Basic Writing

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March 16, 2013

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Contents
0.1
0.2

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2
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Invention
1.1 Invention: . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Questions: . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Sources of Inspiration . . . .
1.4 Use Pre-writing to: . . . . . .
1.5 Prewriting/Writing Activiites
1.6 Why Prewrite? . . . . . . . .

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Drafting
2.1 Introduction to Drafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Pre-writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Types of Drafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Revising
3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 When to Revise . . . . . . .
3.3 Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 The Recommended Exercises
3.5 Peer Revision . . . . . . . . .

Editing
4.1 What is editing? . . . .
4.2 What should I edit for?
4.3 An editing example . .
4.4 An editing exercise . . .
4.5 Editing and the Writing

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Process:

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Proofreading
5.1 Definition of Proofreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Proofreading vs. Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Examples of Common Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Strategies for Finding Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Common Errors and Correction Strategies . . . . . .
5.6 More . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7 Proofreading with a Word Processor . . . . . . . . .
5.8 Proofreading Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.9 Corrections and commentary for the above examples

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III

Contents
6

Narrative and Memoir

33

Creative Writing
7.1 Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Narrative and Memoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Writing about reading

8.1 Summary . . . . . .
8.2 Critique . . . . . . .
8.3 Conclusion . . . . .
8.4 Essay exams . . . .
8.5 Citations . . . . . .

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Public Affairs writing

9.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Importance of Public Affairs Writing . . .
9.3 Examples of Public Affairs Writing . . . .
9.4 Writing an Editorial: A Journey Through
9.5 Writing a Letter to the Editor . . . . . .
9.6 Writing to a Policy Maker . . . . . . . . .
9.7 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.8 Practice Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.9 Another Practice Assignment . . . . . . .

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10 Investigative writing
10.1 Introduction to Investigative Writing .
10.2 Forming Your Question . . . . . . . .
10.3 Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 Thesis/Topic Sentence . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Writing Process
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11 Contributors

71

List of Figures

73

12 Licenses
12.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 GNU Lesser General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77
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Contents

Figure 1

0.1 Introduction
The authors1 of this book for the most part are the graduate students in Theory of Basic
Writing at Missouri State University2 . Others are welcome to contribute to the project or
to suggest areas overlooked. Future classes in Theory of Basic Writing and current or future
ENG 100 instructors will continue the project. This is still open to anyone interested in
Basic Writing.

1
2

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_Writing%2FAuthors%20
http://english.missouristate.edu/gradprograms.htm

Contents

0.2 Contents

Figure 2 Sometimes writing takes time and help from others. Let this book help you get
the most out of your writing class.
Part One: Process

1 Invention
1.1 Invention:
Determining the subject and focus of a writing project; the foundation upon which a
composition is constructed. Or, in two words or less: idea discovery.

1.2 Questions:
1.2.1 What do they want from me?
Many people begin college composition class assignments with this question, although not
many will say it out loud. Well, what do they want from you? First, ask yourself, who is
"they"? For many people the only possible "they" is the instructor, but that is not completely
true. Behind that instructor is every writing teacher the instructor ever had; the university's
general education goals for that class, which can be quite specific; writing theorists the
instructor may have read; and of course, the other people in your class who will certainly be
reading your writing in peer revision groups. In other words, instead of a single instructor
to please, you have an audience.
Luckily, as spokesperson for this audience your instructor has given you a map of sorts -the assignment sheet. Read this carefully. After reading it, read it again, only this time use
a colored marker to highlight key points such as when it's due, page count, type of writing
(genre), style (MLA, APA...), and most importantly, anything resembling an ingredients
list. If your instructor has given you a bulleted list, you're home free. This is honestly what
"they" want.
What if the assignment is vague or uses terms you find unfamiliar? That can happen.
What you do then is ask questions, preferably in class when the instructor is going over
the assignment for the first time. This may sound obvious, but some students enter college
with remnants of the "be cool" attitude left over from high school where sometimes, not
always, but sometimes, asking questions was seen as "dumb" or "sucking up" and greeted by
eye-rolling or worse by other students. A university is different. Asking questions is what
successful students do, and if you have thought of the question, chances are many others in
the class have thought of it too and will be grateful that someone spoke up. The instructor
will be glad too--questions mean you're paying attention and care whether or not the class
goes well for you.

Invention

1.2.2 What do I know?

In anything that you choose to write about, you will have some sort of advanced knowledge.
It may not be much, but it will give you a spring-board to a starting point in your research.
For instance, if your topic is World War II, think about the key names of leaders and maybe
some places involved: Winston Churchill, D-Day, Blitzkrieg. You don't have to know much
about a topic, but you can get a start without opening a book if you just think about what
you already know. You will probably not know specific statistics or dates at first, but you
will know where to start.

1.2.3 What do I need to find out?

Once you have your general topiclike World War II (WWII), for instanceand youve
established what you already know about it, then you need to determine what it is you
would like to know more about it. Because WWII is too vast a subject to read or write
about with any detail for the purposes of your instructors assignment, you need to narrow
your focus to something more specific about WWII. For instance, you may have jotted down
symbols when writing down what you already know about the topic. Therefore, you might
decide that you want to know more about what kind of symbols were used during WWII
and, even more specifically, what kind of symbols were used by the Nazis to mark their
enemies. So you look through a book about WWII, or you google WWII symbols, and you
learn that the colors and shapes determined what the wearer's offense was according to the
Nazis. If you decide at this point that you want this to be the specific subject of your paper,
then you need to learn as much as you can about the symbols as it relates to WWII, but be
wary still that even this topic may be too large for a short paper (i.e. 5-10 pages). Your
subsequent research can be narrowed, however, by asking yourself questions like some of the
following: When and why were they designed? What was its function for the wearer and the
Nazis? What were the different symbols used for? Which symbol was most used and why?
and so on. From there you need to decide on a specific question that you wish to answer in
your paper, do the necessary research for that question, and then begin the writing process.

1.2.4 What is the point of the paper?

Have you ever seen a preview for a movie that was misleading? You thought you were going
to see a movie about guys having an adventure in the wilderness and how they survive only
to discover the movie is really a documentary about a family of ants. The disappointment
and misunderstanding that follows is what your audience will feel like if your topic is not
specific, and if the rest of your paper does not make good on the promise of your introductory
paragraph, which should give a clear preview of the rest of your paper.
The point of your paper is to reveal to your audience the details and information about
your particular topic. The specific question that you want to answer about your topic will
therefore guide your entire paper. The answer is sometimes called a thesis, and much of the
writing you will do in university classes is thesis-driven writing. Once you know what your
thesis is, you can then make sure that everything in the paper connects to it in some way.
The goal is for your paper to look and sound like a crystal stream instead of a muddy ocean.

Sources of Inspiration
There may be many things that you are interested in discussing in your paper. However, a
paper must have one focus (or thesis) to sound clear.
Once you have your thesis, some of the following brainstorming ideas may be helpful to
determine what best fits under your topic. Brainstorming will also help you expand the
sub-points. Every topic has the option of a variety of sub-topics, but not all sub-topics go
together. You need to decide which sub-topics answer the main question that you are trying
to answer. Even if you are really attached to a particular sub-topic -- which at some point
you will be -- cut it out! Think of it as the bad boyfriend or girlfriend that you can't seem
to let go of, yet you know that letting go is the best choice for everyone involved. Break up
with that sub-topic and never look back!

1.3 Sources of Inspiration

Many times an instructor will give you the option of choosing your topic for an assignment.
This can be a daunting task for anyone. Sometimes having a choice of everything is so big
that you end up not being able to think of anything to write about! However, just look
around. Something is bound to spark your interest and give you a good starting idea for
your assignment. Any of the following can be sources rich with inspiration for topics to
write about:
Media:
Art
Literature
Music
Movies
Other Media (i.e. newspapers, magazines, television, internet-browsing, etc.)
Dreams:
Your dreams, whether real-life occupational/career goals, personal wishes/wants, or
even those you have while sleeping or staring out the window while driving, can
frequently contain topics or ideas worthy of writing about.
Memories/Experiences:
Thinking about who you are and the experiences that inform your identity can be a
fruitful exercise for coming up with writing topics or ways to approach a particular
topic.
Journalling:
Keep track of your ideas and emotions on a regular basis. These thoughts can be the
starting point for an assignment or may provide those extra details needed to make
the paper more effective. Through tons of research, keeping a journal has been proven
to help your writing for personal or academic papers. Reflecting on things around you
as well as things you read and talk about in class will point you in the direction you
need to go to improve your writing skills.
Personal Interests
Discussions with family, friends, colleagues, etc.
Research
Imagination
Browsing:

Invention
"Staring down the Spines": Go to the library. Stand amongst the shelves of the topic
you are going to write about. Staring at or reading the spines of these books can often
initiate an inspiration or two.

1.4 Use Pre-writing to:

think more clearly

establish the beginning of your paper
keep track of your ideas
organize your ideas into a conducive paper
practice expressing yourself in writing

1.5 Prewriting/Writing Activiites

The following are techniques that can aid in the composition process, either in coming up
with ideas or in working through various obstacles along the way:
Listing:
Listing allows the writer to accomplish several important tasks:
Finding a topic
Determining whether you have enough information for a topic before proceeding:
After narrowing down your topic, create a list with everything
Narrowing the topic: If writing about World War II, for example, the focus will
need to be on a specific component of WWII or there will be too much information.
Make a list of everything you know about WWII. Then decide which topic interests
you the most by crossing of those topics that don't interest you as much.
Example:
WWII
Hitler
D-Day
Churchill
Axis and Allied forces
tanks: M4 tanks, Sherman tanks
machine guns
symbols

concentration camps
Jews
yellow stars
air raids
Pearl Harbor
atomic bomb
Blitzkrieg

Freewriting:
Similar to listing, only in this case you simply start writing in sentence form literally
anything that comes to mind in context of thinking about your topic and/or assignment.
Napping:
Seriously! Taking a 5-10 minute nap can help rejuvenate the mind and relax you
enough to release the tension that comes with writing.
Meditation:
Finding a place where you can sit in silence for 5-10 minutes and simply focusing
on nothing but your breathing can be a surprisingly effective means of "silencing the

Why Prewrite?
noise" in your mind prior to writing, allowing you to better focus on the task at hand
without internal distractions.
Mini-computer games:
When stuck on a topic or during writing, playing simple but repetitive computer games
like Minesweeper can help relax the mind (i.e. it serves as a kind of meditation).
Outline
This form of prewriting is geared more toward organization. It groups your thoughts
into a definite main point and the supporting detail. So using the topic of "Badges,"
the outline would being as follows:
I. Beginnings* A. When**1. November 1939***a. following Kristallnacht in 1938***b. Reinhard Heydrich's recommendation*B. Why**1.
easy separation of Jews**2. needed to give rations*C. Who**1.
Jews***a. First all Jews wore yellow stars***b. In concentration
camps****i. colored triangle with yellow triangle behind**2. Later,
all undesirablesII. Rebellions
The thing to remember about outlining is that you can't have a support with only one
compliment. If you have an "A." then you have to have a "B."
Clustering/Brainstorming/Mapping
Clustering is a primarily visual form of pre-writing. You start out with a central
idea written in the middle of the page. You can then form main ideas which stem
from the central idea. In this case, you've narrowed the topic down to "Badges." The
ideas stemming from that central idea are all having to do with the central idea, but
different aspects of that idea. Once the main ideas contain enough information for you
to write about, you can determine in what order you will present the ideas in your
paper.
Storyboarding:
Storyboarding functions in much the same way as Clustering-Brainstorming. It has
definite advantages, though. In storyboarding, the ideas are written on note cards
in much the same way a Hollywood screenplay is organized. In this instance, you
can write information you have gathered about World War II symbols/badges. For
instance, say in your research, you find information on rebellions against badges. You
can write all of that information on a note card, but make sure you make a note as
to where the information came from so that you can easily go back and check your
sources and cite them properly. The next note card will cover another topic, say,
types of badges and the employment of those badges. The next card can cover the
beginnings of their use, and so on.

1.6 Why Prewrite?

Prewriting for even 5 to 20 minutes can help you establish what you already know about
a paper topic, as well as aid you in discovering where you would like to go with a paper
(i.e. what you want to know). Doing so can often help prevent you from committing to
superficial and/or mundane responses. Prewriting can help you find strong, thoughtful, and
clear answers to questions posed by either the assignment or by your consideration of it.

Invention
It can reveal to you those potential areas of personal interest within the writing task: in a
manner of speaking, prewriting enables you to "discover" yourself within the context of your
topic. It can also help you nail down responses--to move ideas from short-term memory
into long-term or written memory--so that you can get to the work of writing rather than
trying to remember what it is you want to say. That is, your thinking is often more clear
and better focused when engaged in actual writing. As such, prewriting can act as a tool to
stave off or break through what is commonly called "writer's block."
1

10

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Category%3A

2 Drafting
2.1 Introduction to Drafting
Drafting is writing and drafting is a vital part of successful writing. The reason you will
need to use drafting is that it can lay the fundamental framework of your final paper. If you
lay the framework well, you'll have a good chance of writing a beautiful paper, however, if
you do a poor job on the framework, success could be much more difficult to attain. The
following section will take you through the drafting process(es) with instructions and handy
tips.

2.1.1 Nobody gets it right the first time

Whether a writer is the next Ernest Hemingway or a student at any level, drafting must be
done as a part of successful writing. If a professional writer says that he/she never writes
more than one draft you can pretty much bet they are joking or not telling the truth. Even
when writers work to deadline and write at a single sitting, they return to parts of it again
and again in order to get it just right. Also, a deadline doesn't always mean done; writers
can and do return to an already published piece and revise to make it better.
It does not matter whether the work is a research paper or a poem, all forms of writing
need to be drafted. Since a professional writer almost never gets a piece of writing perfect
in the first draft, don't feel bad if you need several drafts too. So, if you find yourself very
unhappy about your first try at a paper think of it as just the start of something better,
i.e. the rough draft. Another advantage to multiple drafts is that the more drafting you do
the more chances you have of catching mistakes and improving the paper. This is why it is
so important to make time for multiple drafts during the writing process. The time spent
drafting will bring you closer to than ever to a more glorious version of your final draft.

2.1.2 The importance of just getting it on the page

Not much can be done for a piece of writing until it is on paper or computer screen. You
may worry that the paper will not be very good or even think that it will be awful, yet you
won't really know until you've actually written it. Not only will you and your reader(s) not
be able to see what you have written, but there is no chance of working to fix what has
not yet been written. For more ideas of how to actually get your words down look at the
pre-writing section below.

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2.2 Pre-writing
2.2.1 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is one of the most effective pre-writing techniques you can use. Its virtually
painless and can be pretty fun, if you let it! Brainstorming is easy because there are NO
RULES. Let your mind wander and think about things that you would like to explore more.
Try to create a mental web of things you can connect to one another. Let the lightning of
ideas strike you as they may. Ask yourself a few starter questions such as:
What interests me?
If I choose this subject can I meet the word/page requirements?
Are there other researchers out there thinking like me?
What topics are related to my topic of interest?
What about the topic can I make into a thesis?
Where is there an arguable side of this topic?
Can I see and argue both sides?
What other topics interest me?
Is there anything in the media that I can make into a paper?
How might this affect my daily life?
What kind of examples can illustrate my point?
Is this a fresh/creative topic? Has it become too common?
These questions and others you might create will help you get started on your writing
process. Before you even put pen to paper or fingers to keys (If you do have a good idea,
WRITE IT DOWN, that way you dont forget it!). Once you have a topic in mind then
youre ready to move on to the harder stuff.

2.2.2 Free writing

Free writing can also be pretty fun if you let it. Once you have the main topic of your
argument, then it is time to begin getting your ideas on paper. The purpose of free writing
is to do just that. Again, with free writing, there are no set rules as to how to proceed.
Many teachers will use this technique as a way to jumpstart your creativity and get you
thinking. In doing free writing before your paper you will need to write for several (8-10)
minutes about your topic. Even if you jump off topic continue writing because you might
come back around to the topic or discover a new way in which you might consider going
with your topic.
You might want to begin by writing down all the ideas you have about your topic. Write
down things you think will eventually serve as your main points. Think about how you
would argue with someone who disagreed with your point of view. What would you tell
them? Could you back it up with actual evidence? Note: at this point you wont necessarily

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need actual evidence, but you will want to have a good idea of the kinds of things out there
that you can use to back up your claim.
This is the point where your argument starts to pull together and you will probably find
that you have more ideas and points than will ever fit into your argument, but then you can
choose the best of the points and make your argument even stronger.

2.2.3 Outlines
Outlines and rough outlines are where you begin to form the skeleton of your paper. They
will be the pattern from which you write your argument. The outline serves as a way to
organize you thoughts into a comprehensive process that flows smoothly from one point to
another.
The formatting of an outline also helps you to create organization within your paper. Here is
an example outline to help you learn the format and organization it will give your argument.
I. This is your main topic. It can also be your title. What are you going to talk about?
A. This is your introductory paragraph. Give your intro topic sentence.
1. State your thesis. You should have a clear and developed thesis by now.
B. This is the body of your argument.
1. Main point #1
a. Supporting evidence for main point #1
b. More supporting evidence for point #1
c. Acknowledge and dismiss the other side of the argument
2. Main point #2
a. Supporting evidence for point #2
b. More supporting evidence for point #2
c. Acknowledge and dismiss other side of the argument
C. This is the conclusion of your argument
a. Restate your thesis
b. Summarize your argument
Note: you may have several more main points than this outline has, but they all follow the
same basic structure.

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Drafting

2.3 Types of Drafts

2.3.1 Rough draft
A rough draft is a very important step in the writing process. Writing more than one draft
gives you the opportunity to catch problems and see where the paper may not be working.
So, it is a very good idea to leave yourself with enough time to write at least two or three
drafts of your paper. You may want to do an outline to plan your paper beforehand, but
doing that is not always necessary. After you get your thoughts, any possible research and
or sources needed in order you can begin actually writing. While you write your rough
draft you may not feel completely satisfied about the paper, but that's okay because that is
what a rough draft is for. You want to give yourself a chance to work to get to the best
arrangement of ideas and find different ways of expressing them.
Form: intro, body, conclusion and paragraph
Start it, say it, finish it--that's an academic writing draft in its simplest form.
Start it. The introduction starts it all. That's where you get the reader involved in what
you are writing about and along the way, also get them interested in what you have to say.
At the end of the introduction section, many forms of academic writing have a thesis--the
main idea or claim.
Say it. Say what you have to say, and don't forget to set up a sequence of ideas that will
eventually lead to the conclusion. Each idea or "point" needs room to breathe, so give it its
own paragraph, at the very least. Supporting details and examples will also help.
Finish it. The conclusion wraps it all up in a way that doesn't just repeat the thesis--it makes
it both bigger and more specific. The terminology for this kind of writing is "synthesis." In
synthesis, the whole is greater than its parts, and that is exactly what a good conclusion
does.
Needless to say, each part involves using paragraphs, but it's helpful at the drafting stage
to think more about "sections." An introduction can be more than one paragraph. A body
needs to be more than one paragraph. A conclusion can be one paragraph, but can be more.
If your natural tendency when drafting is to move full-steam ahead in one long paragraph
with the intention of breaking it up later, it's worth the effort to slow down a bit and make
those paragraph breaks as you write. Your draft will be better organized in the long run, a
good thing for you and your future reader.
Process: getting started, getting past writing blocks
All writers can suffer from those horrible writing blocks, but there are ways around them. If
you are having a hard time with the beginning, work on other sections of the paper and come
back to the beginning later. You do not have to write strictly from beginning to conclusion.
If you have an idea for a certain section write it first. Get that idea out of your head and
onto the paper because in doing so, you just might think of a brilliant way to begin your
paper. Also, depending on how much time you have to work you may want to take an hour

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Types of Drafts
or a day to get away from your paper. Sometimes a little time away from a project can help
clear your head and give your ideas more definitions as well as clarity.

2.3.2 Process between drafts: Intermediate drafts, editing, MLA, etc.

Here the process between drafts is kind of overlapping with two of the other sections, they
are, Revising and Editing. Actually, the intermediate drafts are a process of revising your
former drafts again and again. You need to look at what you think is not proper or good
enough and think of ways that better explain your points to your readers. For more details,
you may want to refer to the other two sections about how you could make better draft
amendments step by step.

2.3.3 Final draft

Yes! You are coming to the final draft now! However, this is not the end of your final paper
yet! The overall structure of the writing construction has already been done, so we could
say that you've achieved a half-success! Still, you need to go beyond drafting to the further
sections which will be sure to guide you to completion of your paper! Keep up the hard
work and you will be glad you went through so many drafts, all that hard work just might
eventually pay off in a big way!
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3 Revising
3.1 Definition
Revising is re-vision--seeing your paper again. Revising is more than correcting
spelling errors, it's finding clarity of thought. It could even be finding new thoughts you
didn't have before you started the paper. You might find yourself getting rid of extra fluff.
As you were writing you were revising if you think about it. You had concerns about
the paper as you were constructing it. Write those concerns down (make notes in the margin,
highlight, make familiar marks) so that you can return to them. Identify what you think
are strengths too and bring the rest of your paper to the level you are seeking.
Remember, "A work of art is not a matter of thinking beautiful thoughts or experiencing
tender emotions but of intelligence, skill, taste, proportion, knowledge, discipline and
industry; especially discipline," according to Evelyn Waugh, 1903-1966, English novelist,
travel writer, and biographer.

3.2 When to Revise

Your first draft shouldn't be your final draft. No draft is ever perfect; there's always room
for improvement. You have to have content to work with before you revise. You may want
to allow yourself to finish a complete draft before you hamper the "creative springs" with
revisions. After you have completed drafting your ideas and have established what you
consider to be a complete product of the thoughts you intend to convey, then delve into the
revision process.

3.3 Steps
Read carefully over your draft several times, with a different purpose in mind to check
a specific problem each time (this is where it helps to know your common downfalls with
writing). Look first for content (what you said), then organization (your arrangement of
ideas), and finally style (the way you use words).
Listen carefully to your paper aloud for confusing statements or awkward wording. Listen
for the paper's flow and pay attention to details one idea to the next. Each idea should
come to some sort of conclusion while introducing the next idea, and each idea should relate
to the one before it and the one after it.

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Revising
Take time between readings. Allow yourself time to finish a paper (avoid procrastination if
possible) so you can put it aside and read it fresh when you go back to it later, to be more
objective.
Identify the specific problems with your weaker elements: content, organization, or
style. Proofreading of mechanical errors, spelling, and punctuation will follow later.
The essential components of content are the intended purpose, sufficient support, and
that all the details are related to the main idea of your paper.
Achieving the intended purpose--does it provide explanation, details, argument, or
narration?
Providing sufficient support--does it need more detail, facts, examples to support the
topic?
Including relevant details--do you need to cut any irrelevant "fluff" information?
The importance of organization is to arrange ideas and details to make the most effective
order, and to connect ideas to show a clear logic of thought process.
Ideas and details are arranged in the most effective order--ideas and details should make
your meaning more clear.
Ideas are logical and clear--use of appropriate transition words to relay the connection
of thoughts (such as "therefore", "for example") and any use of sentence combining
techniques.
The power of your style will make the meaning clear, interesting for the audience with
purpose, and insure the sentences read smoothly.
Is the meaning clear--did you use vague or general terms where you need to be precise?
Is the language interesting, appropriate for audience and purpose--is the language to be
formal or informal, did you avoid slang and cliches?
Is it smooth--did you use a variety of sentence structures?
Four steps to revising: add, cut, replace, and reorder. These are the words you can use
in the margin of your paper as you read and make decisions to revise. If you know the
standard editing marks you can make revision directly to the writing context. Standard
Editing Marks1 (with additional common writing errors)
Questions you might ask of your final paper:
Are you saying what you mean to say?
Will your audience understand it?
Will it accomplish the purpose?
If you want to be more critical of your writing, judge its readability, clarity, and interest to
its audience.

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The Recommended Exercises

3.4 The Recommended Exercises

1. As you write, keep notes of questionable areas. An easy way to do this is to write the
page number and a portion of the line of text that you find questionable.
2. Read the paper aloud several times and listen for mistakes. Once you are satisfied
with your "read aloud" revisions, ask a couple of other people to read it. You will be
surprised by the feedback that you may receive.
3. Divide your readings looking for content, organization, continuity, and style.
4. Mark your paper where you want to add, cut, replace, and reorder. Sometimes it also
helps to get out your scissors and literally cut up your paper into chunks so that you
can rearrange at random to see what order looks and sounds best to you.
5. Take time between readings. This might mean a short break to eat or walk the dog,
for instance, or it might mean a longer break such as returning to your paper in
twenty-four hours. Everyone is different. Do what works for you.
6. Take time while reading. In other words, take time to reflect on your thoughts. Read
one paragraph at a time, envisioning what you intended to say while keeping your
audience in mind. Sometimes it is helpful to stare at a blank wall while reflecting
instead of staring at your paper or computer screen. This will give your brain a
chance for little cat naps, giving it an escape from the chaos of words, information,
and eyestrain caused by staring at a computer screen (assuming that you are revising
electronically).

3.5 Peer Revision

Peer revision has added benefits over revising by yourself. Other people can notice things in
your paper that you didn't. Some instructors set aside class time for peer review, but even
if your instructor doesn't, it's a good idea to seek out feedback from a classmate, roommate,
or anyone at all who can offer a fresh perspective.
If you're the one who wrote the paper, make sure you tell your peer what your biggest
concern with the paper is. If you need help writing a conclusion, you don't want your peer to
spend time circling grammatical mistakes in a paragraph you were thinking about deleting
anyway. Remember, your peer isn't just there to catch your mistakes, she might have some
ideas about new material you can add to make your paper more exciting.
On the other hand, if you're the one who is reviewing your peer's paper, think about what
you'd want in her place. Ask if there's anything she's having trouble with. Be nice, of
course, but don't be so nice that you aren't helpful. She may like to hear "Good job," but
make sure to explain what you liked about the paper and where you think it could be even
better. Remember, it's not about whether the paper is good or bad, it's about how it can
be improved.
You have a responsibility to the student whose paper you are reading. Be familiar with
the qualities and requirements of the assignment. Consider its merits and shortcomings
to provide a complete evaluation and then ask those questions that ask the author about
particular segments or certain evidence to support arguments to encourage discussion over
the paper.

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Revising
Possible list of peer revision questions:
1. What is the writer's purpose?
2. Does the writing include all the necessay characteristics of its particular type (causeand-effect, narrative, research, etc.)?
3. Is the writing organized logically?
4. Has the writer used language that enhances her message?
5. Is the writing unified/coherent?
6. Did you point out the strength(s) or part(s) you found interesting?
7. Is there any part that required more information?
8. Is there any part that was irrelevant?
9. Did you answer any questions the reader had about her writing?
Talking with someone else about your paper will always help you re-evaluate your content.
Sometimes it reassures you that you've got it right; sometimes it reveals to you the places
that need work. It is always a good idea to share your work before submitting the final
draft.
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4 Editing
4.1 What is editing?
Editing is sometimes confused with Revising1 , or with Proofreading2 . After you feel you've
revised the draft as much as is needed, editing comes into play. Editing involves a number
of small changes in a draft that can make a big difference in the draft's readability and
coherence. Editing can happen at several points in the drafting process--not just at the end
to "fix" things that are wrong. When it comes to writing, it isn't so much about making
mistakes that you have to correct. No, there is always an assortment of options, many of
which are right. Experienced writers learn which choices fit together well for them, and
luckily for you, the secret to becoming an experienced writer is to practice. You can do that.
So, what kinds of things happen when editing? Here are a few.

word changes
minor sentence rearrangement
added transitions
changes for clarity
minor deletions

4.2 What should I edit for?

Three main areas that should be addressed in editing are: Content, Structure, and Mechanics.
When editing the content of your writing, it is important to make sure your work has a
clear focus or main idea. By asking yourself a few questions, you can avoid incomplete
thoughts and/or irrelevant material. The following is a checklist you can use in editing your
content:
I have discovered what is important about my topic.
I have expressed the main idea clearly.
I have removed material that is unnecessary, confusing, or irrelevant.
Editing for structure ensures that your ideas are presented in a logical order. A single
idea should be represented in each paragraph. Transitions serve to make the relationships
between ideas clear. The following checklist is helpful in editing structure:
My ideas are logically connected to one another.
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Editing
Each paragraph deals with only one major idea.
I have included appropriate transitional words or phrases.
Refining the mechanics in the editing phase prevents the reader from being distracted from
your ideas. Grammar and usage errors may be avoided by keeping a dictionary or grammar
handbook nearby. A checklist can also help you catch these errors in your writing.
I have used punctuation marks and capitalization correctly.
I have checked the spelling of unfamiliar words.
All subjects and verbs agree.
I have corrected run-ons and sentence fragments.
I have used words with the correct meanings in their proper context.
Let's look at a paragraph that is ready for editing.

4.3 An editing example

4.3.1 Scrooge McDuck (pre-editing)
Scrooge McDuck is a rich and famous lucky duck that has it all: the luxurious mansion,
3 intelligent and athletic nephews (and one niece that gets in the way), a global industry
in his name that sells anything and everything, and skyscraper sized vault of gold coins,
rubies, and iconic bags of money. Scrooge McDuck would have it all if it werent for
one minute problem. Every other day someone tries to steal his money. People have
moved it into the ocean and tried to claim salvage rights. Theyve moved it away with
magic, futuristic helicopters, and old-fashioned diesel trucks. Scrooge has researched
every possible idea to keep people out of his money bin. Now he needs to solve that
problem once and for all.
This is a pretty good introduction to an essay that's about finding the best possible solution
to a problem for a fictional character. However, taking a closer look and making a few small
changes could make it even better.

4.3.2 Scrooge McDuck: the Money and the Mayhem (edited version)
Scrooge McDuck is a rich and famous lucky duck that has it all: the luxurious mansion,
three intelligent and athletic nephews, and one niece that gets in the way. Owner of a
global industry in his name that sells anything and everything as well as a skyscraper
sized vault of gold coins, rubies, and iconic bags of money, Scrooge McDuck would have
it all if it werent for one tiny problem. Every other day someone tries to steal his money.
People have moved it into the ocean and tried to claim salvage rights. Theyve moved
it away with magic, futuristic helicopters, and old-fashioned diesel trucks. Viewers of
Ducktales know that Scrooge has researched every possible idea to keep people out of
his money bin. Now he needs to solve that problem once and for all.

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An editing exercise

4.4 An editing exercise

Word Choice
Sample Sentence: Technology is bad for people.
Edited Sentence: Technology harms our sense of community.
The edited sentence is an improvement because it uses more specific language. We learn
that technology is not only harmful, but we also learn what it harms.
Transitions
Sample Sentence: I hated multiplication. I failed my math class.
Edited Sentence: I hated multiplication; therefore I failed my math class.
The transition "therefore" makes a connection between the two thoughts, making the reader
see that failing the math class was a result of hating multiplication.
Sentence Structure
Sample Sentence: There was two boys in the hall.
Edited Sentence: There were two boys in the hall.
In the sample sentence, the subject and verb do not agree. In the edited sentence, the
subject and the verb agree.

4.5 Editing and the Writing Process:

A major question that students will probably find themselves asking is this: How do I know
when to edit a paper? As a matter of fact, there is no simple answer to that question.
Writing is a process that involves several steps, and these steps do not always occur in a
straight line. Writing any sort of text is a circular rather than a linear process. Writers are
rarely completely finished with one step, even after they move onto the next.
Most people tend to think that editing tends to happen sometime near the completion of
the paper. In fact, that is not always the case. While the most important part of writing is
simply the ability to express yourself and get ideas across, it can sometimes be helpful to
take a quick break from drafting or revising and to spend some time editing. Sometimes,
playing with word choice, sentence structure, or transitions can help stimulate your mind,
leading to new ideas. Thus, it's important to realize that editing is not necessarily a one-step
action, but rather something that can be done throughout the entire writing process.
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5 Proofreading
5.1 Definition of Proofreading
Proofreading is the process of carefully reviewing a text for errors, especially surface errors
such as spelling, punctuation, grammar, formatting, and typing errors.

5.2 Proofreading vs. Editing

While the terms proofreading and editing are often used interchangeably, they do differ
slightly.
Editing1 is typically completed throughout the writing processespecially between
draftsand often suggests contextual changes that affect the overall meaning and presentation. The focus is on changes that affect style, point-of-view, organization of content,
audience, etc.
Proofreading occurs later in the writing process, usually just after the final editing and
before the final draft that will be presented for publication (or turned in to a professor).
The focus is on correcting errors in spelling, syntax, grammar, punctuation, and formatting.
While some editing will inevitably be done during the proofreading process and vice
versathe writing process is not perfectly linear, after allfocusing on proofreading too
early in the writing process is often inefficient because with each revision new errors are
introduced. In other words, one does not want to spend a lot of time correcting sentences
and paragraphs that may soon be rewritten or even deleted completely.

5.3 Examples of Common Errors

While many types of errors exist in writing, there are some that are more common and
definitely more noticeable. Some of these errors include spelling, capitalization, punctuation,
grammar, subject\verb agreement, and word usage.
A word processor's spell-checker will detect most spelling mistakes. However, if you are
writing a paper out longhand, using a good college-edition dictionary can help you prevent
many of these mistakes (unless of course, you also can't guess which letter begins the word).
If you lack a spelling-bone (I think it's near the funny bone because it is another bone
that hurts when it bumps against something), a good strategy to use is to keep a notebook

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Proofreading
of problem words. You can add words to it each time you have to look a word up in the
dictionary, and eventually you will have your own mini-dictionary of words to check more
closely. Some people still prefer to do the old grade-school thing and write the word out in
longhand twelve times, sounding it out as you write. For example, surprise. Sounded out, it
is sr (as in Big Sur in California) prise (where the i sounds like a French ee vowel sound,
and you can picture yourself being surprised while sipping espresso on the Rive Gauche in
Paris. The sound and the image combined may help you remember the spelling.
Punctuation errors most often involve the comma, which means knowing when and how
to use one. Of course, that's easier said than done. The comma splice seems to be an
especially common error among writers. A comma splice is defined as a sentence that
contains two or more complete sentences joined together by a comma. American university
professors tend to see it as a major mechanical error. Rumor has it that once in the distant
past there was a university in Colorado where any paper with even a single comma splice
would receive an automatic F with no exceptions allowed. Hopefully, no extreme cases like
that exist now, but avoid comma splices if you're writing for an American audience. If you
are in Great Britain, that's another storycomma splices are cheerfully ignored for the
most part. Audience truly matters in writing, even on the grammatical/mechanical level.
Although some style guides list nearly two dozen comma rules, there are basically five comma
rules you need to know:
1. Use a comma with a coordinating conjunction to join two independent clauses. In
Layman's terms, fix a comma splice by adding one of the following: and, but, for, so, or,
nor, or yet.
2. Use a comma to set off non-essential information in a sentence. Basically, put commas
around extra information that is not part of the main idea.
3. Use a comma in lists or items in a series.
4. Use commas in addresses and dates.
5. Use a comma between adjectives if they make sense with the order reversed or with "and"
inserted in between them.
The Wildcard Rule: There are always exceptions to the rules, and often it is just a matter
of personal preference and style. Think about your purpose and your audience; then decide
whether or not a comma makes the sentence clearer or is just an extra mark on the page.
Sometimes having too many commas is a worse problem than not having enough commas.
Verb tense and subject/verb agreement are also key errors that should be looked for
when proofreading a paper. The subject should always agree with the verb in tense and
number. These verb issues are often overlooked or unnoticed while writing an initial draft
but can usually be caught with a good proofread.
Methods on how to find these verb tense problems, among with other mistakes, will be
discussed in the next section.

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Strategies for Finding Errors

5.4 Strategies for Finding Errors

It's often difficult to find your own errors. In this section we will discuss how to look at your
own work carefully to spot errors.
The first thing to do is to allow some time between writing and proofreading. Some people
recommend letting a text set as long as two weeks before looking over it for mistakes, but
that is usually not practical. Instead, try to give yourself at least one full day between
finishing your draft and proofreading. In other words, sleep on it. If the deadline is quickly
approaching or it is due the next morning, take as much time as you can--an hour or two
will do wonders. At minimum, try to take at least take fifteen minutes after the completion
of the paper before going back and proofreading. This allows you to look at the same piece
of work with a clear eye and a fresh mind.
Second, the paper should be read aloud. Can you make it through without stumbling over
anything? Many grammar or word usage errors are not picked up on until the piece is read
aloud. Also, have someone else read your work for you (aloud, if possible, so you can hear
where the words or punctuation are leading the reader away from your intended meaning).
A peer or family member with some distance can also let you know if the progression of the
paper needs help, or if something doesn't quite make sense. Do not be afraid to strike out a
passage that you thought sounded great, but others are having a hard time understanding.
You can also read the work backwards, one sentence at a time. This helps determine if each
sentence, independent of anything else, makes sense. Ask yourself these questions: Are the
sentences complete? Does each sentence have a subject (who or what the sentence is about)
and a predicate (what's happening in the sentence)? Note which ones need to be changed
and why.
Finally, get help! If you're not sure about something, such as the use of a comma or spelling,
find a resource or assistance. You can use the writing center at your school, a tutor, the
internet, or something as convenient and portable as a grammar book or dictionary!

5.5 Common Errors and Correction Strategies

5.5.1 Spelling
Don't forget to use your word processor's spell-check feature to identify spelling mistakes.
Do a quick visual check for squiggly lines, run the actual spell-check function, and then do a
closer check for misspellings or wrong word choices that the spell-checker missed. Although
spell-checking is important and should not be skipped, a real-live human can often catch
errors that computer software will miss because people are more capable of understanding
words in context. For example, spell-check software can't always tell whether their, there, or
they're fits in a specific sentence, but a person can always figure it out by looking at the
definitions for these homonyms.
Don't forget the low-tech solution: always use a dictionary to confirm any word you're
unsure about. Although the built-in dictionary that comes with your word processor is a
great time-saver, it falls far short of a college-edition dictionary in paper or CD form. So, if

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Proofreading
spell-check suggests bizarre corrections for one of your words, it could be that you know a
word it doesn't. When in doubt, check a dictionary to be sure.

5.5.2 Punctuation
This section will provide useful information on Standard American punctuation: its usage,
pitfalls, etc.

5.5.3 Fragments
By definition, a fragment is a group of words that is punctuated like a sentence, but that
lacks either a subject or a verb. For example: "Full five year warranty and free oil changes!"
People use fragments like this in advertisements all the time, but when you are writing for
an academic audience, which is far less forgiving of purposeful fragments, your readers may
assume that you just don't know the sentence is a fragment. They may conclude that if you
got that wrong, you might be wrong about your content too.
So, how can you do find fragments in your own writing? First, find the main verb. Then,
find the subject for that verb.
You could correct the example sentence in the following way:
Original: Full five year warranty and free oil changes!
Add verb: Receive a full five year warranty and free oil changes!
Add subject and verb: New customers receive a full five year warranty and free oil
changes!
Built-in grammar-checkers are fairly good at spotting fragments, but occasionally go overboard and mark a sentence as a fragment when it is not. Use your own judgment and read
each one independently while asking the questions provided above.

5.5.4 Subject-Verb Agreement

Below are some examples of errors with subject/verb agreement. Take some time and see if
you can figure out what the error is in these sentences.
Original: The dog need to go on a walk.
Revised: The dog needs to go on a walk.
--The subject in the original sentence (dog) is singular. The verb (need) is plural. The verb
needs to be changed from plural to singular form in order to agree with the subject.
Original: Chris and Molly goes for walks often in the evening.
Revised: Chris and Molly go for walks often in the evening.
--In this case the verb started out as a singular form. It needed to be changed to plural to
fit with Chris and Molly (plural subject).

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More
A quick way to check for subject/verb agreement is to circle the verb and underline the
subject of each sentence. Make sure that if the subject is plural, you use a plural form of
the verb. If you can not identify subjects and verbs this method will not be practical, and
you should seek guidance online, at your school's writing center, or from an instructor first.
One last source for finding tips on correcting common errors is online tutors and workshops.
Use internet searches to help you with anything you might be struggling with!

5.6 More
If it feels like you keep repeating the same words throughout your writing, pull out a
thesaurus for ideas on different, more creative choices. A thesaurus can add just enough
color and depth to a piece that otherwise seems mundane. Be careful, though, that the word
you substitute has the intended meaning. Thesauruses provide words with similar meanings,
not identical meanings--so if you are unsure look up the new word in the dictionary!

5.7 Proofreading with a Word Processor

There are many word processing programs available, and probably the most popular and
most commonly used one so far is Microsoft Word. However, with the advent of Microsoft
Vista and the lack of easy back-compatibility between new Word and even past versions
of Word (including Word from Office 2003), that may change and open source alternatives
such as Open Office2 may gain popularity. That issue aside, one thing all word processors
have in common is this: although a word processor is a great tool for writing and includes
many special functions that can help a student check for errors such as spelling, punctuation,
grammar, repeated words, formatting, and so on, it is not a perfect solution for all problems.
When students write, they should be especially aware of the errors the software does not
find. This can be a real problem when an assignment is graded for all aspects of the writing
process. One of the biggest mistakes a student can make is thinking, "No problem, my word
processor will catch all the mistakes for me."
There is no computer program written that can look at every word in context. As great as
word processing software is, compared to the human mind it is still extremely limited when
it comes to processing language. Even the simple task of spell-checking using a spell-checker
tool is not error-free. Although it can find misspelled or unrecognized words, it cannot
always differentiate between homonyms. For example, it does not always distinguish between
the words to, too, or two. Another problem can arise if your word processor is not set up to
correct a certain error. For instance, many spell-checkers are set by default to disregard
words in all capital letters because many people do not want it to spell check acronyms. In
this case, the word PROOFREEDING would not be caught as a misspelled word because it
is in all capital letters.
Despite their many limitations, spelling and grammar-checkers, while not perfect, do help
find common errors. However, the best tool that you can use to spot errors is your own eye.

http://openoffice.org/

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Proofreading
Spend the time to look over your writing carefully to make an honest attempt at turning in
that elusive error-free paper, AKA by editors as clean copy.

5.8 Proofreading Examples

In the earlier section about proofreading using a word processor, it was mentioned that
although software can correct spelling errors or alert you to unrecognized words, it cannot
distinguish between words that sound alike (homonyms). Take a look at the examples
containing misspelled words below and see if you can find the wrong word in each sentence.
Although there are no spelling mistakes, each sentence does contain a mistake in word usage.
1. What will today's students listen to when they are in their 40s? Is disco music in
there future as well?
2. Coach Thompson's team won ten consecutive Big Twelve Conference crowns, and tied
the NCAA record with nine consecutive NCAA champion from 1978-1986.
3. Life experience sometimes plays an important roll in how and what a student may
write about.
4. During the parade, they band members marched in unison.
5. Do you think computers have changed are everyday life?
6. The store at the end of the block does not except checks any longer.
7. One study showed that of the countries 250 million people, almost 10% still smoke.
8. As evidence has shone, the crime rate in the city has dropped in the last decade.
9. If writing is such an important part of the school curriculum, than why are so many
students having problems with the essay assignment.
10. I was raised in a home were rock and roll music was not allowed.
By understanding that proofreading requires a slow, deliberate analysis of what you have
written, you will be able to recognize the trouble with the sentences above, and be better
prepared to recognize the same type of problems in the future.

5.9 Corrections and commentary for the above examples

1. What will today's students listen to when they are in their 40s? Is disco music in their
future as well? "There" should be "their" because the second form shows possession. It
is their future because it belongs to them.
2. Coach Thompson's team won ten consecutive Big Twelve Conference crowns, and
tied the NCAA record with nine consecutive NCAA championships from 1978-1986.
"champion" should be "championships" because champions win championships. The
former refers to the players, the latter to the titles they hold.
3. Life experience sometimes plays an important role in how and what a student may
write about. "Roll" should be "role." The first "roll" refers to the verb roll or the rolls
you eat at Thanksgiving, someone's role is the part they play in something.
4. During the parade, the band members marched in unison. "They" should be "the,"
and is a common typo--the type that suggests sloppiness on the part of the writer,
nonetheless.

30

Corrections and commentary for the above examples

5. Do you think computers have changed our everyday life? "Are" should be "our."
Although some people pronounce them alike, "are" is a verb (a form of be) while "our"
shows the possession of a group. (People are busy during the holidays. Our family still
manages to get together.)
6. The store at the end of the block does not accept checks any longer. "except" should be
"accept." "Except" forms the base for the word "exception" and shares a similar meaning;
"accept" forms the base for the word "acceptance" and shares a similar meaning.
7. One study showed that of the country's 250 million people, almost 10% still smoke.
"Countries" should be "country's." "Countries" is the plural form (i.e., more than
one country); "country's" is the plural form and shows that something belongs to the
country.
8. As evidence has shown, the crime rate in the city has dropped in the last decade.
"shone" should be "shown." "Shone" is a form of the verb "shine," while "shown" is a
form of the verb "show."
9. If writing is such an important part of the school curriculum, then why are so many
students having problems with the essay assignment? "Than" should be "then." "Than"
shows relationship when comparing two things, while "then" shows a time relationship.
Ex: First I went to the store. Then, I went home.
10. I was raised in a home where rock and roll music was not allowed. "Were" should be
"where." Were is a form of the verb "be," while "where" indicates a location or speech.
3

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Category%3A

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6 Narrative and Memoir

Narrative and Memoir

33

7 Creative Writing
While other forms of writing ask that you to find research in external source before you
begin, creative writing does not require this of you. More often than not, creative writing
projects only require you to use your memory and imagination to tackle your project. This
ability to just sit down and write without having to perform research allows you to practice
writing whenever you want. You can try writing a poem on your coffee break or during
a bus or subway ride. You can spend an afternoon writing a memoir about your favorite
childhood pet, or you could begin to keep a journal where describe the events of your day,
the weather, the books you are reading, or television shows you like to watch. For creative
and personal writing, the possibilities are endless.
Now you may be asking yourself if you have anything worth writing about, and the simple
answers is yes you do! Every day provides an infinite number of topics to write about,
whether that be having dinner with a friend, the taste of your coffee, or the beauty of a
painting you saw in a museum. The activities in this section will help you jump-start your
creativity, and before you know it you will have written some great poems, short stories,
and memoirs.

7.1 Poetry
More so than any other form of writing, poetry is known for its ability to express ideas and
emotions or tell stories using very few words. Though some poems can be long, in general
the best poems are those that help us appreciate mankind and nature by condensing a
scene or event into short poem full of specific details. With these poetry exercises, you will
attempt to write poems that are short but specific. Like every other kind of writing, the
most successful pieces of poetry help us clearly imagine what the poet is talking about by
using concrete images or facts. The following exercises will also help you practice writing
clear sentences, think about grammar, and practice using punctuation, but most of all have
fun writing.

7.1.1 Poetry Without Punctuation

Have you ever got tired of having to use punctuation and wish you could write without
having to worry about periods, commas, and quotations? Well many poets have become
famous for writing pieces that do not use any punctuation to make their sentences clear.
However do not be fooled, writing without punctuation can be just as difficult as writing
with it. For this exercise, read Lucille Clifton's "the garden of delight"1 and then write a
1

http://www.poetryfoundation.org/archive/poem.html?id=176011

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Creative Writing
poem about a garden or park you like to visit without using any punctuation. Keep in mind
that you want the reader to be able to easily understand the poem, so like Clifton insert
line breaks or spaces to help the reader understand how to read the poem.
Then on a separate piece of paper, try writing the same poem again, but this time use
punctuation. Notice how the poem changes and the punctuation can help you. After you
have written the second version of the poem, spend a few moments and journal about writing
both poems. Which poem was easier to write? What made it easier to write? Do you like
this poem better and why? Which do you think is easier for the reader to understand?
Why? Be sure to have both poems in front of you when you journal so that you can easily
compare them, noticing where you used punctuation in the second poem and how that might
or might have clarified what you wrote in the first poem.

7.2 Narrative and Memoir

7.2.1 Defining Narrative and Memoir
Narrative:
1.ACTION 2.REACTION 3.DIALOGUE this three must be needed when writing a memoir
---(narrative lead)--Simply stated, narrative is a style of writing that tells a story. It can be fiction or
nonfiction and is typically told from a first- or third-person point of view. Narratives
can be in the form of short stories, poetry, personal essays, novels, monologues, folktales,
fables, legends, etc. The characteristic hallmark of narrative is that there is a character or
voice telling the reader or viewer "what happened," as with the "narrators" of most novels
and short stories, and many movies or television programs. Well-known and popular
TV examples of this would include the late 1980s/early 1990s drama, The Wonder
Years2 , or more recently the prime-time shows Scrubs3 , and Desperate Housewives4 .
A narrative may or may not have dialogue, depending on whether or not the event
or action taking place is simply an observation from a distance (like the narrator of a
nature documentary) or, for instance, a kind of I said or he/she said situation (like J.D.
Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye5 and F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby6 ). Some
narratives have multiple narrators, or more than one character/voice, each of whom is
responsible for either telling one part of a larger story, or who tell different versions
of the same story. Several narrative examples of the use of multiple narrators can be
found in William Faulkner's novel The Sound and the Fury7 , Ernest J. Gaines's novel
A Gathering of Old Men8 , and Akira Kurosawa's film Rashomon9 .

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

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http://imdb.com/title/tt0094582/
http://imdb.com/title/tt0285403/
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0410975/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catcher_in_the_rye
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Gatsby
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sound_and_the_Fury
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Gathering_of_Old_Men
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0042876/

Narrative and Memoir

Memoir:
Memoir is a specific type of narrative. It is autobiographical in nature but it is not
meant to be as comprehensive as biography (which tells the entire life story of a person).
Instead, a memoir is usually only a specific "slice" of one's life. The time span within
a memoir is thus frequently limited to a single memorable event or moment, though it
can also be used to tell about a longer series of events that make up a particular period
of one's life (as in Cameron Crowe's film memoir Almost Famous10 ). It is narrative in
structure, usually describing people and events that ultimately focuses on the emotional
significance of the story to the one telling it. Generally, this emotional significance is
the result of a resolution from the conflict within the story. Though a memoir is the
retelling of a true account, it is not usually regarded as being completely true. After
all, no one can faithfully recall every detail or bit of dialogue from an event that took
place many years ago. Consequently, some creative license is granted by the reader to
the memoirist recounting, say, a significant moment or events from his childhood some
thirty years or more earlier. (However, the memoirist who assumes too much creative
license without disclosing that fact is vulnerable to censure and public ridicule if his
deception is found out, as recently happend with James Frey and his alleged memoir,
A Million Little Pieces11 .) Furthermore, names of people and places are often changed
in a memoir to protect those who were either directly or indirectly involved in the lives
and/or event(s) being described.

7.2.2 Common Approaches

Below you will find some typical writing prompts that will allow you to begin writing a
narrative or memoir. Remember to stay focused and to tell a story when writing in this
genre.
"Write about someone significant in your life."
"Write about the worst/best, most significant/exciting/boring day of your life."
"If you had a chance to talk with a historical/famous/legendary/etc. person, what would
you talk about? Explain why."

7.2.3 Sample Assignment

There is not one right or best way to write a narrative or memoir. However, there are
certainly better ways to write in this genre than others. Read the following short samples of
an "excellent," "needs a little work," and "needs a lot of work" narrative writing assignment!
Because it should be a narrative, remember that the writer should be telling a story. All
grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors should be cleared up when editing. See Basic
Writing/Editing12 for more help. So the focus will be on content.
Assignment: "Write about someone significant in your life."
10
11
12

http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0181875/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_Little_Pieces
Chapter 4 on page 21

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Creative Writing
Needs a lot of work:
My mom is a significant person in my life. She has always taken good care of me. She
looks after my family and does a lot of hard work. My family couldn't make it without
my mom. I really love my mom a lot because of all she has done for me. She's a great
person. I tell my mom everything. She is probably my closest friend.
*This narrative needs a lot of work. There are very few specific details. Questions that
need to be answered are: How does she take good care of you? What kind of hard work
does she do? Why is she a great person? What kind of a person is she? What does she do
with the information you give her? What kind of sacrifices has she made for the family?
Answering these questions will really improve the writing. The audience wants to know
as much interesting information as you can tell them about this topic. Think about all
the details you see and hear in a movie or really good book. You don't need to reach that
level, but that should be your goal. Giving some specific, personal examples will help the
audience understand the writing and enjoy reading it. See the next example for a better
response to this assignment.
Needs a little work:
When I was young, I didn't get along very well with my mom. We used to fight a lot
and I just didn't understand her. She always seemed to be in my business and trying to
snoop around. I've always had really dry eyes. Sometimes they water to compensate or
get really red because they're so dry. My mom used to think I'd been crying and bug
me to death asking me if someone had hurt my feelings at school! I was a teenager!
But now me and my mom are best friends. I tell her everything and she tells me
everything. Sometimes we still disagree, but we've learned to understand and repsect
each other. We're very different people, but I don't know what I'd do without my mom.
She has always supported me and stood behind whatever I've wanted to do or be. She's
my biggest fan. In my mom's eyes, I could be the next great world leader, or a famous
ballerina, or the first astronaut to live on Mars. It took me a while to realize just how
significant my mom is to me, but now that I know, nothing will ever change the way I
feel about her.
*This narrative is better than the first one because it has more details and gives some
specific examples regarding the writer's relationship to her mom. However, it still needs a
little work because even more details could be provided to give the reader a clearer picture
of their relationship. For example, the reader doesn't know what has changed in this
relationship that led to the two of them becoming like "best friends."
Excellent:
When I was a teenager, I didn't get along very well with my mom. It seemed like we
fought on a daily basis and we rarely if ever understood where the other was coming
from. I felt so seperate from her and it was impossible to tell her about my problems
because all she would ever do is freak out.
I remember one particular fight in perfect clarity. We were having one of our good days that should've been the first warning sign. I was helping her weed the flower beds, telling
her about a conversation that I had had with my boyfriend's mom the previous night.

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Narrative and Memoir

When I was finished telling her about the advice that Janice shared with me about how
to reconcile with a friend of mine, my mom grew very quiet. I asked her if something was
wrong but she continued to stare at a stubborn dandelion in the middle of her peony bed.
Finally, she looked up at me. Frustration and anger filled her face and tears spilled down
her cheeks. "How come you never come to me anymore?" she spat. "Why do you have to
go to other moms to talk about your problems? Am I not good enough?"
I didn't really know what to say. I tried to reason with her, explaining that it's normal
for teenagers to talk to other parents about personal problems, but all she did was storm
off.
That was the day that I realized how much my mom actually meant to me. I knew from
her reaction that she felt devalued and even though we had our issues, I also knew that I
had a great mom. She had always taken care of me, provided for me, and as a young
child, she was my best friend. I wanted that back and from that day on, the two of us
worked on communcating better and getting to know each other all over again.
*This is an excellent example of a narrative because it provides necessary details to help
the reader understand the relationship between the mother and daughter. In the "needs
a little work" example, the writer did not explain how the mom and daughter became
"best friends." This is an important and significant detail. It is important to explain the
important details as much as possible in a story. To continue this writing, the writer will
probably give another example of how things were after they began to understand each
other better. This will give the audience a clear picture of the progress of the relationship.

7.2.4 Examples:
The following are example compositions written for an assignment where students were
asked to write narrative descriptions about a day they consider to be one of their worst.
(Note: Even though two of the following three examples have death as a theme, personal
narratives and memoirs can just as easily be written about smaller, less dramatic events
from one's life.)
Example 1:
It was the worst day of my life, and it was only 10:00am. Sitting in my dorm room
sobbing into the phone, my mom tried to calm me down. But she couldn't erase the pain
and misery, hurt and disappointment I was currently feeling. What had gone wrong?
Why was everyone against me? How would I get through the rest of the day... the week
with my injuries? Let me start from the beginning.
It was a cold, blustery day at Evangel University. I had spent the last few days preparing
for a presentation for my Children's Literature class, and I would soon go to the
preschool just down the road to teach a lesson for the preschoolers. I had made beautiful
little magnetic snowflakes that the students could take home with them. The snowflakes

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Creative Writing
went along with the story I'd be reading in about an hour.
I was completely prepared and had spent a lot of time thinking through the lesson and
carefully paying attention to detail. As I was about to leave, I recognized how miserably
cold it was outside and wondered if I could find a ride, even though the preschool was
actually on campus. I asked my roommate if I could borrow her car, knowing there was
little chance since it was a leased vehicle and her dad had forbidden her to let anyone
drive it. But I thought it wouldn't hurt to ask. She turned me down. She also wasn't
able to take me because she had to go to class herself. She apologized, but didn't seem
too sympathetic. (What really irked me was that I found out later that she had let her
boyfriend borrow her car for a much longer drive than the one I needed to take! I've
since forgiven her... I think.)
Next I tried to call my brother, but couldn't get a hold of him. He was probably in class
as well. Due to the early hour, most everyone was in class, so no one else was around
to ask either. So I bundled up in my warmest, flannel-lined overalls and fur coat and
trekked down to the preschool. The snow swirled around me in fury and I was near to
tears with my own inner-fury at my roommate who could have helped me avoid this
situation.
Gladly arriving at the preschool, I barged in ready to teach my well-prepared lesson,
only to discover that another classmate was there teaching her lesson. I couldn't believe
it! I knew I had written down the correct date, but something went wrong. The regular
teachers didn't have time to fill me in that day, so instead of teaching my beautifully
created lesson, I left to trudge back up the hill in the angry snow. Tears streaming down
my face, I arrived back at the dorm. I was wearing my clunky wooden clogs and ran up
the stairs as I had done a thousand times before. But I slipped...
*This example is a memoir because it's a slice of life as opposed to a complete autobiography. It shows a picture of one day in the life of this person. It is the emotional
retelling of a story from the narrator's perspective. Notice that the narrator does not
focus on relationships or events surrounding this one event, but just on the event itself.
The focus is all of the details that caused this day to be the worst of this person's life. If
other threads such as the relationship with the roommate or details about the Children's
Literature class had been added, the focus would have been lost in the muddle of too many
details.
In a memoir, the focus must stay tight. Think of taking a picture with a camera. Think
about what you want to be in the picture and what would distract from the picture. Have
you ever taken a picture where there was a lot of white space at the top and what was
supposed to be the focus: the people, are just tiny dots at the bottom? This is what
happens to a story when the focus is too broad. See the Basic Writing/Invention13 section
of this book wikitext for help on narrowing your topic.
Example 2:

13

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Chapter 1 on page 5

Narrative and Memoir

On my worst day I was supposed to get up early so I could get out to my folks house on
account that my mama needed me to help her take our old dog to the vet. My mama
needed my help because shes not a very big person and our dog is really big. She also
has a bad knee. My mama, I mean, not the dog. Well anyway our dog is one of them
Great Pyrenees, a great big white monster of a thing, and shes got arthritis in her hips
and spine something bad. So my mama had to make an appointment to have her put
down because our dog couldnt even stand to eat or pee anymore. Thats how bad off
she was, you see.
So here I was supposed to get up early to help my mama load the dog into her car and
my alarm doesnt go off. Luckily I wake up on my own and Im not all that late yet
so I hurry up and get dressed and run out of the house to my truck. Then I take off
towards my folks house kind of fast because Im already behind schedule and Im about
half way there when all of a sudden I get a flat tire. Making matters worse is the fact
that its raining outside, been raining all night in fact and I guess thats why my alarm
didnt work. So I pull half into the ditch because the road doesnt have a shoulder and
of course the flat tire is on the passenger side which means that I have to work in the
mud. Even worse my little bottle jack wont lift the truck on account it keeps sinking
into the ground. Well lately Id had some bricks in the bed of my pick-up but when I go
to get them out they arent there. Now Im pissed because Im late, Ive got a flat tire, I
cant get the jack to work because its raining and the ground is too soft, and some
jackass has stolen a handful of worthless bricks from the bed of my truck. This on top of
the fact that our old dogs got to be put down and my mama needs me to be there. Still
determined to make it, I root around in the ditch till I find a couple of rocks I can put
under the jack. I finally get my tire changed but by then Im soaked to the bone and
covered in mud, which means that I get my seat all wet and muddy too.
Finally I make it out to my folks place and my mama is sitting in the front yard with
our dog and holding an umbrella over her. I can plainly see that shes in pretty bad
shape, worse than the last time I saw her. The dog, I mean, not my mama, although
shes looking pretty down herself. She doesnt bother to ask why Im all wet and muddy,
so I know things are bad for sure. When I try to pick our old dog up to put her in the
back of my mamas Jimmy she yelps real loud and snaps at me. I decided then and
there that getting her to the vet wasnt going to work. She was too heavy and in too
much pain to be messing with. So I went and got my old red wagon out of my dads
shop and carefully my mama and me lifted her onto it.
My mama knew what had to be done and so she says her goodbyes to our old dog.
Then I roll her slowly around the house to where weve buried other pets in the
past and I dig a fairly large hole. When I am finished I sit on the ground beside
the old red wagon and talk to our dog for a bit, tell her what shes meant to me all
these years and that I am going to miss her. Id rather not say what happened after that other than I like to believe she understood it all and that it came as a relief to her.
When I get back to my place later I realize that Id left in such a hurry earlier that Id
locked myself out of the house. It had stopped raining by then, though, so I just sit for

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Creative Writing
a while in a lawn chair there on my porch. Then I look over and see the bricks still lying
there where Id stacked them a few days before and forgotten. Suddenly I start laughing
then and cant stop, keep laughing till tears run down my cheeks. Looking back on it
now that seems pretty weird since it had been such a terrible day.
*This example, like the one above it, is also memoir. It is similar in that it also describes
a day in the writer's life and is necessarily limited only to those details that are relevant
to the story and that move the narrative forward. A good exercise, though, might be to
examine how these two samples from the same genre are different. Do both sound as if
they are spoken by the same "voice"? What details from each might you use to argue the
speakers' gender? Does either "sound" female/male? Also note that Example 2 reads
much more like spoken language--is that appropriate for this genre, or should the writer
have written in a more academic or formal manner?
Example 3:
I was standing in the middle of Dollar Tree, leaning on my cart, when I said, "What?"
to my mom telling me about my little black cat, Baby, being found dead a few days
earlier. "Baby's dead, honey." I couldn't say anything. What could I say? I had been
the one to take her to the farm thinking that she would adjust and be happier as a
farm cat. Besides, I had too many cats, six actually, and Baby and Ginger had been
the most logical choices to relocate. Both of them were unhappy living in such a small
environment with four other cats. Baby suffered from anxiety problems and Ginger
just wanted more territory. She was always so bitchy, hissing like she owned everything
and everyone. Adorable, yes, but incredibly bitchy. Baby just wanted to be alone, or
with me. The only way I could get her to come out of hiding is if I'd sing to her - any
song with her name in it. Her favorite one was the one from the movie Dirty Dancing
"Ba-byyy, ohh-ohhh ba-byyy, my sweet ba-byyy, you're the one. . ." When I'd sing it to
her, she'd roll 'on the floor and rub against me as if to say, "I reeeaaallly love you!" I'll
never be able to listen to that song without missing her now.

<br>

"Honey, are you alright?" my mom asked quietly. No, I'm not alright. I knew something
was wrong. I had a feeling several days ago - one of those feelings that tell you something
is wrong, but I chose to ignore it. "How did she die?" I ask, trying to keep my emotions
under control. It's no use though, tears start streaking my face and Dollar Tree
customers are beginning to stare. "They found her dead in the cabin," mom said, her
voice choking, "I'm so sorry, hon." "She was still in the cabin?!" I practically shout into
the phone. "I thought Laura picked her up to take her to her house." Mom grew quiet.
After a few moments she said, "They never could catch her. Dad said that they looked
for her every day. They moved the furniture and everything but they couldn't find her.
Now they think that maybe she might have climbed behind the fridge to hide."
I was livid, but I knew it would just kill mom and dad if I blamed them for this. Despite
this fact, I had to ask one last question, "Mom, why didn't you guys call me and tell me
that you were having problems with her? I could've come home to take care of her. I

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Narrative and Memoir

told you that I smelled natural gas or something on the day that we dropped her off at
the cabin. Why didn't someone call me?!" At this point I was hysterical and customers
were steering their shopping carts way around me. When my mom finally answered her
comforting voice was gone. Replacing it was one of defense and insensitivity. "We did
the best we could! Dad's been so depressed lately and this almost pushed him over the
edge. He knows how much you love your cats and he's blaming himself. It's not his fault
and it's not yours either! Do you hear me?"
All I could do was cry. I didn't want to hurt them, but I just couldn't understand why
they chose not to call me. And I do blame myself. I knew that something was wrong,
and knowing that she was alone in that cabin for two weeks, going through god knows
what, thinking god knows what, well it just killed me inside. I was filled with guilt. I
had rescued her as a baby, beaten and left for dead and now, seven years later I just
pawn her off on someone else and she dies alone? I don't even want to know how much
pain she may have been in. How in the world will I deal with the guilt of knowing that
all of this could've been avoided? How?
*This example is also similar to the above examples so the same comments apply. It is a
narrative memoir, however there are two elements within this memoir that set it apart
from the above examples. First of all, it includes dialogue which is somewhat tricky when
writing. The most important thing to remember is that dialogue should sound natural like the voice of the person speaking. Practice saying it out loud as if reading a script for
an audition. Also, when using dialogue make sure the reader can understand who is
saying what.
Another element that was included in this example was a specific use of stylized writing
during the recitation of Baby's favorite song and her response to that song. This style of
writing is becoming more popular in mainstream writing - especially comedic novels. An
example of this style of writing can be found throughout the novel, The Nanny Diaries,
by Emma McLaughlin and Nicola Kraus.
14

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8 Writing about reading

A common form of writing is a basic reading response paper. Short of an essay or longer
thesis analyzing text, the summary and critique are often employed to identify details or
provide support to a more lengthy assignment to the reading. Teachers assign summaries to
ensure students' understanding of the reading material or build a composite of background
knowledge for future assignment. When teachers assign critique, they are looking for a
reaction to the reading material that involves specific detail. Summary and critique are
common elements in many assignments other than formal papers, including reading response
journals, book reports, and essay exams.

8.1 Summary
A basic report on a reading is a summary.
A summary is generally a shorter paper, detailing the action of a text. Summaries are used
in order for you to prove you have read the text and have thought about the content. Since
summaries are generally shorter works, they may be a part of a larger project in the course.
Students sometimes write summaries with their teacher in mind as the audience, although
the teacher has read the text several times. However, when you write a summary, assume
you are writing the paper for someone who has not read the book you are describing.
Think about the type of text you are reading and take notes.
Make highlights. If you are reading a story, you will want to keep track of the order of
events. If you are reading a persuasive article, you will want to keep track of main ideas and
arguments. These notes will make quick reference when it is time to write the summary.
Assignment sheets can be helpful.
If you have an assignment sheet, look over the content carefully to see what the teacher
expects. Your instructor may have listed a specific question that you need to answer or
some specific issue for focus. If the instructor hasn't provided an assignment sheet, don't
be afraid to ask questions to better understand what is expected of you. Dont go into the
writing assignment without understanding of the expectations or guidelines (always ask!).

8.1.1 Format
In the summary, name or make reference to the text and the focus of your writing. For
instance, if you are writing a paper summarizing the Odyssey with a focus on the conflict
between Poseidon and Odysseus, consider this opening sentence:

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In the Odyssey, Odysseus struggles against Poseidon in order to get back home.
This sentence makes direct reference to the assignment and the reading. The following
summary will detail the action with a focus on the conflict of Odysseus and Poseidon. The
teacher is aware of the focus since the topic is outlined in the opening sentence. The rest of
the essay will be a summary of the action with reference to the opening sentence.
Here's an example of a complete (very brief) reading summary responding to the prompt,
Summarize the conflict between Odysseus and Poseidon in the Odyssey.
In the Odyssey, Odysseus struggles against Poseidon to return to Ithaca. Zeus, at the
request of Athena, calls for a consensus among the gods to allow Odysseus to return
home safely. Missing from the meeting atop Mt. Olympus is Poseidon who is still angry
with Odysseus for blinding his son Polyphemus. As Odysseus sails from the shores of the
Cyclops Polyphemus prays to his father to bestow the curse that if Odysseus is to return
home that it be many darks years before it happens. Polyphemus curse is granted by
Poseidon, his father, and the consequence for Odysseus action is to suffer wind, wave,
and storm on his every return to sea for ten long years.
Always use specific names of places, people, and references in your writing as evidence to
your teacher that you have read the material closely. If you have time, it is never a bad idea
to work through drafts to use more precise terms and language. Develop your sentences by
using sentence combining techniques to connect more ideas and details to your thoughts.

8.2 Critique
Critique is also called evaluation, analysis, or interpretation. Teachers will often
ask for a response to a reading assignment which goes beyond summary, one which analyzes
a text and explains why it works (or doesn't). A summary is assigned to make sure you
understand the reading, but for a critique you are showing your ability to think critically
and make judgments about the assigned reading using details, support, evidence.

8.2.1 Literary critique

A literary critique is an analysis of a story or poem.
Sample assignment:
Critique Homer's presentation of courage in the Odyssey.

8.2.2 Format
A good way to approach your critique is to begin with a thesis in order to layout your
argument.
Sample thesis:
In Homer's Odyssey, courage is the risk of self for ideals.

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Critique
This thesis works as a statement that can be supported. The sentence is put forward as a
statement of argument to move forward with elaboration. Notice this claim of courage can
be supported by examples from the reading.
Supporting the thesis requires finding those details that support your claim. Finding details
can includes using notes, rereading the text, or class discussion to provide evidence to the
claim of the thesis. Any details should serve as direct evidence: quotes, summary, paraphrase
in direct support to the thesis statement.
Samples of evidence:
In direct reaction to Eurylochus's objection of possibly being consumed by Circe and
saving themselves, Odysseus charges up to save his men who have been turned to pigs
by the witch.
To allow his men to escape the Sirens, he has his men tie him to the mast and endures
the Siren song.
Even so, evidence by itself is insufficient. Show how it fits together by providing explanation
of your evidence to the thesis statement.
Sample paragraph:
In Homer's Odyssey, courage is the risk of self for ideals. Odysseus puts the life of his
crew before the concern for self in his actions. In Eurylochus's return from the witch
Circe, where twenty-three men have been lost to her sorcery, he reasons they should put
out to sea in order to avoid further loss. Odysseus, without reservation, goes after his
men (book 10). His thought is for his men and not his self, similar to his selfless action
of exposure to the Sirens' song. As his men safely row past the harpies with beeswax
in their ears, Odysseus endures the torturous song until they have gone a safe distance
(book 12). Homer presents Odysseus's courage as sacrifice for those important to him.
It is a good practice to use quotations where the exact words are necessary. Do not rely
too heavily upon direct quotation, pure summary, or paraphrase - use explanation to show
relationship between ideas. This is where an assignment sheet or discussion with your teacher
may be helpful to clarify the expectation.

8.2.3 Argument critique

In the academic world, argument doesn't mean fighting--it means making a point using
reasoning. The example above of the Odyssey analyzes literature rather than an argument.
Literary analysis may be familiar from high school assignments, but college assignments more
frequently require you to analyze an argument--to critique someone's reasoning. Instead of
looking at plot, characters, and setting, you'll look at the author's reasons, evidence, and
how it supports her main point. Besides this, the process of analysis is much the same: you
will need a thesis about the author's argument and supporting details drawn from their
reasons and evidence.
Although a good critique often starts with a relevant summary, keep in mind your goal-making your own point about the author's argument. Also ask your professor whether you
are supposed to take a side on the issue the author is arguing about. Unless your instructor

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asks you to take a stance, concentrate on the author's presentation of the issue, not whether
you agree with the stance he or she takes. Remember, a person may have bad reasons for
believing right things or good reasons for believing wrong things.
Some elements to focus on:

The writer's credibility: Does the writer seem reasonable? Is she an expert in the field?
Underlying assumptions: Does the writer seem to assume everyone holds her viewpoint?
Emotional appeals: Does the author play on the reader's emotions? Does that work?
Evidence: Does the author have good reasons and examples to support her conclusion?
Room for improvement: What would have made the argument more convincing?

Sample assignment:
Analyze one of the articles we read for this unit and explain whether or not the author
does a good job making his or her case.
Sample thesis:
Martin Luther King successfully defends himself against the criticisms of white clergymen
through sensitivity to his audience.
Samples of evidence:
King builds credibility by referring to the Bible.
King concedes that his audience has good points.
Sample paragraph:
In "Letter from Birmingham Jail," Martin Luther King successfully defends himself
against the criticisms of white clergymen through sensitivity to his audience. He does
this first by building his credibility as a fellow clergyman, quoting and alluding to the
Bible throughout the letter. He also avoids making his audience confrontational by
conceding his reader's most reasonable points: King admits that negotiation is a better
approach than protest, but he argues that negotiation isn't possible until people are
willing to listen. By setting himself up as a reasonable, Godly man, King does his best
to gain the sympathy of the white clergy who opposed his methods.
Notice how the critique focuses on how King argues rather than whether he was right or
wrong. It also does more than simply summarize the letter--it makes a specific point about
it and backs that point up with examples from the text.

8.3 Conclusion
After a whole process of content-writing, you still need to draw a natural and complete
conclusion of what you've already written down to restate and strengthen your points of
view with which the readers could get a better understanding of the central idea of your
paper. Just make it a beautiful final stroke on your paper!

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Essay exams

8.4 Essay exams

In many courses, you may find yourself asked to write an in-class essay, or essay exam. An
essay exam will often ask for a summary or critique of readings for the class, so the major
techniques are the same. The common "five paragraph essay" is at its most useful in the
essay exam: write an introduction with a clear thesis, about three subpoints which prove or
illustrate your point, and a conclusion that ties it all together. This doesn't mean you can't
be creative, but an essay exam is most different from take-home essays in the amount of
time you have to work on it. You can't do anything too complicated. There are a few tips
we can share with you to get through an essay exam:
Many instructors will give you a list of possible questions on the test. Study them! There
is no substitute for understanding the assigned reading.
Find out if you are allowed to use your reading material or notes during the exam.
If you are allowed to use notes and the instructor has shared questions that may
appear on the exam, write an outline for each question ahead of time. You don't want
to waste time during the actual exam trying to think of good examples.
If you are not allowed to use notes, write outlines anyway. Study them at home and
review them before the exam. You can write them down as soon as you begin the
exam. (Even if the exam begins with multiple choice, you can turn it over and write
it down before you forget.)
Prewrite. Think about the question and figure out what you want to say.
If you already know the questions that will be on the exam, do your prewriting at
home so you can spend more time writing during the exam.
If you didn't know the questions ahead of time, read the question carefully and prewrite
on a piece of scrap paper or on the exam itself. (You can erase it afterward.) Write
an outline.
Don't ramble. Have a clear structure in mind before you start writing. Stick to this
outline.
After you finish, check to make sure your main point is clear and stays the same throughout
the essay. Remember, even a summary has a main point.
If you are writing a critique, check to make sure your line of reasoning is clear and makes
sense.
Fix major errors, but don't spend all your time on grammar--your instructor wants you
to show you understand the material.

8.5 Citations
Don't forget about citations1 . When your writing refers to texts written by others, citations
help the readers of your paper to locate the information from your source. When you don't
cite your source, your reader assumes that everything you wrote came out our your own
mind. A basic rule of thumb with citations is that if the idea is not your own, you should
cite the source. This will help protect you from plagiarism. Consequences for plagiarism

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/557/01/

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Writing about reading

can be quite severe, so always ask your instructor for advice if you're not sure when or how
to cite.
2

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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Category%3A

9 Public Affairs writing

Public Affairs Writing:

9.1 Definition
Public affairs writing is the term used for publications written with the purpose of expressing
comments, ideas or concerns to a target audience. It is also used simply as a source of
informing. Some common forms of public affairs writing include letters to the editor, letters
to your congressman, or the more recent genre of e-mails and blogs. The content is usually
opinion driven with the purpose of informing or persuading the audience.

9.2 Importance of Public Affairs Writing

What kind of government would we have if our citizens didn't get involved? If you are
reading this, there's a good chance you have the intention of improving your writing, and
therefore yourself. You are probably also aware of your political, educational and economic
circumstances. Chances are you've also got your own opinions of them. Public affairs
writing can be used constructively on a personal or public level to share your thoughts and
experiences to a broad range of audiences. It's important to become involved on a civil level
with your community and peers. What would you write a letter to your congressman about?
What would you say to the editor of that last newspaper article you read? Learning the
correct forms of public affairs writing can give you the tools you need to make a difference
in the public arena.

9.3 Examples of Public Affairs Writing

Editorial or Op-Ed: An editorial or op-ed is an opinion piece that is typically found in
newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters, or other types of periodical publications. A
writer will select a controversial, generally topical or relevant issue and then compose a
persuasive piece in which they express their beliefs about the issue. Usually editorials
are written by professional writers, but sometimes a magazine or newspaper will publish
editorials by regular peopleeven college students, for that matter.
Letter to the Editor: Nearly all periodical publicationsnewspapers, magazines, online
publicationsoffer the opportunity for the public to interact with the ideas expressed in
the publication, allowing their own voices to be heard. The forum for this exchange of
information is generally called the Letters to the Editor section. The format for these

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writing samples is similar to ordinary letters that you would perhaps send to a friend or
a relative, except the style is usually more formal, the writing more polished, the tone
is generally persuasive, and the content involves a reaction to something printed in the
publication. Sometimes a letter to the editor is simply a congratulations on a job well done
for a particular article or feature. Other times (more frequently) the letter writer takes issue
with something printed.
Letter to a Policy Maker (i.e. Congressman, Governor, etc...): A significant part of being an
active member of your community is taking an interest in public policy. After all, public
policy affects everyone. Thus, it is important to make your voice be heard (an opportunity
we all have in our democratic society), and writing to the public officials who directly
contribute to the intricacies of daily life is one significant method in achieving this goal.
Proposal: A proposal is a stated plan of action or suggested solution to a problem. Proposals
are common in the business world and politics. Examples would include a proposal for a to
counter negative employment trends or to improve student performance in education.
Flyer/Brochure/Pamphlet/Advertisement: These are all examples of materials distributed
to the public in the hopes of influencing public opinion. These materials often try to appeal
to emotion and they tend to include an emphasis on visual literacy.
Internet Journal/Weblog: Welcome to the Information Age! These days the Internet and
electronic media are far more prevalent in our society than print material. If you really have
an interest in social issues that affect the public, and you want a large audience to read and
respond to your ideas, then a weblog or "blog" is the way to go.

9.4 Writing an Editorial: A Journey Through the Writing

Process
The following is a sample writing process that details a student's writing process for writing
an editorial. The assignment states to write a 2-3 page editorial about a controversial issue
that interests her.
1. Inventing:
A. The first step is to come up with ideas for the editorial. The student (let's call her Mary)
begins by brainstorming a list of topics that she considers interesting. She lists such various
topics as educational issues, birth control rights, and environmental problems. After briefly
considering each issue separately, she decides on education, a topic that interests her a great
deal.
B. Next, Mary realizes that she will have to narrow her topic down. After all education is a
huge topic that includes any number of controversial issues. Once again she brainstorms a
list of topics: teacher salaries, standardized testing, student uniforms. Mary considers the
scope of her assignment-the page length is 2-3 pages, and she understands that some issues
are probably to complex to sufficiently tackle in such a short amount. She decides to write
about school uniforms.
C. Finally, before drafting Mary realizes that she will need to have a preliminary thesis in
order to begin. After all, the thesis is the main point of a paper, so she needs to have a goal

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for her paper. Mary decides that she will argue that school uniforms will be beneficial to
student performance.
2. Drafting:
A. Next Mary begins the process of drafting, or actually writing, her paper. She begins with
an introduction that incorporates her personal experience of attending a high school that
did not require uniforms. She briefly details her high school experience as being problematic:
poor student behavior, low grades, a surprising high dropout rate.
B. Mary then focuses on her body in which she discusses the possible benefits of school
uniforms: more discipline, less focus on materialism and superficial appearances, a more
responsible student outlook.
C. Finally, Mary drafts a conclusion in which she reiterates her main thesis and ends by
calling her audience to action.
3. Revising:
A. After writing a complete first draft, Mary goes back and considers her paper. She decides
that while some personal experience is okay, she has used too much personal narrative and
she eliminates some of it. Then she decides to tighten her argument and add more examples
of evidence.
B. Then, Mary decides to improve her thesis statement by qualifying it slightly. She writes
that school uniforms may improve student performance if integrated into problem schools.
4. Editing:
A. Finally, Mary turns her attention to editing. She reads through everything, catches a few
grammatical errors and changes some words in order to clarify her meaning.
B. At last, the assignment is complete.

9.5 Writing a Letter to the Editor

If a local issue is weighing heavily on your mind, a letter to the editor can serve as a means
to make your voice heard. The following are examples of issues that may prompt a letter to
the editor:
Local school issues (bond issues, board of education decisions, etc.)
Local electoral races
Environmental issues
A public "thank you"
When writing your letter, think about your audience and reasons one may have to disagree
with your opinion. In considering those opinions, address the anticipated disagreements in
your letter. Consider what points would make a convincing case, and build your letter to
support these points.

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9.5.1 Letter to the Editor Exercise

Choose an issue which affects you at the local level. Determine what stance you will take on
the issue. Organize your thoughts clearly and concisely. Do not make personal attacks; they
make you seem small and petty, and may, in fact, negate your position.

9.6 Writing to a Policy Maker

Be brief. Limit your letter to one page if possible, but no more than two pages. Get to the
point. Address one issue if possible but never more than two different issues. You can add
an attachment to your letter that contains more detail if you wish.
Make no demands. But give the member of congress and staff a recommended course of
action to support. Never condemn, threaten or inject partisan politics into your letter.
Doing so can only undermine your credibility. Keep your eye on the ball and stick to the
points you want to make.
All politics is local. Remember to make the link to your members district or state. Stress the
contributions that your institution can make and the benefits the community and country
receives from supporting biomedical research.
Timing matters. A letter arriving by mail or fax after the House or Senate has taken action
is meaningless. Get your facts right and make certain your letter is considered in time.
Use caution with e-mail. While many offices are increasingly relying on e-mail for constituent
contact, surveys show it is not as effective as a typewritten letter. Members receive a great
deal of e-mail from non-constituents, which are dismissed. E-mail correspondence also tends
to be written in a faster and more informal style than letters, increasing errors in grammar
and syntax and making your message unclear.

9.6.1 Composing Your Letter

Know what your purpose is and make it clear early in the letter.
Collect all the information you will need for your letter and jot down the basic order in
which you plan to cover this information. Organize your material in the most persuasive
order.
Keep your reader in mind as you write. Select a tone for your letter which is appropriate
for the reader. Always be courteous and use positive rather than negative words.
Avoid the use of words and phrases which are stiff, technical, or overused. Use a writing
style which is natural and easy to read.
Read your first draft out loud to test it for overall "sound" and effectiveness. Be sure
your letter states clearly what it is you want your reader to know after he or she reads
your letter.
Follow the correct form for the kind of letter you are writing and use that form throughout
your letter.

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Resources
Make sure your final copy is typed or written neatly and is attractive in appearance.
Revise and proofread your letter the same way you would any other piece of writing.
Look for errors in sentence structure, usage, punctuation, spelling, and capitalization.

9.7 Resources
If you are ready to become politically involved but are unsure of who to contact or where
here are some resources you can use.
--To find your local congressman or state senators you could go to a major search engine
(such as yahoo) and type in the city, county or state which you are targeting and the word
"government" or try www.congress.org
--To write a letter to the editor or an opinion piece in your local newspaper, check the
publication you are writing to. They will each usually have their own specific instructions.
--To submit a piece to a magazine, it is important to be familiar with the publication. You
need to be sure you are addressing your target audience. Instructions for submission are
usually found within the magazine itself. Be sure to include a brief description of yourself
on a separate paper.
--One resource of influence that is not often thought of in our high-tech society is that of
local bulletin boards. We've all seen these at local businesses and government offices, usually
those old-fashioned cork boards. Why not use them? You can get your point or idea across
to many people quite cheaply if you utilize these free advertising spaces. Once you have
your flyer or pamphlet ready don't be shy! Use those public notification spaces. This is
especially applicable to government related issues.

9.8 Practice Assignment

Let's get a good feel for becoming involved with this assignment-to complete a letter to your
local congressman. Follow the suggested steps below to create a letter of your own.
1. First, identify an issue in the current news that has some impact or influence on your life.
Also, your teacher may assign a current topic to you.
2. Second, make an outline of your personal ideas on the subject. You may ask questions
like: Do I agree with the current actions or issues? How does this affect me or my family?
What can be done to improve the situation? Or, you could consider how to thank your
representative for a job well done.
3. Follow the outline in the Public Affairs Writing section entitled Formats for your letter.
4. Write your letter!
5. Proofread or revise as necessary. You may workshop these letters in class and focus on
issues such as; Is the point clearly stated? Is the wording polite and courteous? Is it an
effective argument or could it use some clarification?

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6. Send your letters in the mail! This assignment is pointless unless you truly feel that your
voice will be heard. Take that final step of dropping it in the mail and know that your hard
work will be recognized not only by your instructor, but also by your political representation.
Good job!
Example: There are different format ideals for different types of public affairs writing. A
letter to your state congressman would be a good format to learn for the public affairs arena
. It should look something like this:
The Honorable (Full Name here)
US House of Representatives
Washington, DC 20515
Dear Representative (Last name here),
This is where you put the content of your letter. It's a good idea to begin with your name and
city of residence. Be sure the purpose of your letter is addressed in this first paragraph. Be
polite and to the point. Remember to use an appropriate tone for a political representative
(you're not talking to your classmate).
Keep the letter one page or less and only address one issue per letter. You only have one
chance here to be heard so be sure not to ramble. Use specific real-life examples related to
your issue, if possible.
In conclusion be sure to thank your congressman for their time.
Sincerely, Your constituent (your name here)

9.9 Another Practice Assignment

The Internet Assignment: The Discussion Board
Due to the rapidly expanding use of technology in our society, many instructors are beginning
to incorporate technology into the writing class. One common practice is the use of the
Internet discussion board in order to stimulate class discussion in an environment that is
outside the classroom. Some students actually feel more comfortable with virtual discussion
than regular discussion because they have the chance to express their ideas using an assumed
name--thus, they have the freedom of anonymity. Other students who have problems with
speaking up in class due to shyness or insecurities have the ability to gather their thoughts
before they release them into the public.
The Discussion Board assignment is designed to get students to think about important issues
and to express their ideas in an environment where they will get responses to their writing.
Assignment: Let's practice using this medium. Pretend that your instructor has created a
discussion board. (Or perhaps he or she actually has.) The discussion board instructs the
class to debate whether or not technology has had a positive effect on society as a whole.
How would you respond? What aspects of the question should you explore? How would you
support your argument?

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Another Practice Assignment

What makes for effective online discussion? Effective online discussion involves a thoughtful
and mature discussion of the question in which each party contributes something worthwhile
and bounces ideas off each other. You should be prepared to have other people disagree with
you. You should also be prepared to support your own opinions and to not take anything
personally.
Rules of Online Discussion:
-Do not take disagreements personally and do not respond to arguments that you disagree
with by attacking the person who made them. Do not respond to personal attacks. Keep
the discussion on topic.
-Stay focused on the question. Avoid getting off track by asking personal questions or
bringing up irrelevant topics.
-Keep your language friendly and appropriate. Avoid profanity, derogatory language, and
sexist, racist, or homophobic remarks.
-Do not type your responses in all capital letters. This gives the impression that you are
shouting and it is considered rude.
-Keep emoticons such as the smiley face :) to a minimum. One or two is okay, but if you
use them constantly then you will appear very unprofessional, and people may not take you
seriously.
-Try to use proper spelling and grammar. A few abbreviations are okay, but if you use too
many, then other people may become confused and not understand what you are saying.
The discussion board should be more formal than an Internet chat with friends.
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10 Investigative writing
10.1 Introduction to Investigative Writing
10.1.1 Definition
Investigative writing is writing that is meant to defend a thesis while exploring various
areas of a topic.
Investigative writing sets out to investigate a topic and report the findings to the reader. It
is an extremely versatile form of writing that can span all kinds of topics and genres. It
can be anything from a newspaper article to an entire book based on one specific research
subject. Investigative writing provides a chance to help answer questions for the readers
and the writer.

10.1.2 Well known examples

Investigative writing is the basis of some very intriguing works in many genres including
books, film, television, and other media.
Investigative reporting on television programs, like 60 Minutes or 20/20, features some of
the most obvious examples of investigative writing. Although viewers do not physically read
the shows' scripts for themselves, the writing done to prepare for each show is investigative
writing nonetheless.
Truman Capote's In Cold Blood is an example of book-length investigative nonfiction. Capote
investigated the murder of a family in Kansas. There have also been a few film versions, like
the recent Capote.
Many documentaries on film or television are investigative as well. The documentary Super
Size Me was a way for documentarian Morgan Spurlock to explore the correlation between
obesity and fast food in the United States. The film sought after the answer to the question:
What would happen if someone ate nothing but McDonald's for a month?

10.1.3 Oh, the possibilities

Many students dread the assignment of a research project or paper, but there is great
potential for such an assignment to involve your own interest and still satisfy the teachers'
requirements.

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Every single field has the need for research and for questions to be asked. Whether you are
interested in math, military, literature, history, or something you saw in the media, you can
let your questions about the topic lead you to an interesting research project.

10.2 Forming Your Question

If you read the previous section, you know that investigative writing can play an important
role in all fields, yet you may not be certain how to begin your own assignment. The simple
way to begin is with a question or preferably many questions.

10.2.1 Those all important wh- words, and how!

What, who, when, where, why, and how are key words that can help you get started. Your
initial question may be, "What political factors would have influenced Dickens depiction of
London in David Copperfield?" You could also ask when, where, why, how, or even more
what questions based on that topic. The key is to ask many questions and keep an eye out
for a question that could lead you to a solid thesis.

10.2.2 Inspiration for finding the question

It depends on how wide a variety of subjects your teacher allows, but in general, questions
can come from your class reading or something you observe in your daily life. If you have
the chance it is best to get your questions written down as soon as possible--a bit of a
brainstorming session can be a good way to get your ideas down so you do not forget them!
You could compile a list of the questions or map out your questions and ideas to see other
possible links.
You do not necessarily need to know the answer to any of the questions when you begin,
but the question you choose to answer should be something that you find interesting and
that you could answer after a little research and reflection.
Also, try to ask open-ended questions or questions that are going to require some explanation.
SIMPLE: Who was the first president of the United States?
SIMPLE: When did George Washington serve as president of the United States?
EXPLORATORY: Why was George Washington chosen to be the first president of the
United States?
Note: While all of the wh- questions probably need to be answered, "why" or "how" questions
are often the best questions on which to base your entire paper.

10.2.3 Questions in all fields of study

What do people use that gives off the most carbon emissions? (Science: Ecology)
Who caused the Great Chicago Fire? (History)

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When did blues music first start in America? (Music)
Where is gasoline sold at the cheapest price to the public? (Economics)
Why is Italy the setting for so many of Shakespeare's plays? (Literature)
How did cavemen make their cave paintings? (Art)

10.3 Research
Why Perform Research?
During research, you often discover new information.
You probably perform some type of research more often than you realize. When you make a
decision to take a class for college, you might look through the college catalog to find out
information on the class description. When you decide to purchase a car, you will probably
want to review information related to different models. When you are assigned a paper on a
specific topic in one of your classes, you will perform research to obtain as much information
on the subject as possible.
Credibility
After you have obtained the necessary information through your research, you need to decide
which sources of information are credible enough to use in your paper. You may have sifted
through an enormous amount of data, and now it is time to put everything together--but is
that article from "Reader's Digest" as credible as the one from "The Journal of the American
Medical Association"? The latter information would probably be more credible for your
piece than the other.
One good rule of thumb to use when deciding on credibility is to ask yourself: "Does this
information come from a peer-reviewed journal or other peer-reviewed text?" Peer-reviewed
simply means experts in that field of study have read the article and approved its publication.
If you are investigating an article that deals with contamination in the Ozarks' ground water
supply and one source is the Springfield News-letter and the other is the peer-reviewed
"Scientific Journal," the journal article probably holds more credibility because it is peerreviewed. This is not to say that the contents of the newspaper article are incorrect, but
it helps your own article seem more reliable if you have researched information that is
considered first-class in its field.
Also beware of information garnished from websites, blogs, forums, and other types of internet
sources that are written by people with complete autonomy. Much of the information found
on the internet is based on unqualified opinions or misinterpretations of facts. Information
on the internet runs the risk of being highly biased and outright inaccurate.

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10.3.1 Sources
Primary Sources
Determining if your sources are primary or secondary means determining what is first-hand
information and what is merely the re-telling of that information through a third party of
some type.
First, let's look at primary sources. Primary sources present first-hand knowledge about
a certain topic. In other words, these sources are presented by someone who experienced
something first hand. Elie Wiesel's Night and the diary of Anne Frank are both first-hand
accounts of the horrors of the Holocaust. On the other hand, a play based on Anne Frank's
life written by someone who read her diary and an encyclopedia article about Nazi death
camps written by a historian not present at the time they existed would be considered
secondary sources.
First-hand documents might include court records, original interviews, diaries giving firsthand accounts of information, journals, etc. You can also say that primary sources keep
records of events as they have been described--without the use of interpretation or commentary by someone else. They can also include information gathered from data that has not
been manipulated or interpreted by someone else.
Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are an analysis of the primary source through a restatement, restructuring,
or re-interpretation. All subsequent material, such as interpretations or studies that are based
on the primary source, are considered secondary sources. Primary sources are often used as
a base for secondary sources in order to argue a point or persuade an audience towards a
certain outcome or opinion. Examples of secondary sources might include encyclopedias,
textbooks, dictionaries, and books and articles whose main purpose is to interpret or review
work done in the field of research. Examples of primary and secondary sources:
Primary Source
Art: Original artwork, History: "The Diary of Anne Franke," Literature: An original poem,
Political Science Original: "The Bill of Rights," Theatre: A taping of a live play production.
Secondary Source
Art: An article reviewing the original work, History: A Book about Jews escaping Nazi
terrorism, Literature: A critique of the original poetry, Political Science: An essay on the
founding fathers' work on the Bill, Theatre: An article about the author of the play.
Citation and documentation
Although citations and documentation can be confusing, it is not as complicated as one
might think. The best thing to remember is: If you use a statement, piece of an article, or
basically more than three consecutive words that have been written, taped, or stated by
anyone other than you in your paper or article, then it needs to be placed inside quotation
marks and given a parenthetical citation. However, even if you put the information into
your own words, if it is someone else's idea or it is information from another source, you

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must use a parenthetical citation. A parenthetical citation means you include the authors
name and page number in parenthesis within the text. This form may differ between the
Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA),
and this is covered in other sections of this text, but the rules are hard-fast and set so that
you do not find yourself committing plagiarism (see the next topic for more).
Plagiarism
The definition of plagiarism is very simple: if you use information from a source other than
yourself in your investigative writing, YOU MUST GIVE THE SOURCE CREDIT! There
is no way around this, and not doing so is cheating, and if detected by your instructor
will likely result in harsh consequences. Because of its etymology, many people think of
plagiarism in terms of kidnapping the offspring of another person's mind.
In order to avoid plagiarism, you must give credit to the source whenever any of the following
are used:
1. An idea, opinion, or theory that belongs to someone else.
2. Anything that falls beyond the realm of common knowledge, such as statistics, facts,
graphs, charts, or drawings that you include in your paper but did not design or
calculate yourself.
3. Quotations that have been taken from another person's written, taped or spoken words,
or any paraphrasing of these words.
In short, if you use information in your paper that you did not come up with on your own,
make sure you give proper credit or you will be plagiarizing.
Types of documentation: MLA, APA, etc.
The two most popular forms of documenting sources and creating citations are outlined
by the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association
(APA). These organizations publish manuals that provide clear instructions on how to cite
sources and how to embed citations. However, keep in mind that since these are separate
organizations, their rules of documentation are slightly different. The information contained
in their manuals is too voluminous to include here, but you can purchase an MLA or
APA style guide for use as reference, or you can visit many websites on the Internet that
explain the guidelines of the MLA and APA in detail. One that I highly recommend is The
OWL 1 (The Online Writing Laboratory) at Purdue University. You can also find help on
documentation at many more sites. Here are just a few you may want to check out.
Research and Documentation Online2
EasyBib3
BYU MLA/APA4
The Style Wizard5

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3
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http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
http://www.dianahacker.com/resdoc/
http://www.easybib.com/reference/
http://abish.byui.edu/library/htw_MLaApa.cfm
http://www.stylewizard.com/

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University of Massachusetts Library6
The University of California at Berkeley Library7
Ways to take notes: 3x5 cards, etc.
When you are doing your investigative paper, you will almost certainly find a need to keep
notes. This can be done in many ways. The simplest is to keep a notebook or journal of
information and interviews that you may want to include in your paper. Another is to use
note cards to organize your notes. You may also find that videotaping or use of a tape
recorder can be handy tools that allow you to ask questions at any time and then transcribe
the notes later. Just remember that note-taking should be performed as the investigative
process is taking place. It is easy to forget or lose track of information if it is not recorded
in a timely and organized fashion.

10.4 Thesis/Topic Sentence

A thesis statement is a statement that expresses the main idea of your paper. It is usually
one sentence, but it can be longer if necessary. Think of a thesis statement as a topic
sentence for your entire paper.

10.4.1 Form and place

A good thesis statement needs to establish a purpose (to analyze, to explain, to persuade,
etc.) and state as clearly as possible the terms of your argument. Everything in your paper
should serve to support your thesis statement.
A thesis statement is usually the last sentence of the first paragraph of a paper. However, a
thesis can appear anywhere in your paper: it can be the first sentence, the very last sentence,
or anywhere in between. It is uncommon in academic writing, however, to find a thesis
beyond the first page of a paper. Nonetheless, some writers feel that the thesis should be
presented later in the paper (such as at the end of a persuasive argument that builds up to
a sort of grand finale). Still, unless you have an extremely good reason for withholding the
thesis, it is a good idea to present it as soon as possible to the reader, so they understand
exactly what it is you are trying to say about your topic. It is also customary to restate the
main idea of your paper in the conclusion, so that your paper leaves a clear impression on
the reader.

10.4.2 General v. specific

Naturally, you want your thesis to be very specific in the sense that it exactly states your
main idea. However, how specific or general you make that idea can be very important to
the outcome of the paper. A thesis that is too broad will not provide enough direction, and
a thesis that is to narrow may keep you from discussing some key issues related to the topic.
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Thesis/Topic Sentence
Example A: Television has had a negative impact on American society.
Example B: Violent television has caused some teenagers to change the way they perceive
violence in real life.
Example C: South Park has influenced some teenagers to commit violent acts.
Unless you are planning on writing a book, Example A simply covers too much territory.
Example B is probably ideal for a longer research paper. Example C, on the other hand,
might be too restrictive if you were aiming to write a longer paper because it only allows
you to discuss one negative effect of one specific television program, but just right for a
short essay. Essentially, there is no such thing as "too general" or "too specific." It is simply
a matter of matching the thesis to the ideal length.
If the scope changes or your focus shifts (or even if you change your mind completely) while
you are researching or writing, it is fine to change your thesis statement so it better reflects
what you want to say about the topic, but you must be sure that all the information in the
final draft supports the new thesis.

10.4.3 Examples from various disciplines

It is probably worth noting that the above examples are probably a bit too simple to be
reppresentative of actual thesis statements, but the following are examples of reasonable
thesis statements one might use to address a wide variety of topics and for a variety of
purposes:
1. Math/Natural Science (to explain): Although Fibonacci sequences are most often applied
to mathematical contexts, the sequences play an interesting role in nature as well.
2. Art (to explain): Pablo Picasso's innovative approach to art led to a new movement, not
only in art, but in music and literature as well.
3. Psychology/Criminal Justice (to persuade): It is unethical to sentence serial killers to the
death penalty because they are essentially mentally ill.
4. Literature (to analyze): A different aspect of the American dream motivates each of the
main characters in John Stienbeck's Of Mice and Men.
5. Agriculture (to persuade): The USDA's current procedure for detecting mad cow disease
in cattle earmarked for human consumption is grossly inadequate.
6. Astronomy (to analyze): There are valid arguments on both side of the controversy
regarding the recent reclassification of Pluto.
7. Business (to explain): The quantity theory of money emphasizes the positive relationship
of overall prices with the quantity of money.

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10.5 Form
10.5.1 Introduction
The introduction is important because it sets the tone for the rest of the piece and gives the
reader an idea about where your writing is going and what points you will make along the
way. In short, your introduction is your time to ease your readers into your topic and let
them know what it is you are going to tell them about it. The introduction is also important
because you will give the reader your thesis, the sentence on which your entire paper will be
based.
Thesis
A thesis, in its most basic form, is the topic sentence of the entire paper. It serves as the
compass for what is to come within a given work. You will need a specific thesis statement
because you are setting up the argument that will be supported within your paper.
Good and bad beginnings
It takes time to develop a thesis, but the thesis should be well-developed (if not completely
developed) before you begin writing your paper. A fully developed thesis can help you
maintain a sense of direction within your paper. It will help you to develop your main topic
and remind you which points you are going to use to support the argument you are making.
A thesis by a beginning writer will usually contain a general statement such as: In Greek
mythology Zeus was portrayed as a god with many human qualities.
While this is a very good topic statement which lets the reader know that you are going to
be discussing, the fact that Zeus possesses human characteristics, it does not provide a
sense of the specific direction that will guide the entire paper.
In order to give your paper more direction and the reader more of an idea of what types of
human qualities might be discussed, you should expand your thesis into something more
specific, like: In Greek mythology Zeus was portrayed as a god, however he had many human
qualities such as: his creation from parents, his lust for women, his displays of anger, an ego
which he did not like to have bruised, the ability to show compassion, and on occasion he
was known to be disloyal.
The second thesis is more clear, indicating to the reader that Zeus was a god who had many
human qualities, and that the paper will be discussing at least six of those qualities. By
actually listing the human qualities of Zeus, the writer has set up an expectation for the
argument which is to follow and indicated the basic organization for their paper in an easy
to follow manner to which the reader can now refer.

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10.5.2 Body/middle
The body of your paper is where you will get to support the argument that you made in
your thesis, and it is the largest and most laborious part of the paper. In the body of your
paper you will support your thesis by stating the main points and then supporting them
with the factual evidence which you have found. Each of your main points should be clear to
the reader and support your thesis argument. Your supporting evidence should also be clear
and used with the correct main point in order to form a cohesive and organized essay body.
Main points
The main points of your argument will be contained in the body of your paper. There can
be as few as two main points or as many as are needed to complete the argument depending
on complexity of the subject, word or page limits, and the thesis itself. The main points
serve as a more specific overview of the ways in which you will begin to support your thesis
claim. They act as a further filter for your evidence and will keep your paper organized and
comprehensive.
In the thesis statement above you already have your main points organized and set up for
the reader within the thesis. You points are:
1) Zeus had parents, he did not always exist
2) Zeus is lusty and often pursues women
3) Zeus gets angry and exhibits his anger through behavior
4) Zeus has an ego
5) Zeus has the ability to show compassion
6) Zeus can be disloyal
Your job now is to discuss each of your points in more detail and use contextual evidence to
support the main points.
Supporting evidence
Supporting evidence is the key to successfully making the argument set forth in your thesis.
You will need to use several different sources within your supporting evidence to keep the
paper from being too monotonous. Having several different sources as supporting evidence
for any given point assures the reader that there are others out there who are researching
the same topic as you and finding similar conclusions.
Supporting evidence can be found in a number of sources and arranged in just as many
ways. For any given main point you might find a quote from a researcher, some statistics, or
textual evidence which you can use as supporting evidence for your main point.
For example in the main points above you might look at some of the Greek myths and use
specific incidents within a myth to support your claim that Zeus had parents. In fact, you
could site an entire story as your evidence, however DO NOT place the story in your paper.

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Simply state briefly the idea of the story and in what book you found it, you do not need to
completely retell the reader about the birth of Zeus. The fact that there is an entire myth
based on his birth should be proof enough.
You will also need to find some quotes from authors who have credibility (see credibility
section) and who have researched on the same subject which you are arguing. For example,
in main point number 4 of the Zeus argument you will want to find quotes from psychologists
or possibly myth scholars who are familiar with the idea of an ego. A quote from Sigmund
Freud or supporting evidence of his studies of the id, ego, and superego, will serve as a
basis for the idea that an ego is a human quality. Freud can offer some context within your
argument, then you can use texts from myths to provide some further evidence of Zeus ego.
Other side of the argument and your argument against it
Within your argument you want to, at some point, acknowledge that there is another side
to your subject. You are only arguing one side of the thesis, however there is always another
way to approach the subject which you are arguing. A good writer will acknowledge the
other side (or sides) of the argument and then dismiss them with his or her evidence. It is
hard to do within a paper that is so strongly placed in the argument of just one side of a
subject, but when acknowledgement and dismissal are executed correctly they will actually
enhance the argument of the writer.
For example, if you are giving supporting evidence for the main point number 6 in the Zeus
argument, you might want to acknowledge that some scholars (if in fact, you have found it to
be true in your research) contend that Zeus disloyalty is not a function of his humanness,
but rather a function of the way people might feel about his actions, you will want to refute
that statement in your argument.
Simply acknowledge that someone has said this (give them proper credit) and then show
another scholar who has argued against it. Your argument should look something like this:
Professor Z of Such and Such University has written an article titled Loyal Zeus in which
he argues that Zeus was not disloyal, but humans see his actions as disloyal, however Dr. X,
argues that Zeus is in fact disloyal because. . . .
Thus you have successfully acknowledged and dismissed a counterpoint of your argument.
However, do not try to counter all arguments against your thesis, because it will prove to
be exhausting, non productive, and can possibly confuse readers as to which side you are
actually arguing.

10.5.3 Conclusion
The conclusion of your paper is what ties everything together. You want the reader to see
what it is you set out to do, how you proved it and what it all means to them. The reader
should know, at this point, where you stand on your argument and should be winding down
from reading your paper. You can let your reader know that you are ready to end the paper
by using some of the following words as signposts for your conclusion: 1) In retrospect 2) In
conclusion 3) As can be seen

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You are letting your reader know that the end of the paper is near and that you are about
to give them a quick overview of what they have just finished reading to remind them of
what it is you want them to take away form the paper.
Restating of the thesis
In your conclusion you want to restate your thesis in order to remind the reader of what
it is you were arguing. You can restate your thesis exactly as it is in the introduction of
you may choose to alter it slightly. In any case, do not alter it so much that it becomes
unrecognizable as the thesis of your paper, or the reader may lose sight of what is was that
you set out to argue to begin with.
Summarizing
After you have restated your thesis you will summarize your main points briefly in order
to remind your reader of the basic outline of your argument. You do not need to go into
supporting evidence in your conclusion because you will have thoroughly explained it already
within the body of the paper. The summarization of your paper will mentally guide the
reader back through your argument so they may begin to think about their own ideas on
the subject and form a conclusion of their own.
Example Assignment
Genealogy Project
You choose a family member or family event that you want to write about and learn more
about the person or situation. You interview at least three of your family members about
the person or event you chose. You should also try to collect any mementos or documents
about your subject as additional sources. Then you report your findings into a paper in
third person narrative.
The following is a similar essay on family history which won the 2005 "My Turn" contest
sponsored by Newsweek Education Program: "Family Tree"8 by By Nami Sung of Stuyvesant
High School in New York, New York.
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http://www.newsweekeducation.com/myturn2005/sung.php
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http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Az1568
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http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:BeardedFury
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Chs.english
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http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dan_Polansky
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http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Jonathan_Webley
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Kelly_Goodman
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Llcadle
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http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Nimbda
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Patrick_Star
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:QuiteUnusual
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Recent_Runes
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Smitty
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ssandidge
http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Webaware
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org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en
GPL: GNU General Public License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-2.0.txt
LGPL: GNU Lesser General Public License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl.
html
PD: This image is in the public domain.
ATTR: The copyright holder of this file allows anyone to use it for any purpose,
provided that the copyright holder is properly attributed. Redistribution, derivative
work, commercial use, and all other use is permitted.
EURO: This is the common (reverse) face of a euro coin. The copyright on the design
of the common face of the euro coins belongs to the European Commission. Authorised
is reproduction in a format without relief (drawings, paintings, films) provided they
are not detrimental to the image of the euro.
LFK: Lizenz Freie Kunst. http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/de
CFR: Copyright free use.

73

List of Figures
EPL: Eclipse Public License. http://www.eclipse.org/org/documents/epl-v10.
php
Copies of the GPL, the LGPL as well as a GFDL are included in chapter Licenses31 . Please
note that images in the public domain do not require attribution. You may click on the
image numbers in the following table to open the webpage of the images in your webbrower.

31

74

Chapter 12 on page 77

List of Figures

1
2

llcadle

cc-by-sa-2.5
cc-by-sa-2.5

75

12 Licenses
12.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
Version 3, 29 June 2007
Copyright 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
<http://fsf.org/>
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing
it is not allowed. Preamble
The GNU General Public License is a free, copyleft
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The licenses for most software and other practical works are designed to take away your freedom
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When we speak of free software, we are referring
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Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have
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When you convey a covered work, you waive any

legal power to forbid circumvention of technological measures to the extent such circumvention is effected by exercising rights under this License with
respect to the covered work, and you disclaim any
intention to limit operation or modification of the
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A User Product is either (1) a consumer product, which means any tangible personal property
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7. Additional Terms.
Additional permissions are terms that supplement
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from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
notice.
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If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, you do not qualify to receive new
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Acceptance Not Required for Having Copies.
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you do not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or propagating a covered work, you indicate
your acceptance of this License to do so. 10. Automatic Licensing of Downstream Recipients.
Each time you convey a covered work, the recipient
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You may not impose any further restrictions on the
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A contributor is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this License of the Program or a
work on which the Program is based. The work
thus licensed is called the contributors contributor version.
A contributors essential patent claims are all
patent claims owned or controlled by the contributor, whether already acquired or hereafter acquired,
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contributor version, but do not include claims that
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Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free patent license under the contributors essential patent claims, to make, use, sell, offer for sale, import and otherwise run, modify and
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In the following three paragraphs, a patent license is any express agreement or commitment,
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readily accessible means, then you must either (1)
cause the Corresponding Source to be so available,
or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benefit
of the patent license for this particular work, or
(3) arrange, in a manner consistent with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent
license to downstream recipients. Knowingly relying means you have actual knowledge that, but
for the patent license, your conveying the covered
work in a country, or your recipients use of the covered work in a country, would infringe one or more
identifiable patents in that country that you have
reason to believe are valid.
If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or arrangement, you convey, or propagate
by procuring conveyance of, a covered work, and
grant a patent license to some of the parties receiving the covered work authorizing them to use,
propagate, modify or convey a specific copy of the
covered work, then the patent license you grant is
automatically extended to all recipients of the covered work and works based on it.
A patent license is discriminatory if it does not include within the scope of its coverage, prohibits the
exercise of, or is conditioned on the non-exercise
of one or more of the rights that are specifically
granted under this License. You may not convey a
covered work if you are a party to an arrangement
with a third party that is in the business of distributing software, under which you make payment
to the third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the work, and under which the
third party grants, to any of the parties who would
receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent license (a) in connection with copies
of the covered work conveyed by you (or copies
made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in
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that contain the covered work, unless you entered
into that arrangement, or that patent license was
granted, prior to 28 March 2007.
Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting any implied license or other defenses to infringement that may otherwise be available to you under applicable patent law. 12. No
Surrender of Others Freedom.
If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court
order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the
conditions of this License, they do not excuse you
from the conditions of this License. If you cannot
convey a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any
other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence
you may not convey it at all. For example, if you
agree to terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying from those to whom you
convey the Program, the only way you could satisfy
both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely from conveying the Program. 13. Use
with the GNU Affero General Public License.

Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have permission to link or combine any
covered work with a work licensed under version
3 of the GNU Affero General Public License into
a single combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this License will continue
to apply to the part which is the covered work, but
the special requirements of the GNU Affero General
Public License, section 13, concerning interaction
through a network will apply to the combination
as such. 14. Revised Versions of this License.
The Free Software Foundation may publish revised
and/or new versions of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be
similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public License
or any later version applies to it, you have the
option of following the terms and conditions either
of that numbered version or of any later version
published by the Free Software Foundation. If the
Program does not specify a version number of the
GNU General Public License, you may choose any
version ever published by the Free Software Foundation.
If the Program specifies that a proxy can decide
which future versions of the GNU General Public
License can be used, that proxys public statement
of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes
you to choose that version for the Program.
Later license versions may give you additional or
different permissions. However, no additional obligations are imposed on any author or copyright
holder as a result of your choosing to follow a later
version. 15. Disclaimer of Warranty.
THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE
STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE
PROGRAM AS IS WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND
PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH
YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.
16. Limitation of Liability.
IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING
WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY
OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR CONVEYS THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE,
BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING
OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE
THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED
BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE
OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY
OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER
OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16.
If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided above cannot be given local legal ef-

fect according to their terms, reviewing courts shall

apply local law that most closely approximates an
absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection
with the Program, unless a warranty or assumption
of liability accompanies a copy of the Program in
return for a fee.
END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
If you develop a new program, and you want it to
be of the greatest possible use to the public, the
best way to achieve this is to make it free software
which everyone can redistribute and change under
these terms.
To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of
each source file to most effectively state the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
the copyright line and a pointer to where the full
notice is found.
<one line to give the programs name and a brief
idea of what it does.> Copyright (C) <year>
<name of author>
This program is free software: you can redistribute
it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU
General Public License as published by the Free
Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at your option) any later version.
This program is distributed in the hope that
it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public
License for more details.
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program. If not,
see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
If the program does terminal interaction, make it
output a short notice like this when it starts in an
interactive mode:
<program> Copyright (C) <year> <name of author> This program comes with ABSOLUTELY
NO WARRANTY; for details type show w. This is
free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; type show c for details.
The hypothetical commands show w and show c
should show the appropriate parts of the General
Public License. Of course, your programs commands might be different; for a GUI interface, you
would use an about box.
You should also get your employer (if you work
as a programmer) or school, if any, to sign a
copyright disclaimer for the program, if necessary.
For more information on this, and
how to apply and follow the GNU GPL, see
<http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
The GNU General Public License does not permit
incorporating your program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you
may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is
what you want to do, use the GNU Lesser General
Public License instead of this License. But first,
please read <http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/whynot-lgpl.html>.

12.2 GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008
Copyright 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. <http://fsf.org/>
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing
it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE
The purpose of this License is to make a manual,
textbook, or other functional and useful document
"free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone
the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
with or without modifying it, either commercially
or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get
credit for their work, while not being considered
responsible for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means
that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements
the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it
for manuals for free software, because free software
needs free documentation: a free program should
come with manuals providing the same freedoms
that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether
it is published as a printed book. We recommend
this License principally for works whose purpose is
instruction or reference. 1. APPLICABILITY AND
DEFINITIONS
This License applies to any manual or other work,
in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the
copyright holder saying it can be distributed under
the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a
world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated
herein. The "Document", below, refers to any such
manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept the
license if you copy, modify or distribute the work
in a way requiring permission under copyright law.
A "Modified Version" of the Document means any
work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or
translated into another language.
A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a
front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or

authors of the Document to the Documents overall

subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook
of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be
a matter of historical connection with the subject
or with related matters, or of legal, commercial,
philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.
The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of
Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the
Document is released under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary
then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant.
The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections.
If the Document does not identify any Invariant
Sections then there are none.
The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text
that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover
Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is
released under this License. A Front-Cover Text
may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text
may be at most 25 words.
A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a
machine-readable copy, represented in a format
whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document
straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for
images composed of pixels) generic paint programs
or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy
made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose
markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged
to thwart or discourage subsequent modification by
readers is not Transparent. An image format is not
Transparent if used for any substantial amount of
text. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called
"Opaque".
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent
copies include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or
XML using a publicly available DTD, and standardconforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG.
Opaque formats include proprietary formats that
can be read and edited only by proprietary word
processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD
and/or processing tools are not generally available,
and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or

PDF produced by some word processors for output

purposes only.
The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the
title page itself, plus such following pages as are
needed to hold, legibly, the material this License
requires to appear in the title page. For works in
formats which do not have any title page as such,
"Title Page" means the text near the most prominent appearance of the works title, preceding the
beginning of the body of the text.
The "publisher" means any person or entity that
distributes copies of the Document to the public.
A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit
of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ
or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that
translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ
stands for a specific section name mentioned below,
such as "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title"
of such a section when you modify the Document
means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers
next to the notice which states that this License
applies to the Document.
These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference
in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty
Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on
the meaning of this License. 2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any
medium, either commercially or noncommercially,
provided that this License, the copyright notices,
and the license notice saying this License applies to
the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that
you add no other conditions whatsoever to those
of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further
copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for
copies. If you distribute a large enough number of
copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display
copies. 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media
that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Documents license notice requires Cover Texts, you

must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly

and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover
Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts
on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly
and legibly identify you as the publisher of these
copies. The front cover must present the full title
with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible. You may add other material on the covers
in addition. Copying with changes limited to the
covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated
as verbatim copying in other respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the first ones
listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual
cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the
Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy
along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with
each Opaque copy a computer-network location
from which the general network-using public has
access to download using public-standard network
protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in
quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will
remain thus accessible at the stated location until
at least one year after the last time you distribute
an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or
retailers) of that edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them
a chance to provide you with an updated version of
the Document. 4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of
the Document under the conditions of sections 2
and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the
Modified Version filling the role of the Document,
thus licensing distribution and modification of the
Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it.
In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
* A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if
any) a title distinct from that of the Document,
and from those of previous versions (which should,
if there were any, be listed in the History section
of the Document). You may use the same title as
a previous version if the original publisher of that
version gives permission. * B. List on the Title

Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities

responsible for authorship of the modifications in
the Modified Version, together with at least five of
the principal authors of the Document (all of its
principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless
they release you from this requirement. * C. State
on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
Modified Version, as the publisher. * D. Preserve
all the copyright notices of the Document. * E. Add
an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices. * F.
Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a
license notice giving the public permission to use
the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below. *
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in
the Documents license notice. * H. Include an unaltered copy of this License. * I. Preserve the section
Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it
an item stating at least the title, year, new authors,
and publisher of the Modified Version as given on
the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating the title,
year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous
sentence. * J. Preserve the network location, if any,
given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous
versions it was based on. These may be placed in
the "History" section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four
years before the Document itself, or if the original
publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.
* K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements"
or "Dedications", Preserve the Title of the section,
and preserve in the section all the substance and
tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements
and/or dedications given therein. * L. Preserve all
the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered
in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or
the equivalent are not considered part of the section
titles. * M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not be included in the
Modified Version. * N. Do not retitle any existing
section to be Entitled "Endorsements" or to conflict
in title with any Invariant Section. * O. Preserve
any Warranty Disclaimers.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter
sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary
Sections and contain no material copied from the
Document, you may at your option designate some
or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add
their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the
Modified Versions license notice. These titles must
be distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements",
provided it contains nothing but endorsements of
your Modified Version by various partiesfor example, statements of peer review or that the text
has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a
Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words
as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover
Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of
Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may
be added by (or through arrangements made by)
any one entity. If the Document already includes
a cover text for the same cover, previously added
by you or by arrangement made by the same entity
you are acting on behalf of, you may not add an-

other; but you may replace the old one, on explicit

permission from the previous publisher that added
the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do
not by this License give permission to use their
names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version. 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms
defined in section 4 above for modified versions,
provided that you include in the combination all
of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant
Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of
this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there
are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name
but different contents, make the title of each such
section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher
of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in
the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice
of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections
Entitled "History" in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications".
You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements". 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy
that is included in the collection, provided that you
follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying
of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License
into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. 7. AGGREGATION WITH
INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives
with other separate and independent documents or
works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution
medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the
legal rights of the compilations users beyond what
the individual works permit. When the Document
is included in an aggregate, this License does not
apply to the other works in the aggregate which are
not themselves derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the
Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Documents Cover Texts may be placed
on covers that bracket the Document within the
aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers
if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise
they must appear on printed covers that bracket
the whole aggregate. 8. TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so

you may distribute translations of the Document
under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant
Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections
in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this
License, and all the license notices in the Document,
and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you
also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and
disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the
translation and the original version of this License
or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section
1) will typically require changing the actual title.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute
the Document except as expressly provided under
this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will
automatically terminate your rights under this License.
However, if you cease all violation of this License,
then your license from a particular copyright holder
is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the
copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates
your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright
holder fails to notify you of the violation by some
reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation.
Moreover, your license from a particular copyright
holder is reinstated permanently if the copyright
holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received
notice of violation of this License (for any work)
from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
notice.
Termination of your rights under this section does
not terminate the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under this License.
If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all
of the same material does not give you any rights
to use it. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be
similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that
a particular numbered version of this License "or
any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of
that specified version or of any later version that
has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify
a version number of this License, you may choose
any version ever published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation. If the Document specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of

this License can be used, that proxys public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document.
11. RELICENSING
"Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site" (or
"MMC Site") means any World Wide Web server
that publishes copyrightable works and also provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those
works. A public wiki that anybody can edit is
an example of such a server. A "Massive Multiauthor Collaboration" (or "MMC") contained in the
site means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.
"CC-BY-SA"
means
the
Creative
Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license published by
Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit
corporation with a principal place of business in
San Francisco, California, as well as future copyleft
versions of that license published by that same
organization.
"Incorporate" means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in part, as part of another Document.
An MMC is "eligible for relicensing" if it is licensed
under this License, and if all works that were first
published under this License somewhere other than
this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole
or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or
invariant sections, and (2) were thus incorporated
prior to November 1, 2008.
The operator of an MMC Site may republish an
MMC contained in the site under CC-BY-SA on the
same site at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing. ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
To use this License in a document you have written,
include a copy of the License in the document and
put the following copyright and license notices just
after the title page:
Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included
in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation
License".
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts
and Back-Cover Texts, replace the "with . . .
Texts." line with this:
with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and
with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts,
or some other combination of the three, merge
those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of
program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software
license, such as the GNU General Public License,
to permit their use in free software.

12.3 GNU Lesser General Public License

GNU LESSER GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
Version 3, 29 June 2007
Copyright 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
<http://fsf.org/>
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing
it is not allowed.
This version of the GNU Lesser General Public License incorporates the terms and conditions of version 3 of the GNU General Public License, supplemented by the additional permissions listed below.
0. Additional Definitions.
As used herein, this License refers to version 3
of the GNU Lesser General Public License, and the
GNU GPL refers to version 3 of the GNU General
Public License.
The Library refers to a covered work governed by
this License, other than an Application or a Combined Work as defined below.
An Application is any work that makes use of an
interface provided by the Library, but which is not
otherwise based on the Library. Defining a subclass
of a class defined by the Library is deemed a mode
of using an interface provided by the Library.
A Combined Work is a work produced by combining or linking an Application with the Library.
The particular version of the Library with which
the Combined Work was made is also called the
Linked Version.
The Minimal Corresponding Source for a Combined Work means the Corresponding Source for
the Combined Work, excluding any source code for
portions of the Combined Work that, considered in
isolation, are based on the Application, and not on
the Linked Version.

The Corresponding Application Code for a Combined Work means the object code and/or source
code for the Application, including any data and
utility programs needed for reproducing the Combined Work from the Application, but excluding the
System Libraries of the Combined Work. 1. Exception to Section 3 of the GNU GPL.
You may convey a covered work under sections 3
and 4 of this License without being bound by section 3 of the GNU GPL. 2. Conveying Modified
Versions.
If you modify a copy of the Library, and, in your
modifications, a facility refers to a function or data
to be supplied by an Application that uses the facility (other than as an argument passed when the
facility is invoked), then you may convey a copy of
the modified version:
* a) under this License, provided that you make a
good faith effort to ensure that, in the event an Application does not supply the function or data, the
facility still operates, and performs whatever part
of its purpose remains meaningful, or * b) under
the GNU GPL, with none of the additional permissions of this License applicable to that copy.
3. Object Code Incorporating Material from Library Header Files.
The object code form of an Application may incorporate material from a header file that is part of
the Library. You may convey such object code under terms of your choice, provided that, if the incorporated material is not limited to numerical parameters, data structure layouts and accessors, or
small macros, inline functions and templates (ten
or fewer lines in length), you do both of the following:
* a) Give prominent notice with each copy of the
object code that the Library is used in it and that
the Library and its use are covered by this License.
* b) Accompany the object code with a copy of the
GNU GPL and this license document.

4. Combined Works.
You may convey a Combined Work under terms of
your choice that, taken together, effectively do not
restrict modification of the portions of the Library
contained in the Combined Work and reverse engineering for debugging such modifications, if you
also do each of the following:
* a) Give prominent notice with each copy of the
Combined Work that the Library is used in it and
that the Library and its use are covered by this License. * b) Accompany the Combined Work with a
copy of the GNU GPL and this license document. *
c) For a Combined Work that displays copyright notices during execution, include the copyright notice
for the Library among these notices, as well as a reference directing the user to the copies of the GNU
GPL and this license document. * d) Do one of the
following: o 0) Convey the Minimal Corresponding
Source under the terms of this License, and the Corresponding Application Code in a form suitable for,
and under terms that permit, the user to recombine
or relink the Application with a modified version
of the Linked Version to produce a modified Combined Work, in the manner specified by section 6 of
the GNU GPL for conveying Corresponding Source.
o 1) Use a suitable shared library mechanism for
linking with the Library. A suitable mechanism
is one that (a) uses at run time a copy of the Library already present on the users computer system, and (b) will operate properly with a modified
version of the Library that is interface-compatible
with the Linked Version. * e) Provide Installation
Information, but only if you would otherwise be required to provide such information under section 6
of the GNU GPL, and only to the extent that such
information is necessary to install and execute a
modified version of the Combined Work produced
by recombining or relinking the Application with
a modified version of the Linked Version. (If you
use option 4d0, the Installation Information must
accompany the Minimal Corresponding Source and
Corresponding Application Code. If you use option
4d1, you must provide the Installation Information
in the manner specified by section 6 of the GNU
GPL for conveying Corresponding Source.)

5. Combined Libraries.
You may place library facilities that are a work
based on the Library side by side in a single library
together with other library facilities that are not
Applications and are not covered by this License,
and convey such a combined library under terms of
your choice, if you do both of the following:
* a) Accompany the combined library with a copy
of the same work based on the Library, uncombined
with any other library facilities, conveyed under
the terms of this License. * b) Give prominent notice with the combined library that part of it is a
work based on the Library, and explaining where
to find the accompanying uncombined form of the
same work.
6. Revised Versions of the GNU Lesser General
Public License.
The Free Software Foundation may publish revised
and/or new versions of the GNU Lesser General
Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version,
but may differ in detail to address new problems or
concerns.
Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Library as you received it specifies that
a certain numbered version of the GNU Lesser General Public License or any later version applies to
it, you have the option of following the terms and
conditions either of that published version or of any
later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Library as you received it does not
specify a version number of the GNU Lesser General Public License, you may choose any version of
the GNU Lesser General Public License ever published by the Free Software Foundation.
If the Library as you received it specifies that a
proxy can decide whether future versions of the
GNU Lesser General Public License shall apply,
that proxys public statement of acceptance of
any version is permanent authorization for you to
choose that version for the Library.