General Introduction

Introduction of Composites
Historical Development / Historical overview:
Past:
After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel, spinning of continuous yarns is
probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the
tropical climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of
locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to
animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first
composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M1.1.1 (a)) and chariots made of glued
layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced
these antique composites.
Figure 1.1.1
Figure 1.1.1 (a): Composite Korean bow
Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true
revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during
the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic
properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural
performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the
previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing
costs, nowadays cost reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology
drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man against fire and impact
(Figure M1.1.1 (b)) and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the
reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology, see Figure 1.1.1 (c). Increasingly
nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be
ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some
examples of use of natural fibers are shown in Figure 1.1.1 (d) and Figure 1.1.1 (e).
Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design
process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass,
strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to
instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these
parameters.
Concept of Composite:
Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-
day composite materials, which are mostly structural.
Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific
character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no
matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a
specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the
desirable properties.
Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear
determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the
levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic.
In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz.,
binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses among
the constituent reinforcement materials under an applied force.
The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors
or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages,
ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the
purpose for which matrices are chosen.
Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the
reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and
metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites,
with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show
decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression.
Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion
characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix
materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase,
there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint
constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents
interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the
effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the
selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert
non-reactive. Figure M1.1.1 (f) helps to classify matrices.
Figure M1.1 (f): Classification of Matrix Materials
M1.2 Basic Definitions and Classifications of Composites
M1.2.1 Classification of Composites
Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:
The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The
major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix
Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix
composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer
Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as
carbon-carbon composites.
The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced
composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced
composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or
continuous fibres.
Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a
composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its
properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such
that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the
composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small
in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good
tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending
and buckling.
Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix.
Sandwich structures fall under this category.
Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix
body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards
are examples of this category.
M1.2.2 Organic Matrix Composites
M1.2.2.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-
Carbon Composites
Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and
desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are
extensively used in aeronautical applications.
Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities
such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose
instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is
enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They
can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering
Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions
fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber
composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific
quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic
polyamide resins.
Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an
elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the
process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during
cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the
compounds.
Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites. The
theme of most experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and
extract the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues, including attempts to
replace metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement
affects the morphology to a considerable extent, prompting the reinforcement to empower
nucleation. Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter
their creep over an extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at which
the usage of resins is constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can increase the
failure load as well as creep resistance. Figure M1.2.1 shows kinds of thermoplastics.
Figure M1.2.1: Thermoplastics
A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are
also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of
thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved,
which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time
required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures.
Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these
resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic.
However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally.
There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises
the heat resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend loose their strength at elevated
temperatures. However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity, toughness and ability to
repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are
used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.
Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics.
Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling
and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of
bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds.
Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and
development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components,
automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites.
Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas. Figure M1.2.2
shows some kinds of thermosets.
Figure M1.2.2: Thermoset Materials
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form
heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a
product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These
voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of
thermoset resins.
Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding
prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having
slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however,
make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a
temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are
higher, as a result, is ruled out.
Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide
range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for
years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time.
They are used in automobile and structural applications.
The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent.
Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending
on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to
about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few
glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey.
Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber
composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous
service at around 200-250C .
M1.2.2.2 Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity,
are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness and
stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts. They
can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most
metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which
need to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding
aspect for the choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix
for temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons
are characterized by high moduli.
Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low
temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low
density proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminium and magnesium are the popular matrix
metals currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metallic
matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The
strength-to-weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.
The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various
temperatures determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and
compounds can be used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of
reinforcements becomes more stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix
materials.
M1.2.2.3 Ceramic Matrix Materials (CMM)
Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in
general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion resistance,
stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength, render ceramic-based
matrix materials a favourite for applications requiring a structural material that doesnt give
way at temperatures
above 1500C. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature
applications.
High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics posses, have
combined to cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength
improvement. This is because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is
insufficient elongation of the matrix which keeps composite from transferring an effective
quantum of load to the reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of
fiber volume is high enough. A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength
of the fiber, to produce an increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-
strength fiber to a weaker ceramic has not always been successful and often the resultant
composite has proved to be weaker.
The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to
some extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being
increasingly resorted to as an option.
When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement materials,
the resultant composite is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the
composite will develop strength within ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in
microcracks extending from fiber to fiber within the matrix. Microcracking can result in a
composite with tensile strength lower than that of the matrix.
M1.2.3 Classification Based on Reinforcements
M1.2.3: Introduction to Reinforcements
Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are
essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or
near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a
preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers. Figure
M1.2.3 shows types of reinforcements in composites.
Figure M1.2.3: Reinforcements
Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the strength that makes
the composite what it is. But they also serve certain additional purposes of heat resistance or
conduction, resistance to corrosion and provide rigidity. Reinforcement can be made to
perform all or one of these functions as per the requirements.
A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer than the
matrix and capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite. This
means that the ductility should be minimal or even nil the composite must behave as brittle as
possible.
M1.2.3.1 Fiber Reinforced Composites/Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites
Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and
transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as
desired.
Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal
fibers were subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to render composites stiffer
more resistant to heat.
Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber
composite is judged by its length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers and the
mechanical properties of the matrix.
The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite and
the strength is greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This doesnt mean the
longitudinal fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of the direction in which it
is applied. Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can be obtained if the load is
applied along its direction. The slightest shift in the angle of loading may drastically reduce
the strength of the composite.
Unidirectional loading is found in few structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of
orientations for fibers in composites particularly where the load is expected to be the
heaviest.
Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibers can be oriented
unidirectional stacked into plies containing layers of filaments also oriented in the same
direction. More complicated orientations are possible too and nowadays, computers are used
to make projections of such variations to suit specific needs. In short, in planar composites,
strength can be changed from unidirectional fiber oriented composites that result in
composites with nearly isotropic properties.
Properties of angle-plied composites which are not quasi-isotropic may vary with the
number of plies and their orientations. Composite variables in such composites are assumed
to have a constant ratio and the matrices are considered relatively weaker than the fibers. The
strength of the fiber in any one of the three axes would, therefore be one-third the
unidirectional fiber composite, assuming that the volume percentage is equal in all three axes.
However, orientation of short fibers by different methods is also possible like random
orientations by sprinkling on to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state
before or after the fiber deposition. Even three-dimensional orientations can achieve in this
way.
There are several methods of random fiber orientations, which in a two-dimensional one,
yield composites with one-third the strength of a unidirectional fiber-stressed composite, in
the direction of fibers. In a 3-dimension, it would result in a composite with a comparable
ratio, about less than one-fifth.
In very strong matrices, moduli and strengths have not been observed. Application of the
strength of the composites with such matrices and several orientations is also possible. The
longitudinal strength can be calculated on the basis of the assumption that fibers have been
reduced to their effective strength on approximation value in composites with strong matrices
and non-longitudinally orientated fibers.
It goes without saying that fiber composites may be constructed with either continuous or
short fibers. Experience has shown that continuous fibers (or filaments) exhibit better
orientation, although it does not reflect in their performance. Fibers have a high aspect ratio,
i.e., their lengths being several times greater than their effective diameters. This is the reason
why filaments are manufactured using continuous process. This finished filaments.
Mass production of filaments is well known and they match with several matrices in different
ways like winding, twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the characteristics of a
fabric.
Since they have low densities and high strengths, the fiber lengths in filaments or other fibers
yield considerable influence on the mechanical properties as well as the response of
composites to processing and procedures. Shorter fibers with proper orientation composites
that use glass, ceramic or multi-purpose fibers can be endowed with considerably higher
strength than those that use continuous fibers. Short fibers are also known to their theoretical
strength. The
continuous fiber constituent of a composite is often joined by the filament winding process in
which the matrix impregnated fiber wrapped around a mandrel shaped like the part over
which the composite is to be placed, and equitable load distribution and favorable orientation
of the fiber is possible in the finished product. However, winding is mostly confined to
fabrication of bodies of revolution and the occasional irregular, flat surface.
Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or close-mould process are found to be less
efficient, although the input costs are considerably lower than filament winding.
Most fibers in use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle, having a
circular cross-section, although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibers show signs
of capabilities that can improve the mechanical qualities of the composites.
Given the fact that the vast difference in length and effective diameter of the fiber are assets
to a fiber composite, it follows that greater strength in the fiber can be achieved by smaller
diameters due to minimization or total elimination of surface of surface defects.
After flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibers rectangular cross sections have provided
new options for applications in high strength structures. Owing to their shapes, these fibers
provide perfect packing, while hollow fibers show better structural efficiency in composites
that are desired for their stiffness and compressive strengths. In hollow fibers, the transverse
compressive strength is lower than that of a solid fiber composite whenever the hollow
portion is more than half the total fiber diameter. However, they are not easy to handle and
fabricate.
M1.2.3.2 Laminar Composites
Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of materials. They
can be described as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together. These may
be of several layers of two or more metal materials occurring alternately or in a determined
order more than once, and in as many numbers as required for a specific purpose.
Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are known to
follow the rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view. Other intrinsic
values pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-reinforced composites are also fairly well known.
Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing
and so on can be employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or
sprayed materials. It is not possible to achieve high strength materials unlike the fiber
version. But sheets and foils can be made isotropic in two dimensions more easily than fibers.
Foils and sheets are also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are put. For
instance, a strong sheet may use over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make
fibers of such compositions. Fiber laminates cannot over 75% strong fibers.
The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not posses high strength or
stiffness are single layered ones that endow the composites with special properties, apart
from being cost-effective. They are usually made by pre-coating or cladding methods.
Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate, in the form of a
thin continuous film. This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by chemical plating
and electroplating. Clad metals are found to be suitable for more intensive environments
where denser faces are required.
There are many combinations of sheet and foil which function as adhesives at low
temperatures. Such materials, plastics or metals, may be clubbed together with a third
constituent. Pre-painted or pre-finished metal whose primary advantage is elimination of final
finishing by the user is the best known metal-organic laminate. Several combinations of
metal-plastic, vinyl-metal laminates, organic films and metals, account for upto 95% of
metal-plastic laminates known. They are made by adhesive bonding processes.
M1.2.3.3 Particulate Reinforced Composites (PRC)
Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one phase strewn
in the other, are known as particle reinforced composites. Square, triangular and round shapes
of reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of all their sides are observed to be more or
less equal. The size and volume concentration of the dispersoid distinguishes it from
dispersion hardened materials.
The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and volume
concentration is greater than 28%. The difference between particulate composite and
dispersion strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious. The mechanism used to strengthen each of
them is also different. The dispersed in the dispersion-strengthen materials reinforces the
matrix alloy by arresting motion of dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the
restriction created by dispersion.
In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the system by the hydrostatic coercion of
fillers in matrices and by their hardness relative to the matrix.
Three-dimensional reinforcement in composites offers isotropic properties, because of the
three systematical orthogonal planes. Since it is not homogeneous, the material properties
acquire sensitivity to the constituent properties, as well as the interfacial properties and
geometric shapes of the array. The composites strength usually depends on the diameter of
the particles, the inter-particle spacing, and the volume fraction of the reinforcement. The
matrix properties influence the behaviour of particulate composite too.
Note: In this module text in Italic indicates advanced concepts.
[Give hyperlink as advanced/reference material]
M1.2.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements and Matrices
There are two types of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion
(fraction) of each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the
reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart
special physical (mechanical and electrical) properties to enhance the matrix properties.
M1.2.4.1 Classification Based On Matrices
The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is embedded, and is
completely continuous. This means that there is a path through the matrix to any point in the
material, unlike two materials sandwiched together. In structural applications, the matrix is
usually a lighter metal such as aluminum, magnesium, or titanium, and provides a compliant
support for the reinforcement. In high temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel
alloy matrices are common.
The composite materials are commonly classified based on matrix constituent. The major
composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites
(MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is
generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites
(PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites.
These three types of matrixes produce three common types of composites.
1. Polymer matrix composites (PMCs), of which GRP is the best-known example, use
ceramic fibers in a plastic matrix.
2. Metal-matrix composites (MMCs) typically use silicon carbide fibers embedded in a
matrix made from an alloy of aluminum and magnesium, but other matrix materials
such as titanium, copper, and iron are increasingly being used. Typical applications
of MMCs include bicycles, golf clubs, and missile guidance systems; an MMC made
from silicon-carbide fibers in a titanium matrix is currently being developed for use
as the skin (fuselage material) of the US National Aerospace Plane.
3. Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are the third major type and examples include
silicon carbide fibers fixed in a matrix made from a borosilicate glass. The ceramic
matrix makes them particularly suitable for use in lightweight, high-temperature
components, such as parts for airplane jet engines.
M1.2.4.1.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites/Carbon-Carbon
Composites (CCC)
Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and
desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are
extensively used in aeronautical applications.
Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities
such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose
instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is
enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics.
They can be retained in a
partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very
flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced
composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form
particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and
aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide
resins.
Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an
elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the
process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during
cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the
compounds.
Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites. The
theme of most experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and
extract the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues, including attempts to
replace metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement
affects the morphology to a considerable extent, prompting the reinforcement to empower
nucleation. Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their
creep over an extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at which the
usage of resins is constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can increase the failure
load as well as creep resistance. Figure M1.2.4.1 shows kinds of thermoplastics.
Figure M1.2.4.1: Thermoplastics
A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are
also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of
thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved,
which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time
required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures.
Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these
resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic.
However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally.
There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition of fillers
raises the heat resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend loose their strength at
elevated temperatures. However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity, toughness and
ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket.
They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.
Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics.
Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling
and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of
bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds.
Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and
development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components,
automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites.
Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas. Figure
M1.2.4.2 shows some kinds of thermosets.
Figure M1.2.4.2: Thermoset Materials
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form
heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a
product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These
voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of
thermoset resins.
Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding
prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having
slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however,
make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a
temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are
higher, as a result, is ruled out.
Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide
range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for
years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time.
They are used in automobile and structural applications.
The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent.
Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending
on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to
about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few
glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey.
Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber
composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous
service at around 200-250C .
M1.2.4.1.2 Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity,
are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness and
stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts. They
can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most
metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which
need to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding
aspect for the choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix
for temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned
reasons are characterized by high moduli.
Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low
temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low
density proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminium and magnesium are the popular matrix
metals currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metallic
matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The
strength-to-weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.
The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various
temperatures determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and
compounds can be used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of
reinforcements becomes more stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix
materials.
M1.2.4.1.3 Ceramic Matrix Materials (CMM)
Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in
general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion resistance,
stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength, render ceramic-based
matrix materials a favourite for applications requiring a structural material that doesnt give
way at temperatures above 1500C. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for
high temperature applications.
High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics posses, have
combined to cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength
improvement. This is because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is
insufficient elongation of the matrix which keeps composite from transferring an effective
quantum of load to the reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of
fiber volume is high enough. A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength
of the fiber, to produce an increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-
strength fiber to a weaker ceramic has not always been successful and often the resultant
composite has proved to be weaker.
The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to
some extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being
increasingly resorted to as an option.
When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement materials,
the resultant composite is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the
composite will develop strength within ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in
microcracks extending from fiber to fiber within the matrix. Microcracking can result in a
composite with tensile strength lower than that of the matrix.
M1.2.4.2 Classification Based On Reinforcements
Introduction to Reinforcement
Reinforcements: A strong, inert woven and nonwoven fibrous material incorporated into the
matrix to improve its metal glass and physical properties. Typical reinforcements are
asbestos, boron, carbon, metal glass and ceramic fibers, flock, graphite, jute, sisal and
whiskers, as well as chopped paper, macerated fabrics, and synthetic fibers. The primary
difference between reinforcement and filler is the reinforcement markedly improves tensile
and flexural strength, whereas filler usually does not. Also to be effective, reinforcement must
form a strong adhesive bond with the resin.
The role of the reinforcement in a composite material is fundamentally one of increasing the
mechanical properties of the neat resin system. All of the different fibres used in composites
have different properties and so affect the properties of the composite in different ways.
However, individual fibres or fibre bundles can only be used on their own in a few processes
such as filament winding. For most other applications, the fibres need to be arranged into
some form of sheet, known as a fabric, to make handling possible. Different ways for
assembling fibres into sheets and the variety of fibre orientations possible lead to there being
many different types of fabrics, each of which has its own characteristics.
Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are
essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or
near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have
a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers. Figure
M1.2.4.3 shows types of reinforcements in composites.
Figure M1.2.4.3 Reinforcements
Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the strength that
makes the composite what it is. But they also serve certain additional purposes of heat
resistance or conduction, resistance to corrosion and provide rigidity. Reinforcement can be
made to perform all or one of these functions as per the requirements.
A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer than the
matrix and capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite. This
means that the ductility should be minimal or even nil the composite must behave as brittle as
possible.
M1.2.4.2.1 Fiber Reinforced Composites/Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites
Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and
transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as
desired.
Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal
fibers were subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to render composites stiffer more
resistant to heat.
Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber
composite is judged by its length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers and the
mechanical properties of the matrix.
The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite and
the strength is greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This doesnt mean the
longitudinal fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of the direction in which it
is applied. Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can be obtained if the load is
applied along its direction. The slightest shift in the angle of loading may drastically reduce
the strength of the composite.
Unidirectional loading is found in few structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of
orientations for fibers in composites particularly where the load is expected to be the
heaviest.
Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibers can be oriented
unidirectional stacked into plies containing layers of filaments also oriented in the same
direction. More complicated orientations are possible too and nowadays, computers are used
to make projections of such variations to suit specific needs. In short, in planar composites,
strength can be changed from unidirectional fiber oriented composites that result in
composites with nearly isotropic properties.
Properties of angle-plied composites which are not quasi-isotropic may vary with the
number of plies and their orientations. Composite variables in such composites are assumed
to have a constant ratio and the matrices are considered relatively weaker than the fibers.
The strength of the fiber in any one of the three axes would, therefore be one-third the
unidirectional fiber composite, assuming that the volume percentage is equal in all three
axes.
However, orientation of short fibers by different methods is also possible like random
orientations by sprinkling on to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state
before or after the fiber deposition. Even three-dimensional orientations can achieve in this
way.
There are several methods of random fiber orientations, which in a two-dimensional one,
yield composites with one-third the strength of an unidirectional fiber-stressed composite, in
the direction of fibers. In a 3-dimension, it would result in a composite with a comparable
ratio, about less than one-fifth.
In very strong matrices, moduli and strengths have not been observed. Application of the
strength of the composites with such matrices and several orientations is also possible. The
longitudinal strength can be calculated on the basis of the assumption that fibers have been
reduced to their effective strength on approximation value in composites with strong matrices
and non-longitudinally orientated fibers.
It goes without saying that fiber composites may be constructed with either continuous or
short fibers. Experience has shown that continuous fibers (or filaments) exhibit better
orientation, although it does not reflect in their performance. Fibers have a high aspect ratio,
i.e., their lengths being several times greater than their effective diameters. This is the
reason why filaments are manufactured using continuous process. This finished filaments.
Mass production of filaments is well known and they match with several matrices in different
ways like winding, twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the characteristics of a
fabric.
Since they have low densities and high strengths, the fiber lengths in filaments or other fibers
yield considerable influence on the mechanical properties as well as the response of
composites to processing and procedures. Shorter fibers with proper orientation composites
that use glass, ceramic or multi-purpose fibers can be endowed with considerably higher
strength than those that use continuous fibers. Short fibers are also known to their theoretical
strength. The continuous fiber constituent of a composite is often joined by the filament
winding process in
which the matrix impregnated fiber wrapped around a mandrel shaped like the part over
which the composite is to be placed, and equitable load distribution and favorable
orientation of the fiber is possible in the finished product. However, winding is mostly
confined to fabrication of bodies of revolution and the occasional irregular, flat surface.
Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or close-mould process are found to be less
efficient, although the input costs are considerably lower than filament winding.
Most fibers in use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle, having a
circular cross-section, although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibers show signs
of capabilities that can improve the mechanical qualities of the composites.
Given the fact that the vast difference in length and effective diameter of the fiber are assets
to a fiber composite, it follows that greater strength in the fiber can be achieved by smaller
diameters due to minimization or total elimination of surface of surface defects.
After flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibers rectangular cross sections have provided
new options for applications in high strength structures. Owing to their shapes, these fibers
provide perfect packing, while hollow fibers show better structural efficiency in composites
that are desired for their stiffness and compressive strengths. In hollow fibers, the transverse
compressive strength is lower than that of a solid fiber composite whenever the hollow
portion is more than half the total fiber diameter. However, they are not easy to handle and
fabricate.
M1.2.4.2.2 Fibre Reinforcements
Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic
fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high
thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the
diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used.
Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers,
high silica and quartz fibers, aluminina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron
fibers, aramid fibers and multiphase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again
classified into E-glass, A-glass, R-glass etc.
There is a greater marker and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers.
The potential of fibers of graphite, silica carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific
mind due to their applications in advanced composites.
M1.2.4.2.3 Whiskers
Single crystals grown with nearly zero defects are termed whiskers. They are usually
discontinuous and short fibers of different cross sections made from several materials like
graphite, silicon carbide, copper, iron etc. Typical lengths are in 3 to 55 N.M. ranges.
Whiskers
differ from particles in that, whiskers have a definite length to width ratio greater than one.
Whiskers can have extraordinary strengths upto 7000 MPa.
Whiskers were grown quite incidentally in laboratories for the first time, while nature has
some geological structures that can be described as whiskers. Initially, their usefulness was
overlooked as they were dismissed as incidental by-products of other structure. However,
study on crystal structures and growth in metals sparked off an interest in them, and also the
study of defects that affect the strength of materials, they came to be incorporated in
composites using several methods, including power metallurgy and slip-casting techniques.
Metal-whisker combination, strengthening the system at high temperatures, has been
demonstrated at the laboratory level. But whiskers are fine, small sized materials not easy to
handle and this comes in the way of incorporating them into engineering materials to come
out with a superior quality composite system.
Early research has shown that whisker strength varies inversely with effective diameter.
When whiskers were embedded in matrices, whiskers of diameter upto 2 to 10m yielded
fairly good composites.
Ceramic materials whiskers have high moduli, useful strengths and low densities. Specific
strength and specific modulus are very high and this makes ceramic whiskers suitable for low
weight structure composites. They also resist temperature, mechanical damage and oxidation
more responsively than metallic whiskers, which are denser than ceramic whiskers. However,
they are not commercially viable because they are damaged while handling.
M1.2.4.2.4 Laminar Composites/Laminate Reinforced Composites
Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of materials. They
can be described as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together. These may
be of several layers of two or more metal materials occurring alternately or in a determined
order more than once, and in as many numbers as required for a specific purpose.
Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are known to
follow the rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view. Other intrinsic
values pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-reinforced composites are also fairly well known.
Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing
and so on can be employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or
sprayed materials. It is not possible to achieve high strength materials unlike the fiber
version. But sheets and foils can be made isotropic in two dimensions more easily than fibers.
Foils and sheets are also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are put. For
instance, a strong sheet may use over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make
fibers of such compositions. Fiber laminates cannot over 75% strong fibers.
The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not posses high strength or
stiffness are single layered ones that endow the composites with special properties, apart
from being cost-effective. They are usually made by pre-coating or cladding methods.
Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate, in the form of a
thin continuous film. This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by chemical plating
and electroplating. Clad metals are found to be suitable for more intensive environments
where denser faces are required.
There are many combinations of sheet and foil which function as adhesives at low
temperatures. Such materials, plastics or metals, may be clubbed together with a third
constituent. Pre-painted or pre-finished metal whose primary advantage is elimination of
final finishing by the user is the best known metal-organic laminate. Several combinations of
metal-plastic, vinyl-metal laminates, organic films and metals, account for upto 95% of
metal-plastic laminates known. They are made by adhesive bonding processes.
M1.2.4.2.5 Flake Composites
Flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be densely packed. Metal flakes that are in
close contact with each other in polymer matrices can conduct electricity or heat, while mica
flakes and glass can resist both. Flakes are not expensive to produce and usually cost less
than fibers.
But they fall short of expectations in aspects like control of size, shape and show defects in
the end product. Glass flakes tend to have notches or cracks around the edges, which weaken
the final product. They are also resistant to be lined up parallel to each other in a matrix,
causing uneven strength. They are usually set in matrices, or more simply, held together by a
matrix with a glue-type binder. Depending on the end-use of the product, flakes are present
in small quantities or occupy the whole composite.
Flakes have various advantages over fibers in structural applications. Parallel flakes filled
composites provide uniform mechanical properties in the same plane as the flakes. While
angle-plying is difficult in continuous fibers which need to approach isotropic properties, it is
not so in flakes. Flake composites have a higher theoretical modulus of elasticity than fiber
reinforced composites. They are relatively cheaper to produce and be handled in small
quantities.
M1.2.4.2.6 Filled Composites
Filled composites result from addition of filer materials to plastic matrices to replace a
portion of the matrix, enhance or change the properties of the composites. The fillers also
enhance strength and reduce weight.
Another type of filled composite is the product of structure infiltrated with a second-phase
filler material. The skeleton could be a group of cells, honeycomb structures, like a network
of open pores. The infiltrant could also be independent of the matrix and yet bind the
components like powders or fibers, or they could just be used to fill voids. Fillers produced
from powders are also considered as particulate composite.
In the open matrices of a porous or spongy composite, the formation is the natural result of
processing and such matrices can be strengthened with different materials. Metal
impregnates are used to improve strength or tolerance of the matrix. Metal casting, graphite,
powder metallurgy parts and ceramics belong to this class of filled composites.
In the honeycomb structure, the matrix is not naturally formed, but specifically designed to a
predetermed shape. Sheet materials in the hexagonal shapes are impregnated with resin or
foam and are used as a core material in sandwich composites.
Fillers may be the main ingredient or an additional one in a composite. The filler particles
may be irregular structures, or have precise geometrical shapes like polyhedrons, short
fibers or spheres.
While their purpose is far from adding visual embellishment to the composites, they
occasionally impart colour or opacity to the composite which they fill.
As inert additives, fillers can change almost any basic resin characteristic in all directions
required, to tide over the many limitations of basic resins as far as composites are
concerned. The final composite properties can be affected by the shape, surface treatment,
blend of particle types, size of the particle in the filler material and the size distribution.
Filled plastics tend to behave like two different constituents. They do not alloy and accept the
bonding. They are meant to develop mutually; they desist from interacting chemically with
each other. It is vital that the constituents remain in co-ordination and do not destroy each
others desired properties.
Matrix in a few filled composites provides the main framework while the filler furnishes
almost all desired properties. Although the matrix forms the bulk of the composite, the filler
material is used in such great quantities relatively that it becomes the rudimentary
constituent.
The benefits offered by fillers include increase stiffness, thermal resistance, stability, strength
and abrasion resistance, porosity and a favorable coefficient of thermal expansion.
However, the methods of fabrication are very limited and the curing of some resins is greatly
inhibited. They also shorten the life span of some resins and are known to weaken a few
composites.
M1.2.4.2.6.1 Microspheres
Microspheres are considered to be some of the most useful fillers. Their specific gravity,
stable particle size, strength and controlled density to modify products without compromising
on profitability or physical properties are its their most-sought after assets.
Solid glass Microspheres, manufactured from glass are most suitable for plastics. Solid glass
Microspheres are coated with a binding agent which bonds itself as well as the spheres
surface
to the resin. This increases the bonding strength and basically removes absorption of liquids
into the separations around the spheres.
Solid Microspheres have relatively low density, and therefore, influence the commercial
value and weight of the finished product. Studies have indicated that their inherent strength
is carried over to the finished moulded part of which they form a constituent.
Hollow microspheres are essentially silicate based, made at controlled specific gravity. They
are larger than solid glass spheres used in polymers and commercially supplied in a wider
range of particle sizes. Commercially, silicate-based hollow microspheres with different
compositions using organic compounds are also available. Due to the modification, the
microspheres are rendered less sensitive to moisture, thus reducing attraction between
particles. This is very vital in highly filled liquid polymer composites where viscosity
enhancement constraints the quantum of filler loading.
Formerly, hollow spheres were mostly used for thermosetting resin systems. Now, several
new strong spheres are available and they are at least five times stronger than hollow
microspheres in static crush strength and four times long lasting in shear.
Recently, ceramic alumino silicate microspheres have been introduced in thermoplastic
systems. Greater strength and higher density of this system in relation to siliceous
microspheres and their resistance to abrasions and considerable strength make then suitable
for application in high pressure conditions.
Hollow microspheres have a lower specific gravity than the pure resin. This makes it possible
to use them for lightning resin dominant compounds. They find wide applications in
aerospace and automotive industries where weight reduction for energy conservation is one
of the main considerations.
But their use in systems requiring high shear mixing or high-pressure moulding is restricted
as their crush resistance is in no way comparable to that of solid spheres. Fortunately,
judicious applications of hollow spheres eliminate crazing at the bends in the poly-vinyl
chloride plastisol applications, where the end component is subjected to bending stresses.
Microspheres, whether solid or hollow, show properties that are directly related to their
spherical shape let them behave like minute ball bearing, and hence, they give better flow
properties. They also distribute stress uniformly throughout resin matrices.
In spherical particles, the ratio of surface area to volume is minimal (smallest). In resin-rich
surfaces of reinforced systems, the Microspheres which are free of orientation and sharp
edges are capable of producing smooth surfaces.
M1.2.4.2.7 Particulate Reinforced Composites
Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one phase strewn
in the other, are known as particle reinforced composites. Square, triangular and round
shapes of
reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of all their sides are observed to be more or
less equal. The size and volume concentration of the dispersoid distinguishes it from
dispersion hardened materials.
The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and volume
concentration is greater than 28%. The difference between particulate composite and
dispersion strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious. The mechanism used to strengthen each of
them is also different. The dispersed in the dispersion-strengthen materials reinforces the
matrix alloy by arresting motion of dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the
restriction created by dispersion.
In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the system by the hydrostatic coercion of
fillers in matrices and by their hardness relative to the matrix.
Three-dimensional reinforcement in composites offers isotropic properties, because of the
three systematical orthogonal planes. Since it is not homogeneous, the material properties
acquire sensitivity to the constituent properties, as well as the interfacial properties and
geometric shapes of the array. The composites strength usually depends on the diameter of
the particles, the inter-particle spacing, and the volume fraction of the reinforcement. The
matrix properties influence the behaviour of particulate composite too.
M1.2.4.2.8 Cermets/Ceramal
The Cermet is an abbreviation for the "'ceramic" and "metal." A CerMet is a composite
material composed of ceramic (Cer) and metallic (Met) materials. A Cermet is ideally
designed to have the optimal properties of both a ceramic, such as high temperature
resistance and hardness, and those of a metal, such as the ability to undergo plastic
deformation. The metal is used as a binder for an oxide, boride, carbide, or alumina.
Generally, the metallic elements used are nickel, molybdenum, and cobalt. Depending on the
physical structure of the material, cermets can also be metal matrix composites, but cermets
are usually less than 20% metal by volume.
It is used in the manufacture of resistors (especially potentiometers), capacitors, and other
electronic components which may experience high temperatures.
Some types of cermet are also being considered for use as spacecraft shielding as they resist
the high velocity impacts of micrometeoroids and orbital debris much more effectively than
more traditional spacecraft materials such as aluminum and other metals.
One application of these materials is their use in vacuum tube coatings, which are key to
solar hot water systems.
Cermets are also used in dentistry as a material for fillings and prostheses. Also it used in
machining on cutting tools.
Cermets are one of the premier groups of particle strengthened composites and usually
comprises ceramic grains of borides, carbides or oxides. The grains are dispersed in a
refractory ductile metal matrix, which accounts for 20 to 85% of the total volume. The
bonding between ceramic and metal constituents is the result of a small measure of mutual
solutions.
Metal oxide systems show poor bonding and require additional bonding agents. Cermet
structures are usually produced using power metallurgy techniques. Their potential
properties are several and varied depending on the relative volumes and compositions and of
the metal and ceramic constituents. Impregnation of a porous ceramic structure with a
metallic matrix binder is another method used to produce cermets. Cermets may be employed
as coating in a power form. The power is sprayed through a gas flame and fused to a base
material. A wide variety of cermets have been produced on a small scale, but only a few have
appreciable value commercially.
M1.2.4.2.9 Solidification of Composites/Directionally Solidified Eutectics
Directional solidification of alloys is adopted to produce in-situ fibers. They are really a part
of the alloy being precipitated from the melt, while the alloy is solidifying. This comprises
eutectic alloys wherein the molten material degenerates to form many phases at a steady
temperature. When the reaction is carried out after ensuring the solidifying phases,
directionally solidified eutectics result.
During the solidification of alloy, crystals nucleate from the mould or some relatively cooler
region. A structure with many crystalline particles or grains results from this and grows into
each other. When unidirectionallly solidified, random coalescing is not allowed to occur.
M1.2.5 Common Categories of Composite Materials based on fibre length:
Based on the form of reinforcement, common composite materials can be classified as
follows:
1. Fibers as the reinforcement (Fibrous Composites):
a. Random fiber (short fiber) reinforced composites
Figure M1.2.5.1: Short-fibre reinforced composites
b. Continuous fiber (long fiber) reinforced composites
Figure M1.2.5.2: Long- fibre reinforced composites
2. Particles as the reinforcement (Particulate composites):
Figure M1.2.5.3: Particulate Composites
3. Flat flakes as the reinforcement (Flake composites):
Figure M1.2.5.4: Flake Composites
4. Fillers as the reinforcement (Filler composites):
Figure M1.2.5.5: Filler Composites
M1.2.5 Examples for composite materials:
Fibre reinforced plastics:
o Classified by type of fiber:
Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)
Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)
Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")
o Classified by matrix:
Thermoplastic Composites
short fiber thermoplastics
long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics
glass mat thermoplastics
continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics
Thermoset Composites
Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)
Metal matrix composites (MMCs):
o White cast iron
o Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix)
o Metal-intermetallic laminate
Ceramic matrix composites:
o Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)
o Cermet (ceramic and metal)
o Concrete
Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites
o Asphalt concrete
o Dental composite
o Syntactic foam
o Mother of Pearl
Chobham armour (see composite armour)
Engineered wood
o Plywood
o Oriented strand board
o Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix)
o Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix)
Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles
o Arborite
o Formica (plastic)
M1.2.6 Role and Selection of fibers
The points to be noted in selecting the reinforcements include compatibility with matrix
material, thermal stability, density, melting temperature etc. The efficiency of
discontinuously reinforced composites is dependent on tensile strength and density of
reinforcing phases. The compatibility, density, chemical and thermal stability of the
reinforcement with matrix material is important for material fabrication as well as end
application. The thermal discord strain between the matrix and reinforcement is an
important parameter for composites used in thermal cycling application. It is a function of
difference between the coefficients of thermal expansion of the matrix and
reinforcement. The manufacturing process selected and the reinforcement affects the
crystal structure.
Also the role of the reinforcement depends upon its type in structural Composites. In
particulate and whisker reinforced Composites, the matrix are the major load bearing
constituent. The role of the reinforcement is to strengthen and stiffen the composite through
prevention of matrix deformation by mechanical restraint. This restraint is generally a
function of the ratio of inter-particle spacing to particle diameter. In continuous fiber
reinforced Composites, the reinforcement is the principal load-bearing constituent. The
metallic matrix serves to hold the reinforcing fibers together and transfer as well as distribute
the load. Discontinuous fiber reinforced Composites display characteristics between those of
continuous fiber and particulate reinforced composites. Typically, the addition of
reinforcement increases the strength, stiffness and temperature capability while reducing the
thermal expansion coefficient of the resulting MMC. When combined with a metallic matrix
of higher density, the reinforcement also serves to reduce the density of the composite, thus
enhancing properties such as specific strength.
M1.2.7 Matrix Materials
M1.2.7.1 Introduction
Although it is undoubtedly true that the high strength of composites is largely due to the fibre
reinforcement, the importance of matrix material cannot be underestimated as it provides
support for the fibres and assists the fibres in carrying the loads. It also provides stability to
the composite material. Resin matrix system acts as a binding agent in a structural component
in which the fibres are embedded. When too much resin is used, the part is classified as resin
rich. On the other hand if there is too little resin, the part is called resin starved. A resin rich
part is more susceptible to cracking due to lack of fibre support, whereas a resin starved part
is weaker because of void areas and the fact that fibres are not held together and they are not
well supported.
M1.2.7.1.1 Matrix Selection
Thermodynamically stable dispersoids are essential for the use of metal matrix composites
for high temperature applications. This can be done by using an alloy dispersoid system in
which solid state diffusivity, interfacial energies and elemental solubility are minimized,
in turn reducing coarsening and interfacial reactions. Aluminium and magnesium alloys are
regarded as widely used matrices due to low density and high thermal conductivity.
Composites with low matrix alloying additions result in attractive combinations of
ductility, toughness and strength. In discontinuous reinforced metal matrix composites
minor alloying elements, used in wrought alloys as grain refiners, are not required. These
additions should be avoided since coarse inter-metallic compounds get formed during
consolidation, thus, reducing the tensile ductility of the composite.
M1.2.7.1.2 Role of matrix materials
The choice of a matrix alloy for an MMC is dictated by several considerations. Of particular
importance is whether the composite is to be continuously or discontinuously reinforced. The
use of continuous fibers as reinforcements may result in transfer of most of the load to the
reinforcing filaments and hence composite strength will be governed primarily by the fiber
strength. The primary roles of the matrix alloy then are to provide efficient transfer of load to
the fibers and to blunt cracks in the event that fiber failure occurs and so the matrix alloy for
continuously reinforced composites may be chosen more for toughness than for strength. On
this basis, lower strength, more ductile, and tougher matrix alloys may be utilized in
continuously reinforced composites. For discontinuously reinforced composites, the matrix
may govern composite strength. Then, the choice of matrix will be influenced by
consideration of the required composite strength and higher strength matrix alloys may be
required.
Additional considerations in the choice of the matrix include potential reinforcement/matrix
reactions, either during processing or in service, which might result in degraded composite
performance; thermal stresses due to thermal expansion mismatch between the
reinforcements and the matrix; and the influence of matrix fatigue behavior on the cyclic
response of the composite. Indeed, the behavior of composites under cyclic loading
conditions is an area requiring special consideration. In composites intended for use at
elevated temperatures, an additional consideration is the difference in melting temperatures
between the matrix and the reinforcements. A large melting temperature difference may
result in matrix creep while the reinforcements remain elastic, even at temperatures
approaching the matrix melting point. However, creep in both the matrix and reinforcement
must be considered when there is a small melting point difference in the composite.
M1.2.7.2 Functions of a Matrix
In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions:
Holds the fibres together.
Protects the fibres from environment.
Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same
amount of strain.
Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.
Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing alternate
failure path along the interface between the fibres and the matrix.
Carry interlaminar shear.
The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-carrying capacity of a composite structure.
However, selection of a matrix has a major influence on the interlaminar shear as well as in-
plane shear properties of the composite material. The interlaminar shear strength is an
important design consideration for structures under bending loads, whereas the in-plane shear
strength is important under torsion loads. The matrix provides lateral support against the
possibility of fibre buckling under compression loading, thus influencing to some extent the
compressive strength of the composite material. The interaction between fibres and matrix is
also important in designing damage tolerant structures. Finally, the processability and
defects in a composite material depend strongly on the physical and thermal characteristics,
such as viscosity, melting point, and curing temperature of the matrix.
M1.2.7.3 Desired Properties of a Matrix
The needs or desired properties of the matrix which are important for a composite structure
are as follows:
Reduced moisture absorption.
Low shrinkage.
Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fibre bundles completely and
eliminates voids during the compacting/curing process.
Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should be greater than fibre).
Must be elastic to transfer load to fibres.
Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).
Low temperature capability (depending on application).
Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).
Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.
Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).
As stated above, the matrix causes the stress to be distributed more evenly between all fibres
by causing the fibres to suffer the same strain. The stress is transmitted by shear process,
which requires good bonding between fibre and matrix and also high shear strength and
modulus for the matrix itself. One of the important properties of cured matrix system is its
glass transition temperature (T) at which the matrix begins to soften and exhibits a decrease
in mechanical properties. The glass transition temperature is not only an important parameter
for dimensional stability of a composite part under influence of heat, but it also has effect on
most of the physical properties of the matrix system at ambient temperature. g
As the load is primarily carried by the fibres, the overall elongation of a composite material is
governed by the elongation to failure of the fibres that is usually 1-1.5%. A significant
property of the matrix is that it should not crack. The function of the matrix in a composite
material will
vary depending on how the composite is stressed. For example, in case of compressive
loading, the matrix prevents the fibres from buckling and is, therefore, a very critical part of
the composite since without it; the reinforcement could carry no load. On the contrary, a
bundle of fibres could sustain high tensile loads in the direction of the filaments without a
matrix. Some of the physical properties of the matrix which influence the behaviour of
composites are:
Shrinkage during cure,
Modulus of elasticity,
Ultimate elongation,
Strength (tensile, compressive and shear), and
Fracture toughness.
M1.2.7.4 Factors considered for Selection of Matrix
In selecting matrix material, following factors may be taken into consideration:
The matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with that of the
reinforcement i.e. both should be compatible. Thus, if a high strength fibre is used
as the reinforcement, there is no point using a low strength matrix, which will not
transmit stresses efficiently to the reinforcement.
The matrix must stand up to the service conditions, viz., temperature, humidity,
exposure to ultra-violet environment, exposure to chemical atmosphere, abrasion
by dust particles, etc.
The matrix must be easy to use in the selected fabrication process.
Smoke requirements.
Life expectancy.
The resultant composite should be cost effective.
The fibres are saturated with a liquid resin before it cures to a solid. The solid resin is then
said to be the matrix for the fibres.
M1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Composites Materials
M1.3.1 Advantages of Composites
Summary of the advantages exhibited by composite materials, which are of significant use in
aerospace industry are as follows:
High resistance to fatigue and corrosion degradation.
High strength or stiffness to weight ratio. As enumerated above, weight savings
are significant ranging from 25-45% of the weight of conventional metallic
designs.
Due to greater reliability, there are fewer inspections and structural repairs.
Directional tailoring capabilities to meet the design requirements. The fibre pattern
can be laid in a manner that will tailor the structure to efficiently sustain the
applied loads.
Fibre to fibre redundant load path.
Improved dent resistance is normally achieved. Composite panels do not sustain
damage as easily as thin gage sheet metals.
It is easier to achieve smooth aerodynamic profiles for drag reduction. Complex
double-curvature parts with a smooth surface finish can be made in one
manufacturing operation.
Composites offer improved torsional stiffness. This implies high whirling speeds,
reduced number of intermediate bearings and supporting structural elements. The
overall part count and manufacturing & assembly costs are thus reduced.
High resistance to impact damage.
Thermoplastics have rapid process cycles, making them attractive for high volume
commercial applications that traditionally have been the domain of sheet metals.
Moreover, thermoplastics can also be reformed.
Like metals, thermoplastics have indefinite shelf life.
Composites are dimensionally stable i.e. they have low thermal conductivity and
low coefficient of thermal expansion. Composite materials can be tailored to
comply with a broad range of thermal expansion design requirements and to
minimise thermal stresses.
Manufacture and assembly are simplified because of part integration (joint/fastener
reduction) thereby reducing cost.
The improved weatherability of composites in a marine environment as well as
their corrosion resistance and durability reduce the down time for maintenance.
Close tolerances can be achieved without machining.
Material is reduced because composite parts and structures are frequently built to
shape rather than machined to the required configuration, as is common with
metals.
Excellent heat sink properties of composites, especially Carbon-Carbon, combined
with their lightweight have extended their use for aircraft brakes.
Improved friction and wear properties.
The ability to tailor the basic material properties of a Laminate has allowed new
approaches to the design of aeroelastic flight structures.
The above advantages translate not only into airplane, but also into common implements
and equipment such as a graphite racquet that has inherent damping, and causes less
fatigue and pain to the user.
M1.3.2 Limitations of Composites
Some of the associated disadvantages of advanced composites are as follows:
High cost of raw materials and fabrication.
Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily damaged.
Transverse properties may be weak.
Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.
Reuse and disposal may be difficult.
Difficult to attach.
Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons:
Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited shelf life.
Hot curing is necessary in many cases requiring special tooling.
Hot or cold curing takes time.
Analysis is difficult.
Matrix is subject to environmental degradation.
However, proper design and material selection can circumvent many of the above
disadvantages.
New technology has provided a variety of reinforcing fibres and matrices those can be
combined to form composites having a wide range of exceptional properties. Since the
advanced composites are capable of providing structural efficiency at lower weights as
compared to equivalent metallic structures, they have emerged as the primary materials for
future use.
In aircraft application, advanced fibre reinforced composites are now being used in many
structural applications, viz. floor beams, engine cowlings, flight control surfaces, landing
gear doors, wing-to-body fairings, etc., and also major load carrying structures including the
vertical and horizontal stabiliser main torque boxes.
Composites are also being considered for use in improvements to civil infrastructures, viz.,
earthquake proof highway supports, power generating wind mills, long span bridges, etc.
M1.3.3 Comparison with Metals
Requirements governing the choice of materials apply to both metals and reinforced plastics.
It is, therefore, imperative to briefly compare main characteristics of the two.
Composites offer significant weight saving over existing metals. Composites can
provide structures that are 25-45% lighter than the conventional aluminium structures
designed to meet the same functional requirements. This is due to the lower density
of the composites.
Depending on material form, composite densities range from 1260 to 1820 kg/in
3
(0.045 to
0.065 lb/in
3
) as compared to 2800 kg/in
3
(0.10 lb/in
3
) for aluminium. Some applications may
require thicker composite sections to meet strength/stiffness requirements, however, weight
savings will still result.
Unidirectional fibre composites have specific tensile strength (ratio of material strength
to density) about 4 to 6 times greater than that of steel and aluminium.
Unidirectional composites have specific -modulus (ratio of the material stiffness to
density) about 3 to 5 times greater than that of steel and aluminium.
Fatigue endurance limit of composites may approach 60% of their ultimate tensile
strength. For steel and aluminium, this value is considerably lower.
Fibre composites are more versatile than metals, and can be tailored to meet
performance needs and complex design requirements such as aero-elastic loading on
the wings and the vertical & the horizontal stabilisers of aircraft.
Fibre reinforced composites can be designed with excellent structural damping
features. As such, they are less noisy and provide lower vibration transmission than
metals.
High corrosion resistance of fibre composites contributes to reduce life- cycle cost.
Composites offer lower manufacturing cost principally by reducing significantly the
number of detailed parts and expensive technical joints required to form large metal
structural components. In other words, composite parts can eliminate joints/fasteners
thereby providing parts simplification and integrated design.
Long term service experience of composite material environment and durability
behaviour is limited in comparison with metals
Module-2
Basic Constituent materials in Composites
Reinforcements and Matrices for Various Types of Composites
Composition of Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRP):
Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the
reinforcement and the main source of strength while the matrix 'glues' all the fibers together
in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. Sometimes, fillers or modifiers
might be added to smooth manufacturing process, impart special properties, and/or reduce
product cost.
M2.1.1 Fibers of FRP (Fiber Reinforced Composites):
The primary function of the fibers is to carry the loads along their longitudinal directions.
Common fiber reinforcing agents include:
Aluminum, Aluminum oxide, Aluminum silica
Asbestos
Beryllium, Beryllium carbide, Beryllium oxide
Carbon (Graphite)
Glass (E-glass, S-glass, D-glass)
Molybdenum
Polyamide (Aromatic polyamide, Aramid), e.g., Kevlar 29 and Kevlar 49
Polyester
Quartz (Fused silica)
Steel
Tantalum
Titanium
Tungsten, Tungsten monocarbide
M2.1.2 Matrix of Fiber Reinforced Composites:
The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers
(hold fibers together) and protect the fibers from mechanical and/or environmental damages.
A basic requirement for a matrix material is that its strain at break must be larger than the
fibers it is holding.
Most matrices are made of resins for their wide variation in properties and relatively low
cost. Common resin materials include:
Resin Matrix
o Epoxy
o Phenolic
o Polyester
o Polyurethane
o Vinyl Ester
Among these resin materials, polyesters are the most widely used. Epoxies, which have
higher adhesion and less shrinkage than polyesters, come in second for their higher costs.
Although less common, non-resin matrices (mostly metals) can still be found in applications
requiring higher performance at elevated temperatures, especially in the defense industry.
Metal Matrix
o Aluminum
o Copper
o Lead
o Magnesium
o Nickel
o Silver
o Titanium
Non-Metal Matrix
o Ceramics
M2.1.3 FRP Composite Constituents:
1. Resins (POLYMERS)
2. Fibers
3. Fiber Reinforcement
4. Fillers
5. Additives
6. Sandwich Panels
7. Adhesives
8. Composite Designs
M2.1.3.1 Resins
Primary Function: To transfer stress between reinforcing fibers and to protect them from
mechanical and environmental damage
Types:
I. Thermoset Resin
a. Polyester
b. Vinyl Resin
c. Epoxy
d. Phenolic
e. Polyurethane
II. Thermoplastic
a. Acetal
b. Acryronitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
c. Nylon
d. Polyenthyene (PE)
e. Polypropylene (PP)
f. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
I. a. Polyesters:
o Phthalic Anhydride (GP)
o Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) Types
o Isophthalic Acid
o Terephthalic Acid
o Polyethlyene Terephthalate (PET)
M2.1.3.2 Fibers:
Primary Function:
Carry load along the length of the fiber, provides strength and or stiffness in one
direction
Can be oriented to provide properties in directions of primary loads
Fiber Types:
I. Natural
II. Man-Made
III. Many Varieties Commercially Available
I. Natural Fibers:
o Cellulose
o Sisal
II. Man-Made Fibers:
o Aramid
o Boron
o Carbon/Graphite
o Glass
o Nylon
o Polyester
o Polyethylene
o Polypropylene
M2.1.3.3 Fiber Reinforcement:
Glass
Aramid
Carbon
Glass Fiber Reinforcements
o E-glass
o S-glass
o C-glass
o ECR-glass
o AR-glass
Aramid (KEVLAR)
Fiber Reinforcement:
Superior resistance to damage (energy absorber)
Good in tension applications (cables, tendons)
Moderate stiffness
More Expensive Than Glass
Carbon Fiber Reinforcement:
Good modulus at high temperatures
Excellent stiffness
More expensive than glass
Brittle
Low electric insulating properties
M2.1.3.3.1 Reinforcement Types:
1. Rovings (Continuous)
2. Chopped strand
3. Mat:
a. Chopped strand
b. Continuous strand
4. Woven roving
5. Stitched
6. Braided
7. Unidirectional
8. Veil
M2.1.3.3.2 Reinforcement Forms:
Woven Roving:
o aka Crimped
o Plain
o Satin
o Twill
o Basket
M2.1.3.4 Fillers/Additives/Modifies
Filler Types:
Calcium Carbonate
Clay
Talc
Aluminum Trihydrate
Silica
Micro Spheres
Mica
M2.1.3.4.1 Types of Additives:
Catalysts & Promoter
Inhibitors
Release Agent
Pigments
UV Absorber
Fire Retardancy
M2.1.3.4.2 Fillers/Additives/Modifiers of Fiber Reinforced Composites:
The primary functions of the additives (modifiers, fillers) are to reduce cost, improve
workability, and/or impart desired properties.
Cost Reduction:
o Low cost to weight ratio, may fill up to 40% (65% in some cases) of the total
weight
Workability Improvement:
o Reduce shrinkage
o Help air release
o Decrease viscosity
o Control emission
o Reduce coefficient of friction on surfaces
o Seal molds and/or guide resin flows Initiate and/or speed up or slow down
curing process
Property Enhancement:
o Improve electric conductivity
o Improve fire resistance
o Improve corrosion resistance
o Improve ultraviolet resistance
o Improve surface toughness
o Stabilize heat transfer
o Reduce tendency of static electric charge
o Add desired colors
M2.1.3.4.3 Common materials used as additives include:
Filler Materials:
o Feldspar
o Glass microspheres
o Glass flakes
o Glass fibers, milled
o Mica
o Silica
o Talc
o Wollastonite
o Other microsphere products
Modifier Materials:
o Organic peroxide, e.g., methylethylketone peroxide (MEKP)
o Benzoyl peroxide
o Tertiary butyl catechol (TBC)
o Dimethylaniline (DMA)
o Zinc stearate, waxes, silicones
o Fumed silica, clays
Learning Unit-2: M2.2
M2.2 Fibres/Reinforcement materials
M2.2.1 Introduction to Fibres
Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic
fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high
thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the
diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used.
Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers,
high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron
fibers,
aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified
into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc.
There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers.
The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific
mind due to their applications in advanced composites.
M2.2.2 Types of fibers
M2.2.2.1 Glass Fibers
Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive,
easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with
which they are reinforced.
Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics,
although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to
high tensile stress for a long time..
However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This
property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain
such loads for many months or years continuously.
Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of
glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of
glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure.
But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber
variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding,
filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth,
continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns.
Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.
M2.2.2.2 Metal Fibers
As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using
several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to
surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance.
However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying
mechanisms are major disadvantages.
Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament
applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and
continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite
materials.
Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated
with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties.
Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy.
Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance.
Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural
properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer
improved strength and weight, than glass fibers.
However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of
thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their
application.
.
M2.2.2.3 Alumina Fibers
Alumina or aluminium oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are
considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive
strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of
about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about
1000C. Magnesium and aluminium matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced
composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.
M2.2.2.4 Boron Fibers
They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the
substrate, usually made of tungsten.
Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of
gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness
is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness.
Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio
of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they are
known for their remarkable stiffness and strength. Their strengths often compare with those
of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron
coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of
elasticity often works against it.
M2.2.2.5 Silicon Carbide Fibers
Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths
and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-
tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers.
Elevated temperature
performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their
best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbide-carbon have both been seen to
have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten
fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not
react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high
temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices.
However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the
same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling,
especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions
occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-
temperature matrix formations.
Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high
temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and
modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.
M2.2.2.6 Aramid Fibers
Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and
aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to
combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the
fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also
found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power
boats is not uncommon.
Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures
can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and
graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also
unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is
poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes.
Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the
failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which
are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high
strength.
M2.2.2.7 Quartz and Silica Fibers
The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that
can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without
affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure,
and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing
nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz.
Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be
produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be
made
from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to
high silica and quartz too.
They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the
other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible.
However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures,
which silica is incapable of.
Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic
and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not
affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture.
Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several
applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to
1600C.
In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high
temperatures.
M2.2.2.8 Graphite Fibers
While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference
between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show
that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The
difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures.
PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth
are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C.
The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its
willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very
high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides
are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on
the composite material.
Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as
the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely
proportional to each other.
Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less
expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw
materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-
consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout
the process.
Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and
there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.
M2.2.2.9 Multiphase Fibers
Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi
phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides
formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually
good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting
temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought
after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites.
A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a poly-crystalline core.
M2.2.3 Mechanical Properties of fibers
Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors,
the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and
the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure
and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to
failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the
work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals.
The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the
proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one
direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse
direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a
small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but
less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure M2.2.1.
Figure M2.2.1: Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative
to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD
CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)
M2.2.3.1 Fibers
Strength and stiffness
M2.2.3.1.1 Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP)
E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest
moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of
0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right
angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at
about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in
the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an
epoxy matrix, had the following properties:
Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa
Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa
Elongation at break: 3.1%.
Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile
modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat)
have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume
fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to
about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions.
This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they
are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities.
Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is
considerably higher than E glass.
M2.2.3.1.2 Carbon and graphite fibers
Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP)
The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of
about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%.
Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have
the following typical properties:
Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa
Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa
Elongation at break: 1.21.3%
Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a
unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However,
as this composite is
unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal
attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of
modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance.
Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding
applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates
manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a strength of
1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with
superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown
above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in
excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced
significantly.
Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in
the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer
matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these
characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common
solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure
material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and
requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical
properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters.
Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when
synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high
temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference
between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably.
Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The
primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean
different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers.
Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in
carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is
defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form
this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is
weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional ordering within the
layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be
understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which
strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in
their structure.
M2.2.3.1.2.1 General material description
Three different precursor materials are commonly used at present to produce carbon fibers:
rayon, Polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and isotropic and liquid crystalline pitches. Carbon fibers
are made predominately from carbonization of Polyacrylonitrile (PAN). The fibers consist of
intermingled fibrils of turbostratic graphite with basal planes tending to align along the fiber
axis. This forms an internal structure reminiscent of an onion skin. Pitch fibers may have a
different internal structure, more like sheafs or spokes. The highly anisotropic morphology
gives
rise to moduli in the range of 200-750 GPa parallel to the fiber long axis, and around 20 GPa
in the normal direction. For comparison, single crystal (whisker) of graphite is about 1060
and 3 GPa, respectively, but these properties are not attainable in fiber form. Ultra high
modulus fibers can be prepared from liquid-crystalline mesophase pitch; the higher degree of
orientation in the precursor translates through to the final carbonized fiber leading to larger
and more oriented graphite crystallites.
M2.2.3.1.2.2 Manufacture
The manufacturing process for carbon fiber described below is for the Polyacrylonitrile
(PAN) variant, which is one of the most common. Some differences between
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) processing and the pitch and rayon precursors are then described
afterwards. The manufacture of Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) based carbon fiber can be broken
down into the white fiber and black fiber stages. Most manufacturers consider the details of
these processes proprietary.
White fiber
Production of Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) precursor, or white fiber, is a technology in itself.
Fairly conventional fiber processes are performed: polymerization, spinning, drawing, and
washing. Additional drawing stages may be added in the process. Characteristics of the white
fiber influence the processing and results for the black fiber processing.
Black fiber
The black fiber process consists of several steps: oxidation (or thermosetting), pyrolysis (or
carbonizing), surface treatment, and sizing. In the oxidation process the Polyacrylonitrile
(PAN) fiber is converted to a thermoset from a thermoplastic. For this oxidation process the
fiber diameter is limited by waste gas diffusion. In the pyrolysis process, which is performed
under an inert atmosphere, most of the non-carbon material is expelled, forming ribbons of
carbon aligned with the fiber axis.
In the surface treatment step the fiber may be etched in either gas or liquid phase by
oxidizing agents such as chlorine, bromine, nitric acid or chlorates. This improves the
wettability for the resin and encourages formation of a strong, durable bond. Some additional
improvement through removal of surface flaws may also be realized. This process can be
electrolytic. The carbon fibers are often treated with solution of unmodified epoxy resin
and/or other products as a size. The sizing prevents fiber abrasion, improves handling, and
can provide an epoxy matrix compatible surface.
Carbon fiber differences due to pitch/ Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)/rayon precursors
As a rule PAN precursor can provide higher strength carbon fibers, while pitch can provide
higher moduli. Rayon based fibers tend to be less expensive but lower performance. Pitch
fiber composites have been prepared with elastic moduli superior to steel and electrical
conductivity higher than copper conductor. The shear strengths and impact resistance are
degraded, however. Yield for PAN is approximately 50%, but for pitch can be as high as
90%.
M2.2.3.1.2.3 Typical properties of Carbon and Graphite fibers
Typically limitations on the end use for carbon fibers in composite structure depend more on
the resin matrix than the fiber. Some exceptions to this are present, however, in which case
the oxidative stability, thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, or other
properties of the fiber must be taken into account. Some key properties for carbon fiber,
including cost, are listed in Table M2.2.1 typical values for glass, aramid, and boron are
shown for comparison. While some carbon fiber properties are fairly universal, different
products from different manufacturers can have substantially different properties. Three of
the major manufacturers for the US are Amoco, Hercules and Toray. It should be noted that
translation of fiber properties to composite properties is dependent on many factors in
addition to rule of mixtures
Table M2.2.1 Comparison of carbon and other fiber properties
M2.2.3.1.3 Aramid fibers
Aramid fibre reinforced plastic (AFRP)
Unidirectional aramid composites have high tensile strength (12001400MPa) and a very low
density. This high specific tensile strength is an important attribute which makes them
particularly suited to use as tension members. Some aramids exhibit relatively low
compressive yield strength of about 230MPa. Thus composites using these fibres must be
carefully designed, particularly for compression or bending. This makes them particularly
suited to use in tension member applications, but often not suited to bending applications. It
is usually the high modulus variants of aramids (e.g. Kevlar 49) which are most commonly
used as composite reinforcement, conferring a tensile modulus for unidirectional composites
of about 75GPa. This is very similar to aluminium; however, as this is a unidirectional
composite the associated transverse modulus is only about 5GPa.
The tensile modulus of unidirectional and bidirectional aramid compo-sites represents a
reasonable compromise between the low modulus glass-fibre composites and the much
higher carbon fibre composites. Similarly the tensile strength of aramid composites is a
compromise between E glass and carbon fibre composites.
In the early 1970's, Du Pont Company introduced Kevlar aramid, an organic fiber with
high specific tensile modulus and strength. This was the first organic fiber to be used as
reinforcement in advanced composites. Today this fiber is used in various structural parts
including reinforced
plastics, ballistics, tires, ropes, cables, asbestos replacement, coated fabrics, and protective
apparel. Aramid fiber is manufactured by extruding a polymer solution through a spinneret.
Major forms available from Du Pont are continuous filament yarns, rovings, chopped fiber,
pulp, spun-laced sheet, wet-laid papers, thermoplastic impregnated tows, and thermoformable
composite sheets.
Important generic properties of aramid fibers are: low density, high tensile strength, high
tensile stiffness, low compressive properties (nonlinear), and exceptional toughness
characteristics. The density of aramid is 0.052 lb/in
3
(1.44 gm/cm
3
). This is about 40% lower
than glass and about 20% lower than commonly used carbon. Aramids do not melt and they
decompose at about 900F (500C). Tensile strength of yarn, measured in twisted
configuration, can be varied from 500 - 600 ksi (3.4 - 4.1 GPa) by choosing different types of
aramids. The nominal coefficient of thermal expansion is 3x10
-6
in/in/F (-5x10
-6
m/m/C) in
the axial direction. Aramid fibers, being aromatic polyamide polymers, have high thermal
stability and dielectric and chemical properties. Excellent ballistic performance and general
damage tolerance is derived from fiber toughness. Aramid is used, in fabric or composite
form, to achieve ballistic protection for humans, armored tanks, military aircraft, and so on.
Composite systems, reinforced with aramid, have excellent vibration-damping
characteristics. They resist shattering upon impact. Temperature of use, in composite form
with polymer matrix, range from -33 to 390F (-36 - 200C), the nominal tensile properties of
composites reinforced with aramid are listed in Table M2.2.2 (a) - in thermoset and
thermoplastic resin matrix. At 60% fiber volume fraction, composites of epoxy reinforced
with aramid fibers have nominal tensile strength (room temperature) of 200 ksi (1.4 GPa) and
nominal tensile modulus of 11 Msi (76 GPa). These composites are ductile under
compression and flexure. Ultimate strength, under compression or flexure, is lower than glass
or carbon composites. Composite systems, reinforced with aramid, are resistant to fatigue and
stress rupture. In the system of epoxy reinforced with aramid, under tension/tension fatigue,
unidirectional specimens (~ 60%) survive 3,000,000 cycles at 50% of their ultimate stress.
Recently, thermoplastic resin composites reinforced with aramid have been developed. These
thermoplastic composite systems have exhibited equivalent mechanical properties compared
to similar thermoset systems. In addition, thermoplastic systems provide potential advantages
in economical processing, bonding, and repair. A unique thermoformable sheet product, in
thermoplastic matrix reinforced with aramid fibers, is available. These composite systems are
also used to achieve low coefficient of thermal expansion or high wear resistance. They are
non-conductive and exhibit no galvanic reaction with metals. Aramid fibers are available in
several forms with different fiber modulus (Table M2.2.2 (b)). Kevlar29 has the lowest
modulus and highest toughness (strain to failure ~ 4%). These fibers are used mostly in
ballistics and other soft composite systems such as cut- and slash- resistance protective
apparel, ropes, coated fabric, asbestos replacement, pneumatic tires, etc. These are also used
for composites where maximum impact and damage tolerance is critical and stiffness is less
important. Kevlar49 is predominantly used in reinforced plastics - both in thermoplastic
and thermoset resin systems. It is also used in soft composites like core of fiber optic cable
and mechanical rubber good systems (e.g., high pressure flexible hose, radiator hose, power
transmission belts, conveyor belts, etc.). An ultra-high modulus Type 149 has been made
available recently. It has 40% higher modulus than Kevlar49. Kevlar29 is available in
fiber yarn sizes and two rovings sizes. Kevlar49 is available in six yarn and two rovings
sizes. fV
Kevlar149 is available in three yarn sizes. Yarn sizes range from the very fine 55 denier
(30 filaments) to 3000 denier (1300 filaments). Rovings are 4560 denier (3072 filaments) and
7100 denier (5000 filaments). Composite thermoplastic tows, several types of melt-
impregnated thermoplastic reinforced with different Kevlar yarns and deniers, are also
available.
Table M2.2.2 (a) Nominal composite properties reinforced with aramid fiber (~ 60%).
Aramid composites were first adopted in applications where weight savings were critical - for
example, aircraft components, helicopters, space vehicles, and missiles. Armor applications
resulted from the superior ballistic and structural performance. In marine recreational
industries, light weight, stiffness, vibration damping, and damage tolerance are valued.
Composites reinforced with aramids are used in the hulls of canoes, kayaks, and sail and
power boats. These same composite attributes have led to use in sports equipment.
Composite applications of aramid continue to grow as systems are developed t o capitalize on
other properties. The stability and frictional properties of aramids at high temperatures have
led to brake, clutch, and gasket uses; low coefficient of thermal expansion is being used in
printed wiring boards; and exceptional wear resistance is being engineered into injection-
molded thermoplastic industrial parts. Melt-impregnated thermoplastic composites,
reinforced with aramids, offer unique processing advantages - e.g., in-situ consolidation of
filament-wound parts. These can be used for manufacturing thick parts where processing is
otherwise very difficult.
Table M2.2.2 (b) Nominal properties of aramid fiber
Aramid fiber is relatively flexible and tough. Thus it can be combined with resins and
processed into composites by most of the methods established for glass. Yarns and rovings
are used in filament winding, prepreg tape, and in pultrusion. Woven fabric prepreg is the
major form used in thermoset composites. Aramid fiber is available in various weights,
weave patterns, and constructions; from very thin (0.0002 in., 0.005mm) lightweight (275
gm/m
2
) to thick (0.026 in., 0.66 mm) heavy (2.8 gm/m
2
) woven roving. Thermoplastic-
impregnated tows can be woven into various types of fabrics to form prepregs. These
composites demonstrate good property retention under hot and humid conditions. Chopped
aramid fiber is available in lengths from 6 mm to 100 mm. The shorter lengths are used to
reinforce thermoset, thermoplastic, and elastomeric resins in automotive brake and clutch
linings, gaskets, and electrical parts. Needle-punched felts and spun yarns for asbestos
replacement applications are made from longer fiber staple. A unique very short fiber (0.08 -
0.16 in., 2 - 4 mm) with many attached fibrils is available (aramid pulp). It can provide
efficient reinforcement in asbestos replacement uses. Aramid short fibers can be processed
into spun-laced and wet-laid papers. These are useful for surfacing veil, thin-printed wiring
boards, and gasket material. Uniform dispersion of aramid short fiber in resin formulations is
achieved through special mixing methods and equipment. Inherent fiber toughness
necessitates special types of tools for cutting fabrics and machining aramid composites.
M2.2.3.1.4 Glass fibres
Glass in the forms used in commerce has been produced by many cultures since the early
Etruscan civilization. Glass as a structural material was introduced early in the seventeenth
century and became widely used during the twentieth century as the technology for flat pane
was perfected. Glass fibrous usage for reinforcement was pioneered in replacement of metals
and used for both commercial and military uses with the advent of formulation control and
molten material which is die or bushing pulled into continuous filaments. These events lead
to a wide range of aerospace and commercial high performance structural applications still in
use today.
Table M2.2.3 Typical chemical compositions of glass fiber
M2.2.3.1.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages
For many years glass composites have had a distinct strength to weight advantage. Although
the rapid evolution of carbon and aramid fibers has gained advantages, glass composite
products have still prevailed in certain applications. Cost per weight or volume, certain
armament applications, chemical or galvanic corrosion resistance, electrical properties, and
availability of many product forms remain as examples of advantage. Coefficient of thermal
expansion and modulus properties compared to carbon composites may be considered as
typical disadvantages. When compared to aramid composites, glass has a disadvantage as to
tensile properties but an advantage as to ultimate compression, shear properties, and moisture
pick-up. Commercial uses for glass products are many-fold. These include filtration devices,
thermal and electrical insulation, pressure and fluid vessels, and structural products for
automotive and recreation vehicles. Many uses are applicable to military and aerospace
products as well. A partial listing would include: asbestos replacement, circuitry, optical
devices, radomes, helicopter rotor blades, and ballistic applications. Because of the many
product forms, structural applications are limitless to fabricate. If there are limitations,
compared to other fibers, they may include low thermal and electrical conductivity or perhaps
melting temperatures when compared to carbon fibers.
Typical properties for glass fibers and composite materials reinforced with continuous glass
fibers are shown in Table M2.2.4 (a) to Table M2.2.4 (d).
Table M2.2.4 (a). Typical glass fiber electrical properties
Table M2.2.4 (b). Typical glass fiber thermal properties
Table M2.2.4(c) Typical corrosion resistance of glass fibers (Wt. Loss %)
Table M2.2.4 (d) Typical cured epoxy/glass mechanical properties
M2.2.3.1.5 Boron
Elemental boron fiber is formed as a deposition reaction on a hot tungsten wire which is
continuously drawn through a reactor containing BCl
3
and H
3
. The tungsten wire substrate
also reacts to form tungsten boride in the core. The crystalline structure of the deposited
boron is considered amorphous due to its small size (20). Boron is available as a cylindrical
fiber in two nominal diameters, 4- and 5.6-mil (0.10 and 0.14 mm), which have a density of
2.57 and 2.49 g/cm
3
(0.0929 and 0.0900 lb/in
3
), respectively. Chemical etching of the fiber
surface produces a higher strength, but the process is not used commercially.
Boron fiber is unmatched for its combination of strength, stiffness, and density. The tensile
modulus and strength of boron fiber are 60 x 10
6
psi and 0.52 x 10
6
psi (40 GPa and 3600
MPa). Thermal conductivity and thermal expansion are both low, with a coefficient of
thermal expansion of 2.5-3.0 x 10
-6
/F (4.5-5.4 x 10
-6
/C). Typical end-use properties are
shown in Table M2.2.5. Currently, the cost of boron fiber is approximately an order of
magnitude higher than standard carbon fiber.
Available almost exclusively in filament or epoxy matrix prepreg form, boron fiber has been
used for aerospace applications requiring high strength and/or stiffness, and for selective
reinforcement in sporting goods. The most notable use of this fiber is the stabilizer sections
of the F-14 and F-15 military aircraft, dorsal longerons of the B-1B bomber, and the repair of
metallic airframe structures. High modulus (HM) or high strength (HS) carbon/epoxy
composites can match either the tensile modulus or strength of boron composites at a more
economical price, but boron/epoxy composites offer twice the composite strength.
Table M2.2.5 Typical end-use properties of a unidirectional boron/epoxy laminate (=
0.5)
M2.2.3.1.6 Alumina
Continuous polycrystalline alumina fiber is ideally suited for the reinforcement of a variety
of materials including plastics, metals, and ceramics. Alumina is prepared in the form of
continuous yarn containing a nominal 200 filaments. It is supplied in bobbins containing
continuous filament yarn, and alumina/ aluminum and alumina/magnesium plates. Alumina
staple is also available for short fiber reinforcement.
Fibers that are more than 99% purity alumina have excellent chemical resistance, and have
higher modulus and temperature capabilities than ceramic fibers containing silica. The high
modulus of 55 Msi (380 GPa) is comparable to that of boron and carbon. The average
filament tensile strength is 200 ksi (1.4 GPa) minimum. Since alumina is a good insulator, it
can be used in applications where conducting fibers cannot. Nominal properties of alumina
are listed in Table M2.2.6 (a). Cost projections for alumina are competitive with carbon.
Alumina, in continuous form, offers many advantages for composite fabrication including
ease of handling, the ability to align fibers in desired directions, and filament winding
capability. The fact that alumina is an electrical insulator combined with its high modulus
and compressive strength makes it of interest for polymer matrix composite applications. For
example, alumina/epoxy and aramid/epoxy hybrid composites reinforced with alumina and
aramid fibers have been fabricated and are of potential interest for radar transparent
structures, circuit boards, and antenna supports. Typical properties of unidirectional
composites are listed in Table M2.2.6 (b).
Table M2.2.6 (a) Nominal properties of alumina
Table M2.2.6 (b) Nominal properties of alumina composite (~ 50-55%)
M2.2.3.1.7 Silicon carbide
Materials and Processes - The Effects of Variability on Composite Properties
Various super-refractory fibers were first produced in the early 1950's based upon work by
the Arthur D. Little Co. by various production methods. The primary of these based upon:
1. Evaporation for polycrystalline fiber process.
2. HITCO continuous process for polycrystalline fibers.
3. Vapor deposition of aluminum oxide single crystals.
The most recent advances in the CVD type process in use by AVCO consist of substrate
wires drawn through glass reaction tubes at high temperature.
Silicon carbide fibers are produced with a nominal 0.0055 in. (140m) filament diameter and
are characteristically found to have high strength, modulus and density. Fiber forms are
oriented toward the strengthening of aluminum or titanium alloys for both longitudinal and
transverse properties. Additional forms are also produced as polycrystalline fiber whiskers of
varying length and diameters
Several systems for describing the material morphology exist, the alpha and beta forms
designated by Thibault and Lindquist being the most common.
Practically all silicon carbide monofilament fibers are currently produced for metal
composite reinforcement. Alloys employing aluminum, titanium, and molybdenum have been
produced.
General processing for epoxy, bisimide, and polyimide resin can be either via a solvated or
solventless film impregnation process, with cure cycles equivalent to those provided for
carbon or glass reinforced products. Organic matrix silicon carbide impregnated products
may be press, autoclave, or vacuum bag oven cured. Lay-up on tooling proceeds as with
carbon or glass composite products with all bleeding, damming, and venting as required for
part fabrication. General temperature and pressure ranges for the cure of the selected matrix
resins used in silicon carbide products will not adversely affect the fiber morphology.
Silicon carbide ceramic composites engineered to provide high service temperatures (in
excess of 2640

F or 1450

C) are unique in several thermal properties. The overall thermal

resistance is determined by the through conductivity, thermal expansion, thermal shock and
creep resistance. Thermal conductivities of silicon carbide ceramics have a range in Btu-in/s-
ft
2
-F of 0.12 at room temperature to 0.09 at 1470

F (W/m-K of 60 at room temperature to

48 at 800C). Expansion values range, in percentage of original dimension, from 0.05 at
390F (200C) to 1470F (0.30% at 800C). The creep resistance of the silicon carbide
ceramic will vary as the percentage of intra-granular silicon phase increases. In general, the
creep rate is very low when compared to aluminum oxide or zirconium oxide materials.
Mechanical properties of silicon carbide materials are shown in Table M2.2.7 (a).and the
corrosive weight loss is given in Table M2.2.7 (b). Fracture toughness as measured by
double torsion analysis has reported literature values for KIc ranging from 0.55 ksi Jm (0.6
MPa m ) for monocrystalline SiC/Si to 5.5 ksi Jm (6.0 MPa Jm) for hot pressed SiC ceramics
.
Table M2.2.7 (a) Material properties of silicon carbide materials
Table M2.2.7 (b) Corrosive weight loss at 212F (100C)
M2.2.3.1.8 Quartz
Quartz fiber is very pure (99.95%) fused silica glass fiber. Typical fiber properties are shown
in Table M2.2.8 (a). Quartz is produced as continuous strands consisting of 120 or 240
individual filaments of 9 micron nominal diameter. These single strands are twisted and plied
into heavier yarns. Quartz fibers are generally coated with an organic binder containing a
silane coupling agent which is compatible with many resin systems. Strands for rovings are
combined into multiple ends without applied twist. These strands are coated with a "direct
size" which is compatible with many resins. Woven fabrics may be used as woven or may be
"scoured" (washed) to remove the nonfunctional components of the binder and some, but not
all, of the
silane coupling agent. Following scouring, the fabric may be finished with a variety of silane
coupling agent finishes having specific resin compatibility.
Quartz fiber nomenclature is the same as that for E or S glass fibers except that the glass
composition is designated by the letter Q as shown in Table M2.2.8 (b). Commonly used
quartz fabrics are listed in Table M2.2.8 (c). Quartz rovings are continuous reinforcements
formed by combining a number of 300 2/0 zero twist strands. End counts of 8, 12, and 20 are
available having yields from 750 to 1875 yards per pound (660 to 264 g/km). Quartz fibers
are also available in the form of chopped fiber in cut lengths from 1/8 inch to 2 inches (3 to
50 mm).
Quartz fibers with a filament tensile strength of 850 ksi (5,900 MPa) have the highest
strength-to weight ratio, virtually exceeding all other high temperature materials. The quartz
fibers can be used at temperatures much higher than "E" glass or "S" glass fiber with service
temperatures up to 1920F (1050C) possible. Quartz fibers do not melt or vaporize until the
temperature exceeds 3000F (1650C), providing potential in ablative applications.
Additionally, these fibers retain virtually all of the characteristics and properties of solid
quartz.
The quartz fibers are chemically stable. They are not affected by halogens or common acids
in the liquid or gaseous state with the exception of hydrofluoric and hot phosphoric acids.
Quartz fibers should not be used in environments where strong concentrations of alkalies are
present. Quartz fibers, when combined with certain matrix systems, offer potential
advantages in stealth application due to their high electrical resistively properties. Quartz
does not form paramagnetic centers, nor does it capture neutrons in high energy applications.
These fibers offer a low dielectric constant and loss tangent providing excellent properties as
electrical insulators. Typical properties for quartz fibers combined with three different
polymer matrix systems are shown in Table M2.2.8 (d) to Table M2.2.8 (f). Quartz products
are relatively expensive compared to "E" or "S-2" glass products.
Table M2.2.8 (a) Properties of quartz fiber
Table M2.2.8 (b) Quartz continuous strands
Table M2.2.8 (c) Construction of woven fabrics for aerospace applications
Table M2.2.8 (d). Typical properties for quartz/epoxy
Table M2.2.8 (e). Typical properties for quartz/toughened epoxy
Table M2.2.8 (f). Typical properties for quartz/polyimide
M2.2.3.1.9 Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)
Material Description
Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene fiber (UHMWPE) is the generic name for a high
performance fiber which is more widely known today by the trade name Spectra, assigned by
the major marketer of UHMWPE fiber, Allied Signal Inc. Non-oriented UHMWPE was first
synthesized in the mid 1950s. A number of academic and commercial institutions in the
United States and Europe worked to develop oriented UHMWPE fiber.
The generally accepted definition of what constitutes "ultrahigh molecular weight" is a
molecular weight greater than 3,000,000. The properties of polyethylene depend strongly on
the molecular weight and the degree of branching. UHMWPE fiber is a linear polymer and its
molecular weight typically varies between 3,000,000 and 6,000,000. This fiber is highly
oriented axially and the chains form a highly crystalline structure, between 95-99%, but the
crystallinity is not in the form of folded chains as is typically found in thermoplastics.
Instead, the chains are fully extended (Figure M2.2.2). The fiber is formed by a gel-spinning
process where the polymer is dissolved in order to disentangle the polymer chains. From
solution the fibers are then drawn and the molecules become axially aligned to an extremely
high degree. The resulting fiber diameter is rather large at 27 microns (for Spectra 1000)
compared to other high performance fibers (typical aramid fiber diameter is 12 microns; S-2
glass, 7; carbon fibers, 7).
The cost of UHMWPE relative to other high performance fibers is competitive, ranging from
$16/lb. for lower performance, high denier Spectra 900 products to as much as $80/lb. for
high performance, low denier forms of Spectra 1000.
Figure M2.2.2 Schematic representation of a UHMWPE fiber compared to ordinary
Polyethylene fiber
Advantages and Limitations
The main drawback to UHMWPE is poor temperature performance. The fiber melting point
is 300F (149C) and the typical maximum service temperature is 230F (110C).
Temperature is always a consideration when combining UHMWPE with a thermosetting
matrix to form a composite by curing, post curing and/or molding. The upper processing limit
of UHMWPE (250F, 121C) coincides with the recommended cure temperature of much
commercially popular structural resin system. 350F (177C) cures are not possible. For all
practical purposes UHMWPE can not be used in a high performance thermoplastic matrix
due to the required high processing temperatures.
Creep is also a problem, even at room temperature (Figure M2.2.3). For this reason design
for long-term constant-load-bearing applications should be carefully considered. Load
bearing at elevated temperature will lead to serious creep problems.
When used in a composite UHMWPE bonds poorly to most matrix resins. This is due to its
chemical inertness and poor wettability (low surface energy). To improve bonding, gas
plasma treatments are often used to modify the fiber surface to make it more compatible with
the various resins.
Although its temperature and creep limitations are severe, UHMWPE still has many
applications.
Outstanding impact strength, even at cold temperatures, combined with a 33% weight
reduction over aramid makes it an appealing choice in applications where temperature is not
an issue. Ballistic protection is one of its major uses. The fiber is commercially successful in
ballistic applications, particularly lightweight body armor and riot shield applications for
military and law enforcement personnel. The U.S. Army is studying it as an alternative to
aramid in the standard issue soldier helmet. Two other ballistic applications are ground
vehicle mine blast shields and ultra-lightweight armor for aircraft. For example, the AC-
130H Spectre Gunship, flown by the Air Force Special Operations Command, uses
UHMWPE armor as its attack mode calls for low altitude (500 feet (150m)) flight.
UHMWPE is also used in radomes, which take advantage of a low dielectric constant (2.2)
and loss tangent (0.0002). Other applications include
cut-resistant fabrics, heavy lift cargo cables, snow and water skis and other sporting goods,
and high-wear applications.
Mechanical properties of composites reinforced with UHMWPE fiber are generally quite
good. Tensile strength and modulus, elongation, and toughness compare favorably with other
fiber types, especially when normalized on a weight basis (although compression and shear
properties do not compare as well).
Figure M2.2.3 Room temperature creep properties of Spectra fiber at 10% and 30%
loading
UHMWPE is a hydrophobic material and is extremely resistant to moisture effects. In fact,
with the exception of its poor high temperature performance, UHMWPE stands up well to the
environment, including prolonged exposure to sunlight. It has superior solvent resistance
(chemical inertness) even to strong acids and bases. Its stability is outstanding in common
solvents such as water, gasoline, hydraulic oil and cleaning solvents. The fiber also exhibits
good abrasion resistance and self-lubricating properties.
One feature unique to UHMWPE among high performance fibers is that it floats on water. Of
the four common high performance fibers, UHMWPE is by far the lightest with a density of
0.97 g/cm3 (0.035 lb/in3) (the density of aramid is 1.4 g/cm
3
(0.051 lb/in
3
); carbon is 1.8
g/cm3 (0.065 ls/in 3); S-2 glass is 2.5 g/cm
3
(0.091 lb/in
3
)). UHMWPE is most often
compared to aramid fibers. The strength and modulus of this fiber are about the same as
aramid, but due to a lower density its specific strength and modulus are higher, reaching
nearly as high as today's high modulus carbon fibers on a weight basis. Machining
UHMWPE is difficult without special equipment. Generally, the machining requirements of
UHMWPE are the same as those of aramid, except that, due to its low melting temperature,
UHMWPE can also be cut with a hot knife. Table M2.2.9 lists some key properties of two
grades of Spectra fiber.
Table M2.2.9 Properties of Spectra 900 and Spectra 1000 Fibers
M2.2.3.2 Resins
M2.2.3.2.1 Overview
Resin is a generic term used to designate the polymer, polymer precursor material, and/or
mixture or formulation thereof with various additives or chemically reactive components.
The resin, its chemical composition and physical properties, fundamentally affect the
processing, fabrication and ultimate properties of composite materials. Variations in the
composition, physical state, or morphology of a resin and the presence of impurities or
contaminants in a resin may affect handleability and processability, lamina/ laminate
properties, and composite material performance and long-term durability. This section
describes resin materials used in polymer matrix composites and adhesives, and considers
possible sources and consequences of variations
in resin chemistry and composition, as well as the effects of impurities and contaminants, on
resin processing characteristics and on resin and composite properties.
M2.2.3.2.2 Epoxy
The term epoxy is a general description of a family of polymers which are based on
molecules that contain epoxide groups. An epoxide group is an oxirane structure, a three-
member ring with one oxygen and two carbon atoms. Epoxies are polymerizable
thermosetting resins containing one or more epoxide groups curable by reaction with amines,
acids, amides, alcohols, phenols, acid anhydrides, or mercaptans. The polymers are available
in a variety of viscosities from liquid to solid.
Epoxies are used widely in resins for prepregs and structural adhesives. The advantages of
epoxies are high strength and modulus, low levels of volatiles, excellent adhesion, low
shrinkage, good chemical resistance, and ease of processing. Their major disadvantages are
brittleness and the reduction of properties in the presence of moisture. The processing or
curing of epoxies is slower than polyester resins. The cost of the resin is also higher than the
polyesters. Processing techniques include autoclave molding, filament winding, press
molding, vacuum bag molding, resin transfer molding, and pultrusion. Curing
temperatures vary from room temperature to approximately 350F (180C). The most
common cure temperatures range between 250 and 350F (120 and 180C). The use
temperatures of the cured structure will also vary with the cure temperature. Higher
temperature cures generally yield greater temperature resistance. Cure pressures are generally
considered as low pressure molding from vacuum to approximately 100 psi (700 kPa).
M2.2.3.2.3 Polyester (thermosetting)
The term thermosetting polyester resin is a general term used for orthophthalic polyester
resin or isophthalic polyester resin. Polyester resins are relatively inexpensive and fast
processing resins used generally for low-cost applications. In combination with certain fillers,
they can exhibit resistance to breakdown under electrical arc and tracking conditions.
Isophthalic polyester resins exhibit higher thermal stability, dimensional stability, and creep
resistance. In general, for a fiber-reinforced resin system, the advantage of polyester is its low
cost and its ability to be processed quickly.
Fiber-reinforced polyesters (FRP) can be processed by many methods. Common processing
methods include matched metal molding, wet lay-up, press (vacuum bag) molding, injection
molding, filament winding, pultrusion, and autoclaving. Polyesters can be formulated to cure
more rapidly than do phenolics during the thermoset molding process. While phenolic
processing, for example, is dependent on a time/temperature relationship, polyester
processing is primarily dependent on temperature. Depending on the formulation, polyesters
can be processed from room temperature to 350F (180C). If the proper temperature is
applied, a quick cure will occur. Without sufficient heat, the resin/catalyst system will remain
plasticized. Compared to epoxies, polyesters process more easily and are much tougher,
whereas phenolics are more difficult to process and brittle, but have higher service
temperatures.
M2.2.3.2.4 Phenolic
Phenol-formaldehyde resins and their direct precursors were first produced commercially in
the early 1900's for use in the commercial market. Urea formaldehyde and melamine-
formaldehyde appeared in the 1920 - 1930's as a less expensive alternative for lower
temperature use. Phenolics, in general, cure by a condensation route with the off-gassing of
water. The resulting matrix is characterized by both chemical and thermal resistance as well
as hardness, and low smoke and toxic degradation products.
The phenolic polymers, often called either phenolic resole or novolacs resins are
condensation polymers based upon either a reaction of excess formaldehyde with a base
catalyst and phenol (resole), or a reaction of excess phenol with an acidic catalyst and
formaldehyde (novolac). The basic difference between resoles and novolacs consist of no
methylol groups in the novolacs and the resulting need for an extension agent of
paraformaldehyde, hexamethylenetetraamine, or additional formaldehyde as a curative.
These resins have higher molecular weights and viscosities than either parent material.
Consequently, they are optimal for processing parts of unusual conformations and complex
curvature. The resins allow either press or autoclave cure and allow relatively high
temperature free-standing postcures.
M2.2.3.2.4.1 Resoles
The reaction of phenol and excess formaldehyde in the presence of base is characterized by
low molecular-weight prepolymer that are soluble in base and contain a large degree of
methylol groups (-CH
2
OH). These prepolymer are processed to a workable viscosity (resites)
and then cured to an intractable solid of high crosslink density. Water is lost as a volatile (as
much as 10-12% of the resin by weight).
M2.2.3.2.4.2 Novolacs
The second type of phenolic consists of excess phenol reacted in the presence of an acid
catalyst with formaldehyde. These prepolymer resins are complex mixtures of low molecular
weight materials slightly soluble in acids and exhibiting random methylene (-CH
2
) at the
ortho-, para-, and ortho-parapositions on the aromatic ring. Unless a large excess of phenol is
present, the material will form an infusible resin. The excess phenol used to moderate the
processing viscosity can be varied as the application requires. Both water and formaldehyde
are volatile products.
M2.2.3.2.5 Bismaleimide
Bismaleimides are a class of thermosetting resins only recently available commercially in
prepreg tapes, fabrics, rovings, and sheet molding compound (SMC). Bismaleimide resins,
as the term implies, are the maleimide formed from the reaction of a diamine and maleic
anhydride. Typically the diamine is aromatic, with methylenedianiline (MDA), the most
common by far.
Bismaleimides form useful polymers by homopolymerization or by polymerization with
diamines, epoxies, or unsaturated compounds, singular or in mixtures. A wide range of
materials
like allyl-, vinyl-, acrylate-, epoxy-, and polyester-, and phenolic-type reactive diluents and
resins can be used to tailor the properties of the bismaleimide system. However, attention to
the specific components is required for useful polymers.
The physical form of the bismaleimide resin depends on the requirement of the final
application. The form can vary from a solid to a pourable liquid at room temperature. For
aerospace prepregs, sticky resins are required resulting in proprietary specific formulations.
The advantages of bismaleimide (BMI) resins are best discussed in the relation to epoxy
resins. Emerging data suggests that BMI's are versatile resins with many applications in the
electronic and aerospace industries. Their primary advantage over epoxy resins is their high
glass transition temperature, in the 500-600F range (260-320C). Glass transition
temperatures for high temperature epoxies are generally less than 500F (260C). The second
advantage of BMI resins is high elongation with the corresponding high service temperature
capabilities. While the high temperature epoxies have approximately one percent elongation
when cured with diaminodiphenylsulfone (DDS), BMI's can have two-three percent
elongation. Thus, bismaleimide resins deliver higher temperature capability and higher
toughness providing excellent performance at ambient and elevated temperatures.
The processing of bismaleimide resins are essentially like that of epoxy resins. BMI's are
suitable for standard autoclave processing, injection molding, resin transfer molding, and
SMC, among others. The processing time of BMIs is similar to epoxies, except that for the
additional higher service temperature, a free-standing post-cure is required. The only
limitation is that room temperature curing BMI's have not yet been developed.
The cost of current BMI's is generally higher than the high temperature epoxies. The main
disadvantage of bismaleimide resins is their recent commercial introduction. This results in
few literature sources or authoritative reviews. Additionally, the suppliers are as limited as
the types of BMI's. This latter disadvantage is partially offset by the wide variety of suitable
co-monomers.
M2.2.3.2.6 Polyimides
The polyimide resin family comprises a diverse number of polymers all of which contain an
aromatic heterocyclic ring structure.
Other polyimides are synthesized from a variety of cyclic anhydrides or their diacid
derivatives through reaction with a diamine. This reaction forms a polyamic acid which then
undergoes condensation by the removal of water and/or alcohol.
Polyimide matrix composites excel in high temperature environments where their thermal
resistance, oxidative stability, low coefficient of thermal expansion and solvent resistance
benefit the design. Their primary uses are circuit boards and hot engine and aerospace
structures.
A polyimide may be either a thermoset resin or a thermoplastic. Thermosetting polyimides
characteristically have crosslinkable end-caps and/or a rigid polymer backbone. A few
thermoplastic polyimides can become thermoset polymers if a sufficiently high Postcure
temperature is employed during part processing. Alternately, partially cured thermoset
polyimides containing residual plasticizing solvents can exhibit thermoplastic behavior.
Thus, it is difficult to state with certainty that a particular polyimide is indeed a thermoset or
thermoplastic. Polyimides, therefore, represent a transition between these two polymer
classifications.
Polyimide properties, such as toughness and thermal resistance, are influenced by the degree
of crosslinking and chain extension. Molecular weight and crosslink density are determined
by the specific end cap group and by the stoichiometry of the anhydride: amine mixture
which produces the polyamic acid by stepwise chain growth, after which the polyamic acid is
recyclized by continued thermal cure to form the final polymer structure. The choice of
solvent employed in the resin formulation has a significant impact on crosslinking and chain
extension. Solvents such as N-methyl 2-pyrrolidone (NMP), promote chain extension by
increasing resin flow, chain mobility and molecular weight prior to formation of a substantial
crosslink network. From a practical standpoint, these solvents are beneficial to
polymerization, but they are detrimental to part manufacture because of their tendency to
cause ply delaminations.
Most polyimide resin monomers are powders. Some bismaleimides are an exception. As a
result, solvents are also added to the resin to enable impregnation of unidirectional fiber and
woven fabrics. Commonly, a 50:50 by weight mixture is used for fabrics and a 90:10 by
weight high solids mixture is used to produce a film for unidirectional fiber and low areal
weight fabric prepregs. Solvents are further used to control prepreg handling qualities, such
as tack and drape. Most of the solvents are removed in a drying process during impregnation,
but total prepreg volatiles contents typically range between 2 and 8% by weight. This
includes all volatiles, including those produced by the condensation cure reactions.
Polyimides require high cure temperatures, usually in excess of 550F (~90C).
Consequently, normal epoxy composite consumable materials are not usable, and steel
tooling becomes a necessity. Polyimide bagging and release films, such as Kapton and
Upilex, replace the lower cost nylon bagging and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) release
films common to epoxy composite processing. Fiberglass fabrics must be used for bleeder
and breather materials instead of polyester mat materials.
M2.2.3.2.7 Thermoplastic materials
M2.2.3.2.7.1 Semi-crystalline
Semi-crystalline thermoplastics are so named because a percentage of their volume consists
of a crystalline morphology. The remaining volume has a random molecular orientation
termed amorphous, the name given to thermoplastics containing no crystalline structure. The
total percentage of volume which can become crystalline depends on the polymer. Low
density polyethylene, for example, can be as high as 70% crystalline. Semi-crystalline
thermoplastics are characterized by the ability of their molecules to form three-dimensionally
ordered arrays. This is in contrast to amorphous polymers that contain molecules which are
unable to pack in an ordered crystalline structure. A partial list of semi-crystalline
thermoplastics includes polyethylene,
polypropylene, polyamides, polyphenylene sulfide, polyetheretherketone
(polyetherketoneketone) and polyarylketone.
Semi-crystalline thermoplastics can be converted into several physical forms, including films,
powders and filaments. Combined with reinforcing fibers, they are available in injection
molding compounds, compression-moldable random sheets, unidirectional tapes, towpregs,
and woven prepregs. Fibers impregnated include carbon, nickel-coated carbon, aramid, glass,
quartz, and others.
Semi-crystalline thermoplastics reinforced with short fibers have been used for over two
decades in the injection molding industry. The inherent speed of processing, ability to
produce complicated, detailed parts, excellent thermal stability, and corrosion resistance has
enabled them to become established in the automotive, electronic, and chemical processing
industries.
The combination of long and continuous fibers with higher performance semi-crystalline
thermoplastics is a recent development, but these composites have already shown several
advantages over existing materials. The chemical stability of the materials provides for
unlimited shelf life. Pot life problems and the need for cold storage are eliminated. The semi-
crystalline materials usually possess better corrosion and solvent resistance than amorphous
polymers, exceeding that of thermosets in some cases. This corrosion resistance is exploited
in chemical processing industry equipment. Another benefit of the crystal structure is
retention of properties above the glass transition temperature () of the material. These
materials may be used in applications above their depending on loading requirements. One
example is down-hole oil field sucker rod guides. gTgT
Some semi-crystalline thermoplastics possess properties of inherent flame resistance,
superior toughness, and good mechanical properties at elevated temperatures and after
impact, and low moisture absorption which have led to their use in the aerospace industry in
secondary and primary structures. Inherent flame resistance has made these materials good
candidates for aircraft interiors and for ship and submarine applications. The superior
toughness makes them viable candidates for aircraft leading edges and doors where impact
damage resistance is required. Low moisture absorption and low outgassing has stimulated
interest in space structures where moisture swelling is a problem. Also nickel-coated
carbon/thermoplastic systems are finding uses in EMI shielding applications.
The primary disadvantages of semi-crystalline thermoplastic composites are lack of a design
data base, 0 compression properties that are lower than those of 350F (180C) epoxy
systems, and creep resistance. The creep resistance of semi-crystalline thermoplastics is
superior to that of amorphous thermoplastics. Creep resistance in the fiber direction of a
laminate is not expected to be a problem.
Processing speed is the primary advantage of thermoplastic materials. Chemical curing of the
material does not take place during processing. Therefore, reduced cycle times compared to
thermoset composites are experienced. However, thermoplastic prepregs are typically boardy
and do not exhibit the tack and drape of thermosets. Forms are available that consist of
thermoplastic
and reinforcing fibers interlaced together, known as commingled which are drapeable. The
present costs of high performance engineering thermoplastic materials are slightly higher
than equivalent performance epoxies, and tooling costs may be higher. However, final part
cost may be reduced, due to the decreased processing time. The ability to postform or
reprocess molded parts also offers cost saving advantages.
A wide variety of methods and techniques are available for processing semi-crystalline
thermoplastics, including stamp molding, thermoforming, autoclave molding, diaphragm
forming, roll forming, filament winding, and pultrusion. Semi-crystalline thermoplastics
differ from amorphous ones in that the morphology can change based on the
time/temperature history of the material during molding. Therefore, the degree of
crystallinity can be controlled by controlling the cooling rate. The material must be processed
above its melt temperature, which requires temperatures ranging from 500 to 700F (260 -
370C) for the higher performance materials. Thermal expansion differences between the tool
and the thermoplastic material should be addressed, due to the high processing temperature.
The actual pressure required varies with the process, but can be as high as 5000 psi (34 MPa)
for stamp molding and as low as 100 psi (0.7 MPa) for thermoforming. Once formed, semi-
crystalline thermoplastics can be joined by a variety of methods, including ultrasonic
welding, infrared heating, vibration, hot air and gas, resistance heating, and conventional
adhesives.
M2.2.3.2.7.2 Amorphous
The majority of thermoplastic polymers is composed of a random molecular orientation and
is termed amorphous. The molecules are unable to align themselves in an ordered manner,
since they are non-uniform or composed of units which have large side groups. In contrast,
semi-crystalline thermoplastics have molecules that form ordered three-dimensional arrays.
Some amorphous thermoplastics include polysulfone, polyamide-imide, polyphenylsulfone,
polyphenylene sulfide sulfone, polyether sulfone, polystyrene, polyetherimide, and
polyarylate.
Amorphous thermoplastics are available in several physical forms, including films,
filaments, and powders. Combined with reinforcing fibers, they are also available in injection
molding compounds, compressive moldable random sheets, unidirectional tapes, woven
prepregs, etc. The fibers used are primarily carbon, aramid, and glass.
Amorphous thermoplastics are used in many applications; the specific use depends on the
polymer of interest. Their applications are well established in the medical, communication,
transportation, chemical processing, electronic, and aerospace industries. The majority of
applications use the unfilled and short fiber form. Some uses for the unfilled polymers
include cookware, power tools, business machines, corrosion resistant piping, medical
instruments, and aircraft canopies. Uses for short-fiber-reinforced forms include printed
circuit boards, transmission parts, under-the-hood automotive applications, electrical
connections, and jet engine components.
The use of amorphous thermoplastics as matrix materials for continuous fiber reinforced
composites is a recent development. The properties of composites have led to their
consideration
for primary and secondary aircraft structures, including interior components, flooring,
fairings, wing skins, and fuselage sections.
The specific advantages of amorphous thermoplastics depend upon the polymer. Typically,
the resins are noted for their processing ease and speed, high temperature capability, good
mechanical properties, excellent toughness and impact strength, and chemical stability. The
stability results in unlimited shelf life, eliminating the cold storage requirements of thermoset
prepregs. Several amorphous thermoplastics also have good electrical properties, low
flammability and smoke emission, long term thermal stability, and hydrolytic stability.
Amorphous thermoplastics generally have higher temperature capabilities than semi-
crystalline thermoplastics. Polymers with glass transition temperatures as high as 500F
(260C) are available.
Also, processing is simplified, because the formation of a crystalline structure is avoided,
resulting in less shrinkage due to their lower melt viscosities. Amorphous polymers generally
have lower solvent and creep resistances and less property retention above the glass transition
temperature than semi-crystalline thermoplastics.
The primary advantages of amorphous thermoplastics in continuous fiber reinforced
composites are potential low cost process at high production rates, high temperature
capability, and good mechanical properties before and after impact, and chemical stability.
High temperature capability and retention of mechanical properties after impact have made
amorphous thermoplastics attractive to the aerospace industry. A service temperature of
350F and toughness two to three times that of conventional thermoset polymers is typical.
The most significant advantage of thermoplastics is the speed of processing, resulting in
lower costs. Typically, cycle times in production are less than for thermosets since no
chemical reaction occurs during the forming process.
Amorphous thermoplastics share many of the disadvantages of semi-crystalline
thermoplastics, such as a lack of an extensive database and reduced 0 compression
properties compared to 350F (180C) cure thermosets. Solvent resistance, which is good for
semi-crystalline thermoplastics, is a concern for most amorphous ones. They can be attacked
to varying degrees, depending on the polymers and solvents of interest. The creep resistance
of the polymer is a concern, but should be good for composite forms loaded in the fiber
direction. The materials do not have tack and drape as thermosets do; however, some
amorphous thermoplastics are available in commingled forms, which are drapable.
The costs of amorphous thermoplastics prepreg used for advanced composites are higher than
equivalent performance epoxies. Finished part costs may be lower due to the processing
advantages discussed above. Reprocessibility of material results in reduced scrap rates,
translating into additional cost savings. For example, the same sheet laminate can be
thermoformed several times until the desired configuration is achieved. In addition, certain
forms can be recycled.
The processes used with continuous reinforced composites include stamp molding,
thermoforming, autoclave molding, diaphragm forming, roll forming, filament winding, and
pultrusion. The high melting temperatures require process temperatures ranging from 500F
to 700F (260 to 370C). Thermal expansion differences between the tool and the
thermoplastic material should be addressed due to the high processing temperatures. Forming
pressures range from 100 psi i.e., 0.7 MPa (for thermoforming) to 5000 psi i.e., 35 MPa (for
stamp molding). Several amorphous thermoplastics that are hygroscopic must be dried before
processing. Hot molds are also recommended to increase material flow. The materials can be
joined by several methods, including common adhesives, or fusion bonding such as;
ultrasonic welding, infrared heating, hot air and gas, and resistance heating. Surface
preparation techniques for using adhesives can be different from those for thermosets.
Solvent bonding techniques can be used for joining amorphous thermoplastics but not most
semi-crystalline thermoplastics.
One important class of amorphous thermoplastic matrices is the condensation cure
polyimides. Examples include polyamideimides, such as Torlon, and polyimides having more
flexible backbones, such as Avimid RK3B, NR 150B2 and the LaRC polymers developed by
NASA. The polyimides represent a transition between thermoset and thermoplastic polymers.
Thus, these thermoplastics also have many characteristics typical of epoxy and phenolic
thermoset polymers (e.g., excellent solvent resistance and high maximum operating
temperature limits).
Due to negligible crosslink density, these polymers impart some toughness to composite
laminates and permit limited flow during processing, although this flow is more like the high
creep rates exhibited by superplastic metals. Unlike other thermoplastics, these polymers do
not produce liquid flows, even under high consolidation pressures. Typical processing
conditions for the condensation cure thermoplastics are 550F (290C) and greater
temperatures with consolidation pressures starting at 200 psi (1.4 MPa).
Many of these thermoplastic polymers have been developed with the intent to rapidly stamp
or compression mold structural composites parts at low cost. However, this potential has yet
to be realized because of low production volumes, high capital equipment and tooling costs
as well as excessive fiber distortion in the formed part. The most successful structural
applications of these polymers have utilized autoclave processing to reduce tooling costs and
fiber distortion. Other polymers in this class have been developed for use in circuit boards
because of their low dielectric constant, low moisture absorption and low coefficient of
thermal expansion. In these applications, compression molding had been found to be
advantageous and cost effective.
Compared to other thermoplastic polymers, the condensation cure thermoplastics have not
found a wide variety of applications. Their processability is very similar to the thermosetting
polyimides, and this has been a limiting factor. Volatiles are produced by the condensation
reaction, and they cause laminate porosity unless consolidation pressures are high enough to
suppress void nucleation and growth. Costly high temperature tooling and consumable
materials (e.g., vacuum bags and release films) are also required for part processing. While
the toughness and processability of many of these condensation cured thermoplastic
polyimides are slightly better than those of competing thermosetting polyimides, their
maximum operation temperature limit is somewhat lower. For the present, these
thermoplastic polymers are limited to special niche markets which take advantage of their
unique performance capabilities.
M2.2.3.2.8 Specialty and emerging resin systems
M2.2.3.2.8.1 Silicone
The silicones are a synthetic resin, composed primarily of organ silicon. The term silicone
resin is a general term used for high temperature poly methyl siloxane. Silicone resins are
available from a low viscosity liquid to a solid friable resin.
The silicone resin is used where high temperature stability, weatherability, good electrical
properties and moisture resistance are required. These excellent properties have allowed the
silicone resin to be used in laminates, varnishes, mineral filled molding compounds, and long
glass fiber molding compounds. The silicone resin has been used as an impregnant for mica
paper, flexible glass tape, glass cloth, and mica products. The molding compounds may be
processed by conventional methods: injection, compression, and transfer molding. The cure
temperature varies from 250F to 450F (120C to 230C). The cure time varies from 30
minutes to 24 hours, depending upon cure temperature, wall thickness of molded part, and
the desired cured properties. In some applications, additional post cure will be required.
Learning unit-3: M2.3
M2.3 Matrix Materials
M2.3.1 Introduction of Matrix Materials:
Although it is undoubtedly true that the high strength of composites is largely due to the fibre
reinforcement, the importance of matrix material cannot be underestimated as it provides
support for the fibres and assists the fibres in carrying the loads. It also provides stability to
the composite material. Resin matrix system acts as a binding agent in a structural component
in which the fibres are embedded. When too much resin is used, the part is classified as resin
rich. On the other hand if there is too little resin, the part is called resin starved. A resin rich
part is more susceptible to cracking due to lack of fibre support, whereas a resin starved part
is weaker because of void areas and the fact that fibres are not held together and they are not
well supported.
M2.3.1.1 Desired Properties of a Matrix
The needs or desired properties of the matrix which are important for a composite structure
are as follows:
Reduced moisture absorption.
Low shrinkage.
Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fibre bundles completely and
eliminates voids during the compacting/curing process.
Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should be greater than fibre).
Must be elastic to transfer load to fibres.
Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).
Low temperature capability (depending on application).
Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).
Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.
Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).
As stated above, the matrix causes the stress to be distributed more evenly between all fibres
by causing the fibres to suffer the same strain. The stress is transmitted by shear process,
which requires good bonding between fibre and matrix and also high shear strength and
modulus for the matrix itself. One of the important properties of cured matrix system is its
glass transition temperature (T) at which the matrix begins to soften and exhibits a decrease
in mechanical properties. The glass transition temperature is not only an important parameter
for dimensional stability of a composite part under influence of heat, but it also has effect on
most of the physical properties of the matrix system at ambient temperature. g
As the load is primarily carried by the fibres, the overall elongation of a composite material is
governed by the elongation to failure of the fibres that is usually 1-1.5%. A significant
property of the matrix is that it should not crack. The function of the matrix in a composite
material will vary depending on how the composite is stressed. For example, in case of
compressive loading, the matrix prevents the fibres from buckling and is, therefore, a very
critical part of the composite since without it; the reinforcement could carry no load. On the
contrary, a bundle of fibres could sustain high tensile loads in the direction of the filaments
without a matrix. Some of the physical properties of the matrix which influence the
behaviour of composites are:
Shrinkage during cure,
Modulus of elasticity,
Ultimate elongation,
Strength (tensile, compressive and shear), and
Fracture toughness.
M2.3.2 General types of Matrix Materials
In general, following general following types of matrix materials are available:
Thermosetting material;
Thermoplastic material;
Carbon;
Metals;
Ceramics;
Glass Matrix.
A thermosetting material is the one which when cured by heat or chemical reaction is
changed into an infusible and insoluble material. Thermosetting resins undergo irreversible
chemical
cross-linking reaction upon application of heat. On the other hand, thermoplastics do not
undergo a chemical reaction on application of heat. They simply melt on application of heat
and pressure to form a component. Thermoplastics can be softened and they undergo large
and rapid change in viscosity with variation in temperature. Thermoplastics can be repeatedly
softened by heating and hardened by cooling.
Some of the significant differences between thermosets and thermoplastics are given below:
Resin cost is low. Resin cost is slightly higher.
Thermosets exhibit moderate shrinkage. Shrinkage of thermoplastics is
low
Interlaminar fracture toughness is low.
Interlaminar fracture toughness is
high.
Thermosets exhibit good resistance to fluids and
solvents.
Thermoplastics exhibit poor
resistance to fluids and solvents.
Composite mechanical properties are good. Composite mechanical properties
are good.
Prepregability characteristics are excellent. Prepregability characteristics are
poor.
Prepreg shelf life and out time are poor. Prepreg shelf life and out time are
excellent.
Table M3.2.1. Some significant differences between thermosets and thermoplastics
Thermosets Thermoplastics
Phenolics & Cyanate ester Polypropylene
Polyesters & Vinyl esters Nylon (Polyamide)
Polyimides Poly-ether-imide (PEI)
Epoxies Poly-ether-sulphone (PES)
Bismaleimide (BMI) Poly-ether-ether-ketone
(PEEK
Table M3.2.2 Different types of thermosets and thermoplastic resins
M2.3.2.1 Thermosetting Materials
The major group of materials used today in the aircraft industry contains thermosetting
matrix resins.
Thermoset Resin
Polyesters, epoxy and other resins in liquid form contain monomers (consisting of simple
molecules), which convert into polymers (complex cross-linked molecules) when the resin is
cured. The resulting solid .is called thermosets, which is tough, hard, insoluble and infusible.
The property of infusibility distinguishes thermosets from the thermoplastics. Cure and
polymerization refer to the chemical reactions that solidify the resin. Curing is accomplished
by heat, pressure and by addition of curing agents at room temperature.
Thermosetting materials can be further divided into two groups depending on how they react
to form their network structure. For example, epoxies and polyesters react to form a network
structure without formation of a volatile by-product. Phenolics react to form a volatile by-
product i.e., water. The fact that some thermosets form volatile by-products means that high
pressure laminating techniques must be used to prevent the formation of voids or other
defects. Epoxies and polyesters can be cured at atmospheric pressures and also at ambient
temperatures.
Polyester matrices have been in use for the longest period in the widest range of structures.
Polyesters cure with the addition of a catalyst (usually a peroxide) resulting in an exothermic
reaction, which can be initiated at room temperature. The most widely used matrices for
advanced composites have been the epoxy resins. These resins cost more than polyesters and
do not have the high temperature capability of the Bismaleimides or Polyimides. However,
they are widely used due to the following advantages:
Adhesion to fibres and to resin;
No by-products formed during cure;
Low shrinkage during cure;
High or low strength and flexibility;
Resistance to solvents and chemicals;
Resistance to creep and fatigue;
Wide range of curative options;
Adjustable curing rate;
Good electrical properties.
Epoxies do have few inherent disadvantages also, viz.
Resins and curatives are somewhat toxic in uncured form;
Moisture absorption resulting into change in dimensions and physical properties;
Limited to about 200C (392F) upper temperature use;
Difficult to combine toughness and high temperature resistance;
High thermal coefficient of expansion;
High degree of smoke liberation in a fire;
May be sensitive to ultraviolet light degradation;
Slow curing.
There are two resin systems in common use for higher temperatures, bismaleimides and
polyimides. New designs of aircraft demand a 177C (350F) operating temperature
requirement not met with by other common structural resin systems. Bismaleimides, with
higher modulus values and established higher thermal ratings, earned a strong position for
use in military aircraft primary structures with recent selection for the F-22 fighter.
Bismaleimides offer mechanical properties higher than those of epoxies at elevated
temperature resulting in either lower weight or increased safety margins; epoxy-like
processing using standard autoclave cure processes; and cost comparable to epoxy parts.
Polyimides are the highest temperature polymers in advanced composite use with a long-term
upper temperature limit (Tg) of 232C (450F) or 316C (600F).
The Cyanate ester resins have shown superior dielectric properties and much lower moisture
absorption than any other structural resin for use in composites. The dielectric properties
have enabled their use as adhesives in multilayer microwave printed circuit boards and the
low moisture absorbance have caused them to be the resin of universal choice for structurally
stable spacecraft components. The phenolic triazine resins also have superior elevated
temperature properties along with excellent properties at cryogenic temperature. Both
Bismaleimide and Cyanate ester resins have been evolved as easy-to-process thermosetting
resins qualified for 177C (350F) hot-wet service.
Vinyl ester resins are the most recent addition to the family of thermosetting polymers. There
are two basic types of vinyl esters having commercial significance, viz., the general-purpose
lower molecular weight vinyl esters and the higher heat resistant vinyl esters. General-
purpose vinyl esters have excellent mechanical properties and outstanding chemical
resistance to acids, bases and many solvents. Heat resistant vinyl esters increase the heat
resistance of composites by 17-27C (30-50F) over the general-purpose type. This often
translates into higher useful operating temperatures for vinyl esters based reinforced plastics
even in corrosive environment. Resins of this type are more reactive and more caution is
required in fabrication of composite laminates.
M2.3.3.1.1 Typical Properties of Thermosetting Materials
Salient properties of some of the above-referred thermosetting materials are given in the
following paras.
M2.3.3.1.2 Phenolics
Low cost,
Capability to be B-Staged,
Excellent high temperature resistance up to 205-260C (400-500F),
Good mechanical strength,
Dimensional and thermal stability,
Good laminate properties,
Hot molding (cold molding very rarely),
Good fire resistance and very low smoke emission,
Curing temperature is 175C (350F),
High chemical resistance, and
Good dielectric properties.
Some of the disadvantages are: by-products are produced during curing, there is high
shrinkage on cure, and phenolic laminates are porous.
M2.3.3.1.3 Polyesters
Low cost,
Good handling characteristics,
Low viscosity and versatility,
Good mechanical strength,
Good electrical properties,
Good heat resistance,
Cold and hot molding,
Flame resistant with fire proof additive ,and
Curing temperature is 120C (250F).
Some of the disadvantages are: interlaminar shear is less than that of epoxies, lower strength
than that of epoxies, fair weatherability, high curing shrinkage, and poor chemical resistance.
M2.3.3.1.4 Vinyl Ester
Vinyl ester combines inherent toughness with outstanding heat and chemical
resistance,
Corrosion-resistance, and
Possesses low ester content and low instauration resulting in greater resistance to
hydrolysis and less shrinkage during cure.
Some of the disadvantages are: vinyl esters are not as good as epoxy resins with regard to
bondability to other surfaces and high cost.
M2.3.3.1.5 Polyimides
Excellent strength retention for long term in 260-315C (500-600F) range and
short term in 370C (700F) range,
Excellent electrical properties,
Excellent mechanical strength,
Good fire resistance and low smoke emission,
Hot molding under pressure, and
Curing temperature is 175C (350F) and 315C (600F).
Some of the disadvantages are: laminates are porous, volatile by-products are given off
during cure, and long post cure is required.
M2.3.3.1.6 Epoxies
Make an excellent matrix material because of their versatility,
Good handling characteristics,
Low shrinkage,
Excellent adhesive properties,
Flame resistant,
Good chemical resistance,
Good mechanical properties including toughness,
Offer considerable variety for formulating Prepreg resins,
Hot molding (cold molding rarely),
High smoke emission,
Curing temperature is 120-175C (250-3500F), and
No by-products formed during cure.
Some of the disadvantages are: require 4.4C (40F) storage and shipment, service
temperature is only 93-1O7C (200-225F) and laminate displays light brittleness.
M2.3.3.1.7 Bismaleimide
Superior to epoxy in maximum hot-wet use temperature.
In comparison to conventional epoxies, bismaleimides have higher temperature
resistance.
Damage tolerance is generally comparable to that of commercial aerospace epoxy
resins.
One factor that limits wider use of Bismaleimide is that they require higher curing
temperatures than used for epoxies.
M2.3.3.2 Thermoplastic Resin
As stated earlier, thermoplastics can be repeatedly softened by heating, and hardened by
cooling. Thermoplastics possess several advantages over the thermosets, one of the most
important being that they do not need storing under refrigeration. They also possess improved
damage tolerance, environmental resistance, fire resistance, recyclability and potential for
fast processing. Primary reason for the use of thermoplastics is their cost effective
processing. Increased use for thermoplastics is also due to three different reasons, viz.
First - Processing can be faster than that of thermoset composites since no curing
reaction is required. Thermoplastic composites require only heating, shaping and
cooling.
Second - The properties are attractive, in particular, high delamination resistance and
damage tolerance, low moisture absorption and the excellent chemical resistance of
semi-crystalline polymers.
Third- In the light of environmental concerns, thermoplastic composites offer other
advantages also. They have low toxity since they do not contain reactive chemicals
(therefore storage life is infinite).
Because it is possible to remelt and dissolve thermoplastics, their composites are also easily
recycled or combined with other recycled materials in the market for molding compounds.
Since the release of gases during processing and inherent brittleness is serious disadvantage
of some thermoset resins, thermoplastic composites are of great interest. Thermoplastics
usually require high temperature and pressure during processing and generally lack good
solvent resistance. Process conditions for high performance thermoplastics are temperature in
the range of 300 to 400C (570 to 750F) and pressure between atmospheric pressure for
thermofolding process to 20 times the atmospheric pressure for high performance press
forming. Due to their high strains
to failure, thermoplastics are the only matrices currently available that are suited to thermo-
forming and other forms of rapid manufacture.
Thermo-loading is the most straight forward thermoplastic forming technique where a
straight line is heated and folded. The process is used in volume applications like aircraft
floor boards. Thermofolding operations can be carried out on solid laminate materials as well
as on sandwich panels.
Press Forming process for thermoplastic composites is related to that used for metals, the
difference being that the blank material is heated to a high temperature and processed within
a very short time span. Applications for press forming are reinforcement ribs.
To date, applications of thermoplastic composites have ranged from small, simple, structural
details such as ribs or spars up to relatively large structures. Table M3.2.3 given below lists
some of these applications in aircraft industry.
Polymer Type Applications
PEEK
Airbus A320 vertical stabilizer
brackets
EH-101 helicopter floor
F-117 rudder assembly
F-22 weapons bay doors
F-22 access covers
OH-58d helicopter horizontal
stabilizer
Poly-phenylene-sulphide
Airbus A320-200 rudder nose ribs
Airbus A340 aileon ribs
Airbus A340-500/600 inboard
wing leading edge assemblies
Airbus A340-500/600 inboard
wing access panels
Airbus A340-500/600 keel beam
connecting angles
Airbus A340-500/600 keel beam
ribs
AirbusA340-500/600pylon panels
Fokker50 main landing gear door
PEI
737 smoke detector pans
737/757 galleys
747. stowage bins
767 aircraft acoustical tiles
767andotherBoeingaircraftbrackets
AirbusA320 bulk cargo floor
sandwich structural Panels
Airbus A330 lower wing fairings
A3XX main stair case
(developmental)
Beluga heavy duty entrance floor
panel
Dornier 328 landing flap ribs
Dornier 328 ice protection plates
Fokker 50 ice protection plates
Fokker 50 trailing edge wing
shroud skins
Fokker 70/100 structural floor
panels
Gulfstream G-V structural floor
panels
Gulfstream IV and V rudder ribs
Gulfstream IV and V rudder
trailing edges
Learjet air steps
Galleys on most commercial
aircraft
Table M3.2.3 Applications in aircraft industry
Amongst the thermoplastics, polypropylene and polyamides are used in applications where
moderate temperatures are experienced. On the other hand, poly-ether-imide (PEI), poly-
ether-sulphone (PES) and PEEK are used in applications where temperature requirements
are comparatively high. Characteristic temperatures of these thermoplastics along with their
mechanical properties are given in Table M3.2.4:
Thermo-
plastic
T
g

C
T
m

C
Processing
Temperature
( C)
Tensile
Modulus(GPa)
Tensile
Strength(MPa)
Fracture
Toughness
(kJ/m
2
)
Poly-
propylene
-10 165 200 - 240 1.1 1.6 30 - 40 -
Poly-amide 55 265 270 - 320 2.5 3.8 50 80 -
PEEK 143 343 380 400 3.1 3.8 90 100 4.0
PES 220 None 300 - 320 2.6 80 1.9
PEI 217 None 335 - 420 3.0 105 3.3
Table M3.2.4 Characteristic temperatures of these thermoplastics along with their
mechanical properties
As indicated above, thermoplastics with low such as polypropylene and Polyamides have
lower modulus and strength. However, their fracture toughness is higher and valid data is
difficult to obtain. Thermoplastics with continuous use temperature above 150C (302F) are
of particular interest since they perform better than epoxies. Table M3.2.5 gives the
temperatureand the heat deflection temperature (HDT) for various thermoplastics. HDT is the
temperature at which a critical deflection of the sample is obtained. HOT is determined by
subjecting the material to static load (typically1.8 MPa) and slowly increasing the
temperature till critical deflection takes place.
Thermo-plastic Structure T
g
( C)
HDT
( C)
Variation of HDT
PES Amorphous 220 203 Below Tg
Polyamide Amorphous 217 200 Below Tg
PEEK Crystalline -10 60 Above Tg
PES Crystalline 55 75 Above Tg
PEI Crystalline 143 160 Above Tg
Table M3.2.5 Variation of the heat deflection temperature (HDT) with respect to
temperature for various thermoplastics
In crystalline thermoplastics, HDT is some what higher than T
g
. On the other hand, HDT is
below T
g
for amorphous thermoplastics. Creep effects in thermoplastics are very strong close
to and above T
g
. For this reason, the maximum temperature for continuous service under
significant load is unlikely to exceed a temperature of 20C (68F) below T
g
for crystalline
thermoplastics. The primary advantage of crystallinity is, therefore, chemical resistance.
Table M3.2.6 shows that, the crystalline thermoplastics have better chemical resistance than
the amorphous ones.
Material Hydraulic
Fluid
Chlorinated Hydro-
carbons
Ketones Esters H
2
O
absorption (%)
Polyamide - No effect No effect No effect 8
PEEK No effect No effect No effect No effect 0.5
PES Absorbed Dissolved Absorbed Absorbed 0.3
PEI No effect Dissolved Absorbed Absorbed 1.2
Table M3.2.6 Comparison of chemical resistance Crystalline-thermoplastics with the
amorphous- thermoplastics
Due to the above advantages, PEEK is a widely used thermoplastic. As stated above, it
possesses glass transition temperature of 143C (290F).Above this temperature, as expected,
there is a drop in mechanical properties but it maintains useful properties up to its melting
point of 343C (650F).The polymer can be reinforced to further improve properties and
maintain them up to a higher temperature. Glass or carbon fibres are the commonly used
reinforcements. Some of the significant properties of PEEK are as follows:
Retention of useful mechanical properties at temperatures up to 315C (600F).
PEEK exhibits a high fatigue resistance. It is also resistant to thermal fatigue when the
temperature cycle is less than 150C (300F).
PEEK has higher impact strength as compared to other thermoplastics but lower than
most metals.
Although there is drop in mechanical properties after glass transition temperature,
PEEK is significantly stronger than most of other thermoplastics at higher
temperatures.
Many thermoplastics are vulnerable to continuously applied loads as they are
susceptible to creep. PEEK exhibits higher creep over a wide range of temperature.
Fracture toughness of PEEK is about 50-100 times higher than epoxies.
It exhibits low water absorption characteristics, which is less than 0.5% at 23C (73F)
compared to 4-5% for conventional aerospace epoxies.
It offers resistance to a wide range of process chemicals.
PEEK offers good resistance to wear and chemicals.
It shows good resistance to gamma radiation thereby offering its use as wire covering
material for control cabling within the containment area of nuclear reactors. One of
the major advantages of using thermoplastics is their ability to produce parts to
finished shape and tolerance .The most common processing technique employed for
thermoplastics is injection molding. However, for larger parts and short production,
compression molding has proved cost effective. It is frequently possible to produce
thermoplastic parts, which function more efficiently than conventionally
manufactured parts. By using a thermoplastic, which can be molded to almost any
shape, it is possible to produce parts to the optimum design in a single step.
M2.3.3.3 Carbon matrices
Carbon fibre reinforced carbon is a high strength composite material which is also resistant to
high temperature in a non-oxidizing atmosphere. It is composed of a carbon matrix into
which reinforcing carbon fibres are embedded. Such a material was first used under extreme
thermal and mechanical loads in space technology. The criteria for selection of carbon-
carbon composites as a thermal protection system are based on the following requirements:
Maintenance of reproducible strength levels at 1650C (3002F).
Sufficient stiffness to resist flight loads and large thermal gradients.
Low coefficient of thermal expansion to minimize induced thermal stresses.
Tolerance to impact damage.
Carbon-carbon composites are used in many applications due to their following properties:
Low specific weight.
High heat absorption capacity.
Resistance to thermal shock.
High resistance to damage.
Exceptional frictional properties at high energy levels.
Resistance to high temperatures.
Chemical inertness.
The disadvantages of carbon-carbon composites are the lack of resistance to oxidation at
temperatures in excess of 500C (930F) and economic problems namely long manufacturing
time and high production cost.
To allow the use of carbon-carbon composites in an oxidizing atmosphere, they must be
compounded with materials that produce oxidation protective coatings through thermo-
chemical reaction with oxygen above 2000C (3630F).
Important areas of use of carbon-carbon composites are aircraft brakes, brake system for
high-speed trains and racing cars. Its application as braking material is due to high-energy
absorption capacity, low specific weight and the fact that it does not contain any
environmentally harmful elements like asbestos. Some other examples of its use include
heavy duty clutches, tools for high temperature production of alloys like titanium, etc.
There are two production methods to obtain a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon fibres.
1. Chemical vapour impregnation - where a preform is compressed by deposition of
carbon from a gaseous phase.
2. The liquid phase impregnation - where a carbon preform is compressed by means of
multiple impregnations with resin and intermediate carbonization steps.
Carbon-Carbon Brakes:
As we know, conventional aircraft landing gear brakes are made up of three principal parts:
1. A torque tube,
2. A loading system for the heat sink, and
3. A heat sink.
The heat sink is made of rotors and stators. The stators are located around the torque tube
while the rotors are fitted to the wheel. The object of the heat sink is to transform kinetic
energy to thermal energy through the friction between stators and rotors. Consequently, the
performance of brakes depends almost completely upon the heat sink material. The material,
which can be used for a heat sink, should have the following properties:
Very high specific heat - the higher the specific heat, the greater the amount of
kinetic energy absorbed and better will be the brake efficiency.
Good mechanical properties at high temperature - since the temperature of the
heat sink can be very high, the mechanical properties of the rotors and stators
should stay good enough so as to ensure a good brake torque transmission.
Good resistance to thermal shock - at the beginning of the braking, the heat sink
material is very cold and within a few seconds reaches a very high
temperature due to large amount of absorbed energy. Therefore, the heat sink
material should have good resistance to thermal shock.
Good frictional characteristics at high temperatures - the brake torque should
stay as smooth as possible all along the braking process- even at the end when
the temperature is very high.
Low thermal expansion to avoid deformation.
As light as possible so as to save on weight.
Due to the above mentioned properties of these composites, carbon-carbon brakes are able to
meet the brake requirements in normal and overweight landing conditions and also during
rejected take-offs. The performance of carbon-carbon brakes, therefore, is superior to that of
brakes made of conventional materials. In case of a normal landing, the maximum
temperature allowed is limited by the metallic parts, which are in the heat sink environment.
They must not be damaged if we want to reuse the brake, which is the case after normal
landing .In case of rejected take-off, the only requirement is to stop the aircraft and,
therefore, the maximum allowed temperature is dependent on the heat sink material. The
limit for steel is about 1000C (1830F) beyond which it exhibit mechanical frictional
properties will no longer. Steel brakes absorb, rather than release, a great deal of heat. This
eventually melt the brakes and poses safety problems. The brakes can overheat and leave an
aircraft stranded on the runway after landing. On the other hand, carbon can handle 3-4 times
the amount of heat, as compared to steel, without melting. For carbon-carbon, the maximum
allowed temperature is about 2000C (3630F). Thus if carbon-carbon brakes are used in
place of steel brakes, we will have, for the same weight, a much more efficient and secure
system or in other words for the same efficiency, the system will be much lighter.
Disk brakes for aircraft are the representation of a heat sink. They are composed of a number
of disks ,half of which are keyed to the non-rotating brake mechanism (stators), and the other
half rotate with the wheel to which they are keyed (rotors). Braking is accomplished by
forcing the disks together, at which time friction is converted into heat that must be
dissipated. This requires a material that is resistant to thermal shock, stable at very high
temperatures, and has low thermal expansion as well as good thermal conductivity. In
addition, the material should have a friction coefficient of about0.3 to 0.5 to ensure good
stopping performance.
Carbon-carbon composites have all of these properties, which provide nearly four times the
stopping power of copper or steel brakes. In conclusion, the advantages of the carbon-carbon
brakes may be summarized as:
Smooth braking,
Lighter brake (carbon brakes weigh approximately 1!3rd less than the steel brakes),
High efficiency brake,
Increased life (nearly 2-3 times), and
Cost effectiveness.
Carbon-carbon brakes are presently being used in number of aircraft viz. Concord, Airbus
and Boeing family, etc. As an example, the weight saving by using carbon-carbon brakes on
Boeing family of aircraft is as follows:
Aircraft Weight Saving (Kg)
B-747 635
B-757 272
B-767 408
Life projection of carbon-carbon brakes and steel brakes is as follows:
Other application of carbon-carbon composites is the one piece, bladed turbine rotor that is
coated to prevent oxidation. The rotor offers higher temperature performance without
cooling. Gas turbine engine applications using carbon-carbon composites include exhaust
nozzle flaps and seals, augmenters, combustors and acoustic panels. Carbon-carbon
composite are being used in products such as the nozzle in the F-l00 jet engine afterburner,
turbine wheels operating at a speed more than 40000 rpm, leading edges for missiles and for
the space shuttle. Pushing the state of the art in carbon-carbon composite is the piston for
internal combustion engines. The carbon-carbon pistons have exhibited reduction in weight
and increase in mechanical and thermal efficiencies of the engine. The carbon-carbon piston
concept features a low piston-to-cylinder wall clearance. Carbon-carbon material maintains
its strength at elevated temperatures. The piston allowing to operate at higher temperatures
and pressures (than those of a comparable metal piston). The high emittance and low thermal
conductivity of the carbon-carbon piston should improve the thermal efficiency of the engine
because less heat energy is lost to the piston and cooling system. The elimination of rings
reduces friction, thus improving mechanical efficiency. Besides being lighter than
conventional pistons, the carbon-carbon piston can produce cascading effects that could
reduce weight of other reciprocating components such as the crankshaft, connecting rods,
flywheels and balances, thus improving specific engine performance.
M2.3.3.4 Metallic Matrices
Aircraft Estimated Loading
Carbon-carbon Steel
B-747 2000 800
B-757 3000 1500
B-767 3000 1500
Metallic matrices are essential constituents for fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites
(MMC), which have potential for structural materials at high temperatures. Metal matrix has
the advantage over polymeric matrix in applications requiring a long-term resistance to
severe environments, such as high temperature. The yield strength and modulus of most
metals are higher than those for polymers, which is an important consideration for
applications requiring high transverse strength and modulus as well as compressive strength
for the composite. Another advantage of using metals is that they can be plastically deformed
and strengthened by a variety of thermal and mechanical treatments. However, metals have a
number of disadvantages, namely, they have high specific gravities, high melting points
(therefore, high process temperatures), and a tendency toward corrosion at the fibre/matrix
interface.
While a variety of matrix materials has been used for making MMCs, the major emphasis has
been on the development of lighter MMCs using aluminum and titanium alloys, due to the
significant potential of improvement in the thrust to-weight ratio for the aerospace, space and
automotive engines.
Aluminium alloy matrix composites are suited to applications below the temperatures of
400C (750F). For higher temperatures, titanium based alloys offer promise as matrices. For
applications in excess of 900C (1650F), fibre reinforced super alloys are used with most
promising reinforcements being tungsten alloy wires. In spite of their high density, such
composites are being considered for turbine blades and vanes in aircraft and rocket motors.
Compared to un-reinforced super alloys, they exhibit improved creep and fatigue strength as
well as higher thermal conductivity.
Aluminium and titanium have comparatively low specific gravities and are available in a
variety of alloy forms. Although magnesium is even lighter, its great affinity toward oxygen
promotes atmospheric corrosion and makes it less suitable for many applications. Beryllium
is the lightest of all structural metals and has a tensile modulus higher than that of steel.
However, it suffers from extreme brittleness, which is the reason for its exclusion as a
potential matrix material.
Nickel-and cobalt-based super alloys have also been used as matrix, however, the alloying
elements in these materials tend to accentuate the oxidation of fibres at elevated
temperatures.
Aluminium and its alloys have attracted the most attention as matrix material in metal matrix
composites. Commercially, pure aluminium has been used for its good corrosion resistance.
Aluminium alloys, such as 201, 6061, and 1100, have been used for their higher tensile
strength to weight ratios. Carbon fibre is used with aluminium alloys, however, at typical
fabrication temperatures of 500C (932F) or higher, carbon reacts with aluminium to form
aluminium carbide, which severely degrades the mechanical properties of the composite.
Protective coatings of either titanium boride or sodium are used on carbon fibres to reduce
the problem of fibre degradation as well as to improve their wetting with the aluminium alloy
matrix. Carbon fibre reinforced aluminium composites are inherently prone to galvanic
corrosion, in which carbon fibres act as a cathode owing to a corrosion potential of one volt
higher than that of aluminium. Amore common reinforcement for aluminium alloys is Silicon
Carbide (SiC).
Titanium alloys that are most useful in metal matrix composites are alpha, beta alloys (e.g.
Ti-6AI-4V) and metastable beta alloys (e.g. Ti-lOV-2Fe-3AI). These titanium alloys have
higher tensile strength to weight ratios as well as better strength retention at 400-500C (752-
932F) over those of aluminium alloys. The thermal expansion coefficient of titanium alloys
is closer to those for reinforcing fibres, which reduces the thermal mismatch between them.
One of the problems with titanium alloys is their high reactivity with boron fibres at normal
fabrication temperatures. Borsic (boron fibres coated with silicon carbide) and SiC fibres
Show less reactivity with titanium. Improved tensile strength retention is obtained by coating
boron and SiC fibres with carbon-rich layers.
Continuous silicon carbide fibre reinforced metals have been successfully applied on
aerospace development programs fulfilling primary design objective of high specific strength
over conventional monolithic materials. The high specific strength of silicon carbide metal
matrix composites has generated significant interest for the' aircraft industry. The principal
areas of interest are for high performance structures such as aircraft, missiles and engines.
Some of the materials in this category under consideration are:
Silicon carbide/aluminium - Development of missile body casings. Wing structural
elements
Silicon carbide/titanium - Drive shaft for core of the engine requiring increased
stiffness and increased critical vibratory speed ranges. Disks for turbine engine.
Hollow fan blades.
Silicon carbide/Copper - For high temperature missile application
Silicon carbide/bronze - Propellers for naval application
MMC production technology is complicated and requires satisfaction of the following
conditions, of which the most significant are as follows:
Maintaining the reinforcing fibres strength.
Ensuring a strong bond of fibres with matrices and between the matrix layers.
Providing the correct fibre length, greater than the critical length.
Even distribution of fibres in the matrix.
Orientation of fibres in the direction of the applied load.
Achieving the required shape and dimensions of the MMC.
Obtaining MMC strength reasonably near to theoretical.
M2.3.3.5 Ceramic Matrices
While ceramic matrix composites are still in the early stages of component design,
fabrication and testing, these materials, with their damage' tolerant mechanical behaviour, are
considered as prime candidates for application of futuristic aircraft gas turbine engines. The
selection of matrix materials for ceramic composites is strongly influenced by thermal
stability and processing considerations. These include oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides and
silicides. All these materials have melting temperatures above 1600C (2912F).
M2.3.3.6 Curing of Resins
Thermoset resin like polyester is cured by adding a catalyst, which causes a chemical
reaction without changing its own composition. The catalyst initiates the chemical reaction of
the unsaturated polyester and monomer ingredient from liquid to a solid state. When used as
a curing agent, catalysts are referred to as catalytic hardeners. Proper care is required to be
taken while handling the catalysts as they can cause skin burning and permanent eye damage.
Epoxy resin is cured by adding hardener. Unlike the catalytic hardeners used for curing
polyester resin, epoxy resin hardener contains monomers, which contribute to the curing
reaction. Proper care is required to be taken while handling the epoxy resin liquids and
hardeners as they give off potentially harmful vapour causing skin rashes.
After curing, low shrinkage is desirable in order to minimize in-built stressing and distortion
of the fibres and matrix. Desirable qualities for a matrix are that it should be tough, durable
and thermally stable over a wide range of temperatures and t hat it should resist cracking,
chemical attack, ultra violet light and moisture.
M2.3.3.6.1 Ingredients and Additives used in Manufacturing of Resins
Manufacturers of all types of resins use various ingredients and additives, in different
proportions, to give their resins differing properties and characteristics suited to particular
applications. Some general classes of additives used are as follows:
M2.3.3.6.1.1 Catalysts, Promoters, Inhibitors
In polyesters, the most important additive is catalyst or initiator. Typically, organic peroxide
such 3SMEKP (Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide) is used for room temperature cured
processes, or benzoyl peroxide is added to the resin for heat cured molding. When triggered
by heat, or used in conjunction with a promoter (such as cobalt napthenate), peroxides
convert to a reactive state (exhibiting free radicals), causing the unsaturated resin to react
(cross-link) and become solid. Some additives such as TBC (Tertiary Butyl Catechol) are
used to slow the rate of reaction and
are called inhibitors. They are used in polyester resins to extend their shelf life. Accelerators
such as DMA (Dimethyl Aniline) speed up curing process.
M2.3.3.6.1.2 Additives and Modifiers
A wide variety of additives are used in composites to modify materials properties and tailor
the laminates performance. Although these materials are generally used in relatively low
quantity by weight compared to resins, reinforcements and fillers, they perform critical
functions. Additive used in thermoset and thermoplastic composites exhibits the following
properties:
Low shrink/low profile - When parts with smooth surfaces are required, a special
thermoplastic resin, which moderates resin shrinkage, can be added to thermoset
resins.
Fire resistance Combustion resistance is improved by proper choice of resin, use of
fillers or flame retardant additives. Included in this category are materials containing
antimony trioxide, bromine, chlorine, borate and phosphorus.
Air release- Most laminating resins, gel coats and other polyester resins might entrap
air during processing and application. This can cause air voids and improper fibre
wet-out. Air release additives are used to reduce such air entrapment and to enhance
fibre wet-out.
Emission control - In open mold applications, styrene emission suppressants are used
to lower emissions for air quality compliance.
Viscosity control-In many composite types, it is critical to have a low, workable
viscosity during production. Lower viscosity in such filled systems is usually
achieved by use of wetting and dispersing additives. These additives facilitate the
wet-out and dispersion of fillers resulting in lower viscosity.
Electrical conductivity- Most composites do not conduct electricity. It is possible to
obtain a degree of electrical conductivity by the addition of metal, carbon particles or
conductive fibres. Electromagnetic interference shielding can be achieved by
incorporating conductive materials.
Toughness- Toughness can be enhanced by the addition of reinforcements. It can also
be improved by special additives such as certain rubber or other elastomeric
materials.
Antioxidants - Plastics are sometimes modified with antioxidants, which retard or
inhibit polymer oxidation and the resulting degradation of the polymer.
Antistatic agents Antistatic agents are added to polymers to reduce their tendency to
attract electrical charge. Control of static electricity is essential in processing and
handling operation of certain plastics, as well as in finished products. Static charges
on plastics can produce shocks, present fire hazard and attract dust. The effect of
static charge in computer/data processing applications, for example, is particularly
detrimental.
Foaming agents- Foaming agents are added to polymers during processing to form
minute cells throughout the resin. Foamed plastics exhibit lower density, decrease
material costs, improves electrical and thermal insulation, increase strength to weight
ratio and reduce shrinkage and part warping.
Plasticizers- Plasticizers are added to compounds to improve processing characteristics
and offer a wide range of physical and mechanical properties. Slip and blocking
agents - They provide surface lubrication. This results in reduced coefficient of
friction on part surfaces and enhances release of parts from the mold.
Heat stabilizers- They are used in thermoplastic resins to inhibit polymer degradation
that results from exposure to heat.
Ultraviolet Stabilizers- Both thermoset and thermoplastic composites use special
materials which are added to prevent loss of gloss, crazing, chalking, discoloration,
changes in electrical characteristics, embitterment and disintegration due to
ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Additives, which protect composites by absorbing the UV,
are called ultraviolet absorbers. Materials, which protect the polymer in some other
manner, are known as ultraviolet stabilizers.
M2.3.3.6.2 Fillers
Fillers are inert substances added to reduce the resin cost and/or improve its physical
properties, viz., hardness, stiffness and impact strength. Commonly used fillers are calcium
carbonate, hydrated alumina and clay.
Calcium carbonate is the most widely used inorganic filler. It is available in a variety of
particle sizes and treatments, especially for composite applications. They assist in reducing
shrinkage of the molded parts. Most common grades of calcium carbonate filler are derived
from limestone or marble.
Kaolin (hydrous aluminium silicate) is commonly known as clay. Mined clays are processed
either by air flotation or by water washing to remove impurities and to classify the product
for use in composites. They serve to control viscosity, promote flow, and improve resistance
to cracking in molded parts.
Hydrated alumina is frequently used when improved fire/smoke performance is required.
They provide flame redundancy while maintaining good electrical properties. When exposed
to high temperature, this filler gives off water, thereby reducing the flame spread and
development of smoke. They are used in most electrical and construction applications.
Calcium sulphate is a major flame/smoke retarding filler. Other commonly used fillers
include mica, feldspar, silica, talc, flake glass, milled glass fibres, etc.
M2.3.3.6.3 Colorants
Colorants are often used in composites to provide colour throughout the part. Additives can
be mixed in as part of the resin or applied as part of the molding process (as a gel coat). Also,
a wide range of coatings can be applied after molding.
M2.3.3.6.4 Release Agents
Release agents facilitate removal of parts from molds. These products can be added to the
resin, applied to molds, or both. Correct selection of release agents can optimize not only
cycle time, but also consistency of surface finish, minimizing post mold operation prior to
painting or bonding. Zinc stearate is a popular mold release agent that is mixed into resin for
compression
molding. Waxes, silicones and other release agents may be applied directly to the surface of
molds.
Release agents must be used at the lowest possible concentration. Use of excessive amounts
can reduce mechanical strength and affect adhesion characteristics.
Learning Unit-4: M2.4
M2.4 Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Laminated Composites
M2.4.1 Laminate Lay-up
A structural laminate is designed to have a specific lay-up or ply arrangement, based on the
various design criteria imposed on it. A laminate lay-up definition refers to the fibre
orientation of successive pies in a laminate with respect to an established reference
coordinate system.
M2.4.2 Ply Orientation definition
The ply orientation symbol is shown in Figure M2.4.1. It designates the tape fibre direction
or the warp direction, as applicable.
Figure M2.4.1 Ply orientation symbol
It is important that for positive and negative angles should be consistent with the coordinate
system chosen.
One of the advantages of using a modern composite is its potential to orient the fibres to
respond to the load requirement s. this means that the composite designer must take into
consideration the characteristics of the material including the aspects of the fibre orientation
in each ply and how the plies arte arranged.
Each ply (lamina) is defined by a number representing the direction of the fibre in degrees
with respect to the reference (x) axis. 0 fibres of both tape and fabric are oriented at angles
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, (+) and (-) are used. Each (+) or (-) sign represents
one ply.
M2.4.2.1 Criteria used during Ply Orientation
Following criteria should be used during ply orientation:
Attention to ply orientation on strength controlled laminates can prevent matrix and
stiffness degradation. The 0 ply orientation is used to carry the longitudinal loading,
the 90 ply orientation is suited to the transverse loading and the 45 ply orientation
is for shear loading.
In order to minimize the in-plane shear, place the 45 and -45 plies together; the in-
plane shear is carried as tension and compression in the 45 plies.
To minimize warpage and interlaminar shear within a laminate, maintain the symmetry
about the centre line of the laminate.
Stress orientation can be minimized by proper designing or by stepped laminate
thickness changes.
The placement of specific ply orientations can influence the buckling strength and
damage tolerance. The outer ply orientations influence the laminate bending
characteristics more than plies placed at or near the laminate bending characteristics
more than the plies placed at or near the neutral axis.
M2.4.3 Influence of Fibre Orientation
Strength and stiffness of a composite laminate depends on the orientation of the plies with
reference to the load direction. Proper selection of ply orientation is necessary to provide a
structurally efficient design. As stated above, a composite part might require 0 plies to react
to the axial loads, 45 to react to the shear loads and 90 plies to react to the side loads. For
example, a lay-up of 50% of 0 plies and 50% of 45 plies will have strength and stiffness
equivalent to those of aluminium when loaded in the 0 direction.
M2.4.4 Laminate Lay-up Code
Laminate lay-up code must be able to specify the following:
The orientation of each ply relative to the reference axis;
Number of plies, with orientation;
Exact geometric sequence of plies;
Adjacent plies oriented at angles equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, appropriate
positive or negative signs should be assigned.
Laminate lay-up definition codes are given below:
M2.4.4.1 Total Lay-up code
Laminate Lay-up Code
45
[45/0/-60
2
/30]
T
0
-60
-60
30
45
[45/-30/+30/0]
T
-45
-30
30
0
Table M2.4.1 Total Lay-up code
M2.4.4.2 Symmetric Lay-up Code
In a laminate with symmetric lay-up code, every ply above the mid-plane has an identical ply
below the mid-plane. One half of the laminate, from the first ply to the mid-plane, is written
sequentially within brackets. A subscript S outside the bracket denotes symmetrical
laminate definition code. The laminate mid-plane divides a physical ply into a case of
symmetric laminate with odd number of plies.
Laminate Lay-up Code
90
[90/0]
S
0
0
90
0
[0/45/90/90
]
S
45
90
90
90
45
0
Table M2.4.2 Symmetric Lay-up Code
M2.4.4.3 Hybrid Laminate Code
A hybrid laminate includes plies of different materials within its lay-up. In this case, every
ply is identified by its fibre orientation angle and a subscript on the angle identified the type
or material.
Laminate Lay-up Code
0
B
[0
B
/45
GR
/90
GR
]
S
45
GR
-45
GR
90
GR
90
GR
-45
GR
-45
GR
0
B
Table M2.4.3 Hybrid Laminate Code
M2.4.4.4 Quasi Symmetric Lay-up Code
A laminate lay-up is quasi symmetric when every ply above the mid-plane has
correspondence ply below the mid-plane, with a change in the sign of its fibre orientation
angle.
Laminate Lay-up Code
45
[45/0/90]
2S
0
0
-45
Table M2.4.4 Quasi Symmetric Lay-up Code
M2.4.4.5 Set Identification Code
In this case, sets of plies repeat within a laminate lay-up. These are identified by including
them within parenthesis. An integer prefix to the subscript S refers to the laminate mid-
plane.
Laminate Lay-up Code
45
[45/0/90]
2S
0
90
45
0
90
90
0
45
90
0
45
Table M2.4.5 Set Identification Code
In addition to the above, following additional stacking sequences are also used design
consideration points of view:
M2.4.5 Special classification of Laminates
The laminates also classified based on the symmetricity of Reinforced fibres, viz:
Symmetric laminates
Anti-symmetric laminates
Non-symmetric laminates
M2.4.5.1 Symmetric laminates (Simplification of Analysis)
M2.4.5.1.1 Mid-plane Symmetric laminates
The geometric mid-plane is the reference surface for determining if a laminate is symmetrical
or not. In a mid-plane symmetric laminate, identical plies are located is above and below the
mid-plane, at locations that are mirror reflections of each about the fibre orientation. In
general, in order to reduce out-of-plane strains, coupled bending and stretching of the
laminate and complexity of analysis; laminates should be used. The in-plane response and the
bending response of a mid-plane symmetric laminate are uncoupled or independent of each
other because all the B
ij
terms are zero. This means that there is no coupling between in-plane
loads and curvature or between the bending loads and in-plane deformations. The in-plane
load (N
x,
N
y,
and N
x
) will only cause in-plane strains (
x,

y,

xy)
, and will not cause the
laminate to bend (the mid-plane curvature is equal to zero). A laminate that is not mid-plane
symmetric has non-zero Bij terms
that couple the membrane and bending response. In this case, an in-plane load will cause the laminate to bend (a response that is unique in
laminates and is not seen in metals). Likewise, an applied bending moment will cause the laminate mid-plane to be strained. Almost all the structural laminates are designed to be mid-plane symmetric so as to avoid
the generally undesirable coupling between membrane and bending reactions.
M2.4.5.1.2 Balanced Laminates
All laminates should be balanced to achieve in-plane orthotropic behaviour. A laminate is
considered balanced when there are equal number of off-axis plies in the + and directions
with equal thickness and same material properties. If the laminate contains only 0 and/or 90
layers, it satisfies the requirements for balance. Laminates may be mid-plane symmetric but
not balanced and vice versa. In a balanced laminate, A
16
=A
26
=0. In this case, an in-plane
(membrane) normal load will only induce mid-plane normal strains and will not induce any
mid-plane shear strains. Likewise, an applied shear load will only induce a mid-plane shear
strain with no accompanying normal strain. Thus, there is no coupling between extension
loads and shear strain. If, in addition, these + and plies are at the same distance from the
mid-plane, then the corresponding B and D-matrix coefficients tend towards zero. When the
balanced laminate is also mid-plane symmetric, its response emulates the behaviour of
metals.
M2.4.5.1.3 Angle Ply Laminates
An angle ply laminate has a lay-up where successive plies alternate between + and- in
fibre orientation. Based on this definition, angle ply laminates with an odd number of plies
are mid-plane symmetric but are not balanced and angle ply laminates with an even number
of alternating + and plies above the mid-plane. A [45]
s
lay-up is an example.
The mechanical response of angle ply laminates provides an explanation for the use of 45
plies at structural locations that require large shear stiffness. A set of 45 plies increase the
shear stiffness to a great extent. In the axial stiffness, 90, plies are selected to maximize the
transverse stiffness and 45 plies are selected to maximize the shear stiffness of the
laminates.
M2.4.5.1.4 cross-ply Laminates
Cross-ply laminates contain only 0 and 90 plies. In a cross-ply laminate,
A
16
=A
26
=B
16
=B
26
=D
26
=0. Mid-plane symmetric cross-ply laminates are also referred to as
orthotropic laminates. Their in-plane normal and shear behaviors are uncoupled and their
pure bending and twisting behaviors are also uncoupled. This means that N
x
and N
y
induce
only
x,

y
(

xy=0) and M
x
, M
y
induce only K
x
and K
y
(K
xy
=0). Likewise, N
xy
induce only

xy (
x,

y
=0) and K xy (Kx = Ky =0).
M2.4.5.1.5 Quasi-Isotropic Laminates
Quasi-isotropic laminates behave like isotropic materials at the laminate level though their
individual plies are orthotropic or anisotropic with respect to the reference coordinates. In
case of quasi-isotropic laminates, only the elastic in-plane properties are isotropic. The
strength properties, however, will vary with direction.
The goal of composite design is to achieve the lightest as well as most efficient structure by
aligning most of the fibres in the direction of the load. Many times there is a need; however,
to produce a composite, which has some isotropic properties, similar to metal, because of
multiple or unified load paths. A quasi-isotropic laminates lay-up accomplishes this for the x-
and y-planes only; the z- or through-the-laminate-thickness plane is quite different and lower.
Laminates with plies distributed every 45 are called /4 laminates (plies can be in the 0,
45, 90 and -45 directions). Another class of laminates (plies can be in the 0, 60, or -60
directions). In both cases, an equal percentage of plies in each of the pre-selected orientations
result in a quasi-isotropic laminate. Most laminates produced for aircraft applications have
been, with few exceptions, quasi-isotropic. For a quasi-isotropic laminate, the following are
the main design requirements:
It must have three layers or more.
Individual layers must have identical stiffness matrices and thickness.
The layers must be oriented at equal angles. For example, if total number of layers is n, the
angle between two adjacent layers should be 360/n. If a laminate is constructed from
identical sets of three or more layers each, the condition on orientation must be satisfied by
the layers in each set, for example, (060)
S
or(0/45/90).
M2.4.5.2 Anti-symmetric Laminates
Symmetry of a laminate about the mid-plane is often desirable to avoid coupling between
bending and extension. However, many physically applications design requirements. An even
number of plies may be necessary at orientations that alternate from ply to ply i.e. /+ / /+
. Thus, symmetry about the mid-planes is destroyed and the characteristics of a laminate can
be changed from that of the symmetric case. The laminate is not symmetric but anti-
symmetric about the mid-plane. The general class of anti-symmetric laminates must have an
even number of plies. Further, each ply should have same thickness.
An anti-symmetric cross-ply laminate consists of an even number of plies with principal
material directions alternating at 0 and at 90 to the laminate axes. The thickness of the plies
is also the same.
An anti-symmetric angle ply laminate has plies orientated at + to the laminate coordinate
axes on one side of the mid-plane and corresponding equal thickness ply orientated at - on
the other side.
Anti-symmetric Laminates
The general class of anti-symmetric laminates must have a number of layers. In such
laminates, A
16
=A
26
=D
16
=D
26
=0. The coupling stiffness B
ij
vary for different classes of anti-
symmetric laminates.
In case of anti-symmetric cross-ply laminates, A
16
=A
26
=B
16
=B
26
=D
16
=D
26
=0. As the number
of layers in a laminate increases, coupling stiffness B
11
also approaches zero.
In case of anti-symmetric angle ply laminates, A
16
=A
26
=B
11
=B
12
=B
66
=D
16
=D
26
=0. As the
number of layers in a laminate increases; the coupling stiffness B
16
and B
26
also approaches
zero.
The designer should, therefore, take advantage of the orthotropic nature of the fibre
composite ply in order to
Orient the individual plies as per the above criteria.
Intersperse the ply orientation. If a design requires a laminate with 16 plies at 45, 16
plies at 0, and 16 plies at 90, use the intersperse design (90
2
/45
2
/0
2
)
4S
rather than
(90
8
/45
8
/0
8
)
S
design
.
Concerning plies at nearly the same angle provides the
opportunity for large matrix cracks to form thereby producing lower laminate
allowable. Even if a design requires all 0 plies, some 90 plies and some off-angle
plies should be interspersed in the laminate to provide some biaxial strength and
stability and also to accommodate unplanned loads. This improves handling
characteristics of the laminates and serves to prevent large matrix cracks from
forming. Ensure that the laminate has sufficient fibre orientations to avoid
dependence on the matrix for stability.
Use multiple ply angles. Typical composites are constructed from multiple
unidirectional or fabric layers which are positioned at angular orientations in a
specified stacking sequence. The multiple layers are usually oriented in at least two
different angles, and possibly three or four; (/0/) or (0//90) cover most
of the applications with between 30 and 60. Unidirectional laminates are rarely
used except when the basic composite material is only mildly orthotropic or when the
load path is absolutely known or carefully oriented parallel to the reinforcement.
M2.4.5.3 Spirally Stacked Laminates/Non-symmetric laminates
It has been shown by experiments that inter-laminar stresses are less in a spirally stacked
laminate as composed to any other laminate with similar fibre orientation. Inter-laminar
stresses arise out the difference between the angles of two adjacent plies- smaller difference
is better than larger difference.
Most laminates used today are symmetric so as to eliminate or reduce any tendency of the
structure to warp unexpectedly. Most laminates are also balanced, often because it is
erroneously thought to be preventing the structure from warping. A balanced laminate is
really necessary in situations with reversible shear loading conditions.There are two
production methods to obtain a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon fibres.
1. Chemical vapour impregnation - where a preform is compressed by deposition of
carbon from a gaseous phase.
2. The liquid phase impregnation - where a carbon preform is compressed by means of
multiple impregnations with resin and intermediate carbonization steps.
M3.1 Stress and strain concepts in 3-D
M3.1.1 Stress Concepts:
The Definition of Stress:
The concept of stress originated from the study of strength and failure of solids. The stress
field is the distribution of internal "tractions" that balance a given set of external tractions and
body forces.
First, we look at the external traction T that represents the force per unit area acting at a
given location on the body's surface. Traction T is a bound vector, which means T cannot
slide along its line of action or translate to another location and keep the same meaning.

Figure M3.1.1: Action of force (F) on a body
In other words, a traction vector cannot be fully described unless both the force (F) and the
surface (S) where the force acts on have been specified, as shown in Figure M3.1.1 Given
both Fand S , the traction T can be defined as,


Figure M3.1.2: Stresses at a points
The internal traction within a solid, or stress, can be defined in a similar manner. Suppose an
arbitrary slice is made across the solid shown in the Figure M3.1.2, leading to the free body
diagram shown at right. Surface tractions would appear on the exposed surface, similar in
form to the external tractions applied to the body's exterior surface. The stress at point P can
be defined using the same equation as was used for T.
Stress therefore can be interpreted as internal tractions that act on a defined internal datum
plane. One cannot measure the stress without first specifying the datum plane.
Components of Stress: The Stress Tensor (or Stress Matrix):
Surface tractions, or stresses acting on an internal datum plane, are typically decomposed
into three mutually orthogonal components. One component is normal to the surface and
represents direct stress. The other two components are tangential to the surface and represent
shear stresses.
What is the distinction between normal and tangential tractions, or equivalently, direct
and shear stresses? Direct stresses tend to change the volume of the material (e.g.
hydrostatic pressure) and are resisted by the body's bulk modulus (which depends on the
Young's modulus and Poisson ratio). Shear stresses tend to deform the material without
changing its volume, and are resisted by the body's shear modulus.

Figure M3.1.3:
Elements 3-dimensional stress. All stresses have positive sense.
Defining a set of internal datum planes aligned with a Cartesian coordinate system allows the
stress state at an internal point P to be described relative to x-, y-, and z-coordinate
directions as shown in Figure M3.1.3.
For example, the stress state at point P can be represented by an infinitesimal cube with
three stress components on each of its six sides (one direct and two shear components).
Since each point in the body is under static equilibrium (no net force in the absence of any
body forces), only nine stress components from three planes are needed to describe the stress
state at a point P.
These nine components can be organized into the matrix:
The subscript notation used for the nine stress components have the following meaning:
Note:
The stress state is a second order tensor since it is a quantity associated with two directions.
As a result, stress components have 2-subscripts. A surface traction is a first order tensor (i.e.
vector) since it a quantity associated with only one direction. Vector components therefore
require only 1 subscript. Mass would be an example of a zero-order tensor (i.e. scalars),
which have no relationships with directions (and no subscripts).
Equations of Equilibrium:
Consider the static equilibrium of a solid subjected to the body force vector field b. Applying
Newton's first law of motion results in the following set of differential equations which
govern the stress distribution within the solid,
In the case of two dimensional stress, the above equations reduce to,
M3.1.1 Strain Concepts:
Global 1D Strain:
Figure M3.1.4: Global 1-dimensional strain.
Consider a rod with initial length L which is stretched to a length L', as shown in Figure
M3.1.4. The strain measure , a dimensionless ratio, is defined as the ratio of elongation with
respect to the original length,
Infinitesimal 1D Strain:
The above strain measure is defined in a global sense. The strain at each point may vary
dramatically if the bar's elastic modulus or cross-sectional area changes. To track down the
strain at each point, further refinement in the definition is needed.
Figure M3.1.5: Infinitesimal 1-dimensional strain.
Consider an arbitrary point in the bar P, which has a position vector x, and its infinitesimal
neighbor dx. Point P shifts to P', which has a position vector x', after the stretch; as shown
in Figure M3.1.5. In the meantime, the small "step" dx is stretched to dx'.
The strain at point p can be defined the same as in the global strain measure,
General Definition of 3D Strain:
As in the one dimensional strain derivation, suppose that point P in a body shifts to point P
after deformation, as shown in Figure M3.1.5
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationships can be summarized as,
where is the displacement vector, x is coordinate, and the two indices i and j can range
over the three coordinates {1 in three dimensional space. u,2,3}
Expanding the above equation for each coordinate direction gives,
where u, v, and w are the displacements in the x, y, and z directions respectively (i.e. they are
the components of u).
3D Strain Matrix:
There are a total of six - strain measures. These six - measures can be organized into a matrix
(similar in form to the 3D stress matrix), shown here,
Engineering Shear Strain:
Focus on the strain
xy
for a moment. The expression inside the parentheses can be rewritten
as,
Figure M3.1.7 (a): Shear strain tensor is the average of strains, i.e.
Figure M3.1.7 (b): Engineer shear strain is the total of strains, i.e.
beware of the difference between shear strain and engineering shear strain, so as to avoid
errors in mathematical manipulations.
Compatibility Conditions:
In the strain-displacement relationships, there are six strain measures but only three
independent displacements. That is, there are 6-unknowns for only 3-independent variables.
As a result there exist 3-constraint, or compatibility, equations.
These compatibility conditions for infinitesimal strain refered to rectangular Cartesian
coordinates are,
In two dimensional problems (e.g. plane strain), all z terms are set to zero. The
compatibility equations reduce to, (
M3.1.2.One-dimensional Hooke's Law:
Robert Hooke (who in 1676) stated that, The power of any springy body is in the same
proportion with the extension and it commonly called/announced as the birth of elasticity.
Hooke's statement expressed mathematically is,
where F is the applied force (and not the power, as Hooke mistakenly suggested), u is the
deformation of the elastic body subjected to the force F, and k is the spring constant (i.e. the
ratio of previous two parameters).
Generalized Hooke's Law (Anisotropic Form):
Note: In this module text in Italic indicates advanced
concepts.
Non-isotropic, Linear Elastic Behavior
Contracted Notation:
Unlike a matrix (which has rows and columns, 2-D representation), general tensors cannot
be written on the blackboard. So in order to manipulate the elastic relations like a matrix, a
mapping was created to write the stress and strain tensors as "vectors" and the stiffness (or
compliance) as a "matrix". The mapping is simply:
M3.2 Introduction to Anisotropic Elasticity
Stress-strain relationships for Isotropic, Orthotropic and Transverse
materials
M3.2.1 Isotropic Definition:
Most metallic alloys and thermoset polymers are considered isotropic, where by definition
the material properties are independent of direction. Such materials have only 2 independent
variables (i.e. elastic constants) in their stiffness and compliance matrices, as opposed to the
21 elastic constants in the general anisotropic case.
The two elastic constants are usually expressed as the Young's modulus E and the Poisson's
ratio (or n). However, the alternative elastic constants bulk modulus (K) and/or shear
modulus (G) can also be used. For isotropic materials, G and K can be found from E and n
by a set of equations, and vice-versa.
Hooke's Law in Compliance Form:
Hooke's law for isotropic materials in compliance matrix form is given by,
Some literatures may have a factor 2 multiplying the shear moduli in the compliance matrix
resulting from the difference between shear strain and engineering shear strain, where,
Hooke's Law in Stiffness Form:
The stiffness matrix is equal to the inverse of the compliance matrix, and is given by,
Some literatures may have a factor 1/2 multiplying the shear moduli in the stiffness matrix
resulting from the difference between shear strain and engineering shear strain, where,
M3.2.2 Orthotropic Definition:
Some engineering materials, including certain piezoelectric materials (e.g. Rochelle salt) and
2-ply fiber-reinforced composites, are orthotropic.
By definition, an orthotropic material has at least 2-orthogonal planes of symmetry, where
material properties are independent of direction within each plane. Such materials require 9-
independent variables (i.e. elastic constants) in their constitutive matrices.
In contrast, a material without any planes of symmetry is fully anisotropic and requires 21-
elastic constants, whereas a material with an infinite number of symmetry planes (i.e. every
plane is a plane of symmetry) is isotropic, and requires only 2-elastic constants.
M3.2.3 Transverse Isotropic Definition:
A special class of orthotropic materials is those that have the same properties in one plane
(e.g. the x-y plane) and different properties in the direction normal to this plane (e.g. the z-
axis). Such materials are called transverse isotropic, and they are described by 5-independent
elastic constants, instead of 9 for fully orthotropic.
Examples of transversely isotropic materials include some piezoelectric materials (e.g. PZT-
4, barium titanate) and fiber-reinforced composites where all fibers are in parallel.
Hooke's Law in Compliance Form:
By convention, the 5-elastic constants in transverse isotropic constitutive equations are the
Young's modulus and Poissons ratio in the x-y symmetry plane, Epandp', the Young's
modulus and Poissons ratio in the z-direction, Epz and pz', and the shear modulus in the z-
direction. Gzp
The compliance matrix takes the form,
Note: In this module text in Italic indicates advanced
concepts.
Independent Material Constants:
Hooke was probably the first person that suggested a mathematical expression of the stress-
strain relation for a given material.
The most general stress-strain relationship (a.k.a. generalized Hooke's law) within the theory
of linear elasticity is that of the materials without any plane of symmetry, i.e., general
anisotropic materials or triclinic materials. If there is a plane of symmetry, the material is
termed monoclinic. If the number of symmetric planes increases to two, the third orthogonal
plane of material symmetry will automatically yield and form a set of principal axes. In this
case, the material is known as orthotropic. If there exists, a plane in which the mechanical
properties are equal in all directions, the material is called transversely isotropic. If there is
an infinite number of planes of material symmetry, i.e., the mechanical properties in all
directions are the same at a given point, the material is known as isotropic.
Please distinguish 'isotropic' from 'homogeneous.' A material is isotropic when its
mechanical properties remain the same in all directions at a given point while they may
change from point to point; a material is homogeneous when its mechanical properties may
be different along different directions at given point, but this variation is consistent from
point to point. For example, consider three common items on a dining table: stainless steel
forks, bamboo chopsticks, and Swiss cheese. Stainless steel is isotropic and homogeneous.
Bamboo chopsticks are homogeneous but not isotropic (they are transversely isotropic,
strong along the fiber direction, relatively weak but equal in other directions). Swiss cheese
is isotropic but not homogeneous
(The air bubbles formed during production left inhomogeneous spots).
Both stress and strain fields are second order tensors. Each component consists of
information in two directions: the normal direction of the plane in question and the direction
of traction or deformation. There are 9-components in each field in a three dimensional
space. Since they are symmetric, engineers usually rewrite them from a 33 matrix to a
vector with 6-components and arrange the stress-strain relations into a 66 matrix to form
the generalized Hooke's law. For the 36 components in the stiffness or compliance matrix,
not every component is independent to each other and some of them might be zero. This
information is summarized in the following table.
Independent Constants Nonzero
On-axis
Nonzero
Off-axis
Nonzero
General
Triclinic
(General Anisotropic)
21 36 36 36
Monoclinic 13 20 36 36
Orthotropic 9 12 20 36
Transversely Isotropic 5 12 20 36
Isotropic 2 12 12 12
A more detailed discussion of stress, strain, and the stress-strain relations of materials can
be found in the Mechanics of Materials section.
Learning Unit-3: M3.3
M3.3 Tensorial concept and indicial notation and tensorial
representations in Elasticity, Voigot notations
M3.3 Tensorial Concept and Indicial Notations
M3.3.1 Tensorial Concept/General Characteristics of Tensors
In the study of particle mechanics and/or the mechanics of rigid bodies (Solid Mechanics),
vector notation provides a convenient means for describing many physical quantities and
laws. In studying the mechanics of (solid) deformable media, physical quantities of a more
complex nature assume importance; e.g., stress and strain (recall: one must now specify not
only the magnitude of the quantity, but also the orientation of the face upon which this
quantity acts). Mathematically such physical quantities are represented by matrices.
In the analysis of general problems in continuum mechanics, the physical quantities
encountered can be somewhat more complex than vectors and matrices. Like vectors and
matrices these physical quantities are independent of any particular coordinate system that
may be used to describe them. At the same time, these physical quantities are very often
specified most conveniently by referring to an appropriate system of coordinates. Tensors
(which are a generalization of vectors and matrices) offer a suitable way of representing these
quantities mathematically.
As an abstract mathematical entity, tensors have an existence independent of any coordinate
system (or frame of reference), yet are most conveniently described by specifying their
components in an appropriate system of coordinates. Specifying the components of a tensor
in one coordinate system determines the components in any other system. Indeed, the law of
transformation of tensor components is often used as a means for defining the tensor.
Since such transformations are linear and homogeneous, tensor equations valid in one
coordinate system are valid in any other coordinate system. This constitutes the invariance of
tensor equations under coordinate transformations.
M3.3.1.2 Concept of Tensor Rank
Tensors may be classified by rank or order according to the particular form of transformation
law they obey. This classification is also reflected in the number of components a given
tensor possesses in an N-dimensional space. Thus, a tensor of order n has components. For
example, in a three-dimensional Euclidean space, the number of components of a tensor is
3n. It follows therefore, that in three-dimensional space: nN
A tensor of order zero has one component and is called a scalar (physical quantities
possessing magnitude only are represented by scalars).
A tensor of order one has three components and is called a vector (quantities possessing
both magnitude and direction are represented by vectors). Geometrically, vectors are
represented by directed line segments which obey the Parallelogram Law of addition.
A tensor of order two has nine components and is typically represented by a matrix.
Notation
The following symbols are used in the sequel:
Scalars are represented by lowercase Greek letters; e.g., ;
Vectors are represented by lowercase Latin letters; e.g., a , or {a } ; and, ~a
Matrices and tensors are represented by uppercase Latin letters; e.g., A, or [A]. A~
M3.3.1.2 Concept of Cartesian Tensor
When only transformations from one homogeneous coordinate system (e.g., a Cartesian
coordinate system) to another are considered, the tensors involved are referred to as Cartesian
tensors. The Cartesian coordinate system can be rectangular (x, y, z) or curvilinear such as
cylindrical (r,, z) or spherical (r,,).
Tensors are quantities that are governed by specific transformation laws when the coordinate
system is transformed. If the reference coordinate frame is Cartesian then the associated
tensors are known as Cartesian Tensors. Tensors can be classified according to their order.
M3.3.2.1 Rules for Indicial Notation
Some rules for using indicial notation follow.
M3.3.2.1.1 Index rule
In a given term, a letter index may occur no more than twice.
M3.3.2.1.2 Range convention
When an index occurs unrepeated in a term, that index is understood to take on the values
1,2,...........,N, where N is a specified integer which, depending on the space considered,
determines the range of the index.
M3.3.2.1.5 Dummy indices
In the summation convention, repeated indices are often referred to as dummy indices, since
their replacement by any other letter not appearing as a free index does not change the
meaning of the term in which they occur.
Voigot Notations:
Tensorial and Contracted Notation:
Learning Unit-3: M3.4
Figure M3.4.1 Stresses acting on a small element of fiber-reinforced material in a state of
plane stress
Figure M3.4.2 Example of region of high out-of-plane stresses: Delamination at a free edge
Figure M3.4.3 Another laminate Example of region of high out-of-plane stresses: Bonded
joint
Figure M3.4.4 Example of region of high out-of-plane stresses: Stiffened plate
Figure M3.4.5 illustrates another area where through-the-thickness stresses are important.
Often it is necessary, or desirable, to change the thickness of a laminate by gradually
terminating some of the layers. Away from the terminated layer region each portion of the
laminate could well be in a state of plane stress due to the applied inplane load P. However,
the thicker region is in a different state of plane stress than the thinner region. To make the
transition between the two stress states, three-dimensional effects occur.
The illustrations in Figures M3.4.2 to Figure M3.4.5 are prime examples of situations
encoun-tered in real composite structures. However, the plane-stress assumption is accurate
in so many situations that one would be remiss in not taking advantage of its simplifications.
The static, dynamic, and thermally induced deflections and the stresses that result from these,
vibration frequencies, buckling loads, and many other responses of composite structures can
be accurately predicted using the plane-stress assumption. What is important to remember
when applying the plane-stress assumption is that it assumes that three stresses are small
relative to the other three stresses and they have therefore been set to zero. They do not
necessarily have to be exactly zero, and in fact in many cases they are not exactly zero. With
the aid of the three-dimensional equi-librium equations of the theory of elasticity,
calculations based on the plane-stress assumption can be used to predict the stress
components that have been equated to zero. When these results are compared with
predictions of the out-of-plane components based on rigorous analyses wherein the out-of-
plane components are not assumed to be zero at the outset, we find that in many cases the
comparisons are excellent. Thus, a plane-stress, or, using alternative terminology, a two-
dimensional analysis, is useful. Two of the major pitfalls associated with using the plane-
stress assumption are:
1. The stress components equated to zero are often forgotten and no attempt is made to
estimate their magnitude.
2. It is often erroneously assumed that because the stress component 3 is zero and
therefore ignorable, the associated strain 3 is also zero and ignorable.
Figure M3.4.5 Example of region of high out-of-plane stresses: Region of terminal layers
Regarding the former point, while certain stress components may indeed be small, the
material may be very weak in resisting these stresses. As was stated earlier, a fiber-reinforced
material is poor in resisting all stresses except stresses in the fiber direction. Thus, several
stress components may be small and so the problem conforms to the plane-stress assumption.
However, the out-of-plane stresses may be large enough to cause failure of the material and
therefore they should not be completely ignored. Often they are. Regarding the second point,
the stresses in the 1-2 plane of the principal material coordinate system can cause a
significant strain response in the 3-direction. The assumption that 3is zero just because 3is
negligible is wrong and, as we shall see shortly, defies the stress-strain relations that govern
material behavior. It is important to keep these two points in mind as we focus our discussion
in the following chapters on the plane-stress condition.