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Controls
Dimming LEDs P.27
Interconnects
Solder-less sockets
speed assembly P.39
Manufacturing
SPC strategy for
LED lines P.49
LEDsmagazine.com
JULY/AUGUST 2013
TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
Arena
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SSL shines on
basketball court P.7
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LEDsmagazine.com JULY/AUGUST 2013 1
2013
features
23
THE LED SHOW PREVIEW Maury Wright
Conference will include LED technology and
standards updates
27
LIGHTING Ethan Biery, Lutron Electronics Co., Inc.
Matching SSL and control technology remains a
challenge
35
REGULATIONS Pasi Orrevetelainen, SGS Fimko, Ltd
Standards emerge specifically for SSL test methods
39
ASSEMBLY Ron Weber, TE Connectivity
COB LEDs simplify SSL manufacturing, drive broader
deployment
45
AUTOMOTIVE Morand Fachot, IEC
LEDs light the road ahead in automotive
applications
49
MANUFACTURING Steven Chen, KLA-Tencor
Improve LED manufacturing via in-line monitoring
and SPC
57
DESIGN FORUM David Zhang, Texas Instruments
Dimming multiple LED strings enables color-tunable
luminaires
60
LAST WORD Charlie Szoradi, Independence LED
Myth busting as it relates to LED tubes
July/August
columns/departments
2
COMMENTARY Maury Wright
Less may become more in
SSL product lifetime
7
NEWS+ANALYSIS
GE supplies Albeo high-bay LEDs for
Weber State Dee Events Center
MaineDOT installs high-mast LEDs
Panasonic expands LED business in Asia
RPI integrates LED emitters
with on-chip electronics
Luminus Devices announces merger
with Sanan subsidiary Lightera
Seattle startup looks to replace rare
earths with silicon nanoparticles
Fresh Market installs SSL chain-wide
Osram Sylvania and Comcast
partner on adaptive home lighting
TSMC announces new packaged LEDs
and COBs, and China market plans
17
FUNDING + PROGRAMS
Zhaga expands certification
program, adds GLA liaison
USDA and SETi document UV LED
benefits for fresh produce
DOE awards $10.1 million in
new research awards
MSSLC will host annual
meeting in September
EPA and Soraa spar on lamp efficacy
ISSUE 62
2 JULY/AUGUST 2013 LEDsmagazine.com
commentary
T
imes change quickly in the solid-state
lighting (SSL) world. Just two years ago,
LED and lighting manufacturers were mak-
ing hyperbolic claims of 50,000100,000-
hour product lives and many poorly designed
SSL products were failing very early. Now a
maturing industry can reliably deliver light-
ing products with such long life, but should
they? Ive become increasingly convinced
that, while exceptions exist, the industry
needs to focus on 10,00015,000-hour life-
times for many mainstream products.
Dont misunderstand. I applaud the devel-
opments of the last few years. The LED indus-
try has embraced LM-80 testing and the TM-21
methodology to project component life. Prod-
uct developers havelearned to implement ther-
mal and driver technology to ensure that SSL
systems deliver on long-life potential.
Still, in many cases, the industry will be
better off with a more moderate expecta-
tion of lifetime. We can ensure a more robust
ongoing lighting economy with regularly
refreshed product lines and retrofitted instal-
lations that still deliver all of the energy-effi-
ciency promises of LED technology.
Now I cant claim this revelation as original
thinking. Ive heard industry insiders make
similar points, so credit where credit is due.
Last year at the Street and Area Lighting
Conference, Mark Hand, director of new
products and technology at Acuity Brands,
discussed how LED products are essentially
over-specified for most applications (leds
magazine.com/features/9/12/11). Ironically,
he presented at an event where long life
may make sense. But Hands point was that
specifiers can manage the cost of products by
being realistic and only demanding long life,
or other premium features such as high CRI,
when justified by the application.
Venture capitalist Vinod Khosla took a
stronger stance in a Lightfair keynote that I
also covered in my column from the previous
issue (ledsmagazine.com/features/10/6/3).
He simply said long life doesnt matter in
most applications, and used 20,00025,000
hours to characterize long life.
Khosla made his point with a simple
image. He showed a photo of a phone that we
may have used 25,000 hours ago and asked if
anyone still wanted to use that phone today.
LEDs are going to enable amazing new form
factors and features in lighting products.
So even if someone installs a 50,000-hour
product today, they are apt to change it long
before end of life comes.
If we reduce the expectation to 10,000
15,000 hours, what is the impact? I dont
have all of the answers. But we could use
fewer LEDs driven harder and slash upfront
cost. Maybe we really dont need such com-
plex thermal management in all products.
Simpler thermals could lower costs and yield
more attractive products.
Obviously, my stance doesnt apply every-
where. Industrial lighting that burns 24 hours
a day and is rarely retrofitted warrants prod-
ucts designed for long lifetimes. There is a
light fixture on a high ceiling in a basement
stairwell at my mothers house that will get
an expensive Philips L-Prize lamp, which will
probably last 50,000 hours, installed when it
next burns out. Clearly, street lights arent ret-
rofitted often and long life is a huge part of pro-
jected payback.
For many applications, less may be more.
Even office spaces are often retrofitted more
quickly than the lifetimes that are common-
place with new SSL products. So great job to
the industry, but lets rethink the strategy in
many cases.
Maury Wright, EDITOR
mauryw@pennwell.com
Less may become more
in SSL product lifetime
SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT Christine Shaw
& PUBLISHING DIRECTOR cshaw@pennwell.com
EDITOR Maury Wright
mauryw@pennwell.com
ASSOCIATE EDITOR Carrie Meadows
carriem@pennwell.com
CONTRIBUTING EDITOR Julie MacShane
juliemacshane33@gmail.com
MARKETING MANAGER Jennifer Landry
ART DIRECTOR Kelli Mylchreest
PRODUCTION DIRECTOR Mari Rodriguez
SENIOR ILLUSTRATOR Christopher Hipp
AUDIENCE DEVELOPMENT Debbie Bouley
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index
American Bright Optoelectronics .................10
ASK SRL .....................................................14
Autec Power Systems..................................31
Beautiful Light Technology Corporation........13
Cooledge Lighting Inc....................................9
E-Lite Optotech Co. Ltd. ..............................42
EBM-Papst Inc. .............................................5
Ellsworth Adhesives ....................................55
G-S Plastic Optics .......................................12
Global Lighting Technologies.......................11
Henkel ........................................................22
IIDEX/Neocon Canada ................................53
Indice Ecotech ............................................24
Indium Corp. ...............................................25
Intertek .......................................................16
Inventronics (Hangzhou) Inc. .......................38
IOTA Engineering .........................................30
Lauren Manufacturing .................................36
Ledlink Optics Inc. ......................................15
Lumens Co. Ltd. .........................................19
Matrix Lighting Limited, Hong Kong ...........CV2
MBN GmbH .................................................21
Mean Well Usa Inc. .....................................34
Orb Optronix................................................43
Proto Labs Inc. ...........................................33
Sapa Extrusions ..........................................29
Seoul Semiconductor ..................................26
Shanxi Guangyu Led Lighting Co. Ltd. .........18
Shenzhen Refond
Optoelectronics Co. Ltd. ...........................20
Shin Etsu Silicones of America Inc. .............41
Signcomplex Ltd. ........................................37
The Bergquist Company ................................6
The Korean Consulate General....................36
Underwriters Laboratories .........................CV4
Ushio America Inc. ......................................55
Zhejiang Baikang Technological Co. Ltd. ........3
FEATURED
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Its Lights Out Again.
views
n
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s
high-bay LEDs for Weber
State Dee Events Center
GE Lighting announced that its Albeo business unit,
acquired in November 2012 (ledsmagazine.com/
news/9/11/18), has supplied 80 ABHX-Series solid-state
lighting (SSL) luminaires to Weber State University in
Odgen, UT to light the campus Dee Events Center. The LED-
based high-bay fixtures will save the university $40,000 each
year in energy costs, and reduce maintenance cost as well
especially given that the lights are very difficult to reach.
Lighting sports venues is one of the last applications
where LED lighting has made headway. There are many
instances of major sports venues using SSL for decorative
or entertainment purposes, or to light areas such as con-
cessions or concourses. The Weber State project, however,
may be the most significant use of SSL products in lighting
a playing surface.
The roadblock to LED usage in sports-venue lighting has
been the light output required and the cost and weight of
fixtures that can deliver the requisite light levels. Matur-
ing LED technology has now made the technology feasible
in lighting playing surfaces. And LEDs will never have the
restrike problem that plagued the NFL Super Bowl after a
minor power outage this past February.
ARENA LIGHTING
GE supplies Albeo
OUTDOOR LIGHTING
MaineDOT installs high-mast LEDs
Back in the summer of 2012, we covered the trial of LED-based high-
mast lighting by the Maine Department of Transportation (MaineDOT)
at a freeway interchange (ledsmagazine.com/features/9/6/6), and now
the state has moved forward with a project retrofitting 105 light tow-
ers along Interstate 295. MaineDOT ultimately selected Holophane
HMAO luminaires from Acuity Brands for the project (ledsmagazine.
com/products/38638).
High-mast lighting has largely remained the domain of
BUSINESS
Panasonic expands LED
business in Asia
Japan has been among the fastest adopters of LED light-
ing, driven in part by the energy crisis that dates back to
the 2011 tsunami and nuclear plant disaster. Panasonic
has enjoyed success in its home region and has offered
ceiling lights in China. Now the company plans to offer
a broader SSL portfolio in Indonesia, India, Taiwan,
Vietnam, Hong Kong, and China, initially launching the
expansion in June with 40 new luminaires in Vietnam.
Panasonic said it will develop fixtures that match the
individual requirements of consumers in each market.
The company is planning showrooms and distribution
agreements in each new region.
As of the end of its recent fiscal year in March 2013,
Panasonic said SSL sales outside of Japan totaled 3 bil-
lion with almost all of that revenue from China. The
company plans to double the sales outside Japan in the
next three years.
MORE: ledsmagazine.com/news/10/6/9
page 8
_________
_________
100 m
LED
HEMT
Supply voltage
LED
GND
HEMT Gate
news
+
views
GE from page 7 The Weber State proj-
ect utilized luminaires designed for indus-
trial applications. Albeo modif ied the
design, developing a bracket so the fix-
tures could be installed near the ceiling
of the arena above and around the ubiqui-
tous suspended scoreboard. The 80 fixtures
replaced 100 HID fixtures.
At full power, the new lighting produces
more than 200 fc on the basketball court
more than double what the US National
Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA)
requires for college arenas. Arguably, as
the photo shows, the lights are too bright.
But the installation supports nine dimming
zones that will allow tuning of the lights for
an optimum playing environment.
Jacob Cain, Weber State energy and sus-
tainability manager, said that the prior HID
lights delivered 60150 fc with some dark
spots on the floor. The LED lighting is more
uniform, doesnt buzz or flicker, and can be
dimmed instantaneously for special effects
such as player introductions.
While the lighting quality has exceeded
the universitys requirements, it was energy
efficiency that instigated the project. Cains
team begun by looking to see how other
institutions had addressed excess energy
usage in arenas after documenting that
the Dee Events Center was one of the larg-
est power users on campus. The team found
no prior usage of LEDs in similar arenas
for comparison, but went through a fixture
evaluation with Albeos help and ultimately
moved forward with the project.
Month after month when the electric bill
came for the Dee Events Center, all we could
do was cringe and pay, said Cain. The new
high-bay lighting gives us brighter light with
fewer fixtures, and we spend less money on
energy. Now thats something we welcome
and our teams and fans can appreciate.
RESEARCH
RPI integrates LED emitters
with on-chip electronics
Researchers at the Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute (RPI) Smart Lighting Engineering
Research Center (ERC) have integrated a
power transistor in gallium-nitride (GaN)
layers along with an LED structure. The RPI
research is focused on adding functionality
HID sources because of the
high levels of light required, and the cost
and weight of LED products that could
meet the requirements. Typically, there is
a cluster of six to twelve fixtures on each
high-mast pole.
Ultimately, LED-based products will
both improve lighting and reduce energy
usage in such applications. The trial we
documented a year ago was among the
first instances of SSL usage in the high-
mast application.
The HMAO fixtures take a modu-
lar approach to the challenge of deliv-
ering the high light levels. Each fixture
includes a number of LED modules and
multiple drivers. The design delivers over-
lapping light distribution, ensuring safe
light levels even if one module or driver
were to fail.
MaineDOT faced a budget crisis oper-
ating the existing high-mast lights placed
at freeway interchanges. As we covered in
the prior article, the state was shutting
the lights off from 11 PM to 6 AM each
night to save money. The transition to
LEDs delivers both baseline energy sav-
ings and the ability to dim the lights at
night, and still provides a safe level of
lighting throughout the night.
Our main goal is to provide a safe
transportation system for the state of
Maine, said Ron Cote, MaineDOT elec-
trical supervisor. We were looking for
a light source that would provide lower
maintenance and a whiter light. The
benefits of multiple LED drivers and
modules and the longevity of Holophane
HMAO LED fixtures are exactly what we
wanted. Additionally, the quality of light
combined with the payback of these fix-
tures is absolutely incredible.
MaineDOT has documented the energy
cost for operating the new lights from
dawn to dusk at $66 per month per tower.
The prior lights cost $200 per month to
operate even with the lights off for a por-
tion of the night. The agency projects ten-
year savings of $1.35 million.
from page 7
to LED chips that can simplify the complex
external electronics required to drive the
LED. The project involved the monolithic
integration of both a high-electron-mobility
transistor (HEMT) and an LED on one chip.
T. Paul Chow, an engineering professor at
RPI and the leader of the
recent research, said, Elim-
inating the MOSFET is the
first step. We can add the
gate driver circuitry, and
then more integration to
realize a power converter.
Chow also said a single
HEMT could control multi-
ple LEDs on one chip.
The project utilized a
GaN substrate and realized an LED that
matches the light density of standard GaN
LEDs being manufactured in volume today.
The research team compares the devel-
opment with the evolution of transistors
to dense ICs in the silicon semiconductor
world, with Chow calling the device a light-
emitting integrated circuit (LEIC).
The implication is LEDs that might have
complex integrated functions ranging from
sensors to perhaps communication capabili-
ties or even low-end microprocessors. Chow
added, We can also integrate some sensors,
and eventually a network. However, how
much one will do in GaN and how much in
silicon nanometer-scaled CMOS is subject to
discussions, system or IC partition choices,
and sometimes debate.
The study entitled Monolithic integration
of light-emitting diodes and power metal-
oxide semiconductor channel high-electron-
mobility transistors for light-emitting power
integrated circuits in GaN on sapphire sub-
strate has been published in the scientific
journal Applied Physics Letters.
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BUSINESS
Luminus Devices announces
merger with Sanan
subsidiary Lightera
The merger of Luminus Devices into Sanan
Optoelectronics subsidiary Lightera Corp.
will provide the Chinese company with
access to much needed intellectual prop-
erty (IP) that will jumpstart its LED man-
ufacturing operation. Luminus announced
the merger and said that it will remain an
independent business unit and operate as a
subsidiary of Lightera, but did not announce
what Sanan and Lightera paid prior inves-
tors to seal the merger agreement.
Ella Shum of analyst firm Strategies
Unlimited (a sister business to LEDs Magazine
within PennWell Corp.) wrote about Sanan
and the likelihood of China producing a top-
ten LED manufacturer in December 2013
(ledsmagazine.com/features/9/12/5), specu-
lating that Sanan could become a top global
supplier after seeing some success in Taiwan
with low-end LEDs. She also noted that the
company needed an IP infusion to compete
in high-end LEDs for the mainstream light-
ing market. Lightera is rumored to have made
major investments in LED fab lines in the Sili-
con Valley area of California.
As a leader in the specialty lighting mar-
ket, Luminus Devices provides us with
proven, state-of-the-art technology that
will allow Lightera to expand both our US
and international offerings, said Decai Sun,
chairman and CEO of Lightera. We expect
Luminus to continue to focus on new tech-
nology, specialty lighting markets, applica-
tions, and superior customer service.
Luminus has been searching for the right
partner that would add to our extensive
intellectual property, allow for expansion
of our global operations and would be addi-
tive to our market-leading position in many
segments of the worldwide specialty lighting
market, said Keith Ward, president and CEO
of Luminus Devices. This relationship with
Lightera and Sanan will allow us to expand
our capabilities through new access to tech-
nical and financial resources well beyond
our current position.
RESEARCH
Seattle startup looks to
replace rare earths with
silicon nanoparticles
Researchers at the University of Washington
hope to reduce the cost of solid-state light-
ing (SSL) products via a transition from
phosphors based on rare-earth elements to
electroluminescent silicon particles derived
from sand.
Startup LumiSands has emerged from
the Center for Commercialization at the
university in Seattle that hopes the sili-
con nanoparticles can both lower the cost
of LEDs and SSL products and improve the
light spectrum.
Hopefully, manufacturers could substi-
tute traditional rare-earth ele- page 12
_________________
news
+
views
INDOOR LIGHTING
Fresh Market installs SSL chain-wide
The Fresh Market is a specialty grocer
with more than 100 stores across more
than 20 US states, and is in the midst of
a company-wide transition to solid-state
lighting (SSL) with the aim of reducing
energy usage and providing a superior
shopping experience for customers. The
grocer is replacing 64W halogen lighting
with GE Energy Smart 17W LED PAR38
Retail lamps, and has already installed
17,000 lamps.
The Fresh Market initiated the LED
project in 2011 working with distributor
Illuminating Technologies to evaluate
potential LED-based replacements for
its halogen lighting. The management
team wanted to save energy, but also
wanted to preserve the ambiance and
improve the quality of lighting on the
products. The European-style markets
feature an open-air layout with prom-
inent produce bins, meat and cheese
cases, and bakery goods.
The grocer sought to test whole-store
retrofits from the start of the project. We
didnt just replace ten or fifteen lights in
one area of the store we actually asked
suppliers to provide us with three hundred
lamps for a complete store retrofit so our
executives could properly evaluate the
light levels, quality, and spread, says Paul
Poole, energy and engineering manager
for The Fresh Market. While saving
energy is important to us, an essential
element of The Fresh Markets concept is
the visual appeal of different foods and
unique environments for our customers
throughout the stores.
The grocer plans to complete the
company-wide retrofit this year. Prior to
the LED transition, a typical store using
312 lamps would consume 107,800 kWh
annually. That number drops to 28,600
kWh with the LED lamps in place.
The LED transition is also leading
to secondary benefits in energy and
maintenance savings. As we started to
replace the old halogen bulbs with LED
lamps, we realized we were taking the
first stage of heat out of the building,
said Poole. As a result, we dont have
to run our HVAC systems as much
because less heat is generated from
other equipment in the building. Add to
that the anticipated time savings from
our store managers replacing bulbs
LEDs have a 50,000-hour life compared
to halogens 3,000-hour life and there
is very low risk with this project.
MORE: illuminationinfocus.com/news/4/6/2
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______________
LEDsmagazine.com
news
+
views
ments with our material with minimal additional
steps, said Ji Hoo, a doctoral student in electrical engineering and
co-founder of LumiSands. It will be cheaper, better-quality lighting
for users. The researchers noted that rare-earth elements are expen-
sive, dangerous to mine, and largely controlled by China.
The team has thus far demonstrated the conversion of blue LED
light into red light using silicon particles that are smaller than 5
nm. They believe that they can develop yellow and green particles
in short order. The combination of the three and blue LED emitters
could deliver a spectrum near that of sunlight.
BUSINESS
Osram Sylvania and Comcast partner
on adaptive home lighting
Osram Sylvania and cable company Comcast have partnered to
offer Comcast subscribers wireless controllable lighting. Osram
Sylvania demonstrated the Ulta iQ BR30 LED lamps at Lightfair
in April 2013 with wireless controls based on the ZigBee Home
Automation standard. Now the company is partnering with
Comcast to offer the lamps to consumers that subscribe to
Comcasts media services.
Comcast is primarily known as a cable company but also offers tele-
phone services, and of late it has offered the Xfinity Home platform to
customers for home security and automation, including remote con-
from page 7
___________________________________
________________________
__________________________________________
_________
news
+
views
trol of devices such as the thermostat so cus-
tomers can monitor and minimize energy
usage. Now Comcast will add adaptive light-
ing to the service.
With Osram Sylvania, we are bringing
innovative lighting solutions that integrate
with the Xfinity Home platform and pro-
vide home control and green technology fea-
tures to our customers, said Mitch Bowling,
senior vice president and general manager of
new businesses for Comcast Cable. Home
automation is a growing trend that takes
complex ideas and turns them into simple
solutions that can be delivered to thousands
of people. This is another example of how we
are continuing to evolve our Xfinity Home
product by creating more innovative home
control solutions for our customers to enjoy.
The 11W Ultra iQ lamps target floodlight
usages and deliver 700 lm at an efficacy of
63 lm/W. Comcast customers will be able
to control the lamps with a smartphone or
through the Xfinity gateway.
PACKAGED LEDS
TSMC announces new
packaged LEDs and COBs,
and China market plans
TSMC (Taiwan Semiconductor
Manufacturing Company) SSL (Solid
State Lighting) has announced new LEDs,
which it displayed at the 2013 Guangzhou
International Lighting Exhibition from June
912, 2013. A spokesperson confirmed with
the new announcement that the company will
be a merchant supplier and said that TSMC is
already supplying some customers. The com-
pany also plans to open an office with busi-
ness and technical staff in Shenzhen in the
Guangdong province of China to better sup-
port lighting manufacturers in that region.
The new LEDs include the TH3 that is a sin-
gle-die design set in a standard 3030 plastic
package. The new chip-on-board (COB) LEDs
include the TME, TMG, and TMH series that
are increasingly larger in both package size
and light-emitting surface (LES) area.
I n a news
release, TSMC
said that the
TH3 LED is
capable of oper-
ating at power levels to 3W,
although the companys website indicates a
maximum 2W rating. The product is offered
in CCT ranging from 2700K to 5700K with all
but the highest CCT models having a mini-
mum CRI of 80. At 350 mA binning current
and 5700K, the LEDs offer efficacy rang-
ing from 104116 lm/W at 85C and 25C,
respectively. At 2700K those numbers drop
to 8191 lm/W.
The TME, TMG, and TMH COB LEDs serve
the ranges 1018W, 2030W, and 4060W,
respectively. TSMC said that the LEDs are
compatible with the footprints required for
use in Zhaga modules. The efficacy is in the
same ranges as the single-emitter LEDs, and
the COBs are rated at either 29V or 38V for-
ward voltage.
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programs
funding
USDA and SETi
document UV
LED benefits for
fresh produce
Sensor Electronic Technology Inc. (SETi)
has announced the results of a three-
year research program, conducted
with the US Department of Agriculture
(USDA), that prove ultraviolet (UV)
LED lighting is an effective technique
in extending the shelf life of produce.
Strawberries in a refrigerator that were
continuously lit with LEDs in the 280
315-nm UVB wavelength range exhibited
no mold or decay after nine days.
Findings of this exciting program are
expected to have a major impact on the
appliance business to extend the shelf
life and preserve nutritional value of the
fresh produce, said Remis Gaska, pres-
ident and CEO of SETi. UV LEDs are an
especially good match for application
inside refrigerators, according to SETi.
Because LEDs can be turned on and off
instantly, appliance makers could design
a refrigerator in which the UV lighting is
turned on only when the door is closed.
The energy efficiency of LEDs means
that a refrigerator equipped with such
lighting would use little additional energy.
The research project used only 20 mW/m
2
of power. Gaska added, We look forward
to the prospect of UV LEDs in residential
refrigerators impacting everyday life and
reducing waste through spoilage.
The researchers placed eight tubs of
strawberries in a chiller cabinet set to
5.4C (41.72F) and humidity between
9498%. Two tubs were left in the dark.
In the other six tubs, the team mounted
a single LED in the top cover of each tub
testing LEDs over different wave-
lengths and power levels.
Strawberries in the unlit tubs exhib-
ited mold and decay after three to four
days. Strawberries lit with UVC (100
280-nm) LEDs were mold free after nine
days but showed some sign of decay. The
fruit lit with UVB LEDs was mold and
decay free after nine days.
The Zhaga Consortium has authorized three
test organizations to issue certifications for
solid-state lighting (SSL) products that meet
Books 4, 7, and 8, thereby formally starting
the certification process for those specifi-
cations. The organization also signed a liai-
son agreement with the Global Lighting
Association (GLA).
Zhaga calls its specifications for modular
light engines Books, and the industry coali-
tion continues to expand the applications
covered by the specifications. Book 4 covers
a non-socketable light engine with separate
control gear or driver. The intended appli-
cations are high-output fixtures including
street lights and industrial high-bay lumi-
naires. Already Philips Fortimo HBMt
modules designed for street
light applications
are listed as certified
on the Zhaga website.
Book 7 targets applications such as office
lighting and defines a non-socketable light
engine with separate driver. Modules such as
the certified Philips LED Line series (pictured)
would typically find use in ceiling troffers.
Book 8 defines a socketable light engine
with integrated driver for applications such
as downlights. The term socketable implies a
light engine that can be replaced or installed
in a fixture without tools.
Zhaga announced that Dekra, UL, and
VDE are authorized to issue test reports
on the new specifications. Zhaga said the
full specifications will be published on the
organizations website soon. The organiza-
tion had previously published Books 2 and
3. Certification testing for Books 5 and 6
should come soon.
The liaison agreement with the GLA could
help accelerate adoption of the modular
Zhaga approach to SSL. The GLA is char-
tered to promote sustainable energy-effi-
cient lighting and is a top-level organization
that includes leading national and regional
lighting industry associations in Europe and
elsewhere. The partnership will entail Zhaga
regularly updating the GLA on Zhaga activi-
ties so the GLA can communicate the bene-
fits of the stan-
dards to more than 5,000
global lighting manufacturers.
The liaison agreement carries the implicit
message that the GLA is endorsing Zhagas
belief that modular LED light engines can
lower R&D costs for lighting manufacturers
and provide a broader choice among inter-
changeable products from multiple vendors.
For Zhaga, the agreement will provide a con-
duit for it to spread its message. The light-
ing industry operates on a global scale, and
the specifications being developed by Zhaga
are for global use, said Menno Treffers, sec-
retary-general of the Zhaga Consortium. It
is very important for Zhaga to be able to
share the results of its work throughout the
international lighting community, and the
liaison with GLA provides a clear route to
achieve this goal.
Zhaga expands certification
program, adds GLA liaison
programs funding
MSSLC will host annual
meeting in September
The DOE has announced that its
Municipal Solid-State Street Lighting
Consortium (MSSLC) will hold its
annual meeting in Phoeni x on
September 11, 2013, scheduled coinci-
dent with the Street and Area Lighting
Conference (SALC). The meeting will be
open to consortium members, although
the agency will also allow others to reg-
ister including government and utility
staff that work on street light projects,
lighting designers and consultants, and
finance and budget professionals such
as from energy services companies.
Attendees will hear directly from US
cities that have already undertaken LED
street light projects. Presentations will
include information on funding options,
especially in todays climate with much
of the funding from the American
Recovery and Reinvestment
DOE awards $10.1 million in new research awards
As a response to the SSL Manufacturing
R&D funding opportunity announcement
made in December 2012, the US Department
of Energy (DOE) has competitively selected
five solid-state lighting (SSL) projects to
receive the fourth round of funding. The
two-year projects will focus on reducing
costs while maintaining quality by improv-
ing the quality and performance of LEDs
and OLEDs. Total DOE funding for the five
projects is $10.1 million, while the five com-
panies will put in a matching $10.1 million
investment.
This partnership with industry to pro-
duce affordable, efficient lighting will save
consumers money and create American
jobs, said DOE Secretary Ernest Moniz. Its
another example of how energy efficiency is
a win-win proposition for our economy.
Cree Inc., Durham, NC, with a $2.3 mil-
lion DOE investment, will develop a modular
design for LED lights that can link together
multiple units to fit larger areas.
Eaton Corp., Menomonee Falls, WI, with
a $2.4 million DOE investment, will develop
an innovative manufacturing process that
streamlines LED fixture design and removes
unnecessary materials and parts.
OLEDWorks, LLC, Rochester, NY, with a
$1 million DOE investment, will develop and
demonstrate new spray printing equipment
that reduces overall manufacturing costs
in OLEDs and may support cost-competi-
tive mass production.
Philips Lumileds, San Jose, CA, with a $1.8
million DOE investment, will develop an
alternative to the standard flip-chip device
that grows an LED face-down on the sap-
phire substrate.
PPG Industries, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, with
a $2.3 million investment, will develop a
cost-effective OLED manufacturing pro-
cess to help commercialize an integrated
substrate that includes the glass founda-
tion and other necessary layers.
page 21
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EPA and Soraa spar on lamp efficacy
Soraa continues to lobby the EPA to level the
playing field in Energy Star efficacy require-
ments for LED retrofit lamps. Previously, the
company had asked for a reduction of 510
lm/W in lamps with a CRI of 90 or above.
The company first made the request along
with researchers, utilities, and a prominent
lighting designer back in January 2013 (leds-
magazine.com/news/10/1/16).
Recently, the group again went pub-
lic with a plea in response to the fact that
the EPA did not act on the prior request
in the latest draft of the Energy Star
lamps specification (ledsmagazine.com/
features/10/5/8). The group is now asking
the EPA to require lamps in the 8090 CRI
range to deliver a 5-lm/W higher efficacy
specification than lamps with CRI above 90,
in recognition of the fact that higher CRI is
known to result in lower efficacy.
Soraa and the other petitioners are con-
cerned because Energy Star recognition
is essentially a de facto requirement for
customers seeking rebates or incentives
for investing in energy-efficient lighting
upgrades. The group in general believes
that if the efficacy requirements are left
unchanged, the lighting industry will gen-
erally deliver lower-CRI lamps that more
easily meet the current efficacy require-
ments. Soraa believes that adding a second
CRI tier would provide buyers a fairer choice
of higher efficacy or higher CRI.
Soraa and the loosely formed coalition
believe that lower-CRI lamps will lead to
poor buyer experiences and a slowdown in
the adoption of LED lighting much like what
occurred with compact fluorescent lamps
(CFLs). They had argued that a slight reduc-
tion in efficacy requirements could actually
broaden adoption of high-quality products
and boost aggregate energy savings. Now
they are simply asking for what they consider
a level playing field for higher-quality lamps.
page 18
Act having been used.
The morning half of the MSSLC
meeting will be open to all SALC del-
egates as part of the conference pro-
gram or to attendees that register just
for the MSSLC meeting. The after-
noon session will only be open to par-
ticipants that register specifically for
the MSSLC meeting. Lighting manu-
facturers, distributors, and represen-
tatives will not be allowed to regis-
ter for the MSSLC meeting. Get more
details at the DOE SSL website: www1.
eere.energy.gov/buildings/ssl/events_
detail.html?event_id=7999.
The EPA has said that it would still wel-
come comments on the efficacy issue. But
with the release of the latest draft it also
said there were plenty of high-CRI products
on the market that met the requirements.
MORE: ledsmagazine.com/features/10/5/8
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preview
|
THE LED SHOW
T
he LED Show, scheduled for August
1315, 2013, in Las Vegas, NV, will
offer an inside look at the solid-state
lighting (SSL) industry starting from the
LED component level and covering elements
of indoor and outdoor lighting systems and
design guidelines. The sessions on the latest
in LED components should be lively as the
speakers come from companies with signifi-
cantly different viewpoints on where compo-
nents for SSL are headed. A session on indus-
try regulatory and standards issues will be a
must-see with the ongoing changes in that
landscape. There will be plenty more to learn
in the sessions, and what is expected to be
the busiest exhibit floor yet for the event.
A pre-conference workshop, conference
sessions, and exhibits are the cornerstones of
The LED Show. The workshop will take place
on August 13 and will focus on SSL retrofits.
Leading lighting designers will present and a
panel discussion will include lighting consul-
tants and executives from lighting manufac-
turers. See the full list on the conference web-
site (theledshow.com/conference.html). The
main sessions and exhibits will take place
over two packed days, August 1415.
LED component update
Kicking off the conference sessions on
Wednesday morning, executives from Philips
Lumileds, Nichia, and Cree will discuss the
latest advancements in LED chips. The ses-
sion will be compelling for both SSL product
developers and lighting specifiers who need
to understand the light-source technology in
finished lamps and fixtures.
The LED component segment is rap-
idly evolving, yet the jury is out as to which
advancements will have the greatest impact
on the lighting industry. And that area of
uncertainty is what will make the session
especially interesting because the partici-
pants surely have different agendas.
Paul Scheidt, product marketing man-
ager at Cree, plans to discuss the compo-
nent trends that Cree believes have staying
power. For instance, Scheidt said that tradi-
tional high-power LEDs that operate at low
voltage and high current have been the only
technology proven consistently successful in
the SSL industry. Scheidt
said, There is always a
new technology trend
thats considered the
magic bullet to enable
mass LED adoption.
When pressed, Scheidt
said examples of trends
include remote phosphor,
AC LEDs, and mid-power
LEDs. Many are used but
often in limited volume
relative to mainstream
high-power LEDs. He
added that multi-emitter,
high-voltage, low-current
LEDs are an example of
one trend that might have lasting value.
The mid-power trend is an especially hot
one right now; however, will it have staying
power? Scheidt said, I see the long-term reli-
ability of those parts being their disadvan-
tage. Cree has announced mid-power LEDs
recently (Fig. 1) but is using what it believes
is a more reliable ceramic package relative to
the lower-cost plastic packages used by most
vendors (ledsmagazine.com/news/10/5/13).
Plastic packages
Nichia will clearly take issue with that line
of thinking. The company has been at the
forefront of the movement to use low- and-
mid-power LEDs in general lighting prod-
ucts. The company offering the Nichia 757
LED (Fig. 2) in a plastic package has led
the industry in reducing component costs.
At Strategies in Light earlier this year,
Strategies Unlimited analyst Ella Shum said
that Nichia drove component prices under
$2/klm [dollars per kilo lumen a bench-
mark figure tracked by the US Department
of Energy (DOE)] by the end of 2012. In con-
trast, the average price for LEDs in 2012 was
$3.45/klm, and high-end, high-power LEDs
certainly sell for more.
Erik Swenson, manager of LED sales at
Nichia, said LED component pricing remains
the largest barrier to broader LED adoption.
Nichia, and others with low- and mid-power
LEDs, leverages the scale and manufactur-
ing expertise it has gained in manufacturing
plastic-packaged LEDs for the TV and display
backlighting industry that has by far con-
sumed the most white, phosphor-converted
LEDs of any application segment to date.
Conference will include LED
technology and standards updates
MAURY WRIGHT previews conference sessions and projects that a lively debate will take place on LED
component trends, and that standards and regulatory discussions will prove very informative to SSL
industry players.
FIG. 1. Cree is focused on what it believes are more reliable
ceramic packages for mid-power-class LEDs.
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|
THE LED SHOW
Swenson said that Nichia has brought
superior luminous density and quality to
plastic packages for general lighting. He
added that the SSL industry is coming full
circle, returning to lower-power LEDs, and
that the industry should be dancing with
the one that brought ya, presumably imply-
ing both the leadership position Nichia has
in global LED sales and the fact that the low-
power LEDs were the first truly high-volume
market for LED manufacturers.
Up the food chain
Philips Lumileds, meanwhile, will likely
eschew the debate over mid-power LEDs.
The company has ramped its partic-
ipation in mid-power LEDs (Fig. 3)
recently and even introduced its
first low-power LEDs for the light-
ing market (ledsmagazine.com/
news/10/5/5). At Lightfair, CEO Pierre
Yves Lesaicherre said that there is a defi-
nite demand for mid-power devices among
customers. He said that the devices could
produce good beam spreads and can serve
cost-sensitive markets and applications,
while also insisting that high-power LEDs
have a very bright future.
Chad Stalker, regional marketing man-
ager for the Americas at Lumileds, will pres-
ent at The LED Show. Stalker said he will
focus on one of the questions that he hears
most often from customers: Can LEDs con-
tinue to improve at the rate that they are
now? The answer will likely be yes, but the
improvements may take place beyond the
individual component level.
Stalker said that LED manufacturers
must perform a balancing act, using as many
FIG. 2. The Nichia 757 LED comes in
a low-cost plastic package but the
company says it delivers lighting-class
performance.
FIG. 3. Philips Lumileds expanded its
3535 mid-power family in May.
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THE LED SHOW
of the LED die from a production run as pos-
sible to minimize component cost while
meeting performance expectations that are
most easily satisfied by only selling what he
called the upper bins. The answer may lie
in a move to more sub-assemblies or mod-
ules that combine LEDs across the produc-
tion run and that deliver performance and
efficacy without high cost.
Standards and regulations
Meanwhile, another session that will have
broad applicability across both the product-
developer and lighting-specifier spaces is enti-
tled SSL standards & certifications. Speakers
from CSA, UL, and TUV SUD will participate.
The topic area is critical because assurance of
SSL product safety and performance is rooted
in such specifications. Moreover, programs
such as Energy Star are critical in the mass
adoption of LED-based lighting.
One program that is critical to success for
SSL products is the DesignLights Consor-
tium (DLC) Qualified Products List. Utili-
ties and others use that list almost as an
approved vendors and products list.
Jason Chesley, sales manager for energy
efficiency at certification body TUV, will
cover the DLC program in detail because
he said, DLC is the hottest program out
there for rebates on commercial SSL proj-
ects. Chesley said that D&R International,
a consultancy that runs multiple lighting
industry programs such as the DOE Light-
ing Facts Label program, has done an
excellent job administering the program.
He said, The DLC model is what every
energy-eff iciency program around the
world should strive to emulate. Note that
Marci Sanders of D&R will also present an
update on Lighting Facts in a different ses-
sion at the show (Fig. 4).
Attendees wont solely learn about
US programs, either. For example, Glen
Tubrett, director at CSA Group, will dis-
cuss both Canadian standards for SSL
and the need for manufacturers to have
a global outlook on regulatory and stan-
dards issues. In particu-
lar, Tubrett said he will
discuss ongoing work in
Canada to harmonize
standards with the UL
standards in the US. But
he will also discuss IEC
standards that are pro-
mulgated in Europe and
the trend toward global-
izing the function of cer-
tification bodies.
One set of standards
being driven by the light-
ing industry, the Zhaga
Consortium books for
interchangeable modular
LED light engines, has a
decidedly global scope. UL
will address the progress
of Zhaga in its presentation. UL recently
announced that it has been certified to per-
form testing to Books 4, 7, and 8 (ledsmaga
zine.com/news/10/6/12).
The LED Show exhibits
Attendees will clearly have an outstanding
educational opportunity in the conference
at The LED Show. Indeed, weve covered
a small segment of the two-day program.
Still, the exhibits will prove equally valu-
able to attendees. As we went to press, the
exhibitor count was approaching 90 with
representation from every major region
around the world.
The event will also include plenty of net-
working opportunities for industry profes-
sionals. There will be delegate lunches and
coffee breaks in the exhibit area. Moreover, a
networking evening reception will be the hot
spot in Vegas on Wednesday evening once
the sessions end.
FIG. 4. Marci Sanders of D&R International will address
the DOE Lighting Facts program at The LED Show.
______
Visit us at
THE LED SHOW
Booth # 206
__________________________
lighting
|
ADAPTIVE CONTROLS
T
he rapid adoption of LED light sources
is rooted in energy savings, long life,
and new fixture options that enable
them to be used in almost any application.
They are highly efficient; deliver a useful life-
time averaging 50,000 hours; and offer very
good color rendering. LED lamps also emit
very little infrared (IR) radiation and contain
no mercury. Despite these clear advantages,
issues of compatibility between LED lamps,
drivers, and controls continue to cause confu-
sion for specifiers and their customers. If they
are paired improperly, performance will suffer.
The best strategy for selecting an LED
product is a holistic approach that takes into
consideration a variety of factors including
the application type, required dimming per-
formance, and control requirements. Mock-
up installations and expensive, time-con-
suming testing may be necessary before
customers are confident that the proposed
lighting system is the best choice. Many LED
component and control manufacturers are
investing more time and effort into dimming
testing and research, and can provide com-
patibility information to ensure successful
LED lamp, driver, and control installation.
Looking beyond baseline efficiency
LEDs are energy efficient by design. Simply
using LED lamps or fixtures can help a facility
meet updated building and energy codes while
reducing electricity consumption and cost.
So why worry about dimming your LEDs? For
the same reason you control any light source:
to maximize energy savings, extend system
life, enhance flexibility, increase productiv-
ity, and provide a safe, comfortable environ-
ment for building occupants. Additionally,
many energy-efficiency standards are being
updated to mandate more sophisticated light-
ing control strategies, effectively mandating
dimming in many applications.
A wide range of controls are available
from a single switch or dimmer to a central-
ized lighting control system to provide
maximum flexibility, as well as measurement
and reporting tools to help you effectively
analyze the energy savings being achieved
with the lighting and control installation.
Sophisticated, configurable sys-
tems can allow tuning of spaces
based on actual occupant usage
post-installation, which over
time can allow lower energy
densities that surpass design
goals. Furthermore, easy-to-
install wireless controls facili-
tate simple retrofits, reducing
installation and programming
costs, and improving return on
investment (ROI).
Regardless of the control sys-
tem you choose, it is critical to
work with a manufacturer who
can guarantee compatibility and
performance with the desired
LED loads, eliminating many of the common
concerns and issues that are seen with LED
installations. Lets discuss why and how to
implement dimming in more detail.
Maximize savings and system life
Dimming LEDs saves energy at a roughly
1:1 ratio, which matches or even exceeds the
energy reduction of dimming fluorescents.
This means that if you dim LEDs down to
50% of their light output you save nearly 50%
of the associated energy use (Fig. 1). While it
is true that LEDs are already very efficient
compared to almost any other light source,
you save even more energy by dimming them.
Dimming LEDs also makes them run
cooler, extending the life of the electronic
components in the driver, as well as the
phosphor in the LEDs. This will poten-
tially double or triple the useful life of the
LED lamp or module. Research is ongoing
to better quantify the relationship of dim-
ming LEDs and lifetime extension.
Still, you must choose the fixture, driver,
and control combination to meet project
needs. LEDs are making great strides, and
LED products now exist for replacing vir-
tually any fixture type including general-
purpose lighting, downlights, cove lights,
and outdoor lighting. The type of control
you choose will depend on the results you
want to achieve. For example, in a lobby or
atrium, a 20% minimum dimmed light level
is typically acceptable. But in a conference
room or restaurant, very low levels of light
dimmed down to 1% are often desirable.
It is all too easy to neglect the importance
of LED dimming range. While 10% dimming
may sound appropriate for most applications,
Matching SSL and control
technology remains a challenge
ETHAN BIERY explores the state of the industry for LED dimming and control and recommends the
paths for success to lighting specifiers.
ETHAN BIERY is the LED engineering leader at
Lutron Electronics Co., Inc.
FIG. 1. There is a linear relationship for dimming level
and consumed power with LED lighting.
lighting
|
ADAPTIVE CONTROLS
our eyes are sometimes too smart for their
own good. Due to the dilation of the pupil
in the human eye, lower light levels are
perceived as brighter than expected. For
example, a 10% light level appears to be about
33%. Even 1% dimming is perceived as a 10%
light level (Fig. 2).
The expected dimming range should
always be part of the product specification,
but it is not always provided by the manu-
facturer. Furthermore, even for a given LED
load, the dimming range may vary depend-
ing on the control used. Designers and spec-
ifiers need to be aware of the low-end light
level that can be achieved with the proposed
LED load and control combination.
If all the parts and pieces are not carefully
evaluated, the result can be dimmable prod-
ucts that do not work as claimed. For exam-
ple, you can end up with lights that never turn
off completely, or that flicker, pop on, or drop
out, leaving the end user with the perception
that dimming LEDs does not always work.
Challenges of dimming
It is generally recognized that LEDs are inher-
ently dimmable and controllable, so why are
there so many challenges with dimming
them? It is the result of
the physical differences
between LEDs and their
predecessors including
incandescent and halo-
gen lamps.
Incandescent lamps
create light by heating
a tungsten wire to high
temperatures in a low-
pressure glass envelope,
causing it to glow white
hot. Electrically speak-
ing, these are very simple
devices the more volt-
age delivered to the source, the hotter it got,
and the more light it produced. With legacy
sources the shape of the voltage waveform
really didnt matter. AC, DC, phase cut, or
nearly any other form would provide the same
amount of light for the same RMS voltage.
LEDs behave very differently. Light is pro-
duced by subatomic processes in specially
designed semiconductor materials. For a
given LED device, the amount of light gener-
ated is proportional to the amount of current
(not voltage) passed through the device. Fur-
thermore, the current can flow in only one
direction through an
LED, meaning they
can only tolerate DC
current. (Note that
so-called AC LEDs rely
on tricks such as two
diodes that are wired
such that current
f lows through some
diodes in one direc-
tion, and other diodes
in the other direc-
tion.) Finally, LEDs
are inherently low-
voltage devices, typi-
cally requiring a large
reduction in voltage
from the mains wir-
ing. These functions
reducing the volt-
age, regulating it to
DC, and controlling
the current are all
handled by a device
called an LED driver.
LED drivers come
in a variety of designs,
constructions, and feature sets. One thing
they have in common is that they do not have
the same electrical properties as an incan-
descent load, and this difference is essen-
tially the root cause of compatibility chal-
lenges between controls and LEDs.
Different manufacturers drivers priori-
tize different requirements. Some may opti-
mize for cost, some for size, some for life-
time, and so on. Part of the design of the
driver determines how well, and how low, it
will dim, and using what controls. This fact
leads to two important conclusions:
The design of the driver determines the
best possible dimming performance that
can be achieved.
The compatibility of the driver with the
control determines how well the driver will
achieve this performance.
In essence, even the best control cannot
make an LED lamp dim beyond its design
parameters. Both poor driver design and
improper pairing with a control can lead to
undesired aesthetic performance, includ-
ing flicker, drop-out, dead travel, or acoustic
noise (buzzing).
Additionally, poor driver design and con-
trol pairing can lead to reduced lifetime of
the control or load. A good driver will guar-
antee smooth, continuous dimming to very
low light levels on a wide variety of controls
with no negative impact on lifetime, match-
ing the dimming performance that people
expect from incandescent lamps. Few driver
manufacturers in the industry today can
reliably make this claim.
Ensuring expected performance
In order to properly align customer expecta-
tions with LED system performance, several
FIG. 2. The human eye perceives much higher light levels than
the actual output from dimmed sources.
FIG. 3. LED lamps have integral drivers that limit control
options.
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but the quality of the light as well. How can manufacturers
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lighting
|
ADAPTIVE CONTROLS
factors need to be considered during the
course of designing an LED project:
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_________________
5 - Y E A R WA R R A NT Y
1 0 - 3 0 0 WAT T MOD E L S
4 8 0 V I NP U T MOD E L S
C U S T OM D E S I GN &
MOD I F I C AT I ONS
D I MMI N G OP T I ONS
L E D
D R I V E R S
R E L I A B L E
E C O N O M I C A L
I N N OV A T I V E
A D A P T A B L E
D C I N P U T M O D E L S
E X T R E M E
C O N D I T I O N S &
T E M P E R A T U R E S
C O M P A C T D E S I G N S
U S E N G I N E E R I N G
S U P P O R T
AU T E C . C OM
lighting
|
ADAPTIVE CONTROLS
existing wiring to the fixture.
The recently released NEMA SSL7-A standard helps define the
proper behavior of forward-phase dimmers and LED loads to ensure
reliable operation; it also provides a basic expectation of perfor-
mance. LED loads and controls marked as SSL7 compliant should
remove much of the guesswork associated with compatibility for
this control type.
Reverse phase
Reverse-phase dimmers operate much the same way as forward-
phase dimmers do. They reduce the RMS voltage going to the load
by cutting off part of the sine wave. However, unlike forward-phase
dimmers that remove the front part of the sine wave, reverse-phase
dimmers remove the back portion of the sine wave (Fig. 6). Like for-
ward-phase dimmers, this reduces the RMS voltage to the fixture
and uses the existing wiring.
This method was originally developed for control of electronic low
voltage (ELV) transformers with low-voltage halogen lamps. These
loads make up a much smaller portion of the market than their line-
voltage counterparts. Therefore, reverse-phase dimmers are much
less common than forward-phase dimmers. Only a small percent-
age of installed dimmers are compatible with ELV loads. However,
due to the electrical similarities between ELV transformers and LED
drivers, several driver manufacturers design their drivers to work
exclusively with reverse-phase dimmers.
Analog 010V control
In contrast to the previous methods that rely strictly on existing
wiring, the analog 010V scheme requires an additional pair of
low-voltage wires to be run from the control to each fixture. This
low-voltage pair provides the signal to the driver, which deter-
mines the target light level. A voltage of 1V tells the driver to go
to the low end of its dimming range, while a voltage of 10V tells
the driver to go to the high end. Generally, a line voltage switch is
also included in the system to cut mains power to the driver when
the lights should be off. This behavior is specified in an IEC stan-
dard, 60929, which covers only very basic functionality. For exam-
ple, there is no assurance provided by the standard that smooth,
continuous dimming to low light levels will occur. Mixing 010V
fixtures from different manufacturers or using long wire runs for
the 010V signal can cause noticeable differences in light levels
across multiple fixtures.
While 010V allows the control wires to be run separately from
the power wires, it has an inherent disadvantage when multiple
control strategies are desired. By definition, all fixtures tied to
the same pair of 010V wires are controlled together and will dim
together. This fact means that for spaces with multiple control
types, where fixtures must dim to different levels due to differ-
ing control inputs (such as daylight sensors, personal zone con-
trols, and occupancy sensors), the room must be broken into mul-
tiple areas of control, each with their own 010V wires. Control of
010V loads can become very complex to design and install for all
but the simplest applications. One other disadvantage of 010V is
that any change of functionality or fixture zoning requires rewir-
ing of the 010V control links.
___________
lighting
|
ADAPTIVE CONTROLS
Digital control
Like 010V, digital control methods, such
as Lutrons EcoSystem and the Digital
Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI), require
an additional pair of low-voltage wires to be
run to each fixture. Unlike 010V, however, the
pair of wires sends bi-directional communica-
tion signals to each fixture, allowing individ-
ual addressability and control. DALI, a com-
monly used digital protocol, is also defined by
the IEC, but differing interpretations
of the standard can lead to incompati-
bilities between devices from different
manufacturers even if they all claim
DALI compliance. EcoSystem was
developed by Lutron based on DALI
and compatible fixtures are offered
by Lutron and other lighting compa-
nies such as Cree and GE Lighting.
Compatible fixtures provide guaran-
teed control compatibility, no matter
which manufacturer is selected.
Digital control methods allow easy
layering of control schemes. Each fix-
ture can behave independently from
all others if that is desired to achieve
lighting goals. Digital technologies
enable advanced functionality and
zoning of fixtures through a simple
software interface, with no modifi-
cation of the wiring required. Digi-
tal controls allow flexibility in space
configuration and reuse. Digital fix-
ture control most effectively unlocks
the capability of smart lighting prom-
ised by LEDs.
Control ratings
As was described previously, LED loads
do not electrically behave like incan-
descent loads, leading to differing
performance on different controls. However,
beyond aesthetic performance, the electrical
characteristics of many LED loads cause addi-
tional stresses on controls, beyond what their
wattage alone may indicate. This complicates
determining how many loads for instance,
how many retrofit lamps or downlights can
be reliably connected to a control.
The high inrush currents, repetitive peak
currents, and RMS currents that can occur
when phase-cut dimmers are used
with LEDs means that most con-
trols rated for incandescent loads
cannot handle nearly the same
wattage of LED loads. Generally,
only detailed electrical testing can
determine the proper minimum
and maximum number of loads
that can be connected to a control.
What many users do not under-
stand is the effect of the lamp
selection on the regulatory rating
of the control. Controls are tested
and listed with a specific load type
in mind. For example, UL may rate a con-
trol as appropriate for incandescent or mag-
netic low voltage (MLV) loads. Using them on
other load types, such as ELV loads even at
the same voltage level, means they are being
used beyond their original design and test-
ing, which can lead to unexpected behavior
or decreased reliability.
Most existing incandescent dimmers have
not been designed, rated, or tested by UL or
another nationally recognized testing
laboratory (NRTL) with LED loads.
Fortunately, many control manufac-
turers have recently released dim-
mers explicitly rated for controlling
LEDs, such as the CL dimmer family
from Lutron Electronics. These types
of controls have LED-specific ratings,
allowing the actual wattage of the
LED to be used to determine the max-
imum loading. In summary, the man-
ufacturer of the control should always
be consulted to determine whether or
not the control in question has been
tested on LEDs, and that the control
is not overloaded.
A holistic approach to LED con-
trol can help meet and exceed cus-
tomer expectations. Technologies
are improving; control options, avail-
able literature, and general knowl-
edge are expanding; and LEDs can
now be effectively used in virtually
any type of commercial application.
By choosing the right manufacturer,
control, and driver, and considering
key issues, it will be easier than ever
to provide customers with LED light-
ing and a control system that meets
energy-saving, performance, and aes-
thetic expectations.
FIG. 6. Reverse phase-cut dimmers cut the voltage at
the end of each half cycle.
FIG. 5. Forward phase-cut dimmers eliminate the
voltage during the initial part of each half cycle of the
AC line.
FIG. 4. Luminaires often allow the specifier to choose a driver with the desired adaptive controls.
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I
n recent years, a large variety of LED-
based solid-state lighting (SSL) products
has emerged on the market. LEDs have
now realized their full potential for every-
day illumination, rather than being limited
to specialty applications. The ever-increas-
ing number of LED products particularly
represents a challenge to test laboratories,
whose task it is to check for product safety.
Generally, safety testing is carried out by
testing products against relevant product
standards. However, when new technolo-
gies such as SSL emerge, no specific prod-
uct standards exist and so only related
standards can be applied. Fortunately, this
situation has now markedly improved in the
LED field around the globe; we will discuss
the regulatory landscape in Europe.
The standards for LED lighting products
can be roughly divided into two groups:
safety and performance. As the terms imply,
the first group is mainly concerned with the
safety issues related to products, while the
latter focuses on the performance of the
products. Some overlaps occur in the stan-
dards, because some requirements may be
safety oriented but are located in the perfor-
mance standard and vice versa.
In Europe, the safety of the lighting
product has to be ensured according to the
Low Voltage Directive 2006/95/EC. In the
Low Voltage Directive, the application of
performance standards is not mandatory,
because they do not affect the safety of
the product. Performance standards
specify requirements for how to test the
performance characteristics of products.
Most of the tests included in performance
standards verify properties claimed by the
manufacturer. Less frequently, performance
standards specify absolute requirements
the product should fulfill.
LED lamps regulation
Due to an increasing interest in energy
savings, LED lamps have become more
and more commonly used as the preferred
alternative to incandescent lamps. Until
October 2012, it had therefore been an
awkward situation in Europe, since there
were no specific EN standards for LED lamps.
EN 62560, which now becomes the stan-
dard for self-ballasted, single-capped LED
lamps, was only ratified in October 2012. Pre-
viously, combinations of other EN standards
were applied to check the safety of products.
However, the corresponding IEC 62560 stan-
dard has been valid since February 2011.
EN 62560 covers LED lamps that replace
familiar mains voltage household lamps. As
it is only intended for self-ballasted lamps,
lamps with external control gear, or driv-
ers, are not within the scope of the standard.
Standards for such lamps are under devel-
opment. The primary purpose of the stan-
dard is to ensure that the product is not and
will not become unsafe during its lifetime in
normal use. This goal also applies to cases
where the lamp is damaged. The lamp must
not impair safety even when the electronics
inside the lamp fail. The standard also con-
centrates on the fact that the LED lamps will
replace ordinary incandescent and compact
fluorescent lamps and therefore should not
have properties that impair the safety of the
luminaires in which the lamps are installed.
The safety standard for double-capped
LED lamps, which are intended to replace
double-capped linear fluorescent lamps, is
currently being developed. The primary con-
cern for these lamps is their metallic surface.
As metal conducts electricity, the safety dis-
tance from live parts, termed the creepage
distance and clearances, is relatively large
in order to ensure that any accessible metal
parts do not become live with mains voltage
under any circumstances.
Safety of luminaires
The EN 60598 standard series relates to
the safety of luminaires. This series does
not have special requirements for LEDs;
instead the common requirements of lumi-
naires have to be fulfilled by SSL luminaires.
In addition, LED modules and control gear
must comply with their own standards.
Although this is not currently mentioned in
the EN 60598 standard series, the safety of
photo-biological radiation has to be assessed
according to standard EN 62471. (For more
information on photo-biological safety, see
ledsmagazine.com/features/9/2/9.)
EN 62471 deals with safety aspects of
radiation between 180 and 3000 nm, which
includes ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infra-
red (IR) radiation. Ordinary LEDs intended
for illumination do not radiate harmful UV
Standards emerge specifically
for SSL test methods
European standards, driven primarily by the IEC, increasingly address safety and performance issues
that are specific to LED-based lighting, explains PASI ORREVETELAINEN.
PASI ORREVETELAINEN is the project
manager at SGS Fimko Ltd, Finland.
regulations
|
EUROPEAN STANDARDS
The standards for LED lighting products
can be roughly divided into two groups:
safety and performance.
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regulations
|
EUROPEAN STANDARDS
or IR, so only visible radiation is considered for LED luminaires and
more specifically for the Blue Light Hazard (BLH). With its high
energy content, blue light detrimentally affects the eyes. Therefore,
luminaires have to be properly marked if the limits of safe radia-
tion are exceeded.
The components related to the safety of the luminaire, either
internal or external, have to further comply with their own safety
standards.
LED modules and control gear
Usually, several LEDs are combined in SSL fixtures. The printed
circuit board on which the LEDs are placed is often called an LED
module or light engine. The safety standard for LED modules is EN
62031. LED modules can be self-ballasted, which means they have a
driver or control gear integrated on the module. However, it is more
common for the control gear, which supplies the LED module with
its correct voltage and current, to be a separate unit. For a sepa-
rate control gear, the standard EN 61347-2-13 applies. The EN 61347
series is intended for control gears and ballasts of various types of
lamps. Parts 2-13 are intended specifically for the control gears of
LED modules.
As LEDs do not need very high voltages to operate, it has become
popular to provide an extra-low voltage (ELV), less than 25V RMS, to
LED modules. Relying on ELV levels to the modules simplifies module
safety assurance. If the voltage of the LED module is low enough, it is
safe to touch the LEDmodule with bare hands. However, this requires
that the LED control gear is classified as safety extra-low voltage (SELV)
or an SELV equivalent. The requirement for SELV is not only a low volt-
age, but the SELV circuit also must be separated from the mains supply
by double or reinforced insulation. Thus, if an LED module claims to be
SELV, it requires that the control gear is very safe as well.
Performance
LED products already have their own performance standards.
Most of these standards are IEC/PAS, which indicates that they are
Publicly Available Standards or pre-standards.
EN 62384 is the standard for LED control gear performance. As
mentioned earlier, most of these requirements relate to the proper-
ties claimed by the manufacturer. However, besides an endurance
test, there are requirements for abnormal conditions that the con-
trol gear has to withstand. During and after these tests, the control
gear should function normally.
The IEC 62707 series is a family of performance standards intended
for individual LEDs. The series is under development and the IEC has
currently published one standard IEC/PAS 62707-1 concerning
the color binning of white LEDs. Two additional parts of this standard
As LEDs do not need very high
voltages to operate, it has become
popular to provide an extra-low
voltage to LED modules.
______________
regulations
|
EUROPEAN STANDARDS
European standards cover safety and performance of SSL products.
LED luminaires LED control gears LED modules LED lamps LEDs
Safety (LVD) IEC/EN 60598 series
----------
EMF: IEC/EN 62493
(mandatory from 2/1/2013)
IEC/EN
61347-2-13
IEC/EN 62031 Self-ballasted:
IEC 62560
(EN 62560 ratified 10/15/2012)
ad hoc standards:
EN 60968 + EN 60061 +
EN 62031 + EN 62471
Non-self-ballasted:
IEC 62663-1
Performance IEC/PAS 62722-1

IEC/PAS 62722-2-1
LED luminaires
IEC/EN 62384 IEC/PAS 62717 IEC/PAS 62612
Non-self-ballasted:
IEC 62663-2
IEC/PAS 62707 series
Note: The standards in italics are under development or not approved to date. IEC/PAS standards are pre-standards.
will cover LED binning according to luminous
flux and forward voltage.
The performance standards for self-
ballasted LED lamps (IEC/PAS 62612), LED
modules (IEC/PAS62717), and LED luminaires
(IEC/PAS 62722-2-1) will present a broad range
of requirements from electrical properties to
lumen maintenance and include colorimetric
properties and their maintenance during the
products life. These standards include tests
lasting up to 6,000 hours.
The European SSL regulatory landscape
is summarized in the table. Companies that
intend to sell their LED-based products in
Europe should engage with a testing lab
to have the products tested to the relevant
harmonized safety and performance stan-
dards. Moreover, competent test labs will
be able to counsel product manufacturers
on the ever-shifting landscape of LED-cen-
tric regulatory issues.
__________
___________________________________
assembly
|
COB LEDS
T
he lighting market is evolving rap-
idly from traditional lighting sources
to solid-state lighting (SSL) technol-
ogy. The main drivers for this change are the
need for greater energy efficiency due to ris-
ing energy costs and new legislation, both of
which have global implications. With the mar-
ket drive to mass adoption of SSL technology,
lighting manufacturers must adapt to faster
product development cycles that more closely
match developments in LED technology.
Developing fixtures that incorporate chip-on-
board (COB) LED arrays is one avenue toward
faster development, although that choice
also comes with challenges in how to imple-
ment the electrical, thermal, and optical inter-
faces with the LED. This article provides back-
ground on COB technologies, summarizes the
issues and challenges with COBs, and suggests
a unique luminaire assembly and interconnect
approach that simplifies luminaire design.
The world is facing a wide range of energy-
related issues ranging from oft-debated
global warming to diminishing fossil fuel
supplies. Power generation limitations due
to increasing demand or resulting from nat-
ural disasters in various regions result in
brown-outs or even black-outs that directly
affect quality of life for residents. These dis-
ruptions can extend to national productiv-
ity due to decreased manufacturing output
at companies located in those regions. Politi-
cal, economic, geographic, or logistical issues
often limit adding power generation capac-
ity to address the increased demand. Given
this environment, countries around the
world are fully engaged in trying to minimize
their carbon footprints and decrease energy
consumption, thereby lessening the strain on
their energy infrastructure.
One major global effort is to
decrease the energy load posed by
the inefficient lighting systems in
use today. Increasing global popula-
tion and the resulting rise in demand for
lighting can no longer be served by incan-
descent sources that accounted for 79% of
light source sales volume in 2006. Collec-
tively today, lighting energy consumption
accounts for around 18% of the total global
generated energy and cannot be allowed to
continue. Simply switching to readily avail-
able, more energy-efficient light sources
such as CFLs or LEDs can result in a 40%
energy savings that would eliminate 630
million tonnes of CO2 and 1800 million bar-
rels of oil. It would further cut down on the
power-generating footprint, eliminating
the need for almost six hundred 2-TW/yr
power plants. Although it is neither feasible
nor realistic to expect this change to hap-
pen overnight, phased regula-
tions are in place around the
world to ban the incandes-
cent bulb. These are progress-
ing and driving the changeover to
incandescent alternatives primar-
ily turning to the LED moving forward.
HB LED evolution
Lets move on to LEDs, the evolution of the
technology, and the challenges of SSL devel-
opment. LEDs have gone through a signif-
icant transition since their inception that
mimics the evolution of the single semi-
conductor transistor device morphing into
the integrated circuit we know today. Early
LEDs were low-power devices used for indi-
cating purposes and are still in wide use
today across many applications. In a
manner similar to transistors, an indicator
LED that cost $300 in the 1960s can now be
purchased for less than $0.05 in a number of
different package styles. As with transistors,
COB LEDs simplify SSL manufacturing,
drive broader deployment
Dense LED arrays can reduce the design complexity and manufacturing cost of solid-state lighting
products and ultimately help solve the global energy crisis, writes RON WEBER.
RON WEBER is the industry market manager
for lighting and security at TE Connectivitys
Industrial Business Unit.
FIG. 2. Companies initially developed
custom sockets for each LED from major
manufacturers.
FIG. 1. A chip-on-board (COB) LED
packs a dense array of LEDs.
assembly
|
COB LEDS
LED technology transitioned from its origi-
nal format as a low-power device to a high-
power device in the late 1990s/early 2000s.
While these earlier devices were considered
high power, they were single-die packaged
emitters with very limited light output and
limited practical use.
In an effort to increase light output, com-
panies began placing multiple die in a lead-
frame style package to increase light output
and individually placed phosphor dots on
each die to tune color. Around 2005, a new
LED package was developed that eliminated
the secondary LED package and placed the
die directly on a metal-clad PCB substrate
collectively called chip-on-board or COB
(Fig. 1). Rather than individual phosphor
dots on each die, these COBs are character-
ized by a yellow-orange phosphor pool or
slurry that covers all die and is typically cen-
tered on a white-colored substrate, giving
these LEDs the nickname fried-egg LEDs
due to their appearance.
These COB LEDs have undergone a prolifer-
ation over the past couple of years as all major
LED manufacturers began offering COB prod-
ucts to the market. Unlike the smaller pack-
aged LEDs that are considered point source
emitters, COBs by their nature are wide area
emitters with up to 204 0.25-mm
2
die packed
into a 12-mm-diameter area as seen in prod-
ucts offered by Nichia Corporation. In some
instances, larger die are used in large arrays
as seen in the Bridgelux products that place
64 1-mm
2
die in a 35-mm-diameter area.
With light source areas this large, COBs are
clearly positioned as broad angle emitters
their large source size becomes very difficult
to effectively focus into a small beam angle.
As a result, COBs are now found in applica-
tions requiring large amounts of light spread
out across a large area as seen in high bay and
street lighting. Still, optics such as reflectors
can also enable the use of COB LEDs in appli-
cations including downlights and even reflec-
tor-based retrofit lamps.
Connecting packaged LEDs
Over the years, multiple connector companies
developed a number of sockets for the high-
power LEDs that came to market. In fact, the
idea has spread that an LED is just another
device to be connected to. Sockets such as the
TE Type LS and Type NL2 (Fig. 2) devices were
dedicated to a particular manufacturers LED
package and therefore had limited applicabil-
ity beyond the specific targeted LED.
The emergence of COB LEDs posed dif-
ferent challenges to fixture manufacturers:
how to provide power to these devices and
then affix them to heat sinks in the light-
ing fixtures. The traditional method was to
hand-solder the wires to the pads on the sub-
strate (Fig. 3) and then secure these assem-
blies with screws to the heat sink a pro-
cess that was time consuming and subject
to variability. As with the earlier discrete
devices, this presented an ideal opportu-
nity for socket solutions.
TE and other connector companies
addressed this emergence of initial COB
devices the same way earlier discrete LED
packages were addressed:
custom sockets. As other
COBs started to enter the
market, connector man-
ufacturers realized that
the status quo method
of developing a socket for
each would be prohibi-
tively expensive and time
consuming, resulting in
never-ending efforts for-
ever chasing the next new
COB to enter the market.
With well over 50 dif-
ferent COB products
commercially available
around the world from
multiple manufacturers,
finding a single solution
to address each would be a challenge to say
the least. Aside from the fact that all were
rectangular, all had two electrical contact
pads, and most had circular light emitting
surfaces, there were few other dimensional
similarities. The challenge for connector
companies was how to address these varied
but similar COB LEDs with a minimum of
engineering and tooling expenditure while
providing a future-proof and flexible plat-
form based product.
Scalable interconnects
One solution to the interconnect challenge
is a flexible, scalable, platform-based socket.
An analysis of available COBs yielded a crack
in the shell of these fried egg LEDs. While
not exactly identical, there are similarities
between contact pad locations that, when
combined with the rectangular nature of
the devices and diagonal contact pad place-
ment, form the basis for the platform solu-
tion. As a result, a holder product, refer-
enced off the corners of the COB, could yield
a virtually limitless array of use scenarios
with the varied COBs available on the mar-
ket as well as those to come in the future.
The substrate differences among COB
LEDs from difference manufacturers, how-
ever, added yet another issue that needs to
be tackled by socket/holder suppliers. While
most of the early COBs incorporated alumi-
num substrates, further investigation of the
commercially available COBs indicated a
number of COBs that are based on ceramic
substrates (typically aluminum nitride).
While not a significant differentiator, these
two substrate variants have physical features
that differ enough to require special handling
due to their different material properties.
FIG. 3. Hand soldering is one option for making the
electrical connection to COBs but can be unreliable and
time consuming.
FIG. 4. A pair of holders that reference
the corners of the LED can work with
many different COB LEDs.
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assembly
|
COB LEDS
The aluminum substrate COBs are rather robust and in some
instances are mounted using machine screws. On the other hand,
ceramic-based COBs create some frustration for fixture manufac-
turers since unlike aluminum-based substrates where they could
simply secure the COBs with a screw to a heat sink, these ceramic
substrates are far too brittle to secure with screws and thereby man-
date some sort of secondary attachment to ensure suitable ther-
mal performance. This attachment needs to be accomplished
using thermal adhesives or by a mechanical holder that pro-
vides normal force to the heat sink or thermal pad, mechani-
cal attachment, and electrical interconnection.
Holder devices that accommodate the COB nuances mentioned in
the previous paragraphs are appearing on the market. An example
of one such platform solution is the TE Scalable LED Socket connec-
tor that utilizes the corners of the COB as a reference. In this manner,
the two datums formed by the sides of the COB can be used to posi-
tively locate the electrical contact on each of the COBs electrical pads.
Moreover, the diagonally opposed contact pads on most COBs can
allow the luminaire industry to leverage the symmetry. The symme-
try can enable use of the same socket assembly on both corners of
the COB (Fig. 4). By doing this, SKU (stock keeping units) or model
numbers are drastically reduced by eliminating the need for right
and left versions of the socket, providing an advantage for socket
makers, distributors, and SSL manufacturers.
Managing substrate height
The variability of COB thickness poses yet another design chal-
lenge for a socket product. COB substrates are available in a variety
of materials and thicknesses that need to be accommodated. The
thinner and more brittle ceramic packages can easily crack under
pressure when used with flexible thermal interface pads and there-
fore consequentially use greases as thermal interface materials
FIG. 5. The COB holders can directly place force on thicker
aluminum substrates.
________________
Modular LED Shoebox Light
Product Features & Benifits:
High performance LED light engine with
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Up to 300W for 1000W Metal Halide shoebox
replacement;
Traditional shoebox housing for easy use and
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5 Year warranty;
Dimmable;
IP65;
UL wet location, TUV, DesignLights Consortium,
Lighting Facts pending.
assembly
|
COB LEDS
(TIMs) to optimize the thermal path from
the LED substrate to the heat sink. On the
other hand, the more durable aluminum
substrates can use grease or flexible TIMs.
Any holder being considered by an SSL
manufacturer needs to be evaluated rela-
tive to how it accommodates these varying
stack heights posed by COB applications.
One method is commercially available that
utilizes a combination of optional thermal
springs and housing ledges to accommodate
both types of COBs. An example using an alu-
minum substrate COB is shown in Fig. 5. The
red circle indicates how the housing is used to
secure the COB against the heat sink.
When the same system is used with the
thinner ceramic substrates as shown in Fig.
6, clearance needs to be provided to avoid
exerting pressure on the ceramic substrate.
The housing design naturally clears the
thinner ceramic COB as indicated by the red
FIG. 6. The holders must leave a gap on the thinner and brittle
ceramic substrates.
FIG. 7. Springs can secure ceramic substrates against the TIM
and heat sink.
_________________
assembly
|
COB LEDS
circle. Since the electrical contact
spring is inadequate to provide an
appreciable normal force for ther-
mal contact, a secondary thermal
spring is incorporated and is seen
in Fig. 7. A pair of these springs can
exert just the right amount of force
on a ceramic device to ensure optimal
heat transfer when used with most com-
mercially available thermal greases.
Simplifying manufacturing
While a two-piece socket design affords a sig-
nificant level of scalability to accommodate
a wide range of COBs, some fixture manu-
facturers prefer to only handle a single part.
Additional levels of scalability can be incorpo-
rated into a two-piece design by the relatively
simple addition of two arms oriented at 90
to each other. These arms essentially create a
scalable, factory-assembled one-piece hous-
ing. A customized holder is then available to
fit a specific manufacturers COB LED (Fig. 8).
A scalable approach to the interconnect
enables a more generic two-piece design or a
customized one-piece design, and either can
be used by the fixture manufacturer with very
little cost difference between the two. Con-
sider the option a stepping-stone approach.
A lighting manufacturer can minimize the
interconnect investment during prototyp-
ing by launching the fixture using a readily
available two-piece holder solution. Once pro-
duction ramp starts, the manufacturers can
switch to a more manufacturing-friendly one-
piece design.
Ideally, having a single holder to accom-
modate all COBs would be the perfect solu-
tion. Given the slight differences in pad loca-
tions between commercially available COB
products and the different plating styles
commonly used, that perfect solution is
still elusive. Nonetheless, with a scalable
holder solution, solderless interconnections
to a broad range of COBs are possible with a
very small number of socket SKUs that can
accommodate a wide range of commercially
available products.
COB corner holders are also quite adapt-
able. An additional benefit to the holders
referencing off the corners of a COB is that
the applicability of these holders can extend
beyond COBs. By using the same corner hold-
ers used to provide power into a COB, large
printed circuit boards containing massive
arrays of LEDs can be powered in a similar
fashion through pads located on the corners
of the circuit board.
In conclusion, COB holders, in particu-
lar those that reference off the device cor-
ners, offer lighting fixture manufacturers a
unique and flexible termination solution for
their COB LED attachment and interconnect
needs. By utilizing a holder designed from
the start as a scalable platform, fixture
manufacturers gain the f lexibility to
utilize a broad range of light source
options. From a COB LED manufac-
turers point of view, the availabil-
ity of a common holder design
provides a stable reference
for manufacturers design-
ing a new COB package
since the use of pre-defined
contact pad locations ensures the availabil-
ity of an off-the-shelf holder solution when a
new COB is released to the market.
The global march toward energy effi-
ciency continues. LED lighting will play a
major role and, as with all new technolo-
gies, efficiencies are increasing while costs
are dropping. The need for cost-effective
LED lighting is putting a renewed empha-
sis on cost and manufacturability, which is
where both COB LEDs and the COB holders
offer customers an ideal cost-effective solu-
tion that will accelerate LED adoption.
FIG. 8. By adding arms to the corner
holders, companies can supply a
one-piece COB interconnect to SSL
manufacturers.
WORLDWIDE SALES:
Tim Carli
T: (650) 946-3163
E: tcarli@strategies-u.com
USA-EAST COAST SALES:
Mary Donnelly
T: (603) 891-9118
E: maryd@pennwell.com
EUROPE:
Virginia Willis
T: +44 0 1992 656 663
E: virginiaw@pennwell.com
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automotive
|
LEDS STANDARDS
T
he majority of drivers feel stressed in
poor visibility conditions, particu-
larly at night when the ability to per-
ceive and judge distance is severely impaired.
Despite much lighter traffic on the roads at
night, around 40% or more of all traffic fatal-
ities occur in many countries, such as the US,
during night-time hours. The strain eases and
safety greatly increases if the road ahead is
well lit. The recent introduction of LED-based
lighting for autos is set to improve driver
safety and comfort at night, as well as dur-
ing the day, and offer additional advantages
in cabin lighting. Moreover, international
standards will play a key role in the move to
solid-state lighting (SSL) in the auto.
The need for drivers to see other vehi-
cles and to be seen by them after dark
emerged naturally as soon as cars first
appeared on roads. Lighting had been pres-
ent on horse-drawn vehicles for a long time
because of the same requirement. Initially,
in the 1880s, cars were fitted with acetylene
and oil lamps. Vehicular lighting had begun
a long evolutionary journey.
Early car electrical systems were rather
unstable and the lamps were subjected to
harsh conditions, such as shock and widely
varying climatic conditions and tempera-
tures. All of these contributed to the some-
what slow large-scale implementation of
electric lamps, which started only in the
1920s. Other lamps besides headlamps and
tail lights have been introduced gradually
to meet additional needs. They include fog
lamps and various kinds of signalling lamps
such as indicators and brake, emergency,
parking, and reverse lights.
Slow initial progress
Because the ability to see ahead properly is
fundamental to safe night driving, improv-
ing the performance of headlamp light-
bulbs has always been seen as essential.
Until the introduction of high-intensity dis-
charge (HID) lamps, also known as xenon
lamps, the light source used in incandes-
cent headlamps was a tungsten filament
placed in a vacuum or inert-gas atmo-
sphere inside a bulb or a sealed unit. The
main drawback of tungsten bulbs is that
their luminous flux (intensity) drops signif-
icantly after some 1,000 hours. The tung-
sten bulbs were further improved with the
introduction of halogen gas in the bulbs in
the early 1960s. Halogen bulbs had a higher
luminous f lux and longer useful lifetime.
Xenon lamps that generate light based on
the principle of gas discharge were first fit-
ted to motor vehicles in the early 1990s. The
xenon lamps represented a major improve-
ment over halogen lamps as their color
temperature is closer to daylight, they are
brighter, they have a greater range, they bet-
ter illuminate the edges of the road, and they
last at least twice as long as prior lamps. The
main drawback to xenon is glare, which can
be reduced by various automatic devices. In
spite of their qualities, they are not as widely
adopted as halogen lamps.
The introduction of LED-based automotive
lighting is a relatively recent development.
The first LED rear lights and headlamps
LEDs light the road ahead in
automotive applications
MORAND FACHOT explains that international standards and evolving LED technology are set to play a
key role in the widespread transition to solid-state lighting in automotive applications.
MORAND FACHOT is the communications
officer for the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC).
FIG. 1. The use of LEDs in daytime running lights, such as in this Hella design for the Audi
A8, and combination rear lamps reduces energy requirements during the day by 95%.
automotive
|
LED STANDARDS
were fitted to production vehicles in 2003
and 2006, respectively. The benefits of LEDs,
especially for headlamps, are already obvious,
including the fact that their light color is
very similar to daylight. LED headlamps
are now being introduced by all major car
manufacturers and are seen as the future of
automotive lighting.
Besides headlamps, LED-based lights can
be used for general and interior lighting. Their
higher energy efficiency translates into lower
fuel consumption and noxious emissions,
helping manufacturers meet ever more
stringent regional or national limits. LED
light sources have a much longer lifetime that
can outlast that of the vehicle. They also offer
an unprecedented level of design versatility
that is essential for manufacturers, allowing
them to di f ferentiate
their vehicles from the
competition.
International regulations
and standards
Road vehicles are produced and
traded globally and are used regularly
across national borders. The need for inter-
national standards is clear as road safety
requires that lights are standardized in terms
of characteristics such as performance, color
durability, and interchangeability.
The UNECE (UN Economic Commis-
sion for Europe; www.unece.org) is the
international body that sets many of the
regulations for road vehicles through its
World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle
Regulations (WP 29).
The UNECE Working Party on Lighting
and Light-Signalling (GRE) is the subsid-
iary body that prepares regulatory pro-
posals on active safety for vehicle lighting
and light signalling. This group conducts
research and analysis to develop lighting
requirements for vehicles. Most countries
with the notable exception of the US and
Canada, which have their own directives
recognize the UNECE Regulations and
apply them in their own national require-
ments. Much of the GREs work depends on
and references various International Stan-
dards on lighting for road vehicles pre-
pared by the International Electrotechni-
cal Commission (IEC; www.iec.ch).
The relatively recent introduction of
LED-based light sources has led to changes
in standards regulating lighting require-
ments. Initially fitted to the high-end/lux-
ury segment of the car market, LED lights
are rapidly spreading to all categories of
vehicles due to their countless benefits
and f lexibility. As these lights represent a
completely new concept, they require new
standards to ensure they meet road safety
regulations and operate properly in a very
demanding environment.
IEC Subcommittee 34A: Lamps pre-
pares international standards for all types
of lamps (filament, discharge, or LED), for
general lighting and for road vehicles. These
standards identify their dimensional, elec-
trical, and luminous requirements as well as
their performance requirements.
Lamps for road vehicles are submitted to
a particularly harsh environment and since
they have a direct impact on road safety,
tests are essential to ensure they meet all
the necessary requirements.
FIG. 3. An Osram Ostar LED module for
auto headlamps integrates multiple LEDs.
FIG. 2. LEDs enable glare-free
reading lights in this example
from BMW.
Differing requirements
The basic function and interchangeability
of filament and discharge lamps for road
vehicles differ from those of LED light
sources. The former types must comply
with the IEC 60809 International Standard
that defines the dimensional, electrical,
and luminous requirements of lamps for
road vehicles. In particular, this standard
defines the markings, bulbs, dimensions,
colors, caps, and bases.
LED light sources, which are based on
modules (LED components used by the
industry), are not covered by IEC 60809 but
by other IEC standards specific to LED mod-
ules. However, another International Stan-
dard, IEC 60810, which sets out the per-
formance requirements of lamps for road
vehicles, applies to the three types of lamps.
LED light sources must meet conditions
that do not necessarily apply to filament and
discharge lamps, in regard to UV radiation,
color maintenance, and electromagnetic
compatibility. As LED light sources have a
longer rated lifetime than filament or dis-
charge lamps, their lumen maintenance is
assessed differently.
Another issue that manufacturers have had
to deal with is thermal management, and LED
modules and light sources often come with
integrated heat sinks. Unlike their filament
and discharge counterparts, LED light
sources are mainly of the non-replaceable
type and are usually intended as components
for integration into the luminaire or lighting
device by manufacturers. They are designed
and meant to be indivisible parts of a lighting
or light signaling device, or to be elements of a
module or light engine. The auto industry has
developed replaceable LED modular sources,
usually intended for sale to the general public
as a replacement part.
Unparalleled flexibility and benefits
LED light sources can replace all other types
of automotive lamps. They are available for
headlamps (high and low beam), brake lights,
rear combination lamps, center high-mount
stop lamps, daytime running lamps (DRLs),
turn signals, interior reading lights (map
lights), dome lights, accent lights, fog lamps,
and position and marker lamps. Moreover,
LEDs are being used for ambient lighting and
in dashboard and instrument lighting.
In addition to enhanced driving safety
and comfort, LED light sources offer many
other benefits:
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and limitations vary greatly according to
traffic conditions. LED lighting solutions
allow the optimal use of environmental
and traffic-related dynamically control-
lable light distribution patterns such as
dynamic bending of light or adaptive front
lighting systems (AFSs), already used for
other types of automotive lamps. Such
adaptive lighting is particularly impor-
tant to avoid blinding other drivers when
crossing or following other vehicles, espe-
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motive lighting have a much longer rated
lifetime and use less energy than fila-
ment or discharge lamps. LEDs are up to
40% more energy efficient than the for-
mer sources. Since less energy for lighting
translates into lower fuel consumption,
this is a significant feature at a time when
tighter consumption and emission rules
are introduced in all countries even though
road vehicles are required now to use DRLs.
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offer. Car design bureaus have much
greater freedom to come up with innova-
tive designs using lighting to accentuate
or attenuate certain shapes and give cars
a common brand signature. LEDs were
GJSTU GJUUFE UP WFIJDMFT GSPN UIF FYDMVTJWF
segment of the market, but they are found
now in all classes of cars.
Potential not exhausted
LEDs for automotive or other applications
are constantly evolving. Their potential in
UIF BVUPNPUJWF TFDUPS JT TFU UP FYQBOE BT
LED modules improve and with the intro-
duction of new technologies such as OLEDs
(organic LEDs), which produce a comfort-
able and homogenous light.
Night driving does not depend only on
good vehicle lighting but also on superior
road signage and lighting. LEDs are also
increasingly showing the way in this very
significant area. More benefits of LED light-
ing have yet to been discovered and it can be
safely assumed that they will have a bright
future in the road traffic environment.
FIG. 4. LEDs form distinctive
low-beam headlamps in the
Audi A8.
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Epi defect to yield and binning correlation?
Many steps in between
Klarity LED - Automated defect analysis tool
Substrate Epitaxy FEOL BEOL Yield and binning
(Brightness, Wavelength,
FWHM, V_Breakdown,
V_forward, I_Leakage)
ICOS WI-2280 Candela 8620 ICOS WI-2280
manufacturing
|
PROCESS CONTROL
L
ED manufacturing is undergoing a
tremendous transformation. The evo-
lution to high-brightness LEDs, larger
wafer size, and new complex architectures
make LED manufacturing more challenging
than ever before. Even though these trends
greatly benefit the advancement of the solid-
state lighting (SSL) industry in terms of LED
efficiency and performance, they can poten-
tially impact yield in a negative way. In order
for LED manufacturers to stay competitive
in this dynamic environment, they need to
have a comprehensive in-line process con-
trol strategy to improve the yield and drive
down the cost of LEDs and SSL end products.
Currently, most LED manufacturers rely
on inspection tools to analyze wafers and
document defects of interest (DOI). Defect
density is typically utilized as the gauge for
statistical process control (SPC). However,
the drawback of this approach is the fact
that there can potentially be a lot of nui-
sance defects that do not cause yield loss.
In looking at a defective wafer through
an inspection tool, how do you determine
which defects are killer defects that impact
the yield or electrical performance, and
which defects are simply a nuisance? Manu-
facturers need to detect killer defects at the
earliest possible time in terms of the repet-
itive epitaxial-growth wafer-production
runs in an MOCVD (metal organic chem-
ical vapor deposition) reactor. Ideally, the
manufacturer will optimize the MOCVD
process over time to reduce killer defects,
whereas a line without such monitoring can
lead to whats often called an excursion
or the shutdown and revamping of part of
the manufacturing process.
We know that in-line monitoring is crit-
ical in determining how defects affect the
yield and a proper strategy would have
tremendous return on investment (ROI).
Further to the point, the current method
of using total defect density is impracti-
cal. Hence, we will introduce a systematic
methodology to identify yield-impacting
defects and mapping the relationship of
defects to yield.
LED manufacturing process
Before we jump into the details of the
advanced process control technique, we
want to take a step back and go over the LED
manufacturing process flow. Understanding
this process flow can help us to understand
where crucial inspection points occur, and
how process control can help improve time
to corrective actions, which translates to
higher ROI. A simplified version of the LED
manufacturing process flow is depicted in
Fig. 1. In general, the manufacturing process
consists of four essential stages namely
substrate, epitaxy, FEOL (front end of line),
and BEOL (back end of line) before going
to final assembly.
First of all, the main substrate utilized in
the production of LEDs is sapphire, gallium
arsenide, or silicon carbide. There are also
other initiatives for alternative substrates
such as gallium nitride and silicon. With any
substrate, a crystalline boule is produced in
a similar fashion as the semiconductor pro-
cess in the integrated circuit (IC) industry.
The boule is normally sliced into very thin
wafers with a diamond saw, and after slic-
ing, they are polished via a rigorous process
before being shipped to the LED manufac-
turer for further processing.
In the next stage known as epitaxy, addi-
tional layers of semiconductor crystal are
grown on the surface of the wafer. MOCVD is
a popular method for the epitaxial growth of
Improve LED manufacturing via
in-line monitoring and SPC
In-line monitoring of defects on LED wafers allows manufacturers to understand which defects impact
yield and to apply that information in a constant effort to improve yield, explains STEVEN CHEN.
STEVEN CHEN is a process control solutions
technologist at KLA-Tencor Corporation.
FIG. 1. In-line monitoring should be applied across the multiple stages of the LED
manufacturing process.
Green die indicates a good die, so:
GCD - Good clean die
GDD - Good dirty die
TCD - Total clean die (Good + Bad)
TDD - Total dirty die (Good + Bad)
Wafer ID Yield (%)
Wafer 1 60
Wafer 2 70
Wafer 3 80
Wafer 4 90
Wafer 5 60
Wafer 6 70
Wafer 7 80
Wafer 8 90
Wafer 9 75
Wafer 10 80
Wafer 11 90
Wafer 12 80
Wafer 13 60
Wafer 14 70
Wafer 15 90
Wafer 16 80
Wafer 17 80
Wafer 18 70
Wafer 19 80
Wafer 20 70
Average 76.25
manufacturing
|
PROCESS CONTROL
p and n layers with
quantum wells in
between. The typi-
cal thickness of the
p and n layers com-
bined is around
a few microns. It
is important to
have an inspec-
tion point before
MOCVD because
poor qual ity of
the incoming sub-
strate can poten-
tially be the culprit
of future electri-
cal probe test fail-
ures downstream
such as fai l-
ing forward volt-
age and reverse
leakage current
specifications.
Fur t her more,
defects from sub-
strate and epitax-
ial processes can
impact device per-
formance, rel i -
ability, and yield.
Equipment such as the Candela 8620 is capa-
ble of performing unpatterned wafer inspec-
tion at the substrate and epitaxy stages. It
is crucial to catch defects at these early
stages to allow faster time-to-root-cause
determination and improved MOCVD reac-
tor uptime and yield. In addition, the wafer
inspection system is not only able to catch
defects precisely, but it also classifies the
defects accurately. This information is
important for in-line process monitoring
and SPC control.
Front-end processes
The next steps after epitaxial growth are
the FEOL steps. FEOL in the LED pro-
cess is similar to the semiconductor pro-
cess but with fewer steps, and involves the
wafers going through cleaning, lithogra-
phy, etch, metallization, deposition, and
anneal before going to BEOL. Patterning for
enhancing light extraction also happens in
the FEOL steps.
It is important to realize that, for any
single set of wafers that goes through a
production run, bad
die bear the same cost
as good die because
bad die al so have
to be processed al l
the way through the
LED manufacturi ng
steps. Therefore, early
defect detection and
remediation when a
line is started is the key
to reducing manufacturing cost over time.
As LED structures become more complex,
the ability to bin defects and understand the
location of defects becomes increasingly
important and requires inspection through
the FEOL stages. The same defect on differ-
ent LED structures will have different yield
or electrical performance impact. In addi-
tion, defects with certain attributes are
more critical and yield relevant than others
at certain locations.
The inspection equipments defect detec-
tion sensitivity and accurate classification
capabilities are needed to ensure that man-
ufacturers have a good set of data for anal-
ysis and process control. Wafer inspectors
such as the WI-2280 are capable of inspect-
ing all patterned wafers at various process
steps such as lithography, etch, and metal-
lization. In addition, the WI-2280 has a high
defect capture rate, a unique defect classi-
fication capability, and an advanced recipe
tuning engine that can be tightly integrated
with advanced analysis software for process
control and further evaluation.
Back-end processes
After the wafers go through FEOL, they go
on to BEOL where die singulation, testing,
and sorting take place before final assem-
bly. Pre-dicing and post-dicing singulation
inspection is essential to enable process con-
trol and improve the yield. Post-singulation
should look for defects to ensure that the sin-
gulation tooling does not damage the wafers.
For example, scratches on the die and the
presence of foreign matter can potentially
cause the die to crack during testing. The
WI-2280 is also utilized for BEOL inspection
to look for yield-relevant defects.
After die singulation, die attachment
and wire bonding take place before encap-
sulation and final assembly. Packaged LED
inspections to examine assembly defects
such as missing die, defective wire bonding,
and misplacements also happen at this stage
before taping and shipping them out.
Finally, it is crucial to tie these inspections
together and perform process control. The
inspection equipments defect detection
sensitivity and classification capabilities
FIG. 3. A kill ratio study can be performed on multiple types of defects.
FIG. 2. Monitoring tools can identify defects and then
correlate them to yield.
TABLE 1. Yield data
for a theoretical set
of wafers.
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Potential die loss: dirty die
*
kill ratio
Yield formula:
Kill ratio formula:
Y
Dirty Die
= Y
Clean Die *
Y
Particles
(GDD) (GCD)
=
*
(1-KR )
(TDD) (TCD)
(GDD
*
TCD)
KR = 1-
(GCD
*
TDD)
Example: UCL = 1400
Example: UCL = 1000
Total defects
Yield-impacting defects
Wafer ID Low-impact defects Yield-impacting defects Total defects Yield(%)
Wafer1 60 1300 1360 60
Wafer2 710 1000 1710 70
Wafer3 1050 480 1530 80
Wafer4 930 60 990 90
Wafer5 60 1140 1200 60
Wafer6 120 950 1070 70
Wafer7 550 450 1000 80
Wafer8 1100 30 1130 90
Wafer9 750 560 1310 75
Wafer10 730 405 1135 80
Wafer11 1110 25 1135 90
Wafer12 620 360 980 80
Wafer13 70 1080 1150 60
Wafer14 140 890 1030 70
Wafer15 1650 75 1725 90
Wafer16 1000 275 1275 80
Wafer17 1100 230 1330 80
Wafer18 170 760 930 70
Wafer19 400 140 540 80
Wafer20 700 580 1280 70
Number of
UCL sample failed Yield(%)
1600 2 76.25 + 3.75
1400 3 76.25 + 3.75
1200 8 76.25 - 0.62
1000 15 76.25 - 1.25
800 19 76.25 - 0.20
600 19 76.25 - 0.20
400 20 76.25 - 0.00
200 20 76.25 - 0.00
Number of
UCL sample failed Yield(%)
1000 3 76.25 - 16.25
900 5 76.25 - 12.25
800 6 76.25 - 11.25
700 7 76.25 - 10.54
600 8 76.25 - 10.00
500 9 76.25 - 9.03
400 12 76.25 - 5.83
300 13 76.25 - 5.10
200 15 76.25 - 3.92
100 16 76.25 - 3.44
DOI Low-impacting DOI bin Yield-impacting DOI bin
Defect_Type1 Defect attribute 3 Defect attribute >3
manufacturing
|
PROCESS CONTROL
need to be matched with yield management
software that ties all the data together.
The software needs to be capable of
taking the inspected data from various
inspection points and providing analysis
and monitoring. In the next section, an
example of in-line monitoring is introduced
to demonstrate how to tie the data together
to provide meaningful analysis and results.
Methodology overview
As mentioned before, it is crucial to distin-
guish yield-impacting defects from nuisance
because not all defects impact the final yield.
Thus, we need to understand the relation-
ship between epitaxial defects and their
impact on yield, as well as to create a system-
atic approach in separating yield-impacting
DOI from nuisance. In order to establish a
proper process control loop, advanced defect
equipment such as that depicted in Fig. 1 is
needed. Defect information inspected from
substrate, epitaxy, FEOL, and BEOL can
feed into an automated defect analysis tool.
In the case presented here, we are going to
focus on whether the epitaxial defect density
correlates to yield.
One approach to separate yield-impacting
DOI from nuisance is to use what is called
kill ratio analysis. Kill ratio represents a pro-
portion of defects estimated to cause die
failure. The kill ratio is
derived from data gath-
ered over prior produc-
tion runs and is used
to find the amount of
defects on a current
inspection that will
cause die failure at the
end of the process.
In order to under-
stand how kill ratios
help in separating yield-
impacting DOI from
nuisance, we need to
understand the kill ratio
model terminology. Fig.
2 illustrates this con-
cept. Bin data repre-
sents good or bad die
identified by bin code.
In addition, the defect
data identifies clean or
dirty die. A clean die
contains no detected
adder def ect s
(such as particles),
while a dirty die
contains detected
adder defects. The
square boxes rep-
resent die and the
dots represent
defects. Green
boxes indicate good die while white boxes
indicate bad die. Therefore, good clean die
means good die without defects. Good dirty
die means good die that have defects. Fur-
thermore, we also have total clean die and
total dirty die.
The equations beloware the yield and kill
ratio formulas.
Generally, yield is simply the number of
good die divided by the total number of die.
In this case, however, we are focused on the
yield impact strictly of the die that have at
least one instance of the defect of inter-
est, and that leads to the aforementioned
formulas. In an actual production sce-
nario, manufacturers would perform such
an analysis on different types of defects.
By binning defect attributes such as defect
size and defect location with the kill ratio
results, one will finally be able to observe
the correlation to yield. In other words,
defects with higher kill ratio have more
negative impact on the yield.
After the data is gathered, we need to
obtain accurate bin sort data, a list of
wafers, yield information, and defect types
from the inspection tools. Then, we use a
yield management software tool, such as
KLA-Tencors Klarity LED, to perform the
analysis. Here, we need to ensure that the
defect map accurately aligns with the bin
sort map. It is crucial to have an accurate
wafer alignment because it is the basis
of the kill ratio analysis. Using this kill
ratio information, we can derive the yield-
impacting DOI definition. Once we have
FIG. 4. Tables define yield-impacting defects compared to total defects and the examples of setting
control limits.
TABLE 2. Yield-impacting defect of interest definition.
turn on

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______________________________
manufacturing
|
PROCESS CONTROL
obtained the DOI definition, we can apply
it to all wafers. Upon finishing the kill ratio
analysis, we can then identify yield-impact-
ing defects by correlating the defect counts
to the final bin yield. Finally, we can also
obtain trend charts and be able to set upper
control limits and SPC controls. The anal-
ysis is repeated until the yield-impacting
DOI definition is satisfied.
Example and experimental results
Table 1 includes an example of a theoreti-
cal yield study and correlation results that
illustrate this advanced defect identifica-
tion methodology. In the example, assume
that we are given 20 wafers with individual
yield information and an average or baseline
yield of 76%. Layer, class, size, wafer zone, in-
die region, and signature membership are a
few examples of defect attributes that can
be analyzed. In this case, we take defect size
as the attribute under study while Klarity
LED was used to correlate yield-impacting
defects with defect size.
In Fig. 3, we illustrate how to deter-
mine the yield-impacting defect attributes
for four different theoretical defect types.
Starting with a certain defect type, the
defect count and the kill ratio with respect
to its defect size are plotted. A dotted
threshold line is drawn whenever sudden
kill ratio jumps appear. In the case of defect
type 1, defect size greater than three is the
threshold where the kill ratio makes a sig-
nificant jump. The same experiment goes
for defect type 2, defect type 3, and defect
type 4. Essentially, the defect size binning
is based on the kill ratio threshold number.
Potentially, one can have as many segments
as one likes in order to see the impact of
the yield with any defect size combination.
After performing kill ratio analysis on all
defect types, the final yield-impacting DOI
definition is shown in Table 2. Bin 1 indi-
cates a low-impacting DOI bin and bin 2
shows yield-impacting DOI bins that con-
tain killer defects.
The next phase of the analysis is to apply
the yield-impacting DOI definitions to each
wafer analyzed. Ultimately, we need to sum
up all yield-impacting defects and see how
well they correlate with the final yield.
Twenty wafers with their total number of
yield-impacting defects and total defects
are shown in Fig. 4.
You can see that the total defect counts
do not correlate to yield well. For example,
if one sets the upper control limit (UCL) at
1400 total defects, three wafers have defect
counts greater than 1400. These are the
wafers that contain the most defects; how-
ever, their yields are relatively high com-
pared to the baseline average yield of 76.25%.
Clearly, many of those defects do not trans-
late to yield loss.
On the other hand, if one sets the UCL to
1000 yield-impacting defects, again, three
wafers have more defect counts than 1000.
Interestingly, their yields are 16.25% lower
than the baseline yield. As a result, one does
not find wafers that have high yield-impact-
ing defect counts with high yields. This fur-
ther solidifies the methodology.
Fig. 5 depicts two correlation charts using
these twenty wafers. The top graph com-
pares yield versus total defect counts, and
the bottom graph plots yield versus yield-
impacting defect counts. The bottom graph
makes more sense because it shows that as
the yield-impacting defect counts increase,
the yield decreases. SPC control on yield-
impacting defects can be established based
on the findings.
Moving to Fig. 6, we see that wafers with
high total defect counts do not translate to
FIG. 6. SPC monitoring set based on total defects doesnt correlate with a yield impact.
FIG. 5. Correlation charts show that yield decreases relative to yield-impacting defects.
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PROCESS CONTROL
low wafer yield. With a UCL of 1400 defects,
only one out of three wafers corresponds to
below average yield. There is no correlation
between total defects to yield. Therefore,
one will be headed in the wrong direction
if SPC is set based on total defect counts.
On the other hand, Fig. 7 shows that high
yield-impacting defects translate to low
wafer yield. In this example, with a UCL of
1000 defects, all wafers that failed this con-
trol limit have below average yield. There-
fore, SPC control can be established.
As one can see, in-line monitoring is
critical to the LED manufacturing pro-
cess, and a method of separating yield-
impacting defects from nuisance defects
is needed. Given that the kill ratio corre-
lates with defect attributes such as defect
size, kill ratio analysis provides important
guidance in setting defect attribute bin-
ning to identify yield-impacting defects.
Moreover, the defect-to-yield correlation
methodology provided in this article can
help LED manufacturers learn more about
yield-relevant defects systematically. LED
manufacturers can then implement SPC to
avoid expensive excursions and to realize
optimum ROI.
FIG. 7. SPC monitoring set based on
yield-impacting defects correlates with
the wafers with the lowest yield.
___________________________
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_____________________
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interface
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LNCS
I
n many solid-state lighting (SSL) appli-
cations, such as architectural, area, and
downlighting, color accuracy is very
important. Moreover, an increasing num-
ber of products support dynamic color tun-
ing to set the white point or CCT and/
or to enable dynamic full-color products.
LEDs are ideal light sources for achieving
a precise color. The color of LED lighting
can be changed by mixing different colors
of LEDs, such as red, blue, green, yellow,
and white. When mixing LED colors, one or
more strings of LEDs needs to be dimmed
to realize the desired color mix. There are
different methods for achieving LED dim-
ming, so lets consider various dimming
techniques used in LED color mixing.
A single LED die can only emit mono-
chromatic light. To generate more colors,
three primary color LEDs (red, green, and
blue RGB) can be used together for color
mixing. Seven basic colors (red, green, blue,
yellow, violet, aqua, and white) can be pro-
duced just by switching red, green, and blue
LED channels. To produce more than seven
colors, each LED channel must be able to
change in brightness. Dimming an LED
channel is achieved by adjusting the cur-
rent through each LED string. Many colors
can be produced by mixing three dimmable
strings of RGB LEDs. To change the color
temperature of white LED light, a com-
monly used method is to include a red LED
string and vary the brightness relative to
the white string to achieve the desired CCT.
Basically, there are two ways to achieve
LED dimming: analog or l inear cur-
rent control and pulse-width modulation
(PWM). Both dimming methods change the
LEDs brightness by controlling the aver-
age current through the LED string. Both
can be implemented in either a switch-
mode or linear LED driver. Fig. 1 shows a
two-string LED driver containing one buck
switcher and one linear regulator, based
on the TPS92660. Both LED strings can be
dimmed with either analog or PWM tech-
niques. There are advantages and disad-
vantages to each. In most applications, the
dimming method is chosen based on the
color mixing performance requirement.
Analog dimming options
You implement analog dimming by adjusting
the constant current level through the LED
string. Analog dimming can be achieved by
adjusting the LED current reference voltage
inside the IC, or by adjusting the LED cur-
rent sense voltage outside the IC. First, lets
discuss dimming by changing the LED cur-
rent reference voltage.
For most LED drivers, including switch-
ing regulators and linear regulators, the
LED current is determined by the follow-
ing equation:
Where VREF is the internal IC LED current
reference voltage and RSNS is the current
sense resistance.
Dimming multiple LED strings
enables color-tunable luminaires
DAVID ZHANG explains that you can use analog dimming, PWM dimming, or a mix
of the two to achieve color-mixing SSL products with the application dictating
the best choice.
DAVID ZHANG is a systems applications
engineer for TIs LED power group where he
is responsible for LED lighting IC systems
applications. David received his MSEE from
the University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson,
Texas and his MS in physics from Marquette
University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. David can
be reached at ti_davidzhang@list.ti.com.
design forum | COLOR MIXING
FIG. 1. A two-string dimmable LED driver uses a buck converter for one string and a
linear regulator for the second string.
ILED =
VREF
RSNS
V
SW_REF
CS
V
ADJ
R
SNS
R1
R2
V
OUT
+
TPS92660
Ch1
4
2.0V
PWM dimming signal
LED current
8.0 ns/pt 125 MS/s
2.32V
M 10.0 s
A Ch1
B
W
B
W
500 mA Ch4 1
1
design forum
|
COLOR MIXING
The LED current can be adjusted by
changing VREF in some cases. Note that not
all LED driver ICs allow users to change
the LED current reference voltages. For
those ICs that allow the change of the LED
current reference, there are generally two
ways to do so. The first is to apply an ana-
log voltage on the reference voltage adjust
pin provided by the IC. One example is
Texas Instruments LM3409. The user can
adjust the LED current by adjusting the
voltage on the IADJ pin. The second way is to
adjust the reference voltage through a dig-
ital communication interface like I
2
C. One
example is Texas Instruments TPS92660,
which has an I
2
C interface that allows
users to adjust LED current reference volt-
ages through I
2
C commands.
Another popular way of doing analog dim-
ming is to change the LED current sense
voltage. In most applications, the current
sense resistor is less than 1 Ohm. It is not
practical to change the current sense resis-
tor value by using a potentiometer. Instead,
we change the voltage at the ICs CS (current
sense) pin by injecting an external DC volt-
age. Fig. 2 shows a typical analog dimming
circuit that works by changing the current
sense voltage. The voltage at the CS pin is
determined by the following equation:
At steady state, the CS pin voltage is equal
to the reference voltage. The LED current
can be changed by adjusting either the exter-
nal DC voltage VADJ or the value of the vari-
able resistor R2.
There is a disadvantage to using analog
dimming in color mixing applications. The
LED color temperature can change with the
LED current. The LEDs brightness and color
may change during analog dimming, espe-
cially when the current change is significant.
The system may not generate the desired
color under these conditions.
PWM dimming
Pulse-width modulation dimming actually
turns the LEDs on and off at a fixed duty
cycle and frequency. Assuming the switch-
ing or multiplexing is sufficiently fast typ-
ically 200 Hz or greater the human eye
perceives the LEDs to be on continuously.
The PWM-dimmed LED current is deter-
mined by the following equation:
Where IDIM is the dimmed LED current, D is
the on duty cycle of the PWM dimming sig-
nal, and ILED is the constant current supplied
to the switched LED string.
Many LED driver ICs have a PWM dim-
ming input pin that accepts a PWM dim-
ming input signal generated by a micro-
controller. Typically, the driver IC turns off
the MOSFET driver only when the PWM
dimming signal is low. The MOSFET driver
turns back on when the PWM dimming
signal is high. The internal circuitry is fully
operational during
the PWM dimming
off cycle. This pre-
vents the IC from
restarti ng, which
causes a delay in the
PWM dimming ris-
ing edge.
For switch-mode
LED drivers, a capaci-
tor is typically placed
across the LED string
to filter out the high-
frequency switching
noise. This capaci-
tor can slow the ris-
ing and falling edges
of the PWM-dimmed
LED current. So for high-frequency, low-
duty-cycle PWM dimming applications, this
capacitor needs to be removed. Fig. 3 shows
a LED buck regulator PWM dimming wave-
form without an output capacitor.
Analog-to-PWM dimming
Some LED driver ICs provide a function
called analog-to-PWM dimming. The ICs
dimming pin accepts the analog signal and
converts it to a PWM dimming signal. The
PWM dimming frequency is fixed, and the
PWM dimming duty cycle is proportional to
an input analog signal level.
Analog-to-PWM dimming is very useful
in those lighting applications where micro-
FIG. 2. An analog dimming circuit controls the input voltage to
the current sense pin.
FIG. 3. The PWM signal controls the LED current shown in the bottom waveform.
VCS =
R1+R2
VADJ -
ILEDRSNS
R1
R1+R2
R2
IDIM =D ILED
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V
IN
Dimming
signal
V
IN
UDIM
R
ON
V
OUT
V
REF
SDIM
COMP
IADJ
HG
SW
BOOT
V
CC
LG
TPS92641
CS
GND
SDRV
design forum
|
COLOR MIXING
controllers are not available. It can also be
used to implement the thermal fold back
function where the LED current is reduced
by PWM dimming when the temperature of
the LED board rises above a set point.
Shunt FET PWM dimming
Shunt FET (field effect transistor) PWM dim-
ming often is used for very high-frequency
LED PWM dimming. Fig. 4 shows a buck reg-
ulator-based shunt FET PWM dimming cir-
cuit. An external shunt FET is placed in par-
allel with the LED string to quickly bypass
(short) the converters output current. The
LED string is shut off when the shunt FET
is on and is turned on when the shunt FET
is off. So the LED string is effectively PWM
dimmed by this shunt FET. Some LED driver
ICs integrate a MOSFET driver for shunt FET
PWM dimming and eliminate the need for
an external MOSFET driver.
The switching regulators inductor cur-
rent stays continuous during shunt FET
PWM dimming. There is no delay caused by
inductor current ramping up or down. With
a strong MOSFET driver, the shunt FET can
be turned on and off at very high speeds.
Consequently, the PWM-dimmed LED cur-
rent has very sharp rising and falling edges.
The shunt FET PWM dimming is ideal for
high-frequency PWM dim-
ming applications.
Dimming is critical to
achieving the desired color
and brightness in LED color-
mixing applications. There
are many approaches to dim-
ming LEDs. The two main
categories are analog dim-
ming and PWM dimming.
Analog dimming usually can
be achieved using a relatively simpler cir-
cuit. Analog dimming is generally lower in
cost and good for a system where a micro-
controller is not available. However, it may
not be appropriate for applications that
require a constant color temperature. PWM
dimming, alternatively, can achieve very
accurate color temperature by reducing the
color change associated with the LED cur-
rent level. PWM dimming usually requires
an input digital signal generated by a micro-
controller and it increases systemcost.
FIG. 4. Shunt FET PWM dimming is implemented with a FET in parallel with the LED string.
There is a disadvantage to
using analog dimming in color
mixing applications. The LED
color temperature can change
with the LED current.
last word
F
luorescent tubes have dominated com-
mercial illumination in American ceil-
ings for more than 50 years more
than 2.3 billion tubes are installed, accord-
ing to the US Department of Energy (DOE).
That huge potential retrofit market has
drawn the interest of many in the solid-state
lighting (SSL) space and resulted in a lot of
myths related to LED tube technology. Lets
bust some of those myths, considering that
LED tubes save 50% or more energy over flu-
orescent tubes.
To date, the hurdles for adoption of LED
tube technology fall into three categories:
trust, technology, and cost. Lets explore
them, in that order.
Many believe that the LED tube industry
has not matured to a trustworthy level, but
manufacturers have improved thermal man-
agement, and installations now range from
Fortune 100 companies to leading health
care institutions to leading higher-educa-
tion institutions. Organizations such as the
DesignLights Consortium have qualified
LED tubes, and warranties have increased
to as long as 10 years on some LED tubes.
Meanwhile, some worry that imported
LED tubes lack UL or CE marks or other
trusted output testing. Simply ask for source
documentation and third-party testing data,
and look into LED tubes that are made
domestically or that meet the International
Class A-10 LED Tube Standards.
And then there are those concerned that
new LED manufacturers wont be around to
support the warranty. An easy way to protect
your business is to look for performance-
based programs such as savings shares,
lighting service contracts, or LED rental cen-
ter opportunities. This way you dont fully
pay for the technology and arent chasing the
seller if failure occurs.
Lets turn to technology, and the worry
that a typical LED tube doesnt give off as
much light as its fluorescent counterparts.
Fluorescent tubes may have more lumens,
but 35% percent of the output
is often wasted going up into
the fixture. Make sure to look
at fixture output side-by-side
in foot-candles after a sample
LED tube retrofit.
Others worry that an LED
tube does not have the same
color consistency as a f luo-
rescent tube. Yet the thermal
management of many LED
tubes has improved to protect
the phosphor coating that dictates color
temperature. Still others question the qual-
ity assurance for LED tubes. The answer is
to look for LED tube manufacturers that are
ISO 9001:2008 certified.
Then there are those who say LED tubes
with external drivers are more difficult
to install than internal driver LED tubes.
Not so: Installers need to open the cover to
the f luorescent ballast in order to install
either type of driver system, so the time is
roughly identical.
Finally, some contend that the diodes get
so hot that they burn out the LED tubes. To
combat this, seek out LED tubes with deep-
fin, aircraft-grade thermal management and
external drivers.
Now lets turn to cost where some argue
that specif iers wait to invest in LEDs
because of dramatically falling prices.
But the cost of waiting, in terms of energy
and maintenance, is most likely higher
than the price drop, particularly for 24/7
illumination areas. At the least, consider a
rolling retrofit where you replace f luores-
cent tubes and ballasts as they fail with
new LED tube technology.
There are other cost-related
issues that are top of mind
for some specifiers. Those
who replaced T12 fluorescent
tubes with the better T8 tubes
and dont want to upgrade
again should still calculate
ROI, especially for 24/7 areas.
Payback is three to five years,
and some worry about war-
ranties in that same range;
however, as we mentioned, longer warran-
ties are becoming commonplace.
American-made products are more
expensive than imports. Property owners
and managers should not focus on the race
to the bottom of pricing but instead consider
the race to the top of performance. All tubes
are not created equal, so look at the equip-
ment and operating cost of a total fixture
versus a tube.
It cant be stressed enough that specifi-
ers should find a qualified LED manufac-
turer and start changing out old f luores-
cent tube technology in 24/7 areas as soon
as possible. Switch to LEDs as f luorescent
tubes fail and make a three-year plan to
purge your outdated glass and gas tubes
for toxic-free SSL.
Myth busting as it relates
to LED tubes
CHARLIE SZORADI, CEO of INDEPENDENCE LED, states that its only a question of
when the time is right to install LED tubes in place of fluorescents and not if its the
right retrofit path.
WHAT MAKES STRATEGIES IN LIGHT EUROPE UNIQUE
Strategies in Light Europe has become the most comprehensive event of its kind, offering activities of interest to delegates representing every level of the
LED/SSL vertical supply chain, from components to systems, from engineering to lighting design. Within one venue, delegates have the opportunity to
attend workshops, an Investor Forum, high-level plenary and keynote sessions, and parallel market and technology tracks. In addition they can view a
w|de var|ety of product exh|b|ts and ||sten to |nformat|ve presentat|ons on the exh|b|t foor. No other European |ED ||ght|ng conference offers such a w|de
range of activities.
November 19-21, 2013 I M.O.C. Event Center I Munich
When you register for a Total Access Pass everything is included in your registration package. This includes:
Workshop 1: Beyond Photometry Quality Metrics for Solid StateLighting Sean Keeney, Applications Engineer, Cree, USA
Workshop 2: Test and Measurement of LED Lamps and Luminaires Thomas Attenberger, Instrument Systems, Germany
SSL lnvestor Forum
Welcome Reception
Keynote address
Plenary Session
Market Tracket
Technology Track
Access to the Exhibition Floor
All food functions
WHY YOU SHOULDNT MISS STRATEGIES IN LIGHT EUROPE 2013!
1. A plenary session that features high-level speakers from the major
European lighting companies so you can beneft from their experience.
2. A presentation of the latest market update and forecast for the
LED lighting market by Strategies Unlimited, world leader in LED
and lighting market research, so your company is equipped with the
knowledge to drive forward in the next year.
3. Two parallel conference tracks that address a wide range of topics
in LED lighting markets, applications and technology.
4. The SSL Investor Forum - a unique event in Europe that allows
investors to achieve insights into the large public lighting companies
as well as exciting new SSL startups.
5. Workshops that ofer in-depth information by industry experts
on specialized topics of interest to the SSL community in a highly
interactive way.
6. A free presentation area on the exhibit foor that provides opportunities
to hear product presentations as well as timely information on subjects
such as standards, EU programs, etc.
7. The opportunity to visit over 80 exhibitors from all levels of the LED/
SSL vertical supply chain where you can be sure that you'll get to meet
with the market leaders of the LED industry.
8. Numerous opportunities for networking and discussion among
component suppliers, system developers, and lighting product
manufacturers from throughout Europe where youwill be able to
deve|op new and protab|e bus|ness re|at|onsh|ps.
9. Conference venue centrally located in Munich, easily accessible by
air or rail from anywhere in Europe.
10. Of-site gala reception, and facility tour.
REGISTER TODAY FOR A TOTAL ACCESS PASS
1 A l i th t f t hi h l l
10 REASONS WHY YOU MUST ATTEND
REGISTER BY SEPTEMBER 20
TH
AND SAVE 75
GET VALUABLE INSIGHTS FROM LIGHTING MARKET LEADERS
KEYNOTE 1: Peter Laier, Chief Technology Omcer, OSRAM GmbH, Germany
KEYNOTE 2: Jefrey Cassis, Senior vice President, GM Global Lighting Systems, Philips Lighting, The Netherlands
KEYNOTE 3: Katya Evstratyeva, Analyst, Strategies Unlimited, USA
Klaus Vamberszky, Executive vice President Technology, Zumtobel Group, Austria
Zoltan Koltai, EMEA Technology Director, GE Lighting, Hungary
Dietmar Zembrot, President of the Executive Board, LightingEurope
Marc Ledbetter, Manager, Advanced Lighting, Pac|c Northwest Nat|ona| Laborator|es, USA
GET VALUABLE INSIGHTS FROM LIGHTING MARK
EXCLUSIVE KEYNOTE AND PLENARY SESSIONS
REGISTER AT WWW.SILEUROPE.COM ____________________
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For over 100 years UL has tested and certified lighting products in the global marketplace. As your committed partner in a rapidly
evolving industry, UL today provides state-of-the-art safety testing, performance evaluation and energy efficiency testing for lighting
manufacturers under one roof in global markets. We test all sources of lighting from LED, OLED, HID, Fluorescent to lighting
components, ballast, led drivers and holders. Our extensive capabilities include:
SAFETY
cULus
ENEC15
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Testing capacities to expand your market reach

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