Apparatus

construction
drawings
i
' IMuffieldAdvancedScience
A 530.7 OGB
Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England
Penguin Books Inc., 711 0 Ambassador Road,
Baltimore, Md 21207, U.S.A.
Penguin Books Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria, Australia
Copyright The Nuffield Foundation, 1973
Design and art direction by Ivan and Robin Dodd
Illustrations designed and produced by Penguin Education
Filmset in ' Monophoto' Univers
by Keyspools Ltd, Golborne, Lanes,
and made and printed in Great Britain by
C. Tinling & Co. Ltd, Prescot and London
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or
otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the
publisher' s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in
which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition
being imposed on the subsequent purchaser
Contents
Introduction 5
1008 lonization chamber 6
1010 Reed switch 7
1014 Wax lens 9
1015 Turntable for 3 cm X-ray diffraction analogue 10
1017 Resistance substitution box 77
1018 Capacitance substitution box 72
1022 Jig for making sodium chloride lattice model 72
1024 Hacksaw blade oscillator 14
1 025 Pair of capacitor plates 15
1029 Hall voltage apparatus for metals 16
1031 200 kHz pulse generator 77
1033 Cell holder 20
1034 Large electrolytic capacitor 27
1035 Pre-amplifier 22
1036 Current balance 24
1039 Search coil 25
1040 Clip component holder 26
1041 Potentiometer holder 27
1042 Magnetic field board 28
1043 Millikan apparatus 28
1047 Kit of two-terminal boxes 30
1048 Four-terminal boxes 32
1 049 Thyratrons and thyratron base 34
1052 Absorbers for alpha, beta, and gamma rays 35
1063 Multiple light source 36
1065 Big mirror 36
1 067 Physical optics kit 37
1068 Parallel beam projector 42
1069 Apparatus for showing the Compton effect 44
cience LearningCentre
N12692
1070 Gas energy transfer apparatus 45
1 073 Concave reflection grating 46
1075 Electronics kit 46
1076 Large ring 56
1078 Gramophone motor 57
1079 Flat solenoid 59
1081 Decade capacitance unit (1-10 iiF) 60
1082 Coils surrounding a space 61
Addresses of suppliers 63
Introduction
In recent years, for a number of reasons, the cost of apparatus bought from
manufacturers of equipment for schools has risen sharply. At the same time, the
Nuffield Advanced Physics Project has thought it right to recommend for the course a
fairly substantial increase in the range and quantity of apparatus to be used for teaching
Advanced physics, taking the view that the course should be based on wide
practical experience. Although some of the recommended items are complex and
expensive, a substantial number are not, and it would be possible for many items to
be built in a school.
This book is intended to provide enough additional information about the simpler
items for a teacher working with a laboratory assistant to make them. For each
item, drawings are provided, dimensions are given, and suitable materials are
suggested. Very detailed specifications are not usually given, because the exact
materials suggested may often not be available, and better alternatives will offer
themselves. What is essential is that the teacher and laboratory assistant consult one
another about the use the apparatus will have, so that it is made in a way which will
be fitted to that use. Generally, simplicity and robustness matter more than
appearance.
Not every school will find it practicable to make every item described. Some will
prefer to make small simple items in quantity two-terminal boxes, for example.
Others will prefer to concentrate on larger, more expensive ' once off items, such as
the flat solenoid. Some will regard the construction of electronic items as easy, while
others will lack the necessary experience and skill. It would be a great deal to expect
to ask for as many as half the items described to be built in any one school.
As a matter of policy, we would regard a teacher' s time as too valuable to be spent
making pieces of apparatus, at a very high real cost both in money terms and in terms of
the other demands on his time. Ateacher without reasonable laboratory assistance
ought not to be expected to undertake the construction of apparatus. In this connection,
it should also be remembered that the first year or two of teaching the course,
within which most of the constructional work would necessarily fall, will also be the
time of greatest strain in other respects, as the teacher works through unfamiliar
material with his classes for the first time. On the other hand, time spent building some
items of apparatus in the period before the course is started could bring dividends,
not only in releasing funds for other apparatus, but in making the teacher more
familiar with the course itself.
1008 lonization chamber quantity 1
The ionization chamber is essentially a hollow conducting can, provided with a central
conducting electrode which is very well insulated from the rest of the can. Any metal
can will serve, preferably one with a screw-on lid. An unwanted calorimeter can be
used.
Figure 1 shows the parts added to the can. The essential feature is that the central
electrode, insulated fromthe can, is to be connected directly to the input of an
electrometer (item 1006), so that the chamber needs to be designed to fit the
electrometer with which it will be used. Figure 1 shows a design suitablefor an
electrometer with an input of the coaxial UHF socket type. A second U HF socket is
bolted to the inside of the base of the chamber, over a hole 17 mm in diameter cut in
the base, so that the 4 mm pin which is part of the UHF socket projects below the
chamber and can be inserted directly into the electrometer input socket.
4 mmterminal
Figure 1
Item 1008. lonization chamber.
' tubeto admit ' thoron'
' central electrode (4 mm)
chamber wall
4mmpin
It is essential that the metal chamber does not make contact with the earthed casing of
the electrometer input socket. As shown in figure 2, the chamber is to be
connected, via a built-in 10 MQsafety resistor, to an h.t. supply, the other terminal of
which is earthed. This mode of connection is essential so that the chamber can be
made positive (or negative) with respect to earth. Ions collected by the central
electrode then alter its potential, which is indicated by the electrometer.
10 MO
p
terminal
to chamber
chamber wall
central electrode
h.t. supply
O
electrometer input
1
Figure 2
Electrical connections to ionization chamber.
The central electrode can be a brass rod, 4 mm in diameter and about 100 mm long,
which plugs directly into the UHF socket mounted in the chamber. An insulated 4 mm
terminal, mounted on the chamber wall but not in electrical contact with it, is
connected via a 10 MQ resistor to the chamber wall. Solder tags held by the terminal
and one bolt fixing the UHF socket to the chamber make a convenient form of
connection for this resistor.
It is best to provide the chamber with two small tubes, so that air carrying a little
' thoron' fromthe ' thoron' generator (item 1 066) can be admitted to the chamber without
removing the lid. Asolid lid and a gauze lid will be required.
Special items required
From RS Components Limited
UHF socket SO239
Insulated terminal (4 mm)
10 MOresistor
101 0 Reed switch quantity 4
The reed switch is a dry-reed magnetic change-over switch. When placed inside a
coil (as shown in figure 3), it may be driven by passing a fluctuating current froman
oscillator through the coil. If the coil has a diode in series with it, the switch operates
at the supply frequency. The circuit is shown in figure 4.
reed switch
Figure 3
Reed switch and coil.
sockets
for d.c. supply
Figure 4
Reed switch, electrical connections.
reed switch
czb^sockets
c-p^for capacitor
sockets for coil
sockets for galvanometer
or milliammeter
Reed switch, type 1 3-RSR-A, from RS Components Limited, is suitable. This switch
can carry a maximum current of 500 mA, has a maximum loading of 10 W, a contact
resistance not exceeding 0.1 Q, a resonant frequency greater than 900 \ - \ T . , and an
open-contact capacitance of 3 pF. 100 ampere-turns are needed to operate it. The
RS Components Limited coil type 1, driven by the signal generator, item 1009, will not
operate the switch unless additional power amplification is provided. Osmor Limited
coil SD3, 1 75 ampere-turns at 3 V, will operate the reed switch without an amplifier
being needed.
The components can be mounted on an insulating base, which can be cut from
rectangular section plastic rainwater pipe as shown in figure 5. Insulating bases made
in the same way are suitable for items 1017, 1018, 1033, 1034, 1040, 1041, 1047,
1 048, 1049, and 1 081 and possibly for items 1 031, 1 035, and 1 075. Components are
mounted belowthe upper face of the base, which must be cut deep enough to
accommodate the largest component. Figure 5 shows several ways of cutting bases
from the pipe. 4 mm sockets are adequate and these are mounted on the upper face,
through holes drilled in it, as in figure 6.
Figure 5
Cutting rectangular section plastic rainwater pipe into insulating bases.
a Pair of wide shallow bases.
b Pair of narrow deeper bases,
c One wide deeper base.
sockets connected to coil
Figure 6
Base showing sockets mounted on upper face.
Special items required
From Osmor Limited
Coil, type SD3, 175 ampere-turns at 3 V
From FtS Components Limited
Dry-reed switch type 13-RSR-A
Diode, type IN4001, for example
4 mm insulated sockets 8
1014 Wax lens quantity 2
A pair of plano-convex wax lenses, diameter 0.3 m, is required. The radius of curvature
of the curved face should be about 0.25 m; thus the lens needs to be about 35 mm
thicker at the centre than at the edges.
Each lens can be mounted in a simple wooden frame, as indicated in figure 7. The
frame may have recesses cut in it to secure the lens at four places, or four simple
chocks can be used, as in figure 7, to hold the lens against a lip on the inside of the
frame.
Figure 7
Item 1014. Wax lens.
The lenses are cast from paraffin wax. Each lens requires about 2 kg of wax. It is
essential to take great care when melting the wax to ensure that there is no fire hazard.
The wax takes a surprisingly long time to melt.
Many schools have large curved metal mirrors, and such a mirror can be used as a
mould in which to cast the lens. It is advisable to brush the mirror with cooking oil
before pouring in the wax, to reduce sticking. Alternatively, a mould can be made in a
tray of fine sand as shown in figure 8, by rotating in the sand a template cut to a circle
of radius 0.25 m. It is best to line such a mould with polythene sheet, which can
afterwards be stripped from the lens. If enough wax is melted to form the lens in one
casting, there is no need to press the polythene sheet into the mould beforehand, the
weight of wax being sufficient by itself. It is likely that the curved wax surface will
have minor irregularities which need to be filled with a little more wax after casting, or
may need to be scraped away.
polythene liner
sand
Figure 8
Sand mould for wax lens.
Wax contracts when it solidifies. To achieve a plane surface on the upper side of the
casting, one or two further pourings of wax are needed to fill the hollowwhen the wax
solidifies.
1015 Turntable for 3 cm X-ray diffraction analogue quantity 1
Item 1015 has only one use in the Nuffield Advanced Physics Course, that of rotating
a model crystal made from polystyrene balls in a beam of microwaves, to simulate
X-ray diffraction. See Unit 1 Teachers' guide, Materials and structure, experiment 1.4,
for further details. Item 1 015 is convenient for this purpose, as it has an angle scale and
means of attaching rods which carry the microwave transmitter and receiver and
keep them aligned, but it is not essential.
A gramophone turntable can be used in its place, or the Nuffield O-level Physics
turntable, item 1 54/1, is suitable (see Nuffield O-level Physics, Guide to apparatus).
For this application, the turntable is used with its plane horizontal, and is driven by
the fractional horse power motor with reduction gear, item 1 50.
fo"
1017 Resistance substitution box quantity 8
The resistance substitution box is a box which enables resistors covering a range from
about 10 2 to 1 0 Mil to be brought into circuit. The circuit shown in figure 9 provides
a satisfactory box, though fewer components can cover the range if more complex
switching is employed. Twelve values covering a rather smaller range (say 100 Q .
to 1 MQ) would be enough for many purposes, and would require only one muitiway
switch and no range switch.
rangeswitch
Figure 9
Item 1017. Resistance substitution box circuit.
In figure 9, thetwo muitiway switches can be simple one-pole muitiway wafer switches,
and the range switch can be a slide switch.
The insulating base to carry the switches and components may be cut from rectangular
section plastic rainwater pipe, as shown in figure 5.
Special items required
From RS Components Limited
Miniature wafer switches, one-pole, 1 2-way 2
Slide switch
Resistors, moulded carbon, 10 per cent tolerance, ^ W(see figure 9 for values)
4 mm insulated sockets 2
1018 Capacitance substitution box quantity 4
The capitance substitution box is a box which enables capacitors covering the range
roughly from 1000 pF or less to 0.22 u.F or more to be brought into circuit. The
circuit shown in figure 10 provides a satisfactory box, though fewer components can
be used if more complex switching is employed.
In figure 10, the switch can be a simple one-pole multiway wafer switch. The
capacitors can be of the 600 V working mixed-dielectric type.
IM
0.00'
To.022TfiF y
0.01 LiF I 0 047 (lF
sills
17 MF 1 J 0.'
0.0022 jiF I
- I
^m
TF
__1 0.22 |4F
1 J
M
0.001 0.47 |
Figure 10
Item 1018. Capacitance substitution box circuit.
The insulating base to carry the switch and components may be cut from rectangular
section plastic rainwater-pipe, as shown in figure 5.
Special items required
From RS Components Limited
Mixed-dielectric capacitors (see figure 10 for values)
Miniature wafer switch, one-pole, 1 2-way
4 mm insulated sockets 2
1022 Jig for making sodium chloride lattice model quantity 1
The jig, shown in figure 11, is a sheet of metal drilled with fifteen 43.5 mm diameter
holes, intended to keep fifteen 50 mm diameter expanded polystyrene balls in place
while smaller, 25 mmdiameter balls are glued in place in their interstices. Constructional
details for the model are given in Unit 1 Teachers' guide, Materials and structure,
appendix B.
T2"
20 mm
four holes with
centres on a square
Figure 11
Item 1022. Jig for making sodium chloride lattice model.
aluminium shee.t
1-2 mmthick
The jig holds the 50 mm balls in a pattern of squares, 53 mm from centre to centre along
a side of the square. The 25 mm balls fit between 50 mm balls along the diagonals
of the squares, as shown in figure 1 2, so that the diagonals must be 75 mm, centre to
centre. The hole diameter is such as to support the 50 mm balls with their
centres a distance above the surface of the jig equal to the radius of the small, 25 mm
balls, so that these small balls rest on the jig in position while the glue fixing them in
place is drying.
diagonal of square
50 mmball
25 mmball
diagonal of square
Figure 12
50 mm balls in a square pattern enclosing 25 mm balls.
Because the large balls project a little below the jig, it needs to be supported above the
bench on feet about 20 mm high. Aluminium sheet about 1 to 2 mm thick is a suitable
material for the jig, and holes can fairly easily be cut in it using a brace and a hole
cutting tool.
13
1024 Hacksaw blade oscillator quantity
The essential need is for a simple, low frequency, resonant system, whose natural
frequency and damping can be altered, which can be driven by a periodic force
of variable frequency. This need can be met in many ways: the hacksaw blade system
has the advantage of being cheap, compact, and robust.
rubber band secured by
oops of wire
wood end-bloc
to secure blade 35mm
iden armto carry
ulum
hangs bench)
20 rrv
Figure 13
Item 1024. Hacksaw blade oscillator.
wooden base,
screwed to parts aboveit
(rests on bench,
securely clamped)
pendulum(about 1 kg,
300 mmlong)
As shown in figure 1 3, the hacksaw blade can be clamped at the bottom, so that it
stands vertically. A mass, made of several strips of steel, can be clamped to it at
various heights, so varying the natural frequency. The damping can be changed by
adding a cork carrying a postcard to the top of the blade in such a way that the postcard
can be placed with its plane in or at right angles to the plane of vibration. This can
be achieved by cutting slots at right angles to one another across the ends of the cork.
The card can also carry a needle which moves across a scale clamped over the bench,
to indicate the amplitude of oscillation.
The blade can be driven in a number of ways. One way, shown in figure 1 3, is to employ
a massive pendulum which is kept going by gentle pushes from a finger. Another way
would be to attach the rubber band leading from the hacksaw blade to the drive to
a hand-driven crank made of Meccano parts, instead of to the pendulum shown.
A motor drive has obvious attractions, but would be expensive to provide in quantity.
The base, to which all parts are fixed, needs to be rigid, and able to be clamped securely
to the bench. If a pendulum drive is employed, part of the base must overhang the
bench.
1025 Pair of capacitor plates quantity 2 pans
The capacitor plates supplied by a manufacturer, as shown in figure 51, page 172, of
the T eachers' handbook, are made of sheets of aluminium alloy, some 5 mm thick and
250 mm square. Such material is not easy to obtain, but if it can be obtained more
cheaply than the ready-made plates, it is the best material to use. 4 mm holes to
accept 4 mm plugs can be drilled in the edges of the plates, the thickness of which
ensures that they will remain flat in normal use.
The difficulty of finding an alternative lies first in finding a material which will
remain adequately flat, and second, in making contact with the conducting surfaces.
Hardboard is insufficiently flat and stable. A thicker, but ungrained material, such as
chipboard at least 10 mm thick, is more suitable. If such a material is used, it is best to
have the plates rather larger, say 500 mm square or more, so that larger plate spacings
can be employed, and lack of flatness or smoothness of the conducting surfaces
matters less. Glass plates are admirably stiff, flat, and smooth but are too brittle for the
rough and tumble of most laboratories.
If an insulating material is used as the basis of the plates, it requires a conducting
surface. This can either be Aquadag painted on it, or a smooth layer of new aluminium
cooking foil pasted carefully over the surface. In neither case is it easy to provide
simple, robust, and reliable electrical connections which do not project into the space
between the conducting surfaces. One solution is to carry part of the conducting
surface onto the back of each plate, and to make contact with it via a metal strip fixed
to the plate, which presses against the conductor, as in figure 14. The metal strip can
be secured by and electrically connected to a 4 mm socket.
conductor
metal strip
rod drilled with 4 mmhole,
threadedto secure metal strip
insulating base
conducting surface
Figure 14
Detail of one method of making a connection to a conducting surface on an insulating base.
1029 Hall voltage apparatus for metals quantity 1
Given suitable workshop facilities for accurate drilling and hole cutting, the apparatus
is not hard to make. Figure 15 shows the main parts.
coil, 400 turns, 1 A
hole to
C-COP
Figure 15
Item 1029. Hall voltage apparatus for metals. (Not shown: clip to hold C-cores in place; polythene
sheets between which the foil strip is sandwiched.)
Astrip of foil 10 mm wide passes between two faces of a pair of C-cores, around
which there is a coil to provide magnetic flux across the foil. The foil carries about 5 A.
Three narrower strips (these and the current-carrying strip are all cut in one piece
from a sheet of foil) lead from the region of the foil strip between the C-cores, so
that the Hall voltage across the specimen may be picked up. There are two such
narrow strips on one side so that any misalignment of the strips on opposite sides
of the current-carrying strip, leading to an ohmic potential difference as well as to
a Hall voltage, can be compensated for. Fuller details of the procedure appear in the
Students' laboratory book.
The foil can be laid out on a base about 1 50 mm by 180 mm, carrying metal strips
which can be screwed down over the five ends of the foil strips, so securing and
making electrical contact with them. It is convenient if the means of holding down
the metal contacts incorporates 4 mm sockets so that leads may quickly be brought
to each contact.
One of the C-cores goes above the base, and the other below, the base having apertures
cut in it so that the C-cores are separated only by the foil going between them, and by
two layers of thin polythene above and belowthe foil which insulate it fromthe cores.
The base requires feet about 50 mm tall so that one core can fit under it, and a spring
clip (not in figure 1 5) to press the upper core firmly onto the lower one.
1031 200 kHz pulse generator quantity 1
The circuit is shown in figure 1 6. It is easily constructed on a small piece of printed
circuit board (Veroboard, 0.15 inch pitch), later to be mounted in a metal box such
- +9 V battery
Figure 16
Circuit of pulse generator.
klystron power
supply, 0 V
^ klystron power supply
-170V
klystron reflector
0 V battery
klystron cathode (0 V)
17
as a rectangular tobacco tin. Figure 17 a shows a plan for mounting the components
on the copper-strip side of the Veroboard. The necessary gaps in the copper strips are
made with the tip of a 3/16 inch drill.
All components except the 25 k 3 potentiometer should be soldered in, working
systematically from left to right, or from back to front. When soldering a component in
position, remember that others have to be mounted near it and that space must
be left for them. The wire dotted in figure 17 a goes underneath the board (that is, on
the plain side) and should be connected first. The battery connections and the leads
to the klystron power supply and klystron transmitter are 100 mm lengths of insulated
wire. Any silicon n-p-n transistor designed for high speed switching should be
+9V
25 kn
klystron power
supply,
-170V
klystron power
supply, 0 V
>560n
*\
-p^e
^__
u
NA1
-klystron reflector
47 MF^V
* i
0.047 |4F
^2.7kf2____-_____klystron cathode
4-* (0V)
a Veroboard plan.
frompower supply,
-170Vsocket
frompowersupply,
0 V socket
soldered to metal case
b Plan for mounting components in a metal box.
Figure 17
Construction of pulse generator.
18
suitable. Those used in prototype versions of this circuit were type 2N3904. Figure 17 b
shows howthe printed circuit board is mounted in the tobacco tin. Holes are drilled
in the sides of the tin in order to mount six insulated 4 mm sockets. A hole is required
in the base of the tin for the 25 kfl potentiometer, from which the Veroboard is
supported by very short lengths of 20 s.w.g. copper wire forming the connections to
the potentiometer. The insulated wires from the Veroboard are then trimmed to the
correct length and soldered to the appropriate sockets. Note the connection to the
klystron power supply 0 V outlet. The circuit requires a 9 V d.c. supply.
Special items required
From RS Components Limited
Resistors, moulded carbon, Jr W: two of 1.2 kd, and one of each of 560 Q . ,
2.7kQ, 4.7 kii, and 18kQ
Capacitors, silvered mica or polystyrene, two of 220 pF, and one of 330 pF
Capacitor, miniature polyester, 0.047 .uF
Potentiometer, midget carbon, less switch, linear track, 25 kQ
Round control knob for potentiometer
Diode, 1GP5 or IN914
Stripboard type A (0.15 inch pitch)
4 mm insulated sockets 6
From suppliers advertising in Wireless world, Practical electronics, etc.
Transistor, n-p-n silicon, 2N3904 2
Local purchase
Small metal box, e.g. rectangular ' 2 ounce' tobacco tin
"19
1033 Cell holder quantity 1 6
The cell holder is required to hold four U2 dry cells connected in series in such a
way that connections can be made via 4 mm plugs to one, two, three, or four cells.
There are many ways of making such a holder, two of which are shown in figure 18.
Both those shown have the cells in a shallow box, which can be constructed of
hardboard with thicker wooden end-pieces. Connections to the cells may be
made by metal contact plates, either connected to 4 mm sockets, or having tags
rolled over to form 4 mm sockets, as in figure 1 8 a.
Figure 18
Item 1033. Cell holder: two possible forms.
20"
Other possibilities include Terry clips mounted on a baseboard, separated by
contact strips connected to 4 mm sockets. All methods require some means of
holding the cells firmly in contact with each other and with the connections to
them. One means of doing this is to pack foam plastic in the cell holder; another is
to provide suitable springs in the holder.
1034 Large electrolytic capacitor quantity 2
A substantial saving can be achieved by making up this item from a capacitor
bought as a component. A single-ended can-type 10 000 |j.F capacitor is required,
which is mounted with its contacts downwards on a suitable insulating base. Stiff
wires soldered to the tags on the capacitor and taken through a hole cut in the
base to a pair of 4 mm sockets mounted on the base, as in figure 1 9, may be adequate
to secure the capacitor, but a fixing clip is recommended.
hole cut in base
fixing clip
tag, soldered with stiff wire
to 4 mmsocket
Figure 19
Item 1034. Large electrolytic capacitor, mounted on an insulating base.
The base can be cut from rectangular section plastic rainwater pipe, as shown in
figure 5, page 8. For greater protection of the capacitor, it may be better still
to mount it inside a length of the pipe, holding it in place with foam plastic.
Special items required
From RS Components Limited
Single-ended capacitor, can, 10 000 u.F, 30 V
Fixing clip, 44.5 mm diameter, vertical
4 mm insulated sockets 2
"21
1035 Pre-amplif ier quantity 2
A circuit which has been found suitable is shown in figure 20. It can be constructed
on a small piece of printed circuit board (Veroboard, 0.1 5 inch pitch) later to be
mounted in a metal box such as a rectangular tobacco tin. Figure 21 a shows a
wiring plan for the printed circuit board. The necessary gaps in the copper strips
are made with the tip of a 3/1 6 inch drill.
+9V
Figure 20
Circuit of pre-amplifier.
All components, except the 1 MfJ potentiometer, should be mounted on the copper-
strip side of the Veroboard, working systematically from left to right. The battery
connections and the leads from the input and to the output, are 100 mm
lengths of insulated wire. Any silicon n-p-n transistor with a current gain of 50
or greater, and a gainbandwidth product of 200 MHz or more, should be suitable.
Types BSY 27 and 2N3904 have been used successfully.
Figure 21 b shows how the Veroboard is mounted in the base of the tobacco tin.
Holes will have to be drilled in the sides of the tin to mount three small rubber
grommets for the input, output, and battery leads. Holes in the base of the tin are
needed for the 1 MfJ potentiometer and for three 4 B.A screws, each to secure a
three-tagged mounting strip. The mounting strips should be screwed in place and
then soldered to the base of the tin. It is advisable to use screened cable for the
input and output leads, the screen being connected to the tag soldered to the tin.
The inner conductors are connected to insulated tags on the appropriate mounting
strip. The negative battery lead is also connected to the tin in this way, as shown
in figure 21 b. All leads may be terminated at the free ends with 4 mm plugs.
Finally, the Veroboard is supported by very short lengths of 20 s.w.g. copper wire
forming the connections to the 1 MQpotentiometer, the insulated wires being
trimmed to the correct length and soldered to the appropriate tags (see figure 21 b).
A 9 V d.c. supply is required.
22"
+9V
a Veroboard plan.
Veroboard
input ( output (coaxial)
b Plan for mounting components in a small metal box.
Figure 21
Construction of pre-amplifier.
Special items required
From RS Components Limited
Resistors, moulded carbon, i W, one of each of 220 O, 1 kQ, 2.2 kQ,
15 kn, 18 kiJ, and 100 kn
Capacitors, miniature moulded polyester, 230 V, 1 u,F 2
Potentiometer, midget carbon, less switch, linear track, 1 MQ
"23
Round control knob for the potentiometer
Stripboard type A, 0.15 inch pitch
Mounting strip, three-tagged 3
Rubber (or PVC) grommets, smallest size 3
Screened cable, single 2 lengths
4 mm plugs 6
Screws, nuts, and lock-washers, 4 B.A 3 of each
From suppliers advertising in Wireless world, Practical electronics, etc.
Transistors, n-p-n silicon, BSY 27, 2N3904, etc. 2
Local purchase
Small metal box, e.g. rectangular ' 2 ounce' tobacco tin
1036 Current balance quantity 2
The current balance, shown in figure 22, is a rectangular frame of bare 16 s.w.g.
copper wire which is supported on two razor blade knife edges. The razor blades
also lead current into and out of the wire frame. Only one arm of the frame
parallel to the line joining the knife edges is electrically complete and carries
current, the balance being used to detect vertical components of forces on this arm.
The other arm is incomplete, being bridged by an insulating sleeve which carries
a pin, this serving to restrain the motion of the balance by being passed through a
slot in a stop.
Figure 22
Item 1036. Current balance.
24"
The frame itself is made from 1 6 s.w.g. copper wire which has been straightened as
it comes off the reel by pulling it across the edge of a bench. After the frame is
bent, the two ends can be cut so that there is a 5 mm gap between them in the
middle of one arm, the gap being bridged by an insulating sleeve. The stop, which
restrains a pin through the sleeve, can be made of hardboard attached to a small
block of wood. Suitable dimensions for this and other parts are shown in figure 22.
The razor blades are bolted to a 40 mm wide strip of hardboard, each being
connected to a 4 mm socket let into the strip. The blades should be capable of
being easily replaced. For safety, it is best to cut slots in the top of the strip, so that
the edges of the blades need not project above it. The strip is supported by wooden
blocks glued or screwed to its ends.
Having found the point of balance with the frame resting squarely on the blades,
small nicks are filed in the underside of the frame so that it can be put in position
quickly. The frame is also bent about these nicks, so that it rests on the blades in
stable equilibrium with its arms some 5 mm below the level of the blades. A small
length of thinner copper wire wrapped round one of the larger arms of the beam can be
used to balance the beam.
support with razor blades
Vlagnadur magnet
Figure 23
Balance supported so that its end is at the level of Magnadur magnets on a mild steel yoke.
As shown in figure 23, the dimensions are chosen so that the arm of the frame
carrying current lies midway between Magnadur magnets mounted on mild steel
yokes (items 92 B and 92 I) when these and the frame support rest on a flat bench.
1039 Search coil quantity 4 axial, 4 lateral
The 5000-turn search coils suggested in the T eachers' handbook for this item can be
used for all the experiments suggested, often at a frequency of only 50 Hz, and
without using a pre-amplifier in addition to an oscilloscope to detect the alternating
p.d. across the coil. Such coils are not easy to make, though it might not be very
difficult to wind many turns of 48 s.w.g. enamelled copper wire onto a plastic
sewing machine bobbin, using the device provided on a sewing machine for
winding thread onto the bobbins.
Small coils with fewer turns can be found ready-made as IF transformer coils for
radio sets. A suitable coil would be 1 0 to 20 mm in diameter, and have several
hundred turns. Such coils would serve for many of the experiments suggested, and
would be suitable for all experiments if the field to be detected alternates at 1 0 kHz
and a pre-amplifier is available.
Two coil mountings are desirable, as shown in figure 24 a and b. In one, the axial
mounting, the coil is fixed with its axis along a rod which also carries leads to the
coil. In the other, lateral mounting, the coil is let into a long strip so that its axis
is perpendicular to the plane of the strip.
coil
Figure 24
Item 1039. Search coil.
a Axial mounting.
b Lateral mounting.
1040 Clip component holder quantity 8 or more
This holder makes it easy to connect wire-ended components into circuits which use
4 mm plug and socket connections elsewhere. Figure 25 shows a version of the
holder.
4 mmsocket
crocodileclip
Figure 25
Item1040. Clip component holder.
26
It can consist of a pair of crocodile clips bolted to the upper face of an insulating
base, and connected to 4 mm insulated sockets let into the base. It is important
to secure the clips very firmly. The base can be cut from rectangular section plastic
rainwater pipe, as shown in figure 5, page 8.
1041 Potentiometer holder quantity 1 6
The holder is intended to take a radio component potentiometer. Where the right
values are available, a preset control is the most convenient, but the most useful
value, 5 kft, may not be available in this form, and it may be necessary to use a
wire-wound control or a midget carbon track control. Consult the catalogue of
RS Components Limited for up to date information.
The holder is simply a base, drilled to take the potentiometer, and provided with
four 4 mm sockets. The base may be cut from rectangular section plastic rainwater
pipe, as shown in figure 5, page 8. Figure 26 shows the base, less potentiometer,
and figure 27 shows the circuit.
holefor potentiometer
Figure 26
Item 1041. Potentiometer holder.
Figure 27
Circuit for potentiometer.
"27
1 042 Magnetic field board quantity 4
The magnetic field board is a board onto which coils of plastic covered wire (item
92 X) can easily be wound in a variety of forms and with varying numbers of
turns. This is most readily achieved by making the board of perforated hardboard
(pegboard) or by using other similar perforated board such as that available for
sound insulating panels. The wire is wound round pegs inserted into the holes.
These may simply be dowels, golf tees, or other suitable pegs such as those sold
for fixing notices to pegboard panels. About two dozen pegs are needed for each
board.
The whole board, shown in figure 28, must be made of non-ferromagnetic material,
including all screws. It should be 0.3 m to 0.5 m square. If pegboard is used, it will
be necessary to provide a frame to lift the board off the bench, so that pegs can
be inserted into the holes.
golf tee
plastic peg
dowel pe
Figure 28
Item 1042. Magnetic field board. See also T eachers' handbook, figure 64, page 183.
1043 Millikan apparatus quantity 1
The construction of a Millikan cell to be used with an existing microscope is not
particularly difficult, and the cost need be little greater than that of a suitable
objective for the microscope.
The cell shown in figure 29 is in the form of a rectangular box made of insulating
material, with its back resting on the microscope stage, which must be vertical. To
achieve this with most microscopes, a support is needed to which the microscope is
bolted. Such a support is shown in the T eachers' handbook, figure 65, page 1 84. To
stop the cell slipping, it has a rough rubber backing (see figure 29 b) and is held onto
the stage by stout rubber bands.
28
~ lead to power supply
I
pacer-
H
5 mm
r
f=\
r L r
n
r"-1 !
-
\
-
/
\
tb ( o ^
t>- V ;
v
JlSIr^ ^
e 40 mm
lid
re
"f
h
^X
_i
\
cC
0^"
Op
P s
ting handle
ughrub b er b ackings
b ox
1 mm
upper
i
prefoc
^micros
ov er h
\
5 mm diameter
ole, lessthan
Jiameter
jlate
5*=^ spacer-
us lamp
cope cov er slip
ole
i
- Vr
r^S
X/
^r
Ff
if
uE ,n
tt> ' I
(S
I
) -
^ 30 mm *
-h
i
microscope ob jectiv e,
25mm x 6.7
used withx 7 eyepiece
/
[
\
]
to power supply
Figure 29
Item 1 043. Millikan cell.
a Front v iew.
b Side v iew.
The two metal plates whichform the Millikan cell proper, cut from metal plate ab out
5 mm thick, are mounted in the centre ofthe b ox. The lower plate is b olted into the
b ox, while the upper plate rests freely on it, ov er spacers ab out 5 mm thick cut
from P erspex. Two 4 mm holes are drilled in the b ox at the lev el ofthe space
b etween the plates, at right angles to one another. Bothare cov ered withmicroscope
cov er slips glued ov er them. A prefocus lamp shines throughone hole, b eing mounted
on an arm so that the lamp actually touches the glass slip ov er the hole. The microscope
is directed at the other hole.
A fine hole (less than 1 mm diameter) is drilled in the upper plate, countersunk on the
top surface. C ontact withthis plate is made b y a metal prob e witha b ev elled tip
whichenters the cell througha hole in its lid. Lowering the prob e at once pumps
"29
oil drops, prev iously sprayed into the space ov er the top plate, into the space b etween
the plates, connects the highv oltage to the plate, and seals offthe hole. The upper
plate is made remov ab le so it is easy to clear the hole in it of oil. The lower plate is
connected to the power supply b y a 4 mm socket let into the side ofthe b ox, as in
figure 29 a.
The lamp mounting needs to b e adjustab le, so that the b eam from the prefocus b ulb can
b e shone directly b elowthe hole in the upper plate. It is helpful to ov er-run the
lamp somewhat. A needle, let into a lengthof rod, whichpasses throughthe hole
in the upper plate, is useful as a means of adjusting the focus ofthe microscope, and
ofaligning the illumination.
The microscope will usually need a special ob jectiv e, a 25 mm x6.7 ob jectiv e b eing
suitab le. The eyepiece, for whichx7 or x 1 0 will serv e, requires the addition of a
graticule. A suitab le graticule can b e b ought, or can b e made b y ruling a pair ofparallel
lines crossed at right angles b y a third line, on a slip ofthin P erspex, using a sharp
razor b lade drawn once across the surface for eachline.
The effectiv eness ofthe oil spray is important. A good spray will emit a fine haze of
droplets, withno drops large enoughto see withthe unaided eye. Apiezon A oil is
v ery suitab le. A metal tub e some 1 0 mm in diameter and up to 1 00 mm long, b ent if
necessary and placed ov er the spray nozzle, seems to b e a good way oftrapping large
drops that emerge, so prev enting them from falling into the cell and clogging the hole
in the upper plate.
The power supply should giv e at least 500 V, preferab ly 1 kV, and b e well smoothed.
Safety resistors of at least 1 0 MQ should b e included in the leads to the cell, to av oid
risk of shock. It is important that the microscope is well away from any conductor
connected to the supply, particularly b olts retaining the lower plate in place, lest a
spark jumps from them to the microscope and thence to the eye.
1047 Kit of two-terminal boxes quantity 2 kits
Eachkit consists ofab out eight b oxes, eachb ox hav ing two 4 mm sockets, and some
simple components concealed underneath.
The b oxes may b e made up in sev eral ways. One way uses wooden terminal b oxes
sold for the mounting of mains fittings. Another way is to cut insulating b ases from
rectangular section plastic rainwater pipe, as shown in figure 5, page 8. The under
side ofthe b ase can b e cov ered withadhesiv e, opaque P VC tape, if required.
Figure 30 shows the b oxes, while figure 31 giv es some suitab le circuits for their
contents.
30"
Figure 30
Item 1 047. Two-terminal b oxes.
1 MO
lamp
270 Q . 4 70 n
1 200O
Figure 31
Suggested circuits for two-terminal b oxes.
Special items required
From RS Components Limited
Resistors, moulded carb on, J W, 1 0 per cent tolerance, two of270 fJ and one
ofeachof220 Q, 470 Q, 820 2, 1 .2 kQ, and 1 MQ
Diode,1 GP 5
Round M.E.S. pilot lamp,1 2 V, 0.1 A
Electrolytic capacitor, doub le-ended, 1 00 u,F, 25 V
4 mm insulated sockets 16
From suppliers advertising in Wireless world, P ractical electronics, etc.
C dS resistor
1 048 Four-terminal boxes quantity kit 1 2 kits
kit 2 2 kits
The four-terminal b oxes are similar to the two-terminal b oxes shown in figure 30,
b ut carry four 4 mm sockets. Two sockets are directly connected in ev ery b ox, and
this connection should b e shown on the b ox itself.
Figure 32
Item 1 048. Four-terminal b ox.
Kit 1 consists offour relativ ely simple circuits, shown in figure 33. Kit 2 consists of
more complex circuits, suggestions for whichare giv en in figure 34.
It is v ery conv enient ifev ery b ox is lab elled permanently witha code letter suchas
those giv en in figures 33 and 34. The contents of the b oxes should not b e v isib le, b ut
it should b e possib le to remov e whatev er conceals the contents to inspect them.
330 n 270 n
C O-
68 n
issn
Figure 33
Four-terminal b oxes, kit 1 . P ossib le contents of b oxes.
32
5 60 n
4 7 n
1
1 son
icon
H
5kn
logarithmic
68 n
-O /O I I (
P I 68fl
\Jsoon
I
| Isan
) O o 1
soon
skn
270 n
Figure 34
Four-terminal b oxes, kit 2. P ossib le contents ofb oxes.
Special items required
From RS Components Limited
For kit 1 , per kit:
Resistors, moulded carb on, W, 1 0%tolerance, 1 50 Q, 270 Q, 330 Q
Resistors, moulded carb on, 1 W, 1 0 %tolerance, 68 n 3
Diode 1 GP 5
4 mm insulated sockets 16
For kit 2, per kit:
Resistors, moulded carb on, ^ W, 1 0%tolerance, 47 Q, 82 Q, 1 00 i,
1 50 n, 1 80 Q, 270 a, and 560 Q
Resistor, moulded carb on, 1 W, 1 0%tolerance, 68 Q 3
Standard wirewound control, 500 fi 2
Midget carb on track control, linear, 5 kii 2
Midget carb on track control, logarithmic 5 kQ
Zener diode, BZY 88 series, 2.7 V
4 mm insulated sockets 28
"33
1 049 Thyratrons and thyratron base quantity 2
The thyratron b ase carries 4 mm sockets wired to two types ofv alv e b ase in
parallel. The international octal b ase accepts the argon thyratron 884, or the helium
thyratron 6K25, while the B7G b ase accepts the xenon thyratron EN91 . The 884
and 6K25 may not b e easy to get, and not a great deal is lost b y omitting the octal
b ase altogether.
Sockets should b e prov ided for anode and grid, and pairs of sockets for cathode and
for heater, as shown in figure 35 a. Ifpossib le, the circuit should b e shown on the
face ofthe b ase, the sockets b eing lab elled.
The b ase can b e cut from rectangular section plastic rainwater pipe, as shown in
figure 5, page 8.
Figure 35 b shows the pin connections for the two v alv e b ases, as seen from the
underside ofthe v alv e b ase. Note that on the B7G b ase, the cathode connection
goes to three pins (pins 2, 5, and 7, counting clockwise from the gap) .
B7Gsocket
nternational octal socket
' 4 mm socket
Figure 35
Item 1 049. Thyratron b ase,
a Base and circuit.
34'
international
octal
rid
anode
Figure 35 (continued)
b C onnections to v alv e b ase pins, from b elow.
Special items required
From RS Components Limited
Low-loss v alv eholder, B7G
Moulded v alv eholder, octal
4 mm insulated sockets 6
1 052 Absorbers for alpha, beta, and gamma rays quantity 1 kit
The kit should consist of a range of 50 mm square samples of ab sorb ing materials
for use withradiations from radioactiv e sub stances. The following materials and
thicknesses make a suitab le range. The larger thicknesses could b e prov ided for b y
hav ing larger numb ers of thinner samples.
Lead: 20 mm, 1 0 mm, 5 mm
Aluminium: 5 mm, 3 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, kitchen foil, leaf (item 58 A)
P aper: card, writing paper, tissue paper, cigarette paper
The thinner materials could conv eniently b e mounted in cardb oard 35 mm film
slide mounts.
1063 Multiple light source quantity 1
The multiple light source consists of a row offiv e festoon b ulb s parallel to one
another, as shown in figure 36. The b ulb s should b e as close together as possib le.
Figure 36 shows one way of mounting the b ulb s. Fiv e chassis mounting holders,
intended for 1 i inchcartridge fuses, are screwed side b y side on a wooden b ase, as
close together as possib le. Leads from 4 mm sockets mounted on the b ase are
soldered so as to connect the holders in parallel.
Figure 36
Item 1 063. Multiple light source, using cartridge fuse holders.
Special items required
From RS Components Limited
Festoon b ulb s, 1 2 V, 3 W 5
C hassis mounting holders, single, 1 ^ inch5
4 mm insulated sockets 2
1065 Big mirror quantity 1
The mirror is intended for the reflection of 3 cm microwav es in sufficient quantity to
b e detected ov er a considerab le distance, in a time offlight determination ofthe
speed ofthe microwav es.
For this purpose it must b e large, and flat. Figure 37 shows one form of construction.
The mirror, at least 0.7 m b y 1 m, is made of a sheet of plywood ab out 5 mm thick,
coated on one face withconducting material. Metallized plastic film is a v ery
suitab le coating, the material sold as Melinex b eing v ery good. Aluminium foil
ofthe sort sold as kitchen foil is adequate, b ut less good; great care must b e taken
36
to stick it down v ery smoothly. Ideally, the surface should reflect v isib le light well
enoughto form an image whichcan b e used in aligning the mirror. In any case,
the mirror must not depart from flatness b y more than a fewmillimetres.
plywood, 5 mm
support and stiffening
Figure 37
Item 1 065. Big mirror.
The plywood sheet needs to b e stiffened, as shown in figure 37, so that it remains
flat ov er long periods of time. It is adv isab le to store it in a dry place.
1 067 Physical optics kit quantity 1 kit
Some ofthe parts required for the physical optics kit can b e made quite easily in a
school, others, including lenses and eyepieces, will hav e to b e b ought. For a
full list of all items, see the T eachers' handbook, pages 201 to 204. Only the parts
whichcan b e made or prov ided in a school are dealt withhere.
37
1 067/1 A sheet with slit and holes quantity 4
See figure 38 a. The sheet, 1 00 mm square, made of thin metal, has four holes
drilled in a line across its middle withdiameters of 2.0 mm, 1 .5 mm, 1 .0 mm, and
0.5 mm. A further 7 mm diameter hole is drilled at the centre ofthe plate, ov er
whichtwo halv es ofa razor b lade are fixed, edge to edge, so as to form a narrow
slit. The b lades are fixed in place b y two nuts and b olts withsuitab le washers
passing throughholes 40 mm apart.
1 00 mm
1 067/1 A
Figure 38a
1 067/1 B holder for lens of diameter 37mm quantity Q
See figure 38 b. The holder has to hold a 37 mm diameter lens withits centre 50 mm
ab ov e the b enchsurface. It consists ofa plastic-coated Terry clip secured to
a wooden b ase. The groov e in the b ase shown in figure 38 b makes for a more
rigid fixture, b ut is not essential if a b ase 1 5 mm thick can b e made.
1 067/1
Figure 38b
38"
1 067/1 E set ofstops for lens in holder quantity 1 ofeach
See figure 38 c. Four round holes, diameters 30 mm, 20 mm, 1 0 mm, and 5 mm,
are cut at the centres offour thin metal plates, 1 00 mm square. Eachhole should
thus b e centred on the middle of a 37 mm diameter lens held in the holder
(item 1 067/1 B) withthe middle ofthe lens 50 mm ab ov e the b ench, and the
stop resting on the b enchand propped against the lens.
1 00 mm
30 mm diameter
20 mm diamete
1 0 mm diameter 5 mm diameter
Figure 38c
1 067/1 F set of masks with holes at different zone radii quantity 1 ofeach
See figure 38 d. The set of masks consists offour thin metal plates 1 00 mm square,
withholes cut symmetrically ab out the centre of eachmask, withthe centre
50 mm ab ov e the b enchwhen the mask rests on one edge. One plate has a 5 mm
diameter hole drilled at its centre. The others hav e rings of holes, as follows:
six holes, each3 mm diameter, in a circle of 1 0 mm diameter
eight holes, each2.5 mm diameter, in a circle of 20 mm diameter
twelv e holes, each2 mm diameter, in a circle of 30 mm diameter.
Figure 38d
1 067/1 F
~39
1 067/1 G big stop to stand on bench quantity A -
See figure 38 e. This stop is used to screen stray light whichmight otherwise
enter eyepieces. It must stand freely on the b ench, so a flat sheet withone edge
b ent througha right angle is suitab le. The sheet should b e 1 00 mm square, an
edge or support 30 mm wide b eing adequate. The hole, drilled at the centre of
the sheet, has a diameter of ab out 20 to 25 mm.
1 00mm
1 067/1 G
Figure 38e
1 067/1 H small translucent screen quantity 6
See figure 38 /. The screen can b e made from a 1 00 mm square sheet of3 mm
P erspex, glued into a groov e cut in a wooden support 1 00 mm x 30 mm x 1 5 mm.
One side ofthe P erspex should b e well roughened b y rub b ing it withfine
glasspaper. The screen can b e used on its side as in figure 38 f, or resting on the
wooden support.
l 5 mm
1 067/1 H
Figure 38f
40
1 067/1 1 holder for eyepiece or adjustable slit quantity 5
See figure 38 g. The holder is intended to hold an eyepiece or an adjustab le slit
(taken, for.example, from a spectrometer) withits centre 50 mm ab ov e the b ench.
The eyepiece or slit assemb ly can b e held in a Terry clip mounted at a height found
b y trial, on a wooden b ase. The b ase also carries a metal mask witha 20 mm
diameter hole drilled so that its centre is 50 mm ab ov e the b ench.
30 mm
1 067/1 I
Figure 38g
quantity 1 6 1 067/1 J holder for two halves of a razor blade to be used
as a single slit
See figure 38 h. This holder is used to keep two halv es of a razor b lade, edge to
edge, so that they form an adjustab le, narrow slit. The b lades are sandwiched
b etween sheets ofstout cardb oard or of metal, 35 mm x 70 mm, withholes 1 0 mm
in diameter drilled or cut at their centres. The sheets, withb lades in place, can b e
held together b y pairs of rub b er b ands 25 mm x 3 mm x 1 mm.
razor b lades
ub b erb and
35 mm
1 067/1 J
Figure 38h
41
1 067/1 K support for a set of slits quantity 1
See figure 38 /. This holder is used to support the slits, item 1 067/2 O, or the
gratings, item 1 067/2 N, so that their centres are 50 mm ab ov e the b ench, ov er a
mask witha 20 mm diameter hole also withits centre 50 mm ab ov e the b ench.
If the slits or gratings are mounted in 35 mm slide mounts, the b ottom ofthe slit
carrier (see figure 38 /' ) should b e 1 8 mm b elowthe centre ofthe hole, that is,
32 mm ab ov e the b ench. But ifthe slits are mounted in some other way, the height
of the slit carrier will need adjustment.
mask
hole diameter 20 mm
slit carrier
1 067/1 K
Figure 38i
1068 Parallel beamprojector quantity 1
The parallel b eam projector is muchthe same as a conv entional ' ray b ox' , and can b e
made b y modifying one slightly. It employs a +7 dioptre plano-conv ex lens and a 1 2 V,
24 W, straight filament lamp, whichcan b e mov ed towards or away from the lens
so that the filament could b e placed up to 200 mm from the lens. The lamp is in a light-
tight casing, and the lens is mounted ov er a hole cut in a mask so that hardly any
light emerges except throughthe lens. See figure 39.
A tab le, 50 mm ab ov e the b ench, is needed in front ofthe lens, to carry a prism or other
optical components. An area of 70 mm x 80 mm is sufficient. Figure 39 giv es other
significant dimensions.
It is important to arrange the lamp and lens so that the centre ofthe lens is at the
same height ab ov e the b enchas the middle ofthe lamp filament. Indiv idual lamps v ary
a good deal as regards the straightness oftheir filaments, and it is well worthwhile
selecting a good lamp.
42"
light-tight lid
n-conv ex lens, 50 mm diameter,
+7dioptre (focal length, 0.1 5 m)
50 mm
Figure 39
Item 1 068. P arallel b eam projector.
"43
1069 Apparatus for showing the Compton effect quantity 1
Figure 40 shows the parts ofthe apparatus, in an ' exploded' diagram. The b ase may
b e ofwood, 1 00 mm x 1 00 mm x 25 mm, drilled witha central hole to take a pure gamma
source (cob alt 60) . The protectiv e gauze ofthe source must lie b elowthe surface of
the b ase. It is b est to drill a hole, ab out 1 5 mm in diameter (larger than the source) to a
depthofsome 5 mm, and then to drill a further 4 mm hole to take the 4 mm pin on
the source so that the source is held upright in the larger hole.
b eaker 500 cm3
lead cylinder
lead disc, 1 mm thick
wooden b ase
Figure 40
Item 1 069. Apparatus for showing the C ompton effect.
44
A 500 cm3 b eaker rests centrally ov er the source. A disc of lead sheet, 1 mm thick,
75 mm in diameter, lies on the b ottom of the b eaker in part ofthe experiment.
(It is lifted to rest on top ofthe lead cylinder in a later part. See Unit 1 0, experiment
1 0.1 0.)
In the middle ofthe b eaker stands a lead cylinder 60 mm tall and 20 mm in diameter.
The cylinder will hav e to b e cast. A 35 mm film can may b e used as a
mould, filing the casting to size afterwards, or a mould can b e made b y drilling
a suitab le hole in a b lock of hardwood. The b ev elling of the lower end to 1 5 mm
diameter is useful, b ut not essential. It is essential that the lower end ofthe cylinder
is made flat and perpendicular to its axis, so that the cylinder stands upright
without toppling or wob b ling.
In use, the b eaker is filled withwater to the top of the lead cylinder, the water
serv ing to scatter gamma rays into the counter. As a luxury option, the b eaker and
water can b e replaced b y a scattering cylinder made of aluminium or P erspex
(or other material of relativ ely low atomic mass containing many electrons per unit
v olume) . The cylinder should b e 75 mm in diameter, 60 mm tall, witha 20 mm
diameter central hole, and cut into halv es longitudinally so that the halv es can
easily b e placed around the lead cylinder.
1070 Gas energy transfer apparatus quantity 1
The apparatus is no more than a b icycle pump held firmly b y Terry clips to a
b aseb oard, as shown in figure 41 . The clips should b e plastic cov ered, and must
hold the pump firmly. It should b e possib le to clamp the b aseb oard to the b ench.
Figure 41
Item 1 070. Gas energy transfer apparatus.
The pump must b e a metal one, and should b e as light as possib le. The casing must
hav e a heat capacity not exceeding 50 J K" 1 ; that is, ifthe casing is of aluminium,
its mass should not exceed ab out 60 g.
It may b e worthprov iding the pump withan insulating surround cut from expanded
polystyrene.
45
1073 Concave reflection grating quantity 1
A cheap and fairly effectiv e concav e reflection grating can b e made b y cementing
metallized replica grating material onto a concav e mirror, or onto the concav e
face of a lens. A radius of curv ature of 0.5 m is suitab le. C are should b e exercised
to keep the replica grating surface smooth, using the minimum amount of cement.
The grating material should hav e ab out 600 lines per millimetre. A piece of
material ab out 30 mm b y 30 mm is required. It is often possib le to ob tain metallized
replica grating material from P roops Brothers Limited.
1075 Electronics kit quantity 8 kits
It is not difficult to make the electronics kit, and only cheap components are
required, most ofthe manufacturer' s cost b eing lab our. To make a class kit is,
howev er, a lengthy job , and may only b e worthwhile ifthe school' s workshop can
undertake repetitiv e work, especially soldering. The form ofthe kit will depend on the
b oxes the school can ob tain, within whichthe modules are to go. The notes b elow
assume that the modules will b e b uilt either in 8-pin relay cases from RS C omponents
Limited, or in 1 1 -pin module cases from Lugton and C ompany Limited. The 1 1 -pin
cases are preferred. The cases containing modules then plug into 8-pin or 1 1 -pin
sockets mounted on b aseb oards.
The b aseb oard
The b aseb oards can b e constructed from half metre lengths of Limpet plastic
guttering, av ailab le from b uilders' merchants. Any other firm insulating b ase, ab out
0.1 m wide, raised ab out 20 mm offthe b enchb y a suitab le frame, will serv e.
power rail, 4- 6V, red 4mm sockets
4 mm output sockets
(yellow, say)
power rail, 0 V,
b lack4 mm sockets
Figure 42
Baseb oard.
a From ab ov e.
46"
, to +6 V
39 71 W
toOV
Figure 42 (continued)
b From b elow.
c Wiring for 1 1 -pin socket (from underneath) .
Holes for the 4 mm sockets and the module sockets are required, in the places shown
in figure 42 a. The power rail sockets are mounted on the side ofthe guttering, with
fiv e sockets on eachside, using red ones for the +6 V line and b lack ones for the
OVIine.
Figure 42 b shows the wiring on the underside ofthe b ase. All fiv e +6 V sockets and
then all fiv e 0 V sockets, aro wired together. Eachmodule socket has one pin joined to
the +6 V rail and one pin to the 0 V rail. Figure 42b shows the pin connections for
8-pin sockets, while figure 42 c shows the corresponding connections for an 1 1 -pin
socket. The three input sockets and the two output sockets for eachposition on the
b ase are wired to pins on the corresponding module socket. The connection to each
uppermost output socket (socket M) includes a 39 Q 1 W resistor. Note that the
module sockets are shown mounted withthe key-ways facing the 0 V line.
47
The modules
Ev ery module is constructed on printed circuit b oard (Verob oard, 0.1 5 inchpitch) ,
later mounted in the module case or relay case. Do not forget that the cov er of
the case has to fit ov er the Verob oard after components are mounted on it.
P articular care ov er the layout of components is needed for the multiv ib rator
module and for the b istab le module.
The general procedure for all modules is the same. Remov e the plastic cov er from a
module case (withcare) , and plug the b ase into one of the sockets mounted on
the b aseb oard. Figure 43 shows the pin-holes in a b ase plugged into a socket,
for b oth8-pin and 1 1 -pin types. Identify the sev en pins connected (in the
b aseb oard) to 0 V, +6 V, input terminals A, B, C , and output terminals M and N.
Solder tinned copper wire in eachof these pins, cutting offthe wire to leav e
40 mm ofwire standing ab ov e the b ase. Omit wires to any pins not used b y the
module under construction. (The and- gate module has only two inputs and one
output; the lamp indicator module has two inputs and no output.)
+6V
+6V
0V
Figure 43
C onnections made in the b aseb oard to pins in a module b ase standing in a socket (seen from ab ov e) .
a 8-pin,
b 1 1 -pin.
C omplete any wiring, shown dotted on the plans, whichis required on the plain
underside ofthe Verob oard, hav ing drilled gaps in the copper strips at the places
indicated in the plans. Then pass the wires, soldered to the b ase, throughthe
appropriate holes in the Verob oard, withthe copper strips on the b oard uppermost
and parallel to the lengthofthe b aseb oard. The plans (figures 45 a to f) indicate
the appropriate connections for eachmodule. Solder the wires to the Verob oard,
and trim offthe ends. C heck that the module case cov er will fit ov er the Verob oard.
48"
Solder in the components, working systematically from the b ack. No component
may project outside the b ase. C heck the positions of nearb y components from the
plan b efore soldering in a component. Finally, test the module.
Circuit diagrams
Figures 44 a to f giv e circuit diagrams of all the modules in the electronics kit. A
complete kit contains:
three b asic units
two lamp indicator modules
one a/7c/-gate module
one multiv ib rator module
one b istab le module
one b eam splitting module.
inputs B
O+ 6V
OM
O N
00V
-0 +6V
Mb
-oov
Figure 44
C ircuits of modules in electronics kit.
a Basic unit.
b Lamp indicator module.
"4 9
O + 6V
output M
00V
2.2 kn
output M <
15 kn
iskn
4hc c
0.047 | JF 0.047 u.F
..
6.8kn input A input C 6.8 kn
-O-l- 6V
2.2 kn
0.01 uF
trigger,
inputB
} output N
15 kn
ov
o
-0+6V
2.2 kQ 2.2 kn
MO i
(
1 5kn
[~
h
1
< s
v
r c = = ^-y\-c = = ^
1 5 kn 1 5 kn
-^ 6.8kn input A input C 6.8 kn .,
, II . II
r
^i*
7\
Oout
)
OV
o
IHF o
15 kn
0.01 U.F ^ 0.01 uF
trigger,
input B
50"
output M
to oscilloscope
-O
.25)
i illOinput C
OOV
Figure 44 (c ontinued)
c And-gale module.
d Multiv ib rator module.
e Bistab le module.
f Beam splitting module.
Veroboard plans
Figures 45 a to fshow Verob oard plans for eachmodule. Wiring shown b y b roken
lines is on the plain underside ofthe b oard, and must b e completed b efore the
b oard is soldered to its module b ase. Note that the multiv ib rator and b istab le
modules (figures 45 d and e) eachhav e one 2.2 kQ resistor on the underside ofthe
b oard. Letters A, B, C , M, and N, and lab els 0 V and +6 V refer to the connections
to +6V
\2.2kfi
AV
toM/
rr^_
rHmmEE-H
toOV
Figure 45a
Verob oard plan for b asic unit.
"5 1
to module b ase pins shown in figure 43. Letters c, b , and e indicate respectiv ely
the collector, b ase, and emitter ofthe transistor, the corresponding wires for the
ZTX300 b eing indicated in figure 45 a.
In all offigures 45 a to f, the insulating b ase ofthe Verob oard is shown darker than
the white strips representing copper strips b onded to the b oard. Note that each
plan inv olv es some cuts made in the copper strips, shown b y a darker region
crossing the strip.
to +6V
20 s.w.g. copper wire
to retain lampholder
pilot lampholder
Figure 45b toOV
Verob oard plan for lamp indicator module.
to +6V
I
Figure 45c
Verob oard plan for anc/-gate module.
5 2"
ito p
1 5kn stands v ertically
0.01
0.01
Figure 45d ' tos
Verob oard plan for multiv ib rator module (for symb ols p, q, r, s, t, u, see figure 46) .
Figure 45e
Verob oard plan for b istab le module.
"53
"-toOV
Figure 45f
Verob oard plan for b eam splitting module.
Bistable and multivibrator modules
The multiv ib rator module inv olv es extr a wiring to miniature sockets and plugs
mounted on the top ofthe module casing, as shown in figure 46. When the plugs
t and q are in the sockets s and p respectiv ely, the module functions as a b istab le.
When these plugs are in sockets u and r respectiv ely, the module functions as an
astab le, as long as inputs A and C are connected to +6 V b y leads on the b aseb oard.
Figure 46
Miniature plugs and sockets arranged on the top ofthe case ofthe multiv ib rator module, p, r, s, u,
are miniature sockets; t and q are miniature plugs.
When wiring up the Verob oard for the multiv ib rator module (figure 45 d), first
mount the four miniature sockets p, r, s, and u (figure 46) on the top ofthe module
casing, b end the solder tags on eachthrougha right angle, and solder 80 mm of
thin flexib le insulated wire to eachone. Then solder 1 00 mm ofthe same wire to
5 4 "
to the two miniature plugs t and q, and pass these wires throughsmall holes in
the cov er. Solder the six leads to the points marked p, q, r, s, t, and u on the
Verob oard plan.
The b istab le module, figure 45 e, is almost the same as the multiv ib rator module,
except that the 0.047 jiFcapacitors are replaced b y the 1 5 kQ resistors which,
in the multiv ib rator module, were connected to p and s. The plugs and sockets are
not used, and the wires that went to t and q are permanently connected to the
places from whichwires prev iously led to u and r respectiv ely.
Special items required
The following are the components needed for one kit, sufficient for one pair of
students.
Fr omRS Components Limited
Resistors (^ W except for 39 Q) :
39 Q, 1 W 4
2.2 kJ W
6.8 kn 4
1 0 kQ3
1 5 kQ 18
47 kQ2
1 00 kQ 2
C apacitors:
miniature tub ular polyester, 0.047 | j,F2
disc ceramic, lowv oltage:
0.1 nF, 30 V 3
0.01 nF, 1 8V 4
electrolytic:
1 0| iF, 63V 3
25 jiF, 25 V, or 22 nF, 63 V 3
Diode, IN 41 48 (IN 91 4) 6
P ilot lampholders 2
Lamps, round M.E.S. pilots, 6 V, 0.06 A 2
Miniature sockets 4
Miniature plugs 2
4 mm insulated sockets 30 (5 red, 5 b lack, 1 2 b lue, 8 yellow)
Stripb oard type A (0.1 5 inchpitch) 9piec es
Relay cases 9 (alternativ e to 1 1 -pin module cases)
Moulded v alv eholder, octal 4 (ifrelay cases are used)
Moulded v alv eholder, B1 1 A 4 (if1 1 -pin module cases are used)
Nut and washer kit, 4 B.A 1 kit (8 nuts and washers needed)
Screw kit, 4 B.A 1 kit (8 b olts needed)
55
Fr omCoventr yFac tor s Limited
Transistors, ZTX300 14
They can also supply electrolytic capacitors as b elow:
Mullard miniature electrolytic C 426AR/F25, 25 ^F, 25 V; and
Mullard miniature electrolytic C 426AR/E1 0, 1 0 nF, 1 6 V
Fr omLugton and Company Limited
1 1 -pin module cases, type MP 451 1 9 (alternativ e to relay cases)
Moulded v alv eholder, type XP 1 1 /U 4 (for 1 1 -pin module cases)
Fr ombuilder s' mer c hants
Limpet plastic guttering, 0.5 m lengthrequired
1 076 Large ring quantity 1
A stout ring, ab out 0.3 m in diameter, is needed to support a rub b er sheet stretched
ov er it and held taut b y a rub b er b and round the sides ofthe ring. It must b e
possib le to support the ring rigidly ab out 1 50 mm ab ov e the b ench.
Figure 47 shows one form ofsuitab le ring, whichwill not b e hard to make if good
metalwork facilities are av ailab le. A metal b ar, section 25 mm b y 5 mm, ab out 1 m
long, is b ent into a circle. The Nuffield 0-lev el telescope mount (item 1 1 5)
could b e used, or its fixtures copied.
Figure 47
Item 1 076. Large ring.
56"
A pair ofmetal rods are used, in retort stand b ases, to support the ring. The rods can
b e threaded into metal b locks 30 mm x 30 mm x 1 0 mm, into whicha reb ate has b een
cut as shown in figure 47. The ring goes into the reb ate, and is secured b y b olts
threaded into the ring. One b lock can b e placed where the ends ofthe ring meet,
the other b eing on the same diameter.
1 078 Gramophone motor quantity2
A pair of mains v oltage gramophone motors should b e b ought. Suchmotors, of the
kind shown in figure 48 a, are usually av ailab le from surplus supplies dealers,
suchas P roops Brothers Limited. One motor is left unmodified. The other is
modified so that the rotor can b e remov ed for inspection, and so that the effect of
making the shading ring circuit open can b e seen.
(b earing
shading ring
aminated core
shading ring
Figure 48
Item 1 078. Gramophone motor.
a Unmodified.
57
1 4 s.w.g. copper
Figure 48b
Item 1 078, gramophone motor. Modified v ersion.
Figure 48 b shows the modified motor. C ut throughall the shading rings, and
remov e them v ery carefully, taking care not to distort the laminations in the iron
core. Replace one ring witha lengthof b are 1 4 s.w.g. copper wire, b ent as shown
in figure 48 b. The new shading ring can now b e closed electrically b y pinching
the b ent ends ofthe wire firmly together using pliers.
To enab le the rotor to b e remov ed, the riv ets holding the rotor b earings to the core
must b e modified. Figure 49 shows the modification. The shallowflanges on the
underside ofeachriv et are filed away and then the riv et can b e withdrawn, allowing
the b earings to b e lifted off and the rotor remov ed. To keep the b earings in place
when the motor is required to run, 4 BA b olts are passed throughthe riv ets and
secured witha washer and a nut. When reassemb ling the motor, it is important
to centre the rotor accurately, or it will not turn smoothly.
luminium riv et
ends ofrotor
b earings ^
ron lamination
Figure 49
Modifications to riv ets holding b earings.
4BAb olt
4BAnut
5 8"
1079 Flat solenoid quantity 1
The flat solenoid is a tedious item to make, and this is reflected in its cost from a
manufacturer. A school may find it worththe effort, since only one is required.
(The set ofsolenoids, item 1 037, presents a similar case, b ut sev eral solenoids
are needed and the effort inv olv ed is likely to b e less economic.)
Figure 50 shows the construction and dimensions ofthe solenoid. The solenoid is
intended for use withthe current b alance, item 1 036, so the centre ofthe space
inside the windings must b e the same height ab ov e the b enchas the arm of the
b alance whichcarries current. A height of 35 mm is ab out right.
melled
foot
Figure 50
Item 1 079. Flat solenoid.
metal connectingtag
The coil is wound on a flat shallow b ox 280 mm x 230 mm x 25 mm, the smallest
dimension b eing whatev er is needed for the space inside to b e at least 20 mm,
hav ing regard for the thickness ofthe material employed. The b ox can b e made
from two sheets of hardb oard glued and screwed (b rass screws) to strips of
wood 230 mm x 20 mm x 5 mm. Any stiff insulating material will serv e. The b ox
requires feet ofsucha height as to b ring its centre to the correct lev el ab ov e the
b enchfor use withthe current b alance.
The winding is one layer of enamelled 22 s.w.g. copper wire, the turns touching
one another. There will b e ab out 250 turns in a lengthof200 mm to giv e the same
turns density as the larger v alue for item 1 037. The remainder ofthe lengthofthe b ox
is left free ofwindings, so that sockets can b e attached. These may b e ofany form, so
long as they do not project into the inside ofthe solenoid. Figure 50 shows a simple
terminal made b y turning ov er the end ofa metal strip so as to form a 4 mm socket.
5 9
1081 Decade capacitance unit (1-10 nF) quantity 1
The decade capacitance unit is a b ox whichenab les capacitance ofeachintegral
v alue from 1 ^Fto 1 0 nFto b e b rought into circuit. Figure 51 shows one suitab le
circuit using ten 1 jiFcapacitors and four toggle switches, the capacitors
b eing grouped in the v alues 1 | o.F, 2 | iF, 2 | .iF, and 5 uF, so that all v alues are
av ailab le from comb inations ofswitches. Other circuits, whichcould employ
rotary decade switches, can b e equally suitab le. The capacitors can b e ofthe
polyester type, 250 V working, tolerance 20 per cent.
Figure 51
Item 1 081 . Decade capacitance unit (1 -1 0 uF) . All capacitors are 1 | iF.
The insulating b ase to carry the switches and the capacitors may b e cut from
rectangular section plastic rainwater pipe, as shown in figure 5, page 8. The
components are relativ ely b ulky, and the cut shown in figure 5 c is likely to b e most
suitab le.
Special items required
Fr omRS Components Limited
P olyester moulded capacitors 1 jiF, 250 V working
Light-duty single-pole single-throw toggle switches
4 mm insulated sockets 2
10
4
60"
1 082 Coils surrounding a space quantity 1
Item 1 082 is a b ox consisting of six ten-turn coils arranged on the faces of a 1 00
mm cub e, as shown in figure 52. The pairs ofleads from eachcoil are twisted
and b rought out to sev en 4 mm sockets, the coils b eing connected in series as
shown in figure 53. This figure shows only two turns in eachcoil, so as to make it
clear that the windings are all connected in the same sense. Eachcoil in figure 53
is drawn as it appears looking at right angles to it, from the outside ofthe b ox.
six coils forming a b ox
ds tothree coils
Figure 52
Item 1 082. C oils surrounding a space.
Figure 53
C onnections to coils. The coils hav e b een drawn in a row withthe outward face lying uppermost.
Eachcoil has ten turns, b ut only two are shown here, for clarity.
61
The coils can b e wound as follows. Hammer four panel pins into a b aseb oard, at the
corners ofa 1 00 mm sided square. Wind ten turns of 32 s.w.g. enamelled copper
wire on the pins, mark one lead (say, that leading into the coil clockwise)
and the top ofthe coil, and twist the leads together. Hold the turns ofthe coil in
place temporarily withcotton tied round at sev eral places, or withwire wound
round. Hav ing made six suchcoils, assemb le the coils into a b ox, the marked
upper face of ev ery coil facing consistently inwards or outwards. The b ox needs
no other support ifthe coils are b ound together withwire at the corners
where three coils meet. It is also adv isab le to b ind the coils in the middle of each
edge. Alternativ ely, a resin glue suchas Araldite could b e worked into the
turns, giv ing a neater and stronger job .
Note that the coils can b e assemb led withthree pairs of leads emerging from two
corners ofthe b ox, ifthese corners are diagonally opposite one another. The leads
are now soldered to the sockets, connecting the lead to eachcoil whichwas
marked when it was made, in the corresponding way for eachcoil (for example, to
the lefthand one ofits pair ofsockets) . It is conv enient to connect the coil nearest
the sockets to the lefthand pair, and the coil furthest from the sockets to the
righthand pair.
The b ase can b e made ofany insulating, non-magnetic material.
62
Addresses of suppliers
RS C omponents Limited,
P O Box 427, 1 3-1 7 EpworthStreet, London EC 2P 2HA
P roops Brothers Limited,
52 Tottenham C ourt Road, London, W1 P DBA
Lugton and C ompany Limited,
209-21 2 Tottenham C ourt Road, London W1 P DBA
C ov entry Factors Limited,
Upper Well Street, C ov entry C V1 4AF
Osmor Limited,
540 P urley Way,
C roydon C R9 4DY
63
Editor Jon Ogborn
C ontrib utors and memb ers ofthe Nuffield Adv anced P hysics team
P.J.Black Jon Ogborn Joint or ganizer s
W.Bolton R.W.Fairbrother G.E.Foxcroft Martin Harrap
John Harris A.L.Mansell A.W.Trotter
Many ofthe Items- ofapparatus
recommended for the Nuffield
Adv anced P hysics course can b e b uilt in
a school, withconsequent sub stantial
sav ing in cost. This b ook prov ides
enougbJnformation for a teacher
working .withhis lab oratory assistant
to make these items. For eachpiece of
apparatus, drawings and dimensions are
giv en, suitab le materials suggested, and
construction details outlined. In
addition to the ob v ious adv antages of
making some oftheir own apparatus,
teachers will find it a v aluab le way of
getting to knowthe coyrse itself.
P ub lished b y P enguin Education