Chapter 34:
Reptiles and Birds
Biology II
Key Characteristics of Reptiles:
Anatomy
Strong, bony skeleton
Toes with claws
Claws used for climbing and digging, but also allow
for good traction
Most have 2 pairs of limbs, but snakes
and some lizards are legless
Legs positioned more directly under
body than those of amphibians
Dry, scaly, almost watertight skin
Almost watertight amniotic eggs
Key Characteristics of Reptiles:
Physiology
Brain small in relation to body
Still capable of complex behaviors
Respiration through well-developed lungs
Ventricle of heart
partly divided by
septum
Internal fertilization
Key Characteristics of Reptiles:
Ectothermic Metabolism
Reptile metabolism is too slow to generate
enough heat to keep the body warm
Body temperature is largely determined by
temperature of environment
Body temperature can also be
regulated behaviorally, to an extent
Too cold bask in sun
Too hot seek shade
Though reptiles live in a variety of habitats, they
cannot survive at very low temperatures
Become sluggish and unable to function
Reptilian Characteristics:
Watertight Skin
Unlike amphibians, who must stay moist to
avoid dehydration, reptiles have virtually
watertight skin
Light, flexible scales
overlap and form
protective, almost
watertight skin
Reptilian Characteristics:
Watertight Eggs
2 potential problems for terrestrial reproduction
Egg and sperm will dry out without watery
environment
Internal fertilization
Fertilized eggs need moist
environment to develop
Amniotic egg contains both
water and food supply
Essentially watertight
Most reptiles, all birds, and 3 species of
mammals all reproduce by means of amniotic
eggs (suggests common ancestor)
The Amniotic Egg
Shell is porous to allow gas exchange
O
2
in and CO
2
out
Shell and albumen (egg
white) protect developing
embryo
The amnion encloses embryo
in watery environment
Yolk sac contains food supply
Absorb yolk through blood
vessels connecting to gut
Allantois stores waste and contains blood vessels that
work in gas exchange
Chorion is membrane that allows O
2
to enter and CO
2
to leave
Reptilian Characteristics:
Lungs
Most reptiles have greater O
2
requirement than
amphibians
Reptile skin cannot breathe like that of amphibians
Lungs of reptiles have many internal folds to
compensate
Increases surface
area of lungs
Strong muscles also attached to rib cage,
allowing more efficient gas exchange through
the lungs
Reptilian Characteristics:
Heart
Incomplete septum partly
divides ventricles of
reptile heart
Enables some separation
between O
2
-rich and
O
2
-poor blood
O
2
delivered more efficiently
in reptiles than in amphibians,
who have no septum
Crocodilians have complete
division of ventricles, making O
2
delivery even
more efficient
Reptilian Characteristics:
Reproduction
Many reptiles are oviparous, meaning their
young hatch from eggs
Includes most snakes/lizards, all turtles/tortoises,
all crocodilians and birds,
and 3 species of mammals
Fertilization occurs
internally, unlike in
amphibians
Parental care of eggs is
rare
Reptilian Characteristics:
Reproduction
Some species of snakes and lizards are
ovoviviparous
Female retains eggs within her body until
either shortly before hatching or after
hatching
Embryos receive water
and O
2
from mother,
but still receive
nourishment from yolk sac
Eggs are less vulnerable to predators
Todays Reptiles:
Lizards
Lizards and snakes belong to order Squamata
Characterized by lower jaw that is very loosely
connected to skull, allowing mouth to open wide
enough to accommodate larger prey
Include iguanas, chameleons,
geckos, and anoles
Most are carnivorous
Most are small, measuring <1 ft.
in length, but the Komodo dragon
can reach 10 ft. and 275 lbs.
Some species have evolved defense mechanism in
which tail will break off when seized by a predator,
regenerating later
Todays Reptiles:
Snakes
Snakes likely evolved from lizards during Cretaceous
Lack movable eyelids and external ears, as do many
lizards
Like lizards, snakes periodically molt
Most lack pectoral girdle, the supporting bones for
bones of forelimbs
Found in even legless lizards
Jaw has 5 points of movement,
making it very flexible
Some snakes use various methods to subdue prey
before swallowing, including constriction and venom
Timber Rattlesnake: External
Structure
Rattle consists of 5-7 interlocking rings made of
the protein keratin
Each time it molts, a new
ring is added to base
Use pit organ located between
each eye and nostril to detect
infrared radiation
Can locate prey in total
darkness
Timber Rattlesnake:
Internal Structure
Modified salivary glands in upper jaw produce
venom containing hemotoxins, proteins that
attack the circulatory system
Venom injected through
hollow, upper fangs
Jacobsens organs, 2 depressions located in the
roof of mouth, detect odor of chemicals taken
using forked tongue
Used to follow scent trail of prey
Spine made up of 100s of vertebrae, each with
own pair of attached ribs
Todays Reptiles:
Turtles and Tortoises
Differ from other reptiles because of hard, protective
shell
Many can pull head and legs inside
Provides support for all muscle attachments in torso
Made of fused plates of bone covered with horny
shields or tough leathery skin and consists of 2
basic parts
Carapace dorsal portion of shell
In most species, vertebrae and
ribs fused to inside
Plastron ventral portion of shell
Turtles and Tortoises (cond)
Most tortoises have dome-shaped shell, while
many turtles have stream-lined, disc-shaped
shell that permits rapid maneuvering in water
Tortoises are turtles particularly well-adapted
to life on land
Lack teeth but jaws covered by sharp plates,
forming powerful beaks
Many are herbivores, but
some are carnivores
Todays Reptiles:
Crocodiles and Alligators
Members of order Crocodilia also include
aggressive carnivores such as caimans, and
gavials
Can be quite large, reaching 6 m and 1650 lbs
Bodies are adapted to stealth form of hunting
Eyes high on sides of head and nostrils on top of
snout
Strong neck and enormous mouth
Valve in back of mouth prevents
water from entering lungs
Characterized by parental care after hatching
Todays Reptiles: Tuataras
2 living species of tuataras exist today
Members of genus Sphenodon
Native to New Zealand
Lizard-like reptiles up to 2 ft. in length
Most active at low temperatures
Bask in sun or burrow during day and feed on
insects, worms, and small
animals at night
Sometimes called living
fossils because they are
almost unchanged after 150 million years
Key Characteristics of Birds
Forelimbs modified into wings
Body covered with feathers
Lightweight, hollow bones
Endothermic metabolism
Super-efficient respiratory
system
Heart with completely divided ventricle
Birds: General Information
Birds belong to the class Aves
Retain some reptilian characteristics:
Amniotic eggs
Feet/legs covered with scales
Show non-reptilian characteristics
Usually lack teeth
Tail greatly reduced in length
Presence of feathers and forelimbs modified into
wings
Remember all birds cannot fly!!!
Feathers
Feathers are modified reptilian scales that
develop from tiny pits called follicles
Birds molt and replace feathers
2 main types of feathers
Contour Feather
Down Feathers
Feathers can be important as
camouflage or play a part in mate
selection
Contour Feathers
Contour feathers cover birds body and
give adult birds their shape
Has many branches called barbs
Several projections called
barbules have microscopic
hooks linking barbs
together, providing continuous
surface and sturdy but flexible
shape for feather
Flight feathers specialized
contour feathers found on birds wings and tail that
help provide lift for flight
Preening
Preening process in which bird pulls its
feather through its beak
With use, connections between barbs become
undone, but preening re-links these connections
Oil is also spread over
feathers to clean and
waterproof them
Preen Gland
specialized gland that
secretes oil
Down Feathers
Down feathers cover the body of young
birds and are found beneath contour feathers
of adults
Provides insulation,
conserving body
heat
Bird Skeletons
Birds are relatively lightweight for their size
Bones are thin and hollow
Many bones are fused,
making skeleton more rigid
than that of reptile
Fused sections form sturdy
frame that anchors muscles
during flight
Power of Flight
Power for flight (or swimming underwater) comes
from breast muscles
Can make up ~30% of bird body weight
Muscles stretch from wing to
breastbone
Breastbone greatly
enlarged and has
prominent keel for muscle
attachment
Muscles also attach to wishbone (fused collarbone)
No other vertebrates have wishbone or keeled
breastbone
Endothermic Metabolism
Birds are endotherms, meaning they generate enough
heat through metabolism to maintain a high body
temperature
Body temps range from 4042 C (Humans: 37 C)
High temps results from high
rate of metabolism, since
flying requires more energy
Heart and lung structure also
help meet this demand
Avian Heart
Like crocodilians, the ventricles of birds are
completely divided by septum
O
2
delivered through body more efficiently, since
there is no mixing of O
2
-rich and O
2
-poor blood
Unlike the fish heart, the sinus venosus is not a
separate chamber in avian heart
Small amount of tissue remains in wall of right
atrium; this is known as hearts pacemaker and is
point of origin of heartbeat
Avian Heart Structure
Highly Efficient Lungs
Because birds use considerable amount of
energy, they need more efficient lungs, which
they get through one-way air flow
Limits to increased surface area
Possible because air sacs that act as holding tanks
are connected to lungs
Lungs exposed only to fully oxygenated air
Flow of blood in lungs runs in different direction
than flow of air, increasing oxygen absorption
Avian Lung Structure
Internal Structure
Birds rank 2
nd
among vertebrates in ratio of brain to
body size (mammals 1
st
)
Makes possible the precise control of movement
and balance necessary for flight
Excretory system is efficient and lightweight
No storage of liquid waste in bladder; rather
nitrogenous wastes are converted to uric acid
(white paste) and eliminated through cloaca
Eggs are also passed through cloaca
Digestive system consists of crop, an expandable
lower portion of esophagus, and 2-chambered
stomach, the second of which is the gizzard
(grinds/crushes food)
Internal Structures
Birds Adaptations
The 28 orders of birds that exist today are
adapted for different ways of life
Beaks, legs, and feet are adapted for specific
habitats
Stream-lined bodies
adapted for gliding over
water (gulls)
Low-light vision allows for
nocturnal hunting (owl)
Bird Adaptations
Bird Adaptations
