AirborneWeatherRadar Interpretation
Radar Principles and Operation
Goals of the Radar:
(1) Find the distance to an object (often called a radar
target).
(2) To find the direction to the target.
(3) To determine the targets reflection characteristics.
Here is how it works:
Radar Principles and Operation
The name RADAR is a contraction of the words RAdio Detection
And Ranging.
This object is far from the
radar.
The Radars beam envelope.
This object is
located near the
radar.
Radar Principles and Operation
The Radar includes a
Transmitter, Receiver
and Signal
processor.
Radars Display and Control
12 NM
Transmitted Microwave
Energy (about 2 usec)
Side
view
2
1
Antenna-scan motor
Radar Operator
Radar
Target
Range
Rings
Scanning
Radar
Antenna
Outgoing pulse
(one radial)
Radar
Target
Reflected
Microwave
Energy
The radars beam
scans from sideto-side.
20
15
10
Angle
indicator
lines
Expanded Radar Display
Top view of Radarequipped aircraft
Here is the most important single point to note:
The dashed line shows where the most
reflective part a thunderstorm is located.
This red line shows the
Radars radiation beam
envelope
That procedure produces a calibrated-weather presentation.
Once you learn the correct technique, operating a weather radar is relatively straight
forward.
6
Radar Principles and Operation - Section 1
(1) Finding the Targets Distance
Radar-signal-travel time = 12.34 micro seconds per nautical
mile.
When the radar transmits, it starts keeping track of the travel
time.
When the signal returns, the round-trip travel time is recorded.
A target at 100 NM range = 1,234 micro seconds travel time.
1 nautical mile = 6,076 feet
1 statute mile = 5,280 feet
Speed of light = 186,280 statute miles/second
Lets take an example:
Radar Principles and Operation
(1) Finding the Targets Distance (continued)
Lets say a target is located at 50 NM. The round-trip travel time to the first target is
617 millionths of a second.
Reflecting objects
50 NM round trip takes the energy 617 micro seconds.
50 NM target
60 NM target
2 micro second (outgoing transmission pulse)
100 NM of radar listening time
This cycle simply repeats.
50 NM target
Target return
617 micro
seconds
C
A second target located behind and to the
left of the 50 NM target at 60 NM (both
targets are within the beam width).
Time
Time axis is not to scale
1,234 micro seconds.
Radar Principles and Operation
(2) Finding the targets direction
The energy radiates from the surface of the antenna in a direction similar to a
flashlights beam.
If the antenna is pointed toward a target, the radar will receive a reflection
from that target.
Once that occurs, the radar knows the direction to that target.
The radar receives a reflection from this target
only when the beam is directed toward it.
Beam shape
Outgoing
radar pulse
The radar does not
receive a reflection
from this target at
this time.
The antenna scans
from side-to-side
through this angle.
Radar Principles and Operation
(3) Determining the reflection characteristics of the target -the targets reflection strength.
This target is
small and will
be displayed as
Green.
Signal amplitude
This target is
large and will
be displayed as
Red.
This target
medium sized will
be displayed as
Yellow.
Receiver noise voltage
(this is like the snow on
your TV when it is not tuned
to a channel).
Red-color threshold (large
targets)
C
Yellow-color threshold
(medium targets)
Green-color threshold
(small targets)
Time (Range in NM)
Transmitter
firing signal
Target return
located at 25
NM.
Target return
located at 50
NM.
Target return
located at 75
NM.
21
0
240
50
30
0
50
1
Radar Principles and Operation - Section 1
Energy reflection
As you might imagine, it
takes a lot of raindrop sized
reflections to develop a
measurable return signal.
Expanded view of
the rain drops
reflecting the
transmitted
microwave energy.
Volumetricradar target
Light rain showers
in Kansas.
Radar Principles and Operation
The radar pulse as propagates along the
earth and illuminates the ground targets.
Radar beam envelope
Scenario not to scale.
The green area is farmland
City
The antenna is
scanning from left to
right.
Each square shown along the ground is a where
a range cell of ground reflections will be
collected and then displayed on the radar.
Toronto, Canada
Buffalo, NY
240
Ground-mapping
radar display
21
0
30
0
50
50
12
Weather Targets and How They are Displayed
The radar display provides a topdown view of the weather slice.
Radars signal travels out and back
Radar beam
Radar Display
50 NM
25 NM
Example of radar display (RDR-4B)
Radar
Transmitter/Receiver/Antenna
Thunderstorm
Illuminated slice
of the
thunderstorm.
Beam-Scan Path
Radar beam
Weather Targets and How They are Displayed
The two most important types of rainstorms are:
Ordinary thunderstorm
Altitude in feet
40,000
Cumulonimbus (often just called Thunderstorms)
30,000
20,000
10,000
Stratocumulus (often called Status which is low-level
extended-rainy weather).
Altitude in feet
20,000
10,000
Stratus rain
Usually tops at
about 12,000 feet
14
Weather Targets and How They are Displayed
Lightning discharges within the cloud are called Intracloud (the most common).
Altitude in feet
Positive and negative
charge centers
3 NM
40,000
Super-cooled
water/ice region
30,000
Bright Band:
This is the volume
within the storm where
the beam must be
directed in order to
achieve a calibrated
radar presentation.
20,000
Approximate summer
freezing altitude
10,000
Cloud-to-ground
strikes
Rain shaft
Induced-earth charge
Plus electrical charges
Extremely heavy precipitation (greater than 8 inches per hour)
Negative electrical charges
Heavy precipitation (Between 1.91 to 8 inches per hour)
Heavy precipitation (between 0.45 and 1.91 inches per hour)
Medium precipitation (between 0.14 and 0.45 inches per hour)
Light precipitation (between .04 and 0.14 inches per hour)
Weather Targets and How They are Displayed
Stratus Rain
Altitude
in Feet
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
10
20
30
Range in NM
Heavy precipitation (greater than 1.91 inches per hour)
Heavy precipitation (0.45 to 1.91 inches per hour)
Altitude
in Feet
Medium precipitation (between 0.14 and 0.45 inches per hour)
Light precipitation (between .04 and 0.14 inches per hour)
40,000
Virga is rain that evaporates before it reaches
the ground (typical of Phoenix, AZ).
30,000
20,000
10,000
10
20
30
16
Weather Targets and How They are Displayed
When using the weather radar, always beware of a Blind Alley or Box Canyon situation.
The diagram below depicts just such a flight scenario:
The 80 NM range
provides much better
situational awareness.
On the 40 NM range
the weather danger is
not evident.
Short Range
Longer Range
Weather Targets and How They are Displayed
Whenever possible, deviate to the upwind
side of a storm to avoid the downwind eddy
currents. These eddies are caused by the
obstruction the storm presents to the wind
stream.
Wind direction
Turbulence in the
downwind eddies.
Before we proceed further, we need to discuss some key concepts:
The true nature of the radars radiated beam.
The definition of a calibrated-weather.
The Weather Attenuation phenomenon, and how to use it to your
advantage.
The introduction of the Radar Tilt-Angle Calculator.
The Tilt Management procedure.
How to deal with Stratus Rain.
Knowing these concepts and using the Radar Tilt-Angle Calculator will
enable you to make informed decisions about how to properly use a
weather radar.
The Radiated Beam Width
Generally, we consider the radar beam as being cone
shaped.
The radar energy
is located here.
A
B
The radar energy
is not located here.
The Radiated Beam Width
The diagram below is a better representation of how energy
actually radiates from a radars antenna:
At the wider
angles, the
beams energy
tapers off.
Most intense
part of the
beam is in
the center.
Side view
Most intense part
of the beam.
End view
A less intense part of
the beam.
Now lets use a flashlights beam to further clarify the concept:
2
The Radiated Beam Width
Flashlight beam directed
toward a wall.
The most intense
part of the beam.
With rings
Viewing the radarantenna beam down
its axis.
Without rings
A Radar Beam
A less intense part of
the beam.
A Flashlight beam
A radars beam and a flashlights beam are both examples of focused
electromagnetic energy. Their radiation characteristics are identical!
22
The Radiated Beam Width
Below is shown how much of the energy, in percent, is contained within
various cross sections of the radars beam width for a 12 antenna:
This is the advertised beam width of the
antenna. That is also what we will later refer to
as the Weather-Detection Beam Width.
14 deg.
11 deg.
4 deg.
60 %
8 deg.
91.3 %
You will see that the most
reflective part of weather
targets should be viewed
using the inner core of the
beam width. Unfortunately,
the outer spread will also
scoop-up unwanted
ground clutter.
98.4 %
99.9 %
End view
4 8 11 14 degrees
Side view
2
The Radiated Beam Width
The Antenna-Gain concept:
You may have heard the term: Antenna Gain
This term is somewhat misleading. It sounds as though the
microwave energy enters the antenna and is somehow
increased before leaving it.
That interpretation of Antenna Gain are incorrect!
The term Antenna Gain describes how much the energy leaving
the antenna is focused into a particular direction.
Lets take a couple of examples:
24
The Radiated Beam Width
In this room, the light is spread
evenly over the walls.
In this room, the light is now
concentrated into a spot on one wall.
Here we added a
reflector to the
same bulb. This
reflector/light bulb
combination is a
focused antenna
system.
A
The ratio of the focused-light intensity of the spot
on this wall to the average intensity of light on
these walls is the antenna systems gain.
B
Focused Intensity
Antenna Gain =
Average Intensity
2
The Radiated Beam Width
The key takeaways from this discussion on beam shapes are:
To maximize the signal return from a weather target, it
should be observed through the center of the beam where
the highest level of energy is located (or at least within the
advertised beam width for that antenna). That beam width
for the 30-inch antenna is 3.0 degrees, for the 24-inch
antenna is 4.5 degrees and for 12-inch it is 8.0 degrees.
.
Ground targets, can and will be observed at angles
considerably off the antenna beam axis because they are
strong reflectors (especially cities).
26
The Concept of a CalibratedWeather-Radar Presentation:
Definition of Calibrated weather:
A thunderstorm will maintain its accurate color-code
presentation on the radars display regardless of its range -or more realistically, to the limits of the radars capability.
Generation of calibrated weather requires three things:
1. A reference thunderstorm.
2. A way to compensate for space loss.
3. A way to compensate for the beam-filling effect.
Concept of Calibrated Weather
In order for the airborne-weather-radar industry to be able to calibrate
their systems, they needed to have a reference thunderstorm.
After considerable thunderstorm-size evaluation, they decided the
following storm model would be appropriate:
Standard
Thunderstorm
The calibrated rain-rate colors:
Rain drops
Heavy precipitation (greater than 1.9 inches
per hour)
Heavy precipitation (between 0.45 and 1.9 inches
per hour)
Medium precipitation (between 0.14 and 0.45
inches per hour)
This thunderstorm model has a
constant rain-rate throughout its
volume.
3 NM
3 NM
Light precipitation (between .04 and 0.14
inches per hour)
Now that we have a rainstorm reference, next we
need to consider the effects of space loss:
2
Concept of Calibrated Weather
Definition of Space Loss: As the radars microwave pulse travels to and from a
target, most of its energy is simply not retrievable. That is because the energy
simply goes into directions other than where the target and radar are located.
The same phenomenon occurs at the same rate for both focused and nonfocused energy propagation.
Here is a familiar
example of how
space loss works.
Higher-energy water waves
(because the energy is fairly
concentrated)
A rock dropping into
the water below.
Waters surface
A wood pilling in
the water
providing a
reflection of the
water waves.
Larger waves (higher energy)
Smaller waves (lower energy)
Point of entry of the
rock into the water.
Lower-energy water waves
(because the same energy spreads out
over a larger area)
Lowest energy waves
reflecting back to the rocks
water-entry point (still further
spreading of the energy).
2
Concept of Calibrated Weather
Beam-filling Phenomenon:
Standard storm is larger
than the beam width
(beam-filling).
Beam-Filling Range
Standard storm is smaller
than the beam width (nonbeam-filling).
The radar compensates for both the space loss
and the effects of beam-filling producing a
constant color coded storms regardless of their
range (within limits). It does this using an
approach called Sensitivity-Time-Control
(STC).
That means the radar adjusts the levels of its
color thresholds to effectively cancel out both of
these effects.
Heres an example:
3
Lets say this red level
storm is moved to three
different range
locations as shown.
Concept of Calibrated Weather
Without STC
10 NM
21 NM
40 NM
32 NM
40 NM
40 NM
With STC
10 NM
40 NM
21 NM
40 NM
32 NM
40 NM
32
Weather Attenuation
Sometimes it is hard to identify the true nature of a target on a
radar.
That can certainly be the case trying to differentiate between
thunderstorms and cities.
Here are a couple of examples:
Cities and thunderstorms are present in both radar presentations.
3
Weather Attenuation
As it turns out, thunderstorms have a characteristic that allows us to
identify them on the radar screen:
Its called Weather Attenuation.
The radar pulse loses some of its strength as it travels through the
core of a thunderstorm!
That turns out to be very helpful for finding dangerous weather.
Lets take a closer look at this phenomenon:
34
Weather Attenuation
1
Raindrop
The incoming microwave
energy from the radar is
represented by vertical
bars. The bars thickness
indicates the incoming
signals strength.
The signals strength that exits
the rain area can be significantly
reduced if the rainstorm is strong.
3
Direction of energy travel
This is the shadowed
area directly behind
the dangerous storm.
This represents a small section
of the rainstorm.
The beam would have
been here but the storm
blocked it.
This ground is not illuminated so there is
a radar shadow on the display.
You can see that each raindrop scatters some of the incoming signal into random
directions. Some of this scattered energy will be returned to the radar. Most of it will
simply be lost.
Lets see how much of the radars signal the storm can eliminate?
3
Weather Attenuation
The stronger the rainstorm, the more radar energy will be scattered by Weather
Attenuation.
Here are two examples:
Ground returns (also called ground clutter).
A radar shadow caused by
mountain attenuation.
A radar shadow caused by weather
attenuation.
Cities
(notice
there is no
radar
shadow)
A dangerous thunderstorm is located
forward of the radar shadow.
Pencil beam
Thunderstorm Radar shadow
Flat terrain
Mount Rainier in Washington state (14,406 feet tall)
A dangerous mountain is located forward of
the radar shadow.
Fan beam
Mountainous terrain
Tall mountain
Radar shadow
36
Weather Attenuation
Radar shadow
Here is a two-part technique for finding dangerous-weather:
First, display plenty of ground returns on your radar and look for
an apparent radar shadow,
and then,
City
look forward of the shadow to see if a storm is present (or a very
tall mountain).
Tip: Rainstorms and tall mountains cast radar shadows. Cities do not!
This is an extremely important point!
3
Weather Attenuation
Now lets look at those weather presentations again.
Potential Radar
shadow (but its not).
This is probably one of
the great lakes.
First look for the potential shadows.
Then,
look for a thunderstorm in front of the shadow.
Potential Radar
Shadow (it is)
2
Thunderstorm
Potential Radar
Shadow (it is)
Thunderstorm
City (no shadow)
City
Weather Attenuation - Section 3
Here is a picture of a dangerous thunderstorm taken in
an ERJ-145 aircraft equipped with a Honeywell Primus
660 Weather Radar. This radar picture below
demonstrates the correct procedure for evaluating a
storm as you will see next.
Ground clutter
(a good thing)
Here is a Radar Shadow caused by weather
attenuation. This V-notch shaped radar
shadow behind a thunderstorm is the display
characteristic you should always be attempting
to identify.
Thunderstorm
These light targets shown inside of the shadowed
area are very strong ground reflectors (cities).
While not completely disappearing, their
reflection has been significantly reduced due to
the storms weather attenuation.
Radar Tilt-Angle Calculator
Tilt-Angle-Reference
line
-20
-10
2.
The Radar Tilt-Angle Calculator is a visual aid to help you gain a better understanding of
the geometric relationships that exist between the aircraft, the earth and thunderstorms.
The Tilt-Angle Calculator is composed of the following three sections:
1. The Earth/Aircraft-Altitude section. It has a horizontal axis that represents the earth
shown in nautical miles. It has the aircrafts altitude shown on the left edge scaled in feet
(in this example, 35,000 feet). The aircrafts altitude is adjustable by using the slider slot.
+10
+20
2. The antennas beam section. Both the Weather beam width and the Ground-Map beam
width are shown. Connected to the antennas beams is a Tilt-Angle Scale. In this example,
the Tilt Angle is set to - 2.5 degrees. As the beams are rotated around the altitude pivot
point, the tilt angle changes the same number of degrees.
3. Weather targets and the Bright Band section. A typical storm showing its most
reflective section as a black area along with the Bright Band. The altitude of the Bright
Band is shown between 8,000 and 17,000 feet.
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
Bright Band
10
20
30
Range in NM
40
50
60
70
90
80
Weather b
eam width
Ground
1.
100
-Map b
eam wi
dth
3.
All the dimensions on the Radar Tilt-Angle Calculator are to scale.
4
Radar Tilt-Angle Calculator
Heres how to use the Tilt-Angle Calculator:
1. Set the aircrafts altitude on the vertical slider on the left (35,000 feet).
Tilt-Angle-Reference line
2. Position the Weather beam to be directed into the area of interest (the
most reflective part of a storm).
3. Read the antenna tilt angle from the Tilt-Angle scale on the left (-2.5
degrees in this case).
-20
-10
+10
+20
Using this tool, you can gain an appreciation of how the radars
beam and a weather system interact!
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
Bright Band
10
20
Range in NM
30
40
50
60
70
90
80
100
Weather b
eam width
Ground
-Map b
eam wi
dth
In order to understand the following Tilt-Management example, it is very helpful to understand this
concept
5 audio segments
Color-contribution
factor (relative
strength of that
The total reflection from a thunderstorm is due to the summation of the energy returned from all the colors reflection)
rainstorms reflectors that are within its weather beam width. These reflectors can be in the form of
1
raindrops, hail, ice crystals and snow.
10
Each Colors Contribution = (the colors area in percent) X (the areas color-contribution factor)
100
(within the weather beam width)
1,000
This is with respect to the
total colored area.
10,000
Total Reflection = Blacks contribution + Magentas contribution
+ Reds contribution + Yellows contribution
+ Greens contribution
Any reflectors that fall outside of the weather beam
width do not count as a contributor to the reflection.
Weather beam
width
Ground
Down-beam
view of the
thunderstorm.
Ground
Weather beam width
Radiated pulse
from the radar.
Ground
-Map b
eam wi
dth
42
Reflectivity-Contribution
Signal
Percent
power
converted to
reflection
a decimal
weight of
number
the color
format
0.154
X
1
0.233
X
10
0.363
X
100
0.175
X
1000
0.075
10000
X
Total from
all colors
B
A
Display
Color
Green
Yellow
Red
Magenta
Black
Percent of the
illuminated
storm
15.4%
23.3%
36.3%
17.5%
7.5%
This is the
reference start
point of 100%.
-20
-10
+10
Calculation
=
=
=
=
=
=>
Signal power
contribution
from the color
0.154
2.33
36.3
175.0
750.0
963.8
Colorcontribution
factor
Total = 964
(the reference)
1
10
Expanded view
of the storm
100
1,000
+20
Finding the Optimum-Tilt Angle
10,000
Our absolute maximum
start point is:
Tilt Angle = -2 degrees
Ground
The Bright Band (the space
between the dashed lines)
Radiated microwave
pulse of energy.
beam width
Ground-Map
Weather beam width
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
Bright Band
10,000
5,000
0
0
10
15
This tilt angle, - 2 degrees,
represents a 100% reflection of
the weather.
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
54% Display Ground clutter (thats a lot)
4
Finding the Optimum-Tilt Angle
A more acceptable solution to some people would
be to optimize the radars presentation.
When we say optimize, we mean:
Maintain the storms calibration (to within
reason),
and to
Remove as much ground clutter as possible.
Lets see how well we can do:
44
Display
Color
Green
Yellow
Red
Magenta
Black
Percent of the
illuminated
storm
13.5%
18.0%
29.0%
14.5%
7.5%
82.5%
Reflectivity-Contribution
Signal
Percent
power
converted to
reflection
a decimal
weight of
number
the color
format
0.135
X
1
0.18
X
10
0.29
X
100
0.145
X
1000
0.075
10000
X
Total from
all colors
Calculation
=
=
=
=
=
=>
Signal power
contribution
from the color
0.135
1.80
29.0
145.0
750.0
925.9
Finding the Optimum-Tilt Angle
Colorcontribution
factor
The new total = 926
Expanded view
of the storm
10
100
1,000
10,000
-20
-10
+10
+20
Tilt angle has
now been raised
to +1 degree (up
3 degrees).
Radiated microwave
pulse of energy.
Since the bright band carries the greatest
weight, here we move the beam up until it is
located at the bottom of the weather beam.
width
ap beam
Ground-M
Weather beam
width
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
Bright Band
10,000
5,000
0
0
10
15
20
By raising the tilt angle by 3 degrees, we
only experienced a 4% signal reduction!
25
30
35
40
45
50
34% Ground Clutter (better)
4
Display
Color
Green
Yellow
Red
Magenta
Black
Percent of the
illuminated
storm
8.0%
9.0%
14.4%
9.6%
3.7%
44.7%
Reflectivity-Contribution
Signal
Percent
power
converted to
reflection
a decimal
weight of
number
the color
format
0.08
X
1
0.09
X
10
0.144
X
100
0.096
X
1000
0.37
10000
X
Total from
all colors
Calculation
=
=
=
=
=
=>
Signal power
contribution
from the color
0.08
0.9
14.4
96.0
370.0
481.4
Finding the Optimum-Tilt Angle
Colorcontribution
factor
New total = 481
Expanded view
of the storm
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
-20
-10
+10
Tilt angle has been
increased to +2 degree
(up another degree).
+20
Radiated microwave
pulse of energy.
Here we push this concept a little bit
further and move the tilt up until the bright
band is cut in half by the bottom of the
weather beam width.
m widt
ap bea
M
d
n
u
Gro
Weather beam
width
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
Bright Band
10,000
5,000
0
0
10
15
20
By increasing one more degree, we have
experienced a 50% signal reduction!
25
30
35
40
45
50
24% Ground clutter (better yet)
46
Percent of the
illuminated
storm
5.0%
7.0%
11.0%
5.3%
0.0%
28.3%
Display
Color
Green
Yellow
Red
Magenta
Black
-20
-10
+10
Reflectivity-Contribution
Signal
Percent
power
converted to
reflection
a decimal
weight of
number
the color
format
0.05
X
1
0.07
X
10
0.11
X
100
0.053
X
1000
0
10000
X
Total from
all colors
+20
Calculation
=
=
=
=
=
=>
Signal power
contribution
from the color
0.05
0.7
11.0
53.0
0.0
64.8
Finding the Optimum-Tilt Angle - Section 3
Colorcontribution
factor
Expanded view
of the storm
New total = 65
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
Tilt angle has been
increased to +3 degree (up
another degree).
Radiated microwave
pulse of energy.
-Map b
Ground
Here we have pushed this concept much
too far. Notice that the bright band has
now been completely removed from the
weather beam width.
t
eam wid
Weather beam
width
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
Bright Band
10,000
5,000
0
0
10
15
Another degree up tilt
produces a 93% signal loss.
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Now there is only 8% ground clutter. Even better but
we have completely lost the weathers calibration.
4
Finding the Optimum-Tilt Angle
Tilt management technique comparison:
0
-20 -10
+10
This is a Calibrated
representation of the weathers
danger.
This is the correct way to
manage your radars Tilt
Angle.
+20
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
0 +10
+20
-20 -10
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
25
This is a grossly understated
representation of the weathers
danger.
This is the incorrect way to
manage your radars Tilt Angle.
21
0
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
30
0
25
240
21
0
240
50
25
30
0
25
4
Finding the Optimum-Tilt Angle
ERJ-145 aircraft
Key takeaway:
Point the weather beam width to just
include the bottom of the
thunderstorms bright band
(sometimes called the storms core).
-20
-10
+10
+20
This pilot did a darn good job
evaluating this thunderstorm
at 0 degrees tilt.
Altitude
40,000
30,000
20,000
Bright Band
10,000
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Range in NM
4
Tilt-Management
Procedure Summary
Step 1. Search for weather targets
by first looking for shadows with a
considerable amount of ground
clutter on the radars display (no
weather targets are shown in this
picture).
Weather-detection beam
Ground-clutter-detection beam
Dangerous thunderstorm
Bright band
50 NM
100 NM
The storms core (black area) is located
within the Bright Band.
Bright band
50 NM
100 NM
Step 2:
If you do observe a shadow (see picture
below), adjust the tilt angle to maximize a
weather target accepting significant
ground clutter.
Step 3:
Adjust the tilt angle up until you start to
lose the weather targets strength
because you have moved the weather
beam above the storms core.
Step 4:
Down tilt to re-maximize the weather
target while minimizing the ground
clutter. Thats it!
Bright band
50 NM
This Tilt-Management Procedure should normally take
you about 20 seconds to complete.
100 NM
Radar shadow
Dangerous Thunderstorm
5
Stratus Rain
Now that we know how to find dangerous thunderstorms, its time to address the rain
scenario that causes a good deal of confusion, frustration and distrust by radar
operators:
Thats finding Stratus Rain from high altitude.
Is this radar possibly faulty?
52
The answer is:
No the radar is not faulty.
That particular weather scenario is one the radar cannot
easily resolve.
When viewing light rain from high altitude, as we now know,
there are no significant radar shadows to help us find it, and
the ground reflections are inextricably mixed up with the
weather returns.
Stratus Rain
Once the aircraft descends to a low enough altitude to point the
antenna in a direction which eliminates the ground clutter (that is,
the radars beam looks up at the weather), the radar can be used to
circumnavigate the heavier-rain areas within the low-level,
extended rain.
Unfortunately, if the radar operator does not fully understand this
limitation, he or she may lose confidence in the radars capability
when this situation presents itself.
54
Stratus Rain
This is an actual radar
presentation resulting from
this type of weather scenario.
This picture was taken from
22,000 feet while flying
toward Houston in an ERJ145 aircraft.
100 NM Display
Range
Weather and ground
returns are all mixed
together. The ground
returns dominate the
radars presentation.
Tilt
reference
line
-20
-10
+3 degrees tilt
0
+10
+20
widt
p beam
a
M
d
n
Grou
eam width
Weather b
40,000
Altitude
30,000
20,000
10,000
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Stratus Rain
10 NM Display
Range
Weather returns
Actual radar presentation of this
scenario from 4,000 feet flying
toward Houston.
Tilt angle
reference
line
-20
-10
+10
Low-level extended rain
+20
width
beam
p
a
M
d
Groun
beam w
Weather
idth
Tilt = +3 degrees
Altitude
5,000
2,500
Range in NM
10
56
Stratus Rain Summary Page
At high altitudes, in an attempt to observe Stratus rain, you must, by virtue of the geometry, also illuminate the
ground with the radars pulse energy. Thats because Stratus rain only occupies low-altitude areas (usually less
than 12,000 feet). The result is the Stratus returns will unsuccessfully compete against the strong ground
returns. In that high-altitude flight scenario, it is very difficult to find the Stratus rain.
Stratus rain
22,000 ft
100 NM
50 NM
Weather-detection beam
Ground-clutter-detection beam
Stratus rain and ground returns
are all mixed together.
All targets shown here are Stratus Rain.
At lower flight altitudes you can easily remove the ground returns simply by
adjusting the Tilt Angle as shown below. The Stratus rain will be displayed
prominently once the geometry is such that it no longer has to compete with the
ground returns.
Stratus rain
4,000 ft
5 NM
10 NM
End of display range.
5
Stratus Rain - Section 3
Here is a practical question that many pilots
seem to ask:
If you are faced with miles of stratus rain, how
can you locate embedded thunderstorms?
Lets take some examples. We will look at
ground level, low-altitude, middle-altitude and
high-altitude scenarios:
Stratus Rain
+8 degrees
+1 0
-10
240
+2 0
30
0
Ground level
The first storm is calibrated.
21
0
-20
Stratus
Rain
25
25
40,000
30,000
Shadows
20,000
10,000
0
10
20
+10
240
30
0
21
0
-20
+20
25
40
50
Tilt up just a bit until the stratus rain disappears.
Once you have identified where the embedded
storms are located, you should return to the
calibrated-tilt position.
+10 degrees
-10
30
25
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Stratus Rain
Here is a very well defined radar
shadow cut into the Stratus rain area.
Actual Ground-Level pictures of
Thunderstorms that are casting radar
shadows into surrounding Stratus Rain.
A fairly small
radar shadow.
A nice radar shadow
demonstrating the
attenuation of the
Stratus rains returns.
A Thunderstorm
with a level-4
core.
This storm is casting two rather significant
radar shadows into the Stratus rain areas.
Thunderstorm
A long and twisted
thunderstorm.
6
+6 degrees
Stratus Rain
+20
240
30
0
Altitude = 5,000 feet
Ground clutter
21
0
-20
+10
-10
The first storm is calibrated.
25
25
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
10
20
+8 degrees
-10
+10
240
40
50
Again, up tilt to identify the storms before
returning to a calibrated-tilt position.
30
0
21
0
-20
+20
30
25
25
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
+2.5 degrees
0
-10
+10
+20
240
Stratus Rain - Section 3
30
0
50
Altitude = 20,000 feet
At the mid-level altitudes, the
ground clutter tends to obscure the
Stratus rain. The best plan is to
look for radar shadows.
21
0
-20
The first
storm is
calibrated.
50
Ground clutter mixed
with Stratus rain
40,000
Altitude
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
+3.8 degrees
0
+10
+20
240
There is no real advantage to
raising the beam. The ground
clutter is reduced but the
weather data becomes
uncalibrated.
30
0
21
0
-20
-10
50
50
40,000
Altitude
30,000
20,000
10,000
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
62
+1.9 degrees
-10
+10
240
+20
Stratus Rain
30
0
100
Altitude = 35,000 feet
At the higher altitudes, with the weather targets
calibrated, the ground clutter fades at about 120 NM
due to the very low grazing angle. The stratus at that
distance cannot be detected because it provides too
weak a return.
21
0
-20
100
The first storm is calibrated.
40,000
20,000
20
10
40
30
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
+2.2 degrees
0
-10
+10
200
+20
240
By lifting the beam, you will reduce the
ground clutter but you will also lose storm
signal power. Its best to keep the storms
calibrated.
30
0
21
0
-20
190
100
100
40,000
20,000
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
A typical flight
General safety rules
Dont accept a vector from ATC into convective
weather. Always ask for an alternate route.
When you do refuse a vector, always try to give
them adequate warning time so they can plan
for aircraft-spacing adjustments. That is, try to
avoid last-minute decisions.
Do avoid by at least 20 NM any
thunderstorm identified as severe or giving
an intense radar echo. This distance rule
includes the anvil of a large cumulonimbus
cloud.
Dont plan a course between two closely
spaced thunderstorms (storms with less than
40 NM between them).
Do clear the visual top of a known or
suspected severe thunderstorm by at least
10,000 feet. If that exceeds the capability of
the aircraft, go around the storm by a wide
safety margin on the upwind side.
Dont land or takeoff in the face of a
thunderstorm that is in the projected flight
path. A sudden wind shift or low-level
turbulence could cause loss of control.
Do remember that vivid and frequent
lightning indicates a severe thunderstorm.
Dont attempt to fly under a thunderstorm even
if you can see through to the other side.
Turbulence under the storm could be severe.
Dont fly over thunderstorms. Turbulence
above a storm can be severe.
Do regard as severe any thunderstorm with
tops 35,000 feet or higher regardless of how
you locate it--visual, radar or from a report.
Do evaluate weather scenarios from a
distance and always plan an escape route at
the top of a descent.
64
