional sentence is a sentence consisting of two clauses, a dependent clause beginning with if and a main clause or answer to the if clause. Example: If John comes, he will see her. Conditional sentences are of three forms: 1. Future—pos- sible. 2. Present—unreal. 3. Past—unreal. b) A future—possible condition is one in which a present tense is used in the if clause and a future tense in the second or answer clause. If John has a car next summer, he will drive to California. (A possible future situation is suggested here in which John may have a car next summer or he may not. In any case, 148If John (be) here now, he could help us. 6. If Helen (be) a good student, she would speak English better. 7. I€ our room (be) larger, we could study better. 8. If the weather (be) warmer, we would go for a walk. 9. If he (prepare) his lessons every night, he would be a better student. 10. I would go if 1 (have) more time. 11. John would do it if he (be) not so busy. 12, We would speak better if we (have) more practice in conversation. B. Supply the Proper Form of the Verb in Parentheses: 1. If he were here, he (help) us. 2. If I knew her, I (speak) to her. 3. If he came more often, he (learn) more. 4. She (make) more progress if she studied more. 5. She (speak) better if she had more practice. 6. If he came on time, he (be) a better student. 7. If he went to bed earlier, he ............ (feel) better. 8. If he had more money, he .. (take) a trip. 9. She (go) with us if she were not so busy. 10. If he were stronger, he (work) harder. 11. If today were a holiday, we (go) to the beach. 12. If I were free tomorrow, I (visit) the museum, C. Change to Present-Unreal Conditions: 1. If he has time, he will go. (Ex.: If he had time, he would go.) 2. If the weather is cold, we will not go. 3. If he is here, he can help us. 4. If he studies hard, he will pass. 5. If I have more time, I will read more books. 6. If we have much practice, we will speak better. 7. If he comes, he will see her. 8. If he goes, he will meet her. 9. If he prepares his lessons, he will make good progress. 10. If they try hard, they will succeed. 11. If I am free tomorrow, I will. go to the beach. 12. If I don’t have to work, I will go to the movie. D. Complete the Following By Using Present-Unreal Con- ditions: (Follow example in first sentence.) 1. John does not study hard but if... (John does not study hard, but if he studied hard he would learn more quickly). 2. Mary 150does not prepare her lessons but if... 3. William never comes to class on time but if... 4. He has very little practice in speaking but if... 5. I am not in Florida now but if ..+ 6. Mary isn’t here now but if... 7. I can’t speak French but if... 8. I don’t speak English well but if... 9. He has very little free time but if... 10. He doesn’t like to study English but if... 11. He has very few friends but if... 12. She has very little money but if... E. Complete the Following: 1. If John were here, he ... 2. He would speak better if... 3. If he studied more, he . 4. If I could speak French, I... 5. If I were you, I ...6, If 1 were in Florida now, 1... 7. If he had more time, he... 8. If I knew her well, I... 9. If John prepared his lessons every night, he... 10. If today were a holiday, we . 11. If he came to class regularly, he... 12. Mary would go with us if... 13. He would speak better if... 14. We would go for a walk in the park if... 15. If today were Sunday, we... F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. If 1 (was, were) in your position, I would study French. 2. If the weather (is, will be) nice tomorrow, we may drive to the country. 3. If I were you, I (will, would) walk to school. 4. John said he (will, would) be here soon. 5. Mary told me that she (can, could) not come. 6. If he (can, could) help us, I am sure he would. 7. If I (know, knew) how to swim, I would go swimming every day. 8. If 1 (had, have) time tomorrow, I will go to the movie. 9. When John (comes, will come), Mary will talk with him. 10. He would go to the theatre more often if he (have, had) the time. 11. He said he (may, might) be late. 12. If he (knows, knew) my number, he could telephone me. G. Answer these questions: 1. If today were a holiday, where would you go? 2. If you had an automobile, where would you drive this week-end? 3. Would you speak English better if you had more practice in conversation? 4. If you studied harder, would you get better marks in all your sub- 151jects? 5. If you could visit any country in the world, what country would you visit first? 6. If you had much money, how would you spend it? 7. If today were Sunday, where would you go and what would you do? 8. Would John speak English better if he spent more time on his lessons? 9. If you knew English perfectly, what other language would you begin to study? LESSON 46 94. Conprtions—Past-Unrea. a) In a past-unreal con- dition, a past perfect tense is used in the if clause and would have (could have or might have) in the second or answer clause. If John had studied hard, he would have passed his exam- ination, Mi they had known your telephone number, they would have called you up. Note that a past-unreal condition, like a present-unreal condition (see Rule 93c), always indicates a hypothetical situation which is “unreal” or contrary to fact. Thus: John did not study hard, but— If he had studied hard, he would have passed his exam- ination. ‘They did not know your telephone number, but— If they had known your number, they would have called you up. b) Occasionally, in rather literary English, conditions are expressed without if. In such cases the auxiliary verb pre- cedes the subject as in question form. Had he known this, he could have come. 95. As Ir—As Txoucu. The subordinate conjunctions as if and as though, when these indicate a situation which is unreal or contrary to fact, are generally followed by ‘the 152subjunctive mood; i.e., a past tense is used to show present time and a past perfect tense to show past time—just as in conditional statements. Also, when the verb to be occurs, the special subjunctive form were is used. John looks as though he knew® all about it. Mary acts as if she were sick. He appeared as if he had lost his last friend. EXERCISES A. Supply the Correct Form of the Verb in Parentheses: 1. He would have come if he (know) about it. 2. If I. (have) your address, I would have called on you. 3. If the weather (be) nice yesterday, they would have gone to the park. 4. If you (call) me, I would have been glad to go. 5. If he (wore) his overcoat, he would not have caught cold. 6. I would have visited you if I (know) you were living in New York. 7. Tel (be) in your place, I would have told him. 8. He would have gotten sick if he (go) out in the rain. 9. If he (told) me the truth, I would not have been so angry. 10. If yesterday ... (be) a holiday, we would have gone to the beach. B. Supply the Correct Form of the Verb in Parentheses: 1. If he had studied more, he (succeed). 2. If he had not worn his overcoat, he (catch) cold. 3. I (help) him if he had asked me. 4. He (be) angry if he had learned the truth. 5. We (come) earlier if we had known about it. 6. We (be) glad to meet you if you had invited us. 7. He (write) to you if he had had your address. 8. I (tell) you about it if I had known all the facts. 9. We (go) to the movie last night if we had been free. 10. They (drive) to the country if they had had a car. * Here again the use of the subjunctive is breaking down (See footnote on bottom of pa ). and one often hears the indicative being used, “John looks as though he Anows all about it.” Or substitutes for the sub- junctive are used, “John looks as though he may know all about it.” 153C. Complete the Following Sentences By Adding a Past- Unreal Conditional Statement: (Follow the example given in the first sentence.) 1. John didn't prepare his lessons but if . .. (John didn’t prepare his lessons but if he had prepared his lessons he would have learned English better.) 2. Mary didn’t come to school yesterday but if... 3. I didn’t have your telephone number but if... 4. John wasn't at the meeting yesterday but if... 5. I wasn’t in Florida last winter but if... 6. I didn’t know his name but if... 7. He didn’t tell me about it but if... 8. I didn’t have a car Jast winter but if... 9. She didn’t wear her raincoat but if 10. I wasn’t in his position but if... 11. She didn’t come on time but if... 12. He couldn't speak English at the time butif... D. Change to Present-Unreal and to Past-Unreal Con- ditional Form: 1. If he comes, she will speak to him. 2. If the weather is nice, they will go to the beach. 3. If he has time, he will go with us. 4. If I am free next week, I will call you up. 5. If I can do it, I will do it gladly. 6. If he is here, he may help us. 7. If I see her, I will give her the message. 8. If he goes, he will let us know. 9. If it rains, they will stay at home. 10. If he works hard, he will be promoted. 1]. If he has the money, he may go with us. 12. If John is present, the meeting will be good. E. Complete the Following: 1. If he were here, he... 2. If I had known about it, I... 3. They would have come if they... 4. If I were you, 1... 5. If you had asked me, I... 6. If he had telephoned me,I... 7.1 would go if I ... 8. He would have helped us if... 9. If England had been better prepared for war, Germany ... 10. If I had more time, I... 11. He would have succeeded if... 12. If I had been invited, I... 13. If the weather were nice, we... 14. If the weather had been nice, we... 15, They would have joined the class if... 16. I might have caught cold if... F. Choose the Correct Form: 1. If 1 (was, were) you, I would certainly do it. 2. John looks as though he (was, 154were) sick. 3. He acted as if he (had, had had) a great shock. 4. If I (knew, had known) this yesterday, I would have acted differently. 5. If it (rains, will rain) tomorrow, we may not go away. 6. I (could go, could have gone) if they had asked me. 7. If he (was, had been) here, he would have taken part in the discussion. 8. He acted as if he (was, were) the manager of the place. 9. 1 (will, would) like to study Spanish if I had the time. 10. If today (was, were) a holiday, we could go to the beach. 11. If yesterday (was, has been, had been) a holiday, we could have gone to the beach. 12. Call me if he (comes, will come) before noon. 13. If I (would be, were) in his position, I would not accept the work. 14. He will not go unless she (goes, will go) too. 15. I feel as if I (ate, had eaten) a large dinner. 16. I think he (would come, would have come) if we had asked him. G. Answer these questions: 1. If yesterday had been a holiday, where would you have gone? 2. If you had known it was going to rain, would you have gone on that picnic yes- terday? 3. If you had studied harder, would you have gotten a better mark on your examination? 4. If you had had last week off, where would you have gone? 5. If you hadn’t had to study last night, would you have gone to the movie with your friend? 6. Would John have gone to the party with you if he had not been sick? 7. Would the party have been better if John had been present? 8. Would you have helped Helen with her homework if she had asked you? LESSON 47 96. SuByuncrive AFTER WisH. a) Since the verb to wish always suggests a situation which is unreal or contrary to fact, it is followed by the subjunctive mood; that is, just as in conditional statements, a past tense is used to show present time and a past perfect tense is used to show past time. 155Iwish I Anew how to swim, I wish I had gone with you last night. John wishes he were an engineer. b) Future time after the verb to wish is expressed with would. I wish John would come. I wish it would stop raining. I wish he wouddn’t do that. 97. SuBJUNCTIVE Moop—Pr¥senT TENSE. The verbs rec- ommend, suggest, demand, require, when used to indicate some proposed or hypothetical situation, are followed by the present tense of the subjunctive mood.* He recommended that she wait. He demanded that I be there at noon. b) The present tense of the subjunctive mood corresponds to the indicative except in the third person singular. I go We go You go You go He, she go They go c) The verb to be has the following form in the present tense of the subjunctive mood. (These forms are seldom met in modern English except after the special verbs men- tioned above.) I be We be You be You be He, she, it be They be 98. INCOMPLETE ConpiTions. All conditional sentences are not always expressed in the full form studied in the two previous lessons; that is, they are not always composed of two *This construction is not too common in English today except in the speech of rather literate people. ‘The student, therefore, should understand the construction and even be given some practice in it, but he should not be expected to use the construction in his everyday speech. Most English speaking people, instead ot saying, “He recommended that she wait,” would probably’ say, “He recommended that she should wait,” or more simply, “Hee said that she should wait.” 156complete clauses, an if clause and a main or answer clause (See Rule 93). In everyday conversation we often use only one or the other clause. Thus, a person may say, “I'd love to do that.” In such a sentence the person is expressing him- self conditionally but using only one clause of the condition. What he is really saying is, “I'd love to do that if J could or if I had the opportunity or if my parents permitted me.” The second clause is implied or understood from the circum- stances. Likewise, in such sentences as “Would you mind clos- ing the window?” we are again using only one clause of a condition while the second clause is implied or understood. We are really saying, “Would you mind closing the window if I asked you or if I requested it?” We use conditional forms in this way, particularly in requests, because they are Jess direct than indicative forms and therefore more polite. EXERCISES A. Supply the Correct Form of the Verb in Parentheses: 1. 1 wish John (be) here now. 2. I wish I (can) swim. 3. I wish I (study) English when I was a boy. 4. John wishes he (be) in Florida now. 5. I wish 1 (go) with you to the movie last night. 6. I wish it (be) not so cold. 7. 1 wish it (stop) raining soon. 8. I wish I (know) about this yesterday. 9, I wish today (be) a holiday. 10. I wish I (have) today off. 11. I wish I (have) yesterday off. 12. I wish I (know) her better. B. Complete the Following Sentences: (Follow example in first sentence.) 1. I have no car but I wish... (I have no car but I wish I had one.) 2. I cannot swim but I wish 8. I didn’t study before my examinations but I wish . 4 Today isn’t a holiday but I wish... 5. Yesterday wasn’t a holiday but I wish... 6. The weather isn’t nice today but I wish... 7. I am not a millionaire but I wish . 8. John won’t do it for us but I wish ... 9. Mary isn’t here but I wish ... 10. I have to work this afternoon but I 157wish ... 11. I can’t speak English well but I wish... 12. Mary isn’t going with us but I wish... C. Change the Sentences so as to Introduce WisH instead of To BE Sorry: Follow Example. 1. I’m sorry he does not speak English well. (Ex.: 1 wish he spoke English well.) 2. I'm sorry he did not go with us last night. 3. I'm sorry you could not go to the opera last night. 4. I’m sorry John is not here with us. 5, I’m sorry it is raining so hard. 6. I'm sorry that I don’t know her better. 7. I'm sorry that Helen can’t go with us to the beach. 8. I’m sorry that she could not go with us to the beach yesterday. 9. I'm sorry that today is not a holiday. 10. I’m sorry that you can’t swim. D. Supply the Correct Form of the Verb in Parentheses: 1. He recommended that she (go) with him. 2. He suggested that John (wait) a few minutes. 3. It is imperative that they (be) there on time. 4. He asked that it (be) done right away, 5. I recommend that you (come) back later. 6. They insisted that we (visit) them again. 7. He proposed that John (be) chairman. 8 Is it necessary that this (be) fin- ished today? 9. He insisted that she (go) on with the work. 10. The doctor suggested that Mr. Smith (take) a long vacation. E. Change the Sentences so as to Introduce SuccEsTED instead of AsKep: Follow Example. 1. 1 asked John to wait for me. (Ex.: I suggested that John wait for me.) 2. I asked her to come back later. 3, John asked me to take a walk with him. 4. He asked me to be there on time. 5. We asked them to go with us in our car. 6. The teacher asked us to visit her in her home. 7. The owner of the store asked me to call back later. 8. The teacher asked William to be more careful with his homework. 9. We asked her to be at our house at eight o'clock. 10. He asked me to lend him the money. F. Repeat the Previous Exercise; this time use INsistED instead of Askev. Repeat again, using RECOMMENDED instead of ASKED etc. 158G. Supply the Correct Form in the Following: 1.1f John were here, it . (be) much easier for us. 2. Had I known your number, I ............ (telephone) you. 3. What would you do if you (be) I. 4. Were I you, I (begin) to study Spanish. 5. He would have finished sooner if he (hurry). 6. Had I had more time, I (do) it. 7. If he had been well, he (come) to the meeting, 8. If he felt better, he (go). 9. If he had felt better, he (go). 10. If today (be) a holiday, he would spend it at the beach. 11. If yesterday (be) a holiday, he would have spent it at the beach. 12. He would help us if he (can). H. Choose the Correct Form: 1.1 wish I (were. vould be) in Florida now. 2. I wish I (went, had gone) waa you last night. 3. He recommended that I (am, be) there early. 4. He suggested that John (come, comes) back later. 5. If I (were, would be) in Florida now, I would go swimming. 6. John said he (will, would) be here tomorrow. 7. If he (will come, comes) soon, please let me know. 8. John sat between Mary and (I, me). 9. The merchandise is supposed (to send, to be sent) tomorrow. 10. If you come too early, I (may sleep, may be sleeping). 11. He (is living, has been living) here many years. 12. I (saw, have seen) John yes- terday. 13. He said he already (saw, had seen) that movie. 14. John always (sits, is sitting) at this desk. I. Answer these Questions: 1. Which would you prefer— to be in good health or in bad health? 2. Which would you prefer—to be rich or poor? 3. Which would you prefer—to speak English perfectly or Italian perfectly? 4. Which would you prefer—to travel in Europe or in South America? 5. Which would you prefer—to own a cow ora horse? 6. Would you be pleased or sorry to hear that your friend was sick? 7. Would you be pleased or sorry to hear that you had won a large prize? 8. Would you be pleased or sorry to hear that you had failed your examination? 9. Would you be pleased or sorry to hear that you were not going to graduate? 10. 159Would I be right or wrong if I said that fish could fly? 11. Would I be right or wrong if I said that birds could swim? 12. Would I be right or wrong if I said that you spoke English very well? LESSON 48 99. Direcr ANp InpirEcr SPEECH. a) When the words of a speaker are given exactly or directly as spoken, we refer to this as direct speech. Ex.: John said, “I am busy.” When the words of a speaker are not given exactly as spoken but are given indirectly, we refer to this as indirect speech. Ex.: John said that he was busy. 100. InpiREcT SPEECH—STATEMENTS. a) Note that in in- direct speech when the first verb is in the past tense the remaining subordinate verbs must also be in the past tense (Rule of sequence of tenses—Rule 85). John said to me, “I like New York.” (Indirect) John told me that he liked New York. b) Note also the change in the above sentences from said in the first sentence to told in the second sentence. In ac- cordance with the regular usage of say and tell, say cannot be used in indirect speech when the person to whom the words are spoken is mentioned (see Rule 21). Thus: John said that he liked New York. John told me that he liked New York. c) Note also that, when a sentence containing a past tense verb is changed from direct to indirect speech and the rule of sequence of tenses applies, the past tense verb should be 160changed logically from past tense to past perfect tense in accordance with the correct usage of these tenses. John said, “1 saw that movie.” John said that he had seen that movie. 101. Inpirecr SPEECH—Questions. When direct questions are expressed in indirect speech, the question form is not retained. This is logical since the resulting statement is no longer a question but simply a statement of fact. Ex.: John asked, “Where does Mary live?" (Indirect) John asked where Mary lived. If a direct question does not begin with some question word like when, where, how, etc., it must be introduced by the special conjunction whether (or if)* when it is ex- pressed in indirect form. He asked me, “Do you like New York?” (Indirect) He asked me whether I liked New York, He said, “Is Mary here?” (Indirect) He asked whether Mary was here. 102. InpinEcY Speecii—ComManns. Orders or commands are expressed in indirect form as follows: Mr. (Indirect) Mr. mith said to me, “Come back later.” smith told me to come back later. Johu said to me, “Don’t wait for me.” (Indirect) John told me not to wait for him. EXERCISES A. Change From Direct to Indirect Form: 1. John said, “I have to work tonight.” 2. Mary said to me, “I will be back later.” 3. Mr. Smith said, “We may have an examina- * Whether, since it means if or if not, is preferable jn such constructions, but if is in very common use today. Therefore, if the student finds it easier (0 use if, he should be permitted ta do so. 161tion tomorrow.” 4. He said, “I have no money.” 5. The doctor said, “John is a very sick man.” 6. Mary said to me, “T cannot go with you tonight.” 7. He said, “I hope she comes soon.” 8. He said, “I have known him a long time.” 9. Mr. Smith said, “We will finish this tomorrow.” 10. He said, “I don’t know her well.” 11. She said, “I am going away tomorrow.” 12. He said to me, “He is supposed to be here at two o'clock.” B. Change From Direct to Indirect Form: 1. Mary asked, “Where does John live?” 2. Helen said to me, “How long have you lived here?” 3. Mr. Smith asked us, “Do you understand this exercise?” 4. I asked John, “What time is it?” 5. He asked me, “Do you have to work tonight?” 6. John said, “Is it raining?” 7. He said to me, “Are you going to the movie with us?” 8. The teacher asked, “Did you see that movie?” 9. He asked me, “When are you leaving for Europe?” 10. He asked me, “What does the word mean?” 11. I asked him, “When did you read that book?” 12. He said to me, “How are you today?” 13. I asked her, “Is John here?” 14, She said to him, “Do you like my new hat?” 15. I asked her, “Where is it?” C. Change to Indirect Form: 1. John said to me, “Wait five minutes for me.” 2. The teacher said to us, “Don’t write your lessons in pencil.” 3. I asked him, “Be more careful.” 4. He asked me, “Please don’t be late.” 5. He asked me, “Try to come on time.” 6. He said to me angrily, “Don’t make the same mistake again.” 7. He warned the child, “Don’t cross the street.” 8. He said to me, “Don't forget what I told you.” 9. He begged me, “Please send the money immediately.” 10. He asked me, “Sit down for a few minutes.” D. Change the Following Imperative Sentences to Indirect Form. Begin Each One with Tur Teacher Toup ME: Follow Example. 1. Sit in the first row. (Ex.: The teacher told me to sit in the first row.) 2. Wait outside in the hall. 3. Come back later. 4. Do your exercises in ink. 5. Give this message 162to Mrs. Smith. 6. Don’t waste so much time. 7. Don’t look at your neighbor's paper. 8. Sit up straight. 9. Go to the blackboard. 10. Take your feet off the desk. 11. Prepare your lessons more carcfully. 12. Sit down, D. Repeat the Above Exercise but This Time Begin Each Sentence with Mx. Swirn ‘Toup Us: (Example: Mr. Smith told us to sit in the first row.) E. Answer the Following Questions in Indirect Form: Begin each answer with the words given in parentheses after the question. 1. Where is John? (I don’t know .. .) 2. Is he in the building? (She wants to know .. .) 3. Where does she live? (Can you tell me...) 4. Is he a good student? (I'm not sure...) 5. How much does it cost? (He wants to know...) 6. Where is she going? (She didn't say . . .) 7. How is he getting along? (His mother wants to know . . .) 8. How is he getting along? (His mother wanted to know .. .) 9. Is the elevator out of order? (Can you tell me...) 10. Where is he now? (Can you tell me...) 11. Is Mr. Smith here? (I'd like to know .. .) 12. When will he get back? (I'd like to find out...) 13. How tall is he? (I don’t know .. .) 14, Is he very tall? (I really don’t know...) 15. Where does he live? (Ask him .. .) F. Change From Indirect to Direct Form: (Follow the example in the first sentence.) 1. He said he was busy. (He said, “I am busy.”) 2. He asked me where I lived. 3. He asked her whether she liked New York. 4. She said he was out of town. 5. She said her name was Smith. 6. She said her maiden name had been Jones. 7. He told me not to wait for him. 8. He said that he could not meet us. 9. He asked how much it cost. 10. He told her to leave. 11. He asked whether I had mailed the letter. 12. He said {he would be back soon. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. He asked me where 1 (live, lived). 2, Ldon’t know whether (I can, can I) do it. 3. Can you tell me what time (it is, is it). 4. He said he (will, 163would) come. 5. He (told me, said to me) that he was busy. 6. He asked me what time it (is, was). 7. I asked him what the word (means, meant). 8. I asked her whether she (is, was) married. 9. I'd like to know where (is it, it is). 10. He said he (can, could) meet us easily. 11. I’m not sure whether (he is, is he) here. 12. He didn’t say where he (is, was) going. H. Answer these questions: 1. Why did John tell you to wait for him after the lesson? 2. What exercise did the teacher tell you to prepare for tomorrow's lesson? 5. Why did you ask Mary what time it was? 4. Where did William ask you to meet him tonight? 5. Why did the mother warn the child not to cross the street? 6. Why doesn’t Henry know whether or not he can go to the party tonight? 7. Did John say that he had or had not seen that movie? 8. Did Grace tell you whether or not she had enjoyed the party? LESSON 49 103. Causative Form. When we wish to show that some action was performed, not by ourselves, but by somebody else at our instigation, we use the verb to have and the past participle of the second verb, as shown in the following examples. I often have my shoes shined (by someone). I had my hair cut. She had her nails manicured. 104. SeEctAL Use oF Auxitiary VERBS WITH Too anp So. Auxiliary verbs, in combination with too and so, are fre- quently used in English to avoid urtecessary repetition of verbs or verb phrases. Examples: He saw the movie and I saw the movie. a. He saw the movie and I did too. (or) b. He saw the movie and so did I. 1164He likes New York and she likes New York. a. He likes New York and she does too. (or). He likes New York and so does she. (Note in these sentences how, when so is used, the aux- iliary precedes the subject.) 105. Speciat Usk or AUXILIARY VERBS WITH EITHER AND NEITHER IN NEGATIVE SENTENCES. Either and neither are used with auxiliary verbs in negative constructions in the same way that too and so are used in positive constructions —to avoid repetition. He didn’t see the movie and 1 didn’t see the mavie. a. He didn’t see the movie and I didn’t either. (or) b. He didn’t see the movie and neither did 1. He doesn’t like New York and she doesn’t like New York. a. He doesn’t like New York and she doesn’t either. (or) b. He doesn’t like New York and neither does she. (Note in these sentences how, when neither is used, the auxiliary precedes the subject.) EXERCISES A. Change to Causative Form: (Follow example in first sentence.) 1. I often cut my hair. (I often have my hair cut.) 2. He will shine his shoes. 3. He pressed his suit. 4. He pulled two teeth. 5. I must fix my watch. 6. I mailed those letters. 7. We must paint our apartment. 8. I must clean this rug. 9. I want to clean my apartment. 10. She is going to manicure her nails. 11. I want to sole my shoes. 12. I have filled two teeth. B. Change to Passive Causative Form, as Shown in the Example Given after the First Sentence: 1. She had someone tune her piano. (Example: She had her piano tuned by someone.) 2. I had someone shine my shoes. 3. We are going to have a professional painter paint our office. 4. I 165had a barber cut my hair. 5. She had the manicurist mani- cure her nails. 6. I will have a boy chop all this wood. 7. 1 had the tailor press my trousers. 8. Mr. Smith had the tailor fix the rip in his trousers. 9. I had the dentist pull out two of my teeth. 10. I must have the shoemaker fix these shoes. C. Replace the Italicized Sections of the Following by a Phrase Composed of Too or So and the Proper Auxiliary Verb: Read the sentence once using too and once using so. (Follow example in first sentence.) 1. He went to the movie and she went to the movie. (a. He went to the movie and she did too. b. He went to the movie and so did she.) 2. John is studying English and Mary is studying English. 3. He saw the accident and we saw the accident. 4. He has gone back to Europe and they have gone back to Europe. 5. Mary is making good progress and Helen is making good progress. 6. John will be here soon and Helen will be here soon. 7. Henry is supposed to leave tomorrow and his brother is supposed to leave tomorrow. 8. They live in Brooklyn and we live in Brooklyn. 9. He studies with Mr. Smith and I study with Mr. Smith. 10. He knows her well and I know her well. 11. He speaks well and his wife speaks well. 12. He took the examination and John took the exam- ination. D. Replace the Italicized Sections of the Following by a Phrase Composed of ErtHer or NEITHER and the Proper Auxiliary Verb: Read the sentence once using either and once using neither. (Follow example in first sentence.) 1. He doesn’t know her and I don’t know her. (a. He doesn’t know her and I don’t either. b. He doesn’t know her and neither do I.) 2. She didn’t see the movie and John didn’t see the movie. 3. He didn’t go and they didn’t go. 4. He isn’t going and they aren’t going. 5. He won't go and they won’t go. 6. He doesn’t speak well and his wife doesn’t Speak well. 7. He didn’t take the examination and Mary didn’t take the examination. 8. She hasn't read the book 166and I haven't read the book. 9. She can't go and I can’t go. 10. Your watch isn’t right and my watch isn’t right. 11. He doesn’t come on time and Helen doesn’t come on time. 12. John won't be here and Mary won’t be here. E. Fill in the Blanks With the Correct Auxiliary: 1. Mary didn’t go and John either. 2. He can go and so + I. 3. He knows her well and I too. 4. John won't be here and neither Mary. 5. He hasn’t seen it and I either. 6. He doesn’t like it and neither I. 7. He can’t go and she either. 8. John has to work tonight and I . . too, 9. She is going and 80... I 10, He dances well and so . his wife. 11. He must work hard and so Mary. 12. He didn’t like it and neither 1 F. Complete the Following by Adding the Correct Aux- iliary: 1. John didn’t go but I (did) ... 2. He likes her but I . 3. He will be here but Mary 0. 4 She has left but he . 5. She is going but I 6. He speaks well but she . 7. They live uptown but we . 8. He studies hard but his friend . 9. He is a good student but she . 10. They went but WE woos LL, John has read it but I . 12. He plays well but his brother G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. He didn’t like it and I didn’t (too, either). 2. He speaks well and so (do, does) Mary. 8. He asked me what (it meant, did it mean). 4. 1 don’t know where (is it, it is). 5. He said he (will, would) come soon. 6. Ask him what time (it is, is it). 7. You are waiting for someone, (don’t you, aren’t you)? 8. He has been here (since, for) many years. 9. How long /are you, have you been) in this country? 10. He wishes .. (were, would be) in his native country. 11. If you (called, had called) him, he would have come at once. 12. He didn’t go, and we didn’t (either, neither). H. Answer these questions: 1. Do you generally shine your shoes yourself or do you have them shined? 2. How 167often do you have them shined? 3. Where do you have them shined? 4. How often does Mary have her nails manicured? 5. Where does she have her nails manicured? 6. How much does it cost to have one’s nails manicured? 7. Where does John have his clothes cleaned? 8. How much does it cost to have a suit cleaned? 9, When did you have your watch repaired? 10, Where did you have it repaired? LESSON 50 106. Parricipces. Participles in English have two forms, present and past (perfect). Both the present and past forms also have a passive voice. All participles are used as adjectives to modify nouns or pronouns. (Pres. active) Seeing her approach, John ran away. (Pres. passive) Being seen by her, he was much embarrassed. (Perf, active) Having seen her, he was glad to leave. (Perf. passive) Having been seen by her, he was much embarrassed. (Note that perfect participles indicate an action or situa- tion earlier than that of the main verb of the sentence.) 107. Usk or Grrunbs: a) Gerunds in English correspond in form to present participles. Gerunds, however, are always used as nouns~as subjects or direct objects of verbs, etc. Swimming is good exercise. He enjoys playing tennis. b) Certain verbs in English are always followed by gerunds and never by infinitives. These verbs are enjoy, mind, stop, avoid, consider, appreciate, finish, deny, admit, risk, dislike. He enjoys playing tennis. Would you mind waiting in the hall? They have stopped studying English. b) A number of other verbs may be followed by either gerunds or infinitives, ‘The following verbs belong to this 168group: start, begin, continue, like, neglect, hate, cease, love, prefer, intend, etc, He has begun to take lessons. He has begun taking lessons. EXERCISES A. Substitute Participial Constructions For the Italicized Clauses: (Follow example in first sentence). 1. When I arrived there, 1 found John sick. (Arriving there, 1 found John sick.) 2. He left at once after he had finished the work. 3. When I saw her, I cried with joy. 4. After he had spoken to her, he was very happy. 5. After he had been seen by her, he had to admit everything. 6. When we were leaving, we met him. 7. After we had left, we met John. 8. The men, who were being forced to march, finally revolted. 9, The men, who had been forced to march, finally revolted. 10. The day, which had been a sad one, finally ended. 11. George, when he was going home, saw the fire. 12. The house, which had been built long ago, finally collapsed. B. Supply the Gerund Form of the Verbs in Parentheses: 1. Would you mind (wait) a few minutes? 2. They have stopped (speak) to each other. 3. Have you finished (read) this book? 4. We are considering (take) a new course. 5. We should appreciate (take) the book. 6, He has finished (eat). 7. 1 dis- like {ride) on the subway. 8. They denied (go) there, 9. They cannot risk ... (be) seen. 10. The driver couldn't avoid (hit) the child. 11. I don’t mind (wait). C. State the Following Twice, Once Using the Verb in Parentheses as an Infinitive and Once as a Gerund: 1. He has begun (take) lessons. 2. He will continue (study) in our group. 3, She loves (dance). 4. He prefers (wait) in the hall. 5. He hates (do) this work. 6. He intends (begin) next week. 7. They will start (work) soon. 8. He has ceased 169(come) here. 9. Do you like (sit) in the park. 10. He intends (return) later. D. State the Following Direct Commands in a More Polite Form by Beginning Each One with Woutv You Mino: Fol- low Example. 1. Wait in the hall. (Ex.: Would you mind waiting in the hall?) 2. Come back later. 3. Sit in the second row. 4. Step out in the hall. 5, State your request in a letter. 6. Open the window. 7. Close the door. 8. Try this on for size. 9. Don't make so much noise. 10. Give Mr. Smith this message. 1]. Hand me that book. 12. Give this book to John. E. Supply the Correct Preposition: 1. Clocks differ watches that they are larger size. 2. Ido not like her all. 3. Most houses are built wood. 4. He arrived yesterday . New York. 5, He stopped ... the corner. 6. He, copied his note- book the name the street which his hotel was located. 7. He explained him what he had done. 8. What happened ...... him? 9. What is the matter him? 10. He does not know a word English. 11. Are you fond fruit? 12. Do you usually eat home or . a restaurant? F. Supply the Correct Article Wherever Necessary: 1. John has large vocabulary. 2. wrist watches are worn on . wrist. 3. Are you fond of eggs? 4. Italian was once visiting in ............ New York. 5. He wished to take walk in order to see city. 6. He did not know word of English. 7. He stopped at first corner and copied name of ......... street in notebook. 8. After good deal of conversation, interpreter was called. 9. traffic on Fifth Avenue is heavy. 10. Where do you usually have Junch, at ............ home or in restaurant? G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. They suggested that John (call, calls) back later. 2. I enjoy (to skate, skating) very much. 3. Would you mind (opening, to open) the 170window? 4. He recommended that I (am, be) there early. 5. John has stopped (to take, raking) English les$ons. 6. I wish I (would be, were) a millionaire. 7. 1 wish I (knew, had known) this yesterday. 8. John said he (can, could) meet us. 9. They have finished (to paint, painting) our apartment. 10, He asked me where (was it, it was). 11. I didn’t know who she (is, was). 12. He proposed that we (be, are) partners. H. Answer these questions: 1. Which do you enjoy more: skating or dancing? 2. Why has John stopped studying Eng- lish? 3. Is it easy or difficult to stop smoking? 4. Which do you enjoy more, going to the theatre or going to the movies? 5. Do you like or dislike traveling long distances by train? 6. Do you mind riding long distances in an automobile? 7. When do you expect to stop studying English? 8. Did the thief finally admit taking the money? 9. Where did you go after leaving the movie? 10. Why couldn’t the driver avoid hitting the child? LESSON 51 108. Grrunps As OsjEcrs oF PREPositions. a) Since gerunds are really nouns, they are used as objects of preposi- tions in the same way that nouns are used. He is fond of swimming. There is little chance of seeing him now. He insisted on going with us. b) A gerund, without any preposition, is also used in the following constructions: There is no use waiting any longer. Is that book worth reading? 109. Musr—Musr Have: SpEciat Use. a) The verb must, which normally expresses obligation or command, is also used to indicate strong probability. John isn’t at the lesson. He must be sick (i. e. it is strongly 171probable that he is sick) ‘Mr. Smith isn’t here. He must be in the next room. b) Must, when used to show probability, has a past form and is often used in the past. In the past it is followed by have and the past participle of the main verb, John’s office is locked. He must have gone home. Mary must have taken the key with her. 110. May Have, The verb may, which is used to show possibility (Rule 49B), also has 2 past form. Like must, it is followed by have and the past participle of the main verb. John isn’t here. He may have gone home (i. e. it is possible that he went home), Mary may have taken the keys with her. EXERCISES A. Supply the Correct Preposition and the Gerund Form of the Verb in Parentheses: 1. Mary is fond (swim), 2. John insisted (go) with us. 3. Henry needs much more practice (speak). 4. We are looking forward (see) you. 5. He was prevented (go) by the weather. 6. There is little chance (see) him today. 7. It is a question “(do) it at once. 8, We are thinking (study) French. 9. He has had little experi- ence (drive), 10. John got tired (wait) for us, 11. He has no intention (go). 12. There is no possibility (finish) it today. B. Join the Following Pairs of Sentences by Using INsteaD OF as Shown in the Example Given with the First Sentence: {. I will play tennis. 1 won't work in the garden today. (Ex- ample: I will play tennis instead of working in the garden today.) 2. She will study music. She will not go to the university. 3. They wil! stay home this summer. They will not go abroad. 4, We are going to the movie tonight, We will not visit the Smiths. 5. John will study to be an en- 172gineer. He will not work in his father’s store. 6. They will fly to Mexico. They wili not drive in their new car. 7. He will marry Helen. He will not remain a bachelor. 8. They will live in New York. They will not move to Chicago. 9. He will live in a dormitory. He will not stay at the home of his cousin. 10, They will telephone us long distance. They will not send a telegram. C. Change the Following so as to Introduce the verb SucceEp instead of Manace: Follow Example, 1. I finally managed to see him. (Ex.: [finally succeeded in seeing him.) 2. We finally managed to borrow the money. 8. I finally Managed to get an appointment with him. 4. He managed to get his degree at last. 5. The police at last managed to locate the missing child. 6. We finally managed to get in touch with them. 7. They managed to reach us at about twelve o'clock. 8. We finally managed to get there after spending all night on the road. 9. We have managed at last to convince him that we are right. 10. John finally managed to raise enough money for the trip. D. Supply Must or Musr Have in the Following: 1. 1 (leave) my keys at my office. 2. John isn’t at home. He (go) to the movie, 3. Someone (surn) on the radiator. It isso warm here. 4. John speaks English well. He (study) a long time. 5. He (be) born in this country. 6, It (rain) while we were in the movies. 7. John isn’t here. He (be) in the cafeteria, 8. John wasn’t at the meeting last night. He (be) sick. 9. He (forget) to call you. 10. They (leave) some time ago. E. Change the Following So As to Introduce Must Have: (Follow example in first sentence.) 1. John probably went out of town. (John must have gone out of town.) 2. I probably left my pen at home. 3. Somebody probably closed the window. 4. This book was probably written a long time ago. 5. He was probably born in America. 6. He probably wrote the letter last week. 7. He probably had a bad head- 173ache. 8. They probably forgot all about it. 9. He probably went to college. 10. He probably was a very good student. ll. She probably took it with her. 12, He probably had no intention of returning it. F. Supply May Have in the Following: 1. John isn't here. He (go) to the cafeteria. 2. You (leave) your keys in your car. 3. He (study) English before he came here. 4. Someone (turn) the radiator on. 5. She (forget) about it. 6. He (take) it with him. 7. He (go) out of town. 8. They (decide) not to come. 9. John didn’t come to the meeting last night. He (be) sick. 10. He (go) some- where else. G. Change the Following So As to Introduce May Have: (Follow example in first sentence.) 1. It is possible that he took it with him. (He may have taken it with him.) 2. It is possible that she did it on purpose. 3. It is possible that she forgot to mention it. 4. Perhaps he knew her previously. 5. Possibly he left the money on the counter. 6. Perhaps he found out about it too late. 7. It is possible that he was out of town. 8. Possibly he did not prepare himself for the examination. 9. Perhaps it was sent here by mistake. 10. Possibly he was put in the wrong class. 11. It is possible that she waited too long. 12. Perhaps she did not like what he said. H. Choose the Correct Form: 1. He insisted on (to take, taking) it with him, 2. There is no use (to call, calling) him now. It is too late. 3. He must have (went, gone) to Washington. 4. He needs more practice (in speaking, to speak). 5. How long (do you know, have you known) him? 6. He said he (can, could) meet us easily. 7. She plays the piano (good, well). 8. He has been here (since, for) many years. 9. Can you tell me where (is it, it is) located? 10, He wishes he (can, could) speak English better. 11. She is a very good dancer— (isn’t she, doesn’t she)? 12. Would you mind (to close, closing) the window? 174I. Answer these questions: 1. Are you thinking of study- ing another language after you learn English? 2. Do you think that movie is worth seeing? 3. Why do you say that there is no use waiting any longer for John? 4. Are you more fond of swimming or of dancing? 5. Do you have little or much difficulty in remembering English words? 6. How long will a clock run without winding? 7. Why do you think that John must have forgotten all about the meeting? 8. Why do you think you may have left your keys at home? 9. Why do you say that it must have been Henry who stole the money? LESSON 52 111. InFinrrives. a) Infinitives have two tenses, present and perfect. (past). A perfect infinitive is used to indicate a time earlier than that of the main verb of the sentence. (Present) Tam glad to meet you. (Perfect) Iam glad to have met you (previously). b) Infinitives also have a continuous and a passive form in both present and perfect tenses. The present continuous form of an infinitive is used to indicate an action continuing now or at present. The perfect continuous form is used to indicate a past action which continues up to the time of the main verb of the sentence. (Pres. contin.) He seems to be doing well (now). (Perfect contin.) He seems to have been doing well (up to the present). c) Passive infinitives are used conventionally, that is, to describe an action performed upon the subject by some agent, implied or expressed. (See earlier discussion, Rule 83b). This merchandise ought to be delivered today. This merchandise ought to have been delivered yesterday. 112. Inrinitrves WitHouT To. Infinitives without to are used after the following verbs: make, let, help, see, hear, feel, and watch. 175He made us wait a long time. He let us go home early. No one saw him feave. 113, Srmxr—Any More (Any Loncer). Still is an adverb of time meaning even yet or even up to the present. It thus indicates some continuing action. Like most indefinite ad- verbs of time, still generally precedes the main verb (See Rule 78). John is still working in this office. ‘They still walk to school together. The negative equivalent of still is any more (or any longer). Any more is used to indicate that an action which previously took place has been discontinued, John isn’t working in this office any more. They don’t walk to school together any more. EXERCISES A. Change the Infinitives From Simple To Continuous Form: (Explain the change in meaning.) 1. He seems to do well. 2. He appears to make progress. 3. He is supposed to work in the next room. 4. They are said to learn fast. 5. He seems to find the work easy. 6. She is supposed to make good progress. 7. He is said to study hard. 8. He appears to enjoy the work. 9. He is supposed to have a lesson. 10. He seems to have trouble with the problem. B. Change the Infinitives From Present to Perfect Form: (Explain the change in meaning.) 1. He is supposed to be a good student. 2. I am glad to know him. 3. I was lucky to take your advice. 4. I should like to see that movie. 5. I know her to be a careful worker. 6. I am sorry not to see her. 7. He is fortunate to meet her. 8. I am pleased to meet you. 9. You are foolish to do that. 10. He is supposed to leave immediately. C. Complete the Following With the Proper Form of the Infinitives in Parentheses: 1. The teacher let us (to leave) early. 2. He made me ............ (to wait) a long time. 1763. I saw him (to take) the money. 4. Will you help me (to look) for the book? 5. He wouldn’t let me (to come) in. 6. He made us (to write) the exercises in ink. 7. Did you hear him (to leave)? 8. No one saw him (to cross) the street. 9. How long did he make you .. (to wait)? 10. Don’t let him (to touch) those things. D. Insert Stitt or Any More. 1. Helen is working in Burdine’s Department Store. 2. John does not work there . 3. They don’t live in New York . 4. She is studying English with Mr. Smith. 5, They are planning to go to Europe next fall. 6. We are waiting for his telephone call. 7. He doesn’t go out with her . 8. They don’t speak to each other 7 9. He is teaching English in the same school. 10. We never see you at the club dances E. Change These Sentences to Negative Form, Introduc- ing Any More Instead of Stitt: Follow Example. 1. They are still good friends. (Ex.: They aren’t good friends any more.) 2. He is still studying architecture. 3. They still play tennis together. 4. He still spends a lot of time at the club, 5, We still see them very often. 6. He still goes to New York once a month. 7. Mr. Smith is still our teacher. 8. He and John are still the best dancers in the school. 9. It is still raining. 10. She still spends a lot of money on clothes. F. Supply the Correct Preposition: 1. Did you arrive time to see the show? 2. The teacher explained the rules us. 3. The ball rolled the table. 4. He sat down the table. 5. He walked Fifth Avenue. 6. We arrived Philadelphia six o'clock. 7. I'll be back ten minutes, 8. I agree you that point. 9, He has lived here 1929. 10. He has lived here many years. 11. This is an exception the rule. 12. He insisted helping me. 177G. Supply the Correct Article: 1. Washington took his hand from right eye of horse. 2. : Washington was .. first president of United States. 3. He was very clever man, 4. Have you watch? 5. I read .. newspaper every morning. 6. Henry reads New York Times every morning. 7. Please turn on radiator. 8. Have you ever visited zoo in Central Park? 9. I wish I could take vacation. 10. We walked as far as Fifth Avenue and there took Fifth Avenue bus. 11. Mary had an attack of .. asthma shortly after she got over “flu”, 12. Iam afraid that I am catching cold. I had bad cold last month. H. Choose the Correct Form: ‘1. 1 am sorry not (to see, to have seen) her before she left. 2. The teacher makes us (speak, to speak) only English. 3. They have stopped (to go, going) to their English class. 4. He likes this book and so (I do, do I). 5. She isn’t going and I’m not (also, either). 6. He said his name (is, was) Smith. 7. You are studying in the advanced class— (don’t you, aren't you)? 8. If he (knew, had known) this yesterday, he would have come immedi- ately. 9. Please telephone me as soon as he (comes, will come). 10. Can you tell me where (does he live, he lives)? I. Answer these questions: 1. When was the merchandise supposed to be delivered? 2. Why didn’t the teacher let you leave the class early? 3. When do you say to a person “Tam glad to have met you.”? 4. What is the difference be- tween: “I am glad to meet you” and “I am glad to have met you’? 5. Do you seem to be making much progress or little progress in your English? 6. Why does the teacher make you write all your exercises in ink? 7. What famous people have you heard speak over the radio? 8. Have you ever heard the President of the United States speak over the radio? LESSON 53 114, Apyecrives AFTER CERTAIN Verss. An adjective 178rather than an adverb is used after the verbs seem, look, appear, feel, smell and taste when these verbs are similar in function and meaning to the verb to be; in such cases the adjective which follows them refers back and describes the subject of the sentence rather than the action of the verb. John is cola. a. John looks cold. b. John seems cold. Compare: 1, John looked cold. 2. John looked coldly at us. 115. Empratic Form. The auxiliary verbs do, does, and did, which normally appear only in negative or interrogative sentences are sometimes used in positive sentences to express emphasis or strong feeling. He doesn’t study but he does attend regularly. He did take the book. I saw him. 116. Desprre—In Spite OF. Despite and in spite of* are prepositions and must, therefore, be followed by nouns or noun equivalents. He came despite (in spite of) the bad weather. He went despite (in spite of) my warning. If it is necessary to use a clause (i.e. a subject and a verb) after despite or in spite of, then the following construction is used: He came despite the fact (in spite of the fact) that the weather was bad. He went despite the fact (in spite of the fact) that I warned him against it. 117, Use oF One. We often use one (plural ones) in English to avoid the repetition of some earlier word in a sentence, Generally, in such cases, one is used together with Despite and In spite of have exactly the same meaning and may be used interchangeably. The student, therefore, may use whichever seems easier to him. 179some adjective which serves to differentiate the second object from the first. Study these examples: This plate is dirty; please bring me a clean one. After looking over the new cars, I decided to keep my old one for another year. This book is much better than that one. EXERCISES A. Fill in the Blanks With the Proper Form, Adjective or Adverb: 1, This milk tastes (sour). 2. Mary looked (angry) when I saw her. 3. Mary looked at us .. (angry). 4. This medicine tastes (bitter). 5. The flowers smell (sweet). 6. Helen smiled .... (sweet) at us. 7. He appears (weak). 8. A man appeared . (sudden) at the door. 9. The man looked (suspicious). 10. The policeman looked at me (suspicious). 11. He feels (weak) after his illness. 12. John feels (strong) about the matter. B. Change the Italicized Verbs To Emphatic Form: (Fol- low example in first sentence.) 1. He told me about it. (He did teil me about it.) 2. She thinks he did it. 3. He didn’t come but he telephoned. 4. I liked it. 5. She enjoys her lessons. 6. He spent a lot of money. 7. He speaks well. 8. He didn’t send flowers but he sent a card. 9. He studies hard. 10. I like New York. 11. We completed this exercise. 12. I don’t like movies but I like the theatre. C. Supply Deserve or In Spite OF in the Following: Read each sentence twice, once using despite and one using in spite of. 1. He went for a walk the rain. 2. He went for a walk that it was raining. 3. He studies hard his illness. 4. He studies hard that he is ill. 5. He came late that I had asked him noi to. 6. that it was cold, we went for a drive. 7. We went for a walk .. the cold weather. 8. He looks well his recent illness. 9. He looks well that he was ill recently. 10. the good advice we gave him, he failed badly. 11. He failed badly we had given him good 180advice. 12. He refused to go our urgent requests. D. Complete the Following, Using Words of Your Own Choosing: 1. They left despite the fact ............ 2. He left despite ............. 3. She arrived late despite . 4, They arrived late despite the fact . 5, He went out without a hat or coat despite - 6. He went out without a hat or coat despite the fact . 7. She became angry despite . 8. She became angry despite the fact . 9. He failed his examination despite the fact . 10. They failed in business despite E. Substitute the Word Ove (or Ones) for the Words in Italics: 1. This knife is very dull. Have you a sharper knife? 2. The last lesson was difficult but this lesson is easy. 3. This chair is very comfortable but that chair is not. 4, They have two black cats and three white cats. 5. You were asking about a black notebook—is this the notebook which you lost? 6. I like all games, but tennis and basketball are the games I like best. 7. We find that it is more fun to take several short trips than one long trip. 8. There were boats of all sizes in the bay, big boats and little boats. 9. We took pictures of almost everything but the pictures we took of the bullfight turned out best. 10. This cup has lipstick on it. May I have a clean cup? F. Supply the Proper Preposition: 1. The horse is blind the left eye. 2. He threw a stone me and hit me the eye. 3. It belongs him. 4. We write our compositions . ink. 5, I must stay home tonight. 6. He wanted to rent a room the night. 7. He needs more practice speaking. 8. Why did he insist going along? 9. He had the reputation being stupid. 10. The townspeople like to play tricks him. 11. They all laughed him. 12. I don't under- stand the difference them. G. Supply the Correct Article: 1. John wanted to send telegram but telegraph office was closed. 2. hotel clerk asked John to sign register. 3. He 181gave bell-boy keys to room. 4, John had asked for single room. 5. air in this room is not fresh. 6. fresh air is necessary for health. 7. It is often necessary to reserve hotel rooms in advance. 8. He saw him take money. 9. He always writes his exercises in ink. 10. ink in this pen is not good. 11. I heard President Eisenhower speak over radio. 12. Have you ever heard Presi- dent speak? H. Choose the Correct Form: 1. John looked (cold, coldly) standing there in the rain. 2. He went (despite, despite the fact) that I objected strongly. 3. This candy cer- tainly tastes (sweet, sweetly). 4. Can you tell me where (is he, he is) now? 5. He said he (can, could) not possibly come. 6. If I (was, were) you, I would accept their offer. 7. I€ I (was, had been) in your place, I would have gone. 8. Do you mind (waiting, to wait) a few minutes for me? 9. I wish I (can, could) help you. 10. He would not let me (to go, go) on. 11. He insisted (to wait, on waiting) in the cor- ridor. 12. He (is working, has been working) here for ten years. LESSON 54 118. Dirricutt Verps. a) Lay—Ltz: Lay is a transitive verb and therefore is followed by a direct object. One always lays something somewhere. The principal parts of lay are: lay, laying, laid, laid. He laid the books on the table. They will lay the carpet today. Lie is an intransitive verb. It is never followed by a direct object. Therefore, it is impossible to lie something. Instead, something, by itself, lies. The principal parts of lie are: lie, lying, lay, lain. The dog is lying on the floor. William lay down yesterday on the couch for an hour. 182b) Raise—Risk. Raise is a transitive verb—like lay. Ii is followed by a direct object. One always raises something. Raise is a regular verb. John raised the window. Mary raised het hand. Rise, like lie, is an intransitive verb and therefore is never followed by an object. The principal parts of rise are: rise, rising, rose, risen. ‘The sun rises at seven o'clock. John rose slowly to his feet. c) Ser—Sir. Sef is a transitive verb, like lay, and is followed by a direct object. Sit, like lie, is intransitive. Mary set the vase on the table. Please set the table. John always sits at this desk. Why don’t you sit here. 119. Postrton oF PREPosiTions. a) Note that in any ques- tion where there is an initial preposition we generally begin the question with the object of the preposition and shift the preposition to the end of the question. What is he looking at? What city were you born in? b) Note further that in any sentence where there is a relative pronoun preceded by a preposition, this preposition is similarly shifted to the end of the clause. (Formal) The street on which they live is a wide one. (More Natural) The street which they live on is a wide one. In sentences of this kind, involving a relative pronoun preceded by a preposition, it is also common practice to drop the relative pronoun (whom or which) altogether and simply retain the preposition at the end of the clause. The relative pronoun is understood in such cases but not expressed. ‘The street (which) they live on is a wide one. 183The man (whom) I spoke to was very handsome. This is the room (which) we have our lesson in. 120. Nercative OpENincs. If an English sentence begins with a negative word or with a word having a negative force, the normal order of the subject and the verb is changed. The subject in such cases is placed after the auxiliary verb as in interrogative sentences. J have never seen such a performance. a. Never have I seen such a performance. He did not mention it once. a. Not once did he mention it. EXERCISES A. Supply the Correct Form of Lie or Lay: 1. John his coat on the chair. 2. 1 want to down for an hour. 3. Yesterday the dog in the sun all after- noon. 4. The man will the linoleum tomorrow. 5. Who these papers here? 6. This material has been on this desk all day. 7. You can your hat and coat here. 8. The book is on the chair. 9, I the pen on this table only ten minutes ago. 10. This carpet was yesterday. II. on this couch for a few minutes until you fee] better. 12. The man had appar- ently been there for a long time. B. Supply the Correct Form of Raise or Rise: 1. Will you please the window? 2. I can the curtain if you wish. 3. The sun now at six o'clock. 4. Have you ever seen the sun ? 5, John many vege- tables in his garden. 6. When the teacher called our names, we each had to our hand. 7. As we watched, the moon slowly from behind the hills. 8. That building is being several inches. 9. The sun has already 10. Do you mind if I the window? C. Add the Necessary Preposition to the End of Each of these Questions: 1. Which movie are you going > 2. ‘What are you thinking ? 3. What is she looking 184? 4. Whom (who)* does this book belong .. > 5. Which magazine are you talking ? 6. Which slot must I drop the money ? 7. What did you say such a thing ? 8. Which restaurant are we going to eat ? 9. What are they all laughing > 11. What is she smiling ? 12. Whom (who) did he throw the stone 2 D. Restate these Questions in a More Normal Order by Placing the Preposition at the End of the Sentence: 1. To what does he owe his great success? (Ex.: What does he owe his great success to?) 2. To whom were you speaking? 3. On what problem are you working? 4. In which store did you buy it? 5. At what are they laughing so hard? 6. To which counter must I go to ask for a refund? 7. In what country were you born? 8. From what country does he come? 9. In which car was he riding at the time of the accident? 10. Into which house do they plan to move? 11. To whom did they sell their old house? 12. From what is the child running away? E. Restate the Following in Two Ways; First, Place the Preposition at the End of the Clause; Second, Place the Prep- osition at the End of the Clause and Omit the Relative Pro- noun: Follow Example. 1.'The boy to whom I was speaking is Fred's brother. (Ex.: a. The boy whom I was speaking to is Fred's brother. b. The boy I was speaking to is Fred’s brother.) 2. The store in which 1 bought the suit is located on Tenth Street. 3. The person to whom I spoke had a French accent. 4. The catalogue at which we looked was an old one. 5. The table at which we sat was near the door. 6. The glass out of which we all had to drink had a cracked edge. 7. The knife with which he cut himself had a rusty blade. 8. The door at which we knocked was painted green. 9. The chair on which I sat had a broken seat. 10. The * Who, although not correct grammatically, is commonly heard today instead of whom in all such sentences—even among the best educated speakers. The student, therefore, if hie finds who easier to use should be permitted to use it. The teacher, of course, can decide such matters at her individual discretion, 185children with whom he plays are all older than he. F. Change Each of the Following Sentences So That It Begins With the Italicized Word: (Follow example in first sentence.) 1, He has never tried to see her. (Never has he tried to see her). 2. I seldom visited either of them. 3. We discussed it not once, but twice. 4. She has not only beauty but also intelligence. 5. I was able to find them nowhere. 6. He has rarely spoken of her since. 7. He never mentioned it again. 8. He had hardly left when John arrived. 9. He came, not once, but many times. 10. He has seldom insisted upon it. 11. I have never felt so embarrassed. 12. He never once protested against our going. G. Choose the Correct Form: 1. He said he had to (lie, lay) down. 2. I am going to (raise, rise) the curtain. 3. You can (sit, set) those vases here. 4. Never (1 saw, did I see) such impolite conduct. 5. Listen! Someone (knocks, is knocking) at the door. 6. He told me he (is, was) busy. 7. Is that book worth (to read, reading)? 8. The sun (was shining, shone) when I got up this morning. 9. He died without knowing that he (made, had made) a great dis- covery. 10. He (lived, has lived) here since 1930. 11. The plane left (despite, despite the fact) that the weather was stormy. 12. How long has this paper been (laying, lying) here? H. Answer these questions: 1. Do you often or seldom lie down to rest in the afternoon? 2. Who laid that book on the table? 3. What time each morning does the sun rise? 4. If a room is too dark, do you raise the curtains or lower the curtains? 5. How long has that dog beer lying in the sun? 6. Do you like or dislike to lie in the sun at the beach? 7. What sometimes happens if a person lies in the sun too long? 8. Do you always hang up your hat and coat when you enter the house or do you sometimes lay them on a chair? 9. Do you always put your books away after using them or do you sometimes let them lie around the room? 10. Have you ever seen the sun rise? 186APPENDIX SAMPLE CONJUGATIONS Present Tense Verb: To be Present Perfect Tense Thave been we have been you have been you have been he has been they have been Past Perfect Tense Thad been we had been you had been you had been he had been they had been Future Perfect Tense I shail have been we shall have been you will have been —_you will have been he will have been _they will have been Verb: To work (Simple form) Iam weare you are you are he,she, itis they are Past Tense Iwas we were you were you were he was they were Future Tense I shall be we shall be youwillbe —_-youwill be he will be they will be Present Tense I work we work you work you work he, she, it works they work Past Tense I worked we worked you worked you worked he worked they worked Future Tense Ishall work we shall work you will work you will work he will work they will work Present Perfect Tense Ihave worked ‘we have worked you have worked you have worked he has worked they have worked Past Perfect Tense Thad worked we had worked you had worked you had worked he had worked they had worked Future Perfect Tense Ishall have worked —_we shall have worked you will have worked you will have worked he will have worked _ they will have worked 187Verb: To work CONTINUOUS FORM Present Tense 1 am working we are working you are working you are working he, she, it is working they are working Past Tense T was working we were working you were working you were working he was working they were working Future Tense 1 shall be working we shall be working you will be working you will be working he will be working they will be working Present Perfect Tense T have been working we have been working you have been working you have been working he has been working they have been working Past Perfect Tense I had been working we had been working you had been working you had been working he had been working they had been working Future Perfect Tense I shall have been working we shall have been working you will have been working you will have been working he will have been working they will have been working Verb: To see PASSIVE VOICE Present Tense Tam seen we are seen you are seen you are seen he, she, it is seen they are seen 188I was seen you were seen he was seen I shall be seen you will be seen he will be seen \ have been seen you have been seen he has been seen Thad been seen you had been seen he had been seen I shall have been seen you will have been seen he will have been seen (i) I be (I) you be (if) he, she, it be (If) I were (If) you were (If) he, she, it were Past Tense we were seen you were seen they were seen Future Tense we shall be seen you will be seen they will be seen Present Perfect Tense we havé been seen you have been seen they have been seen Past Perfect Tense we had been seen you had been seen they had been seen Puture Perfect Tense we shall have been seen you will have been seen they will have been seen SUBJUNCTIVE MODE Verb: To be Present Tense (if) we be (if) you be (If) they be Past Tense (If) we were (i) you were (If) they were Other tenses are the same as those in the indicative mode. 189PRINCIPAL PARTS OF COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS Past Par- Past Par- Present Past —*ticiple Present Past ticiple arise arose arisen eat ate eaten awake awoke awakened fall fell fallen be was been feed fed fed bear bore born feel felt felt bear bore borne fight fought fought beat beat beaten find found found become became —_ become fling flung flung begin began begun fly flew flown bend bent bent forget. forgot —_forgotten bet bet bet forgive forgave forgiven tl bound bound freeze froze frozen bit bitten get got gotten-got bleed bled bled give gave given blow blew blown 0 went gone bring brought brought grind ground ground build built built grow grew grown burst burst. «burst. hang hung hung buy bought bought have had had cast cast cast hear heard heard catch caught caught hide hid hidden choose chose. — chosen hit hit hit cling dung clung hold held held come came _—come hurt hurt hurt cost cost cost keep kept kept creep crept crept know knew known cut cut cut lay laid laid dare dared dared lead led led deal dealt dealt leave left left dig dug dug lend lent lent do did done let let let draw drew drawn lie lay Jain drink drank drunk light lit lit drive drove driven lose lost lost 190Present make mean PRINCIPAL PARTS OF COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS—Continued Past made meant met owed paid put quit read rode rang rose ran said sought shook sold sent set shaved shone shot showed shrank shut sang sank sat slept slid slit spoke Past Par- ticiple made meant met owed paid put quit read ridden rung risen run said seen sought shaken sold sent set shaved shone shot shown shrunk shut sung sunk sat slept slid slit spoken sped Present spend spin split spread spring stand steal stick sting strike string swear sweep swim swing take teach tear tell think throw understand wake wear weave wed weep wet win wind wring write 191 Past spent spun split spread sprang stood stole stuck stung struck strung swore swept swam swung took taught tore told thought threw understood woke wore wove wed wept wet won wound wrung written Past Par- ticiple spent spun split spread sprung stood stolen stuck stung struck strung sworn swept swum swung taken taught torn told thought thrown understood woke worn woven wed wept wet won wound wrung wrote“Ce