1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
7 The Background of Thermoforming
7 The Advantages of Thermoforming
8 The Advantages of Thermoforming
with Bayer Thermoplastics
8 Product Choice
8 Bayer Expertise
THE THERMOFORMING PROCESS:
AN OVERVIEW
12 The Forming Cycle
13 Methods of Thermoforming
13 Post-Forming
MOLD DESIGN
14 Mold Types
14 Male and Female Molds
14 Matched Molds
14 Multiple-Mold Layout
15 Mold Materials
15 Plaster
15 Wood
15 Plastic
16 Aluminum
16 Sprayed Metal
16 Electroformed Metal
16 Steel
16 Mold Design Considerations
16 Radii, Drafts, and Undercuts
17 Vacuum Holes
17 Plug and Ring Assists
PART DESIGN
19 Depth of Draw
19 Reproducing Detail
19 Ribbing
20 Fillets
20 Stress Concentration
20 Shrinkage
21 Mold Shrinkage
21 After-Mold Shrinkage
21 In-Service Shrinkage and Expansion
21 Undercuts
22 Inserts
22 Part Layout
THERMOFORMING EQUIPMENT
23 Sheet Drying Equipment
24 Thermoformer Ovens
25 Mold Temperature Control
26 Vacuum and Pressure Requirements
26 Sheet Clamping and Transfer
Equipment
27 Sheet-Fed Thermoformers
27 Single-Station Thermoformers
28 Shuttle Thermoformer
29 Rotary Thermoformer
30 Continuous Thermoformers
30 Straight-Line, Roll-Fed Thermoformer
30 Drum or Ferris Wheel Thermoformer
31 In-Line Thermoformer
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS, continued
FEEDSTOCK
32 Sheet Gauge Uniformity
32 Orientation (Internal Strain)
33 Toughness
33 Moisture Content and Contamination
MATERIAL PRE-DRYING AND
PRE-HEATING
34 Material Pre-Drying
35 Material Pre-Heating
SINGLE-STEP FORMING TECHNIQUES
37 Drape Forming with a Male Mold
37 Drape Forming with a Female Mold
(Straight Vacuum Forming)
38 Pressure Forming
38 Free Forming
39 Matched-Mold Forming
39 Trapped-Sheet Pressure Forming
40 Twin-Sheet Forming
MULTIPLE-STEP FORMING TECHNIQUES
41 Plug-Assisted Vacuum Forming
42 Plug-Assisted Pressure Forming
42 Slip-Ring Forming
42 Vacuum Snap-Back Forming
42 Billow Snap-Back Forming
COOLING AND PART REMOVAL
44 Part Cooling
44 Part Removal
POST-FORMING
45 Trimming, Cutting, and Finishing
45 Joining
46 Mechanical Fastening
46 Press and Snap Fits
46 Solvent Bonding
46 Adhesive Bonding
47 Ultrasonic Bonding
47 Printing and Decorating
47 Printing
47 Labeling
47 Painting
47 Metallizing
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
48 Voids or Bubbles in Formed Parts
48 Crazed or Brittle Parts
49 Warped Parts
49 Texture Washout and Excess Gloss
50 Non-Uniform Drape
50 Incomplete Forming of Part, Poor Detail
51 Scorched Sheet
51 Poor Surface Finish
52 Blushing or Loss of Color
53 Chill Marks or Mark-Off
53 Nipples on Mold Side of Formed Part
54 Webbing, Bridging, or Wrinkling
55 Insufficient Draw-Down
55 Poor Wall Thickness Distribution and
Excessive Thinning in Some Areas
56 Shrink Marks
56 Shiny Streaks on Part
56 Excessive Shrinkage or Distortion of Part
After Removing from Mold
TABLE OF CONTENTS, continued
5
57 Corners Too Thin in Deep Draw
57 Difficult Part Removal
58 Loss of Vacuum Seal
58 Sheet Sticking to Plug
58 Tearing of Sheet During Forming
59 Cracking of Part During Service
59 Whitening of Sheet
59 Poor Embossing Detail
59 Excessive Sheet Sag
59 Varying Sag Levels Among Sheets
59 Non-Uniform Billow
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
60 General
60 Health and Safety Precautions
GENERAL INFORMATION
61 Regulatory Compliance
61 Regrind Usage
61 Medical Grade Information
61 Sterilization Information
62 Technical Support
APPENDIX A
63 Glossary
APPENDIX B
67 Process Temperature Guide for
Thermoforming Bayer Thermoplastics
APPENDIX C
68 List of Tables
APPENDIX D
69 List of Figures
INDEX
70 Index
Figure 1
This guide has been designed specifi-
cally for the experienced thermoformer
who wishes to achieve consistent,
highly marketable results with sheet
extruded from Bayer thermoplastic
resins. This information will add to
your thermoforming expertise and help
you produce finished products of the
highest quality.
THE BACKGROUND OF
THERMOFORMING
Thermoforming is one of the oldest
plastic molding techniques, with a
history dating well back into the 19th
century. It is a distinctly American
contribution to the industry. Most
other methods of processing plastic
originated in Europe.
For many years, the thermoforming
industry was relatively small because
it lacked suitable sheet materials and
forming equipment capable of produc-
tion operations. Thus, early forming
techniques emphasized injection and
compression molding.
Around 1920, cellulosic sheet materi-
als, followed later by acrylic and
vinyls, sparked the growth of the ther-
moforming industry. The emergence
of thermoforming as a major thermo-
plastic fabrication process began to
accelerate in the early 1950s when the
dairy industry began to use containers
and lids formed from high-impact
polystyrene for packaging cottage
cheese, sour cream, yogurt, and other
dairy foods. Thermoforming continued
to gain strength with the manufacture
of signs and displays, toys, and other
packaging applications.
Over the past two decades, thermo-
forming has become an increasingly
important method of plastic sheet
processing. Sheet made of Bayer
resins has the dimensional stability
and the impact strength required for
todays demanding applications.
THE ADVANTAGES OF
THERMOFORMING
As a method of molding plastics, ther-
moforming offers important commer-
cial advantages. For many large appli-
cations involving limited production
runs, injection molding is not feasible
due to prohibitive tooling costs or
equipment limitations, making thermo-
forming the only method that is eco-
nomical or practical. Suitable thermo-
forming equipment is usually available
at moderate cost, and thermoforming
molds are usually much less expensive
than injection molds. In addition,
very-thin-walled items that are often
difficult or impossible to produce by
injection molding can be easily pro-
duced by thermoforming.
7
INTRODUCTION
Early Application of Plastic Thermoforming
The use of thermoformed containers by the dairy industry marked the emergence
of thermoforming as a major thermoplastic fabrication process.
Thermoforming is not without its limi-
tations, however. It usually cannot
achieve extremely accurate wall or part
dimensions. Thus, injection molding is
the preferred method when close toler-
ances are required. If material cost is
critical, thermoforming may not be
practical because extruded sheet is
somewhat more expensive than raw
resin. Also, there is usually a consider-
able amount of trim scrap from the
thermoformed part that must be
reprocessed or discarded.
Table 1 provides and overview of the
advantages and limitations of thermo-
forming.
THE ADVANTAGES OF THERMO-
FORMING WITH BAYER
THERMOPLASTICS
Product Choice
Anumber of Bayer engineering thermo-
plastic resins can be converted to sheet
for thermoforming. The selection ranges
from polycarbonate which offers the
thermoformer the advantages of glass-
like transparency combined with
remarkable thermal resistance, high
impact strength, and low-temperature
toughness to polycarbonate/polyester
and polycarbonate/ABS blends. Bayer
ABS resins offer an optimum cost-
performance balance, while ABS/SMA
terpolymers are available which extend
ABS performance to meet higher heat
resistance requirements. Weatherable
polymers are available for outdoor use.
Thermoplastic polyurethanes bridge
the gap between plastics and rubber, and
ABS/polyamide blends offer processing
characteristics similar to ABS with fin-
ished parts having a nylon-rich surface
for improved chemical and abrasion
resistance.
A list of Bayer thermoplastics available
for thermoforming and their basic char-
acteristics is provided in Table 2.
Bayer Expertise
Bayer Polymers is a world leader in
polymer chemistry, production, and
process experience. We are ready to
help thermoformers determine which
Bayer thermoplastic is best-suited for
your application, and assist you with
production trials, physical testing, advice
on forming and secondary operations,
and on-the-spot technical assistance to
help ensure product quality.
For more information, contact your
Bayer representative or call Bayer
Polymers at 1-800-662-2927.
8
Figure 2
Thermoformed Plastic Sheet in a Modern
High-Performance Application
The automobile industry has taken advantage of the production efficiency, appearance,
light weight, and performance of thermoformed engineering thermoplastics for many OEM
and after-market products like this tonneau cover.
9
INTRODUCTION, continued
Advantages G Production parts can be run on relatively inexpensive aluminum or epoxy molds.
G The maximum mold pressure for vacuum forming is under 15 psi. Mold pressures for
pressure forming can range from 30 to 300 psi and requires tooling accordingly.
G Prototype parts can normally be run on wood molds, with as many as 50 pieces being
formed before the wood shows serious deterioration.
G Lead time from concept to production can be shorter.
G Coextruded or laminated sheet, or both, with up to five different types of plastic in up
to nine layers, can provide the thermoformer nearly any properties or characteristics
desired in a sheet.
G Properly molded parts exhibit no excessive molded-in stress.
G With pressure forming, detail very close to injection molding and much faster cycle
times can be achieved.
G Very large, relatively simple parts can be molded. Sizes up to 4 by 8 ft (1 by 2.5 m)
are common.
G The cost of thermoforming equipment is low compared to other processes, though
sophisticated in-line forming and trimming equipment does cost more than basic
thermoforming equipment.
G Packaging can be thermoformed to thinner gauges than is possible with other
processes.
G Parts can be molded, filled, decorated, and capped or sealed in one continuous
operation.
G Multi-cavity molds on high-speed machines can produce quantities approaching
100,000 pieces per hour.
G Part design changes can be less costly due to less expensive tooling.
Limitations G Details can be molded only on one side of the part without special matched tooling.
G Precise wall thicknesses are difficult to achieve and cannot be effectively varied within
the part.
G
Wall thickness and part dimensions can vary from part to part.
G Labor costs are higher with thermoforming compared to other processes because of
trimming and detailing.
G Material costs are higher because thermoforming requires extruded sheet or film,
where as injection molding or extrusion can be accomplished directly with raw resins.
G As much as 70% to 80% of the material is trimmed from finished thermoformed parts,
with 25% to 30% common, making trim reclamation crucial.
Advantages and Limitations of Thermoforming Table 1
10
Bayer Thermoplastics Available for Thermoforming
Product Features Markets and Applications
Makrolon

Polycarbonate
Bayblend

Polycarbonate/ABS Blend
Makroblend

Polycarbonate/
Polyester Blend
Triax

Polyamide/ABS Blend
G Glass-like transparency.
G Outstanding impact strength.
G Good thermal resistance.
G Excellent dimensional stability.
G Good electrical properties.
G Good impact resistance at low and high
temperatures.
G Rigidity and dimensional stability.
G Good color stability in indoor lighting.
G Good thermal stability.
G Good chemical resistance.
G Excellent low-temperature impact
resistance.
G Good abrasion resistance.
G Good processibility and thermal stability.
G Rigidity and dimensional stability.
G High impact strength.
G
Excellent abrasion resistance.
G Good chemical resistance and fatigue
performance.
G
Heat resistance that exceeds standard
ABS.
G Automotive and transportation: lighting
components, instrument panels, aircraft
canopies.
G Business machines: computer and printer
housings.
G Consumer: power tool housings, food
storage containers, appliances, sporting
goods.
G Electrical/electronic: electric meter covers;
lighting diffusers and lenses.
G Automotive: interior and exterior parts,
wheel covers, instrument panels.
G Business machines: computer, monitor,
and printer housings; general office
equipment.
G Consumer: small appliance components
and housings; smoke detectors; lawn and
garden equipment.
G Automotive: body panels, bumpers,
exterior mirror housings.
G Consumer: appliances, food trays,
household cleaning equipment, lawn and
garden equipment.
G Electrical/electronic: electrical housings,
switch housings.
G
Industrial/mechanical: meter housings,
pump housings, agricultural equipment.
G Automotive: interior functional compo-
nents, housings, and shrouds.
G
Consumer: appliances, lawn and garden
equipment, power tools, and sporting
goods.
Table 2
11
INTRODUCTION, continued
Product Features Markets and Applications
Lustran

ABS
Cadon

SMA
Centrex

ASA, AES, and ASA/AES

Weatherable Polymers
(Usually coextruded with ABS for outdoor
protection.)
Texin

TPU
(Usually coextruded or laminated
onto ABS for abrasion resistance,
soft feel, or weatherability.)
G Toughness, strength, and rigidity.
G Heat and chemical resistance.
G Dimensional stability and creep
resistance.
G Good surface appearance.
G High heat resistance.
G Impact strength.
G Rigidity.
G Good chemical resistance.
G Toughness and durability.
G Resistance to fading and cracking from
sunlight and temperature extremes.
G Resistance to road chemicals.
G Light weight.
G
Excellent abrasion resistance.
G Excellent resistance to fuels and oils.
G High tensile and tear strength.
G
High elasticity and resilience.
G Good vibration dampening.
G Automotive: interior and exterior trim,
consoles, scuff plates, and map pockets.
G Business machines: computer housings
and bezels.
G Consumer: housewares, coolers,
small appliance housings, floor care
components, lawn and garden
appliances, power tool housings,
toys, telecommunications equipment,
consumer electronics, shower surrounds,
vanity parts.
G Medical: diagnostic equipment housings,
test kits.
G Specialty transportation: interior parts for
recreational vehicles and campers.
G Automotive: interior and exterior trim,
instrument panels.
G Consumer: appliances, power tools.
G Automotive: interior trim; exterior and
aftermarket parts.
G Consumer: lawn and garden tractor
components; boat and marine accessory
parts; spa shells; swimming pool steps,
covers, and filter housings.
G Miscellaneous: outdoor signs.
G Specialty transportation: recreational
vehicle exterior parts; truck caps.
G
Automotive: exterior applications, side
body molding, interior panels, covers,
dashboards.
Figure 3 The Thermoforming Process
1. The plastic sheet to be thermoformed is
first clamped into a frame and heated to a
temperature at which it becomes malleable.
2. The clamped, preheated plastic sheet is
sealed to the mold.
4. The sheet is held fast to the mold while the
part cools.
5. After the part has sufficiently cooled, it is
removed from the mold either manually, as
shown here, or with automatic ejection systems.
3. A vacuum is applied to draw the sheet
down over the male mold.
12
THE THERMOFORMING PROCESS: AN OVERVIEW
In general, the thermoforming process
involves forcing heated plastic sheet
against a mold to produce the desired
shape. The force is supplied by one
of three methods: (1) pneumatically,
with the application of a vacuum or
compressed air; (2) mechanically,
with tools, plugs, or matched molds;
or (3) a combination of both. As the
thermoplastic cools, it retains the
detail of the mold which formed it.
THE FORMING CYCLE
The forming cycle in the thermoform-
ing process begins by sealing the
clamped, preheated sheet to the mold.
If pre-stretching is required, it is
accomplished with a partial vacuum, air
pressure, or plug assist. Then, while
the sheet is still within the proper form-
ing temperature range, vacuum or air
pressure is applied to form the sheet
onto or into the mold, or matching male
and female molds come together to
form the sheet. The sheet is held fast to
the mold while the part cools. After the
part has sufficiently cooled, it is
removed from the mold, either manual-
ly or with automatic ejection systems,
for post-forming work. The process is
then repeated for the next sheet.
13
METHODS OF THERMOFORMING
The thermoforming process can use
single-step or multiple-step methods.
Single-step thermoforming forms the
heated sheet in one operation.
Multiple-step thermoforming involves
pre-stretching the heated sheet to help
ensure an even distribution of material
in the finished part. Table 3 lists the
single- and multiple-step thermoform-
ing methods covered in this publication.
Single-Step Thermoforming G Drape forming
(male mold vacuum forming).
G Drape forming with a female mold
(straight vacuum forming).
G Pressure forming.
G Free forming.
G Matched-mold forming.
G Trapped-sheet pressure forming.
G Twin-sheet pressure forming.
Multiple-Step Thermoforming G Plug-assisted vacuum forming.
G Plug-assisted pressure forming.
G Vacuum snap-back forming.
G Slip-ring forming.
Thermoforming Techniques Table 3
With one exception, these methods
involve drawing the heated sheet over a
male mold or drawing the heated sheet
into a female mold. The one exception
is free-forming or free-blowing,
whereby the heated sheet is blown into
the desired shape without contacting a
mold. Free-blowing is used with poly-
carbonate sheet for parts requiring high
optical quality, such as skylights and
aircraft windshields, which could be
affected by mold contact.
POST-FORMING
After the thermoformed sheet has been
removed from the clamping frame, the
part undergoes post-forming steps to
bring the part into its final configura-
tion. Waste or scrap around the edges
is trimmed and holes are cut.
Finishing often includes filing or sand-
ing rough edges left behind by trim-
ming and cutting tools, and polishing
to remove scratches. Thin packaging
lids and trays are easily trimmed using
standard techniques.
Thermoformed parts may be joined in
a variety of methods to create complex
products. Printing and decorating can
be accomplished using the techniques
common to thermoplastics.
14
MOLD DESIGN
Molds are the single most important
factor in the success of a thermoform-
ing operation. Poorly designed molds
made of the wrong materials can hin-
der the best equipment and operators.
Therefore, it is very important to con-
sider these factors before building a
mold: the type of mold which will
best produce the part, the material
best-suited for the quantity and part
to be produced, the design of the part,
and possible use of plugs and ring
assists.
MOLD TYPES
Male and Female Molds
A male mold has one or more protru-
sions over which the heated sheet is
drawn to form a shape, whereas a
female mold has one or more cavities
into which the heated sheet is drawn
to form a shape. The wall thickness
of the thermoformed part is affected
by whether it is formed on a male or
female mold. The wall thickness of
parts thermoformed on male molds is
greater at the top of the part, while
the wall thickness of parts thermo-
formed in female molds is greater
around the flange.
Male molds are preferred to female
molds where deep uniform draws are
required and the sheet is not pre-
stretched. The depth-to-diameter draw
ratio can be up to 3:1. Female molds
are usually limited to a depth-to-diame-
ter draw ratio of 2:1 unless the sheet is
pre-stretched in a multiple-step
method. With pre-stretching and plug
assists, female molds can achieve very
uniform deep draws with draw ratios of
5:1 or higher.
Matched Molds
Matched molds consist of both a male
and female die. Heated sheet is either
clamped over the female die (mold
cavity) or draped over the male die
(mold face), and the sheet is formed
to shape as the two dies close together.
Matched-mold forming can provide
excellent reproduction of mold detail,
including lettering and grained sur-
faces, while maintaining excellent
dimensional accuracy.
Multiple-Mold Layout
Some molds can form several parts in
one cycle. This multiple-mold layout
greatly increases output while decreas-
ing trim scrap. (See Figure 4.) The
spacing between multiple male molds
should be equal to 1.75 times the mold
height. Webbing (bridging between the
high points of molds) can occur if the
spacing is insufficient. In some cases,
rod or ring assists can permit closer
mold spacing (see Plug and Ring
Assists, page 17). Female molds can
be spaced together as close as the part
design will permit. If plug assists are
used, however, the spacing for the cav-
ities should be the same as with multi-
ple male molds.
Figure 4 Multiple-Mold Layout
15
MOLD MATERIALS
Various kinds of materials have been
used successfully in making molds for
vacuum forming. For prototyping,
experimental thermoforming, or short
runs, wood and plaster are the most
commonly used materials. Cast pheno-
lic and epoxy resin molds can work
satisfactorily for short and medium
runs. Long production runs, however,
usually require a metal mold.
Following is a brief description of the
properties and characteristics of vari-
ous thermoforming mold materials.
Plaster
Plaster molds are cast directly from the
model and used for prototyping or very
limited production. They are not desir-
able for large-volume production
because of their many drawbacks
poor durability, poor heat conductivity,
and the inability to control tempera-
ture. The primary advantages of plas-
ter as a mold material are (1) it is low
in cost, (2) it is easily shaped, and
(3) it sets at room temperature and
does not require extensive heating
apparatus to set up as with thermoset
resins. A high-temperature varnish
improves the surface finish and wear
resistance of plaster molds.
Wood
Wood molds are somewhat more
durable than plaster but have many of
the same limitations. They are best
fabricated from kiln-dried, close-grain
hardwood, glued with a thermosetting
glue, and sealed with a paste filler.
The grain of joined sections should run
parallel, since wood has different
shrinkage rates across the grain versus
with the grain. For an improved sur-
face finish and wear resistance, wood
molds can be coated with an epoxy
resin, then sanded, buffed, and pol-
ished. Coating the entire mold with
epoxy will improve stability by pre-
venting the absorption of moisture by
the wood. An example of a wood
mold is shown in Figure 5.
Plastic
Molds made from cast phenolic, cast
filled epoxy, and furan resins exhibit
excellent dimensional stability, good
abrasion resistance, and a smooth, non-
porous surface. Metal-filled epoxy
molds in particular tend to be durable
and can be moderately heated for better
surface reproduction. Plastic molds
can be patched and repaired when nec-
essary at very little expense. For
added strength, the bottom of a cast
Figure 5 Wood and Aluminum Molds
16
plastic mold may be reinforced with
resin-impregnated fiberglass. Plastic
molds are not good heat conductors
and, therefore, cannot be used where
the sheet must be rapidly cooled for
fast cycles.
Aluminum
Aluminum molds can be made in two
basic ways. They can be fabricated
from aluminum plate stock and
machined to proper dimensions and
finishes. They can also be made by
casting the aluminum, then machining
and finishing. The surface can be tex-
tured or finished to a high polish.
Aluminum is an excellent heat conduc-
tor and permits rapid heating and cool-
ing for fast cycles. An example of an
aluminum mold is shown in Figure 5,
page 15.
Sprayed Metal
The mold itself consists of a sprayed
metal shell reinforced with resin-
impregnated backing for rigidity. For
all practical purposes, sprayed metal
molds are permanent. Sprayed metal
molds of aluminum, copper, nickel,
low-carbon steel, tin, or zinc can make
as many as 500,000 pieces with no evi-
dence of mold deterioration. Detail
such as the texture of cloth or fiber can
be accurately reproduced with sprayed-
metal molds.
Electroformed Metal
These permanent molds are produced
by building up layers of copper, nickel,
and chromium into a shell. Precise
mold detail and an exceptional surface
finish can be achieved with this con-
trolled plating technique. The shell is
usually backed with zinc or other simi-
lar, low-temperature, non-ferrous alloys
for rigidity and durability.
Steel
For simple shapes, molds can be
machined from standard steel stock.
Steel molds are both durable and easy
to plate, but are generally more expen-
sive to fabricate.
MOLD DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
Mold design involves several key fac-
tors, including radii, drafts, undercuts,
and vacuum holes. Proper mold design
is an important aspect in thermoform-
ing. The design of the mold is often
dictated by the thermoforming
machine, the thermoforming method,
and the formed part. For example, the
size of the thermoformer platen can
affect the spacing of multiple molds
and mold orientation.
CAUTION: Molds of inadequate
design may explode when subjected to
the force of pressure molding.
Therefore, when designing a mold for
pressure forming, give careful consid-
eration to the magnitude of force the
mold must withstand. Because the
mold itself becomes a pressure vessel,
it must be of stiff, rigid construction
and fabricated of appropriate materials.
Radii, Drafts, and Undercuts
In order to form sheet properly, all
radii should be at least equal to the
wall thickness. The larger the radius,
the more rapidly the forming can take
place at lower sheet temperatures.
Larger radii also prevent excessive
thinning of the sheet in part corners.
Molds should have drafts of at least 3
to 4 and a surface finish of less than
<0.060 (<1.524) 0.010 (0.254)
0.060 to 0.225 (1.524 to 5.715) 0.030 to 0.045 (0.762 to 1.43)
>0.225 (>5.715) Up to 0.060 (Up to 1.524)
Sheet Thickness Vacuum Hole Diameter
in. (mm) in. (mm)
Recommended Vacuum
Hole Diameters for Lustran ABS Sheet Table 4
17
MOLD DESIGN, continued
SPE-SPI #2 (8 in.) for easy part
removal. Avoid undercuts in excess of
0.020 in. (0.51 mm). If undercuts are
necessary, design the mold with a col-
lapsible core or a split body.
Vacuum Holes
The location and number of vacuum
holes is determined by the geometry of
the part and, in turn, strongly influence
cycle times. The size of vacuum holes
is dependent on the material being
thermoformed. For Makrolon

poly-
carbonate sheet, for example, the vacu-
um hole diameter should be 0.025 in.
(0.65 mm) or less in order to avoid a
dimpling effect on the part. For
Lustran

ABS sheet, the vacuum hole

diameter depends on the gauge of the
sheet (see Table 4). Back-drill vacuum
holes to a larger diameter to permit
faster removal of air. Vacuum slits can
also be used. In general, they have less
tendency to dimple the plastic surface
than do holes of comparable diameter.
In fabricating plastic molds, vacuum
holes can be cast-in using waxed pins
or piano wires that are removed after
the material has set.
PLUG AND RING ASSISTS
Plug assists sometimes called mold
assists are used to pre-stretch the
plasticized sheet and to assist in sheet
forming. The plug design resembles
the shape of the cavity, but is smaller
in scale. Plugs should be 10% to 20%
smaller in length and width where
these dimensions are 5 in. (127 mm)
or more. Smaller plugs should allow
at least a 0.25-in. (6-mm) clearance
between the stretched sheet and the
mold. This clearance prevents the
sheet from prematurely touching the
mold and causing unequal thinning of
the material. In addition, the plug
should be free of sharp corners which
could tear or mark the sheet during
forming.
The surface of the plug should be low
in thermal conductivity and friction in
order for the sheet to stretch evenly.
A cotton felt covering is often used to
accomplish this. A polyurethane coat-
ing works well on wood surfaces,
while a Teflon* coating works well on
metal. Another method is to blow a
thin layer of air between the plug and
the sheet.
When the shape of the mold is compli-
cated with narrow grooves, the plug
can be designed with ridges corre-
sponding to the mold grooves. These
ridges carry more material into the
grooves, thereby increasing the thick-
ness of the particular area. For pockets
in the mold there can be corresponding
projections in the plug. In the case of
deep recesses in the mold sidewalls, it
may be advantageous to incorporate
auxiliary, cam-actuated plugs to carry
more material into these areas. All
edges should have generous radii.
Typical Temperature-Controlled Mold Construction Figure 6
Water Lines
Water In
Water Out
Stainless Steel Tubing
for Cooling Channel
Cast Aluminum Mold
Vacuum Holes
Moat
*Teflon is the registered trademark of E.I. DuPont de Nemours.
18
For best results, make the plug assist
with a material that does not signifi-
cantly cool the hot sheet and can with-
stand long periods of high tempera-
tures. Aluminum, one of the best
materials, and aluminum-filled epoxy
work well with cartridge heaters.
Temperature control of the plug assist
is often necessary to prevent uneven
sheet pre-stretching or premature sheet
cooling. For most thermoplastics, plug
temperatures are usually maintained
just below the sheet temperature. For
ABS, however, the typical plug tem-
perature is 250 to 275F (120 to
135C), while the forming temperature
of the sheet may be as high as 475F
(245C). Consult the Process Tem-
perature Guide in Appendix B for plug
temperatures recommended for Bayer
thermoplastics.
For experimental and short runs, a
hardwood plug can be used. The tem-
perature of wood plugs cannot be accu-
rately controlled, however, so perform-
ance may be erratic. To help protect
the wood from heat-induced drying or
splitting, frequent surface lubrication is
necessary. Hand-held, felt-covered
wood plug assists can sometimes be
used to pre-stretch the sheet in areas
that have a tendency to thin excessive-
ly or not fill out.
Ring assists are used primarily to pre-
vent webbing between multi-cavity
male molds. Design them as narrow as
possible but without sharp edges. Ring
assists require no temperature control
because of their limited area of contact.
Heated Plug Assist Figure 7
Plug
Preheat
Tubes
Male Assist Plug
Clamping
Frame
Check Valve
19
PART DESIGN
Part design is dependent on a variety of
parameters which include finished part
requirements, equipment capabilities,
and material characteristics. The key
parameters are listed in Table 5 on
page 22.
The design of a part will often deter-
mine which thermoforming technique
should be used. Some of the more
significant part design factors which
influence the choice of thermoforming
technique follow.
DEPTH OF DRAW
The depth of draw is the ratio of aver-
age sheet thickness divided by average
part thickness. The depth a thermo-
plastic material is drawn is important
to determining the best thermoforming
technique because it is a prime factor
controlling the final average thickness
of the formed part. For moderately
deep draws or depth-to-width ratios of
less than 2:1, male drape forming gives
a more uniform wall thickness than
straight vacuum female forming. For
very deep draws or depth-to-width
ratios exceeding 2:1, billow pre-draw
and plug-assisted female forming is
suggested to obtain the most uniform
material distribution.
REPRODUCING DETAIL
For reproducing detail in a thermo-
formed part, equal results can be
achieved with both the straight female
vacuum and male drape methods.
Since the surface of the sheet which is
in intimate contact with the mold
receives the most detailed impression,
the design of the part determines the
technique to use, everything else being
equal. As a rule of thumb, use the
male drape method for inside detail,
straight female vacuum method for
outside detail.
It is important to remember that the
degree of gloss produced on a smooth
surface is dependent on the properties
of the plastic material used. It is not
usually imparted by the mold surface,
though a poor mold surface can mar or
detract from the finished surface of the
plastic part being formed.
RIBBING
Another important design consideration
is ribbing in the formed parts. Ribs
can be placed to add rigidity to the part
as well as to enhance the looks of the
design itself. With proper ribbing,
parts can be successfully thermoformed
from thin-gauge sheet for a broad
range of applications requiring rigidity.
This can mean a reduction in material
cost as well as heating cycle time. The
part shown in Figure 8 is an example
of proper ribbing technique.
Figure 8 Thermoformed Part Designed with Ribbing
20
FILLETS
Adequate fillet (or outside corner) radii
are essential for maximum strength and
serviceability. The radius should be at
least equal to the wall thickness of the
sheet and never less than 0.031 in.
(0.80 mm). An ideal fillet radius
would be more than ten times the wall
thickness.
Lack of adequate fillets will result in
an excessive concentration of mechani-
cal stress. The service life and struc-
tural strength of a part may only be
30% of design when the stress concen-
tration factor is high.
STRESS CONCENTRATION
In a structural part having any sort of
notch or groove or any abrupt change
in cross section, the maximum stress in
that region will occur immediately at
the notch, groove, or change in section
(see Figure 9). It will be higher than
the stress calculated on simple assump-
tions of stress distribution. The ratio of
this maximum stress to the nominal
stress based on simple stress distribu-
tion is the stress concentration factor,
K, for the particular shape. It is a con-
stant, independent of the material,
except for non-isotropic materials such
as wood:
Thus it can be shown that the maxi-
mum (or actual) stress in a given part
under load is greater than the nominal
(or calculated) stress by a factor of K.
For many simple parts of a flat section
without fillets, the value of K may be
as high as 3.0 under bending loads.
SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage is a significant factor in
thermoforming large precision parts
and allowances must be made for it in
the design of the part. Shrinkage takes
place in three basic forms: mold
shrinkage, after-mold shrinkage, and
in-service shrinkage and expansion.
Figure 10
Stress Concentration as a
Function of Fillet Radius
Fillet Radius
S
t
r
e
s
s

C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
Figure 9
Location of Maximum Stress in Notched or
Grooved Parts
K =
Stress (Maximum)
Stress (Normal)
Small Large
L
o
w
H
i
g
h
21
PART DESIGN, continued
Mold Shrinkage
When a thermoplastic material is heat-
ed and formed to a mold, shrinkage of
the material occurs during the cooling
cycle. The dimensions of the formed
part after its surface reaches a tempera-
ture at which it can be demolded are
slightly less than the dimensions when
the part was first formed. This differ-
ence is referred to as mold shrinkage.
It is usually expressed in terms of
inches per inch per F (millimeters
per millimeter per C). It varies with
processing and design factors as well
as with different materials.
Shrinkage is less critical with male
drape forming than straight vacuum
forming. With male drape forming, the
material shrinks onto the rigid mold as
it cools, retarding the shrinkage.
Conversely, with straight female vacu-
um forming, the material shrinks away
from the mold against the negligible
resistance of the outer air with nothing
to retard the shrinkage. Although this
phenomenon improves final part
dimensions, it requires molds with
proper draft angles in order to extract
the part from the mold.
After-Mold Shrinkage
After demolding, the part will shrink
due to heat loss from the part as it
cools to room temperature. The part
continues to shrink as the hot center or
core of the plastic cools. This shrink-
age ceases when temperature equilib-
rium is reached in the cooled material.
In-Service Shrinkage and Expansion
This is the normal contraction or
expansion of an object caused by
changes in temperature and humidity.
It is considered a significant factor
only where tolerances are extremely
critical, or where the formed plastic is
rigidly fastened to a material with a
markedly different coefficient of
expansion. Each type of thermoplastic
material has a different coefficient of
thermal contraction or expansion.
More information on this subject can
be found in any of the standard engi-
neering reference books or plastics
handbooks, by consulting your local
Bayer representative, or by calling
Bayer Polymers at 1-800-662-2927.
For applications involving precise
specifications, you must conduct actual
end-use testing.
UNDERCUTS
Undercut sections can be formed using
hinged mold sections, cammed sec-
tions, and loose pieces in the mold,
such as removable split rings. An
example of producing an undercut with
a removable split ring is shown in
Figure 11.
Figure 11
Removable Split Ring for Thermoforming
Undercuts
Sheet
Removable Split Ring
Undercut
Mold
22
INSERTS
In some designs it is desirable to form
an undercut and/or to reinforce the
formed unit in a certain section. In
such a case, an insert, generally a metal
strip or bar, is placed around it. The
metal section thus becomes an integral
part of the molding. This must be done
with great care, however, because the
residual stress may cause crazing,
cracking, and eventual part failure.
Plastic, having a much higher coeffi-
cient of thermal expansion than metal,
shrinks around the insert and becomes
stressed at the interface due to the
restriction imposed by the insert.
PART LAYOUT
When forming multiple parts on one
mold, the spacing of parts must be suf-
ficient to prevent over-stretching or
webbing the sheet among the parts and
between the parts and the clamp.
Finished Part Requirements G Size (length, width, and depth).
G Weight.
G Thickness or gauge uniformity, overall
material distribution, changes in gauge
from heavy to thin or vice-versa.
G Openings, depth of draw.
G Shapes, curves, corner ribs, bosses.
G Matching fits, such as paired parts.
G Undercuts.
G Draft angles.
G Surface detail, texture, glossy or matte
finish, designs, lettering.
G Preprinting.
G Optical properties clarity, translucency,
opacity.
Equipment or Process Capabilities G Size of clamp frames.
G Clearance for formed part removal.
G Vacuum and/or pressure available.
G Heating capacity and pattern control.
G Plug force and speed.
G Part handling capability.
Resin Characteristics G Rheological properties (hot melt
strength, extensibility).
G Modulus of elasticity and tensile elonga-
tion (part handling).
G Warping tendencies, coefficient of linear
expansion.
G Set-up time, deflection temperature
under load, chill mark tendencies.
G Specific heat and heat transfer
coefficient.
G Uniformity of material; scrap regrind
ratio and quality.
G Heat sensitivity.
G Dryability of sheet.
Design Parameters for Thermoforming Parts from Bayer Thermoplastics
Table 5
(Thermoforming processibility, not
price or end-use applicability.)
23
THERMOFORMING EQUIPMENT
Equipment employed in the thermo-
forming process includes:
G Ovens for properly drying the sheet.
G Thermoformer ovens for bringing
the sheet quickly, evenly, and
consistently to processing
temperature, preferably both sides
simultaneously.
G A clamping unit, including a means
of raising and lowering the mold.
G A vacuum or air pressure system.
G Heating controls for mold and plug
assist.
G Timing controls for heating, mold
and plug travel, and cooling.
G Trimming and finishing equipment.
Equipment arrangements may be fairly
simple, with the oven, the heater, the
molding machine itself, and trimming
equipment all separate components.
Or they may be more elaborate, with
roll or sheet stock fed in one end and
finished, trimmed parts coming out the
other.
SHEET DRYING EQUIPMENT
Properly dried sheet is essential for
best results when thermoforming with
Bayer thermoplastics. Improperly
dried sheet can result in bubbles in the
thermoformed part and a reduction in
physical properties.
Any circulating air oven able to main-
tain 250F (120C) within 10F
(5C) should be adequate for drying
polycarbonate sheet. The size and
capacity of the oven will be determined
by the thickness of the sheet and the
rate at which it is being used. Forced
hot air circulation and baffling to main-
tain air flow at about 200 ft/min (60
m/min) is desirable to help achieve
temperature uniformity.
For ABS and PC/ABS blend sheet, a
circulating air oven capable of main-
taining a temperature of 180 to 200F
(80 to 95C) for 2 to 4 hours or 160
to 180F (70 to 80C) overnight is
required.
It is advisable to hang the sheet verti-
cally or to provide drying racks which
allow the heated air to pass between
each sheet. (See Figure 12.) Stacking
the sheet without racks can result in
inadequate drying of the center pieces.
Properly designed racks can prevent
excessive sheet warpage if the oven
overheats.
When thermoforming roll-fed film or
thin sheet, the sheet-drying equipment
is slightly different. The film web is
fed into a drying station, then contin-
ues on to the heating and forming sta-
tions. This is possible because the
thinness of the film permits relatively
rapid pre-drying.
Figure 12 Sheet Drying Oven
24
THERMOFORMER OVENS
Thermoformer ovens are used to bring
the sheet to the proper forming temper-
ature. Convection ovens using radiant
heaters capable of producing a uniform
temperature between 1,000F (540C)
and 1,200F (650C) are preferred.
Thermoplastic sheet may be transport-
ed through the oven suspended verti-
cally on trolley tracks or supported
horizontally in trays lined to protect the
surface of the plastic. The oven walls
should be insulated, with the entrances
and exits shielded from drafts.
There are several radiant heat sources
available for heating plastic sheet and
film to thermoforming temperature.
Low-cost, gas-fired infrared heaters are
surface combustion burners in which
the gas-air mixture is burned at the sur-
face of either a stainless steel or porous
ceramic structure. Electrically pow-
ered infrared heaters are available in a
wide range of designs, efficiencies, and
lifespans. These heater designs include
tungsten wire filaments in quartz tubes,
tubular rods, small-diameter coiled
nichrome wire, and black body
ceramic or quartz panels. The heating
element used depends on the equip-
ment requirements and the thickness
of the film or sheet. An example of an
electrically powered heating element
of a thermoformer oven is shown in
Figure 13.
Sandwich-type heater banks are pre-
ferred because they help ensure uni-
form heat throughout the sheet, thus
improving the physical properties of
the thermoformed part. The distance
between the top heater and the thermo-
plastic sheet should be 3 to 12 in. (75
to 305 mm), while the distance
between the thermoplastic sheet and
the bottom heater should be 12 to 18
in. (305 to 455 mm). The exact dis-
tance is determined by the optimum
heating cycle time. Heaters with
excessive capacity or which are placed
too near the sheet can result in exces-
sive sagging and even ignition. Large
sheet can sag 6 in. (150 mm) or more,
so the sheet must be kept at least 6 in.
(150 mm) away from the heaters to
avoid ignition. The sag distance is
dependent on the temperature of the
sheet, the sag distance at any given
temperature is different for each
material.
Each bank of heaters should have sepa-
rate power controllers rather than sim-
ple on-off time ratio controllers.
Automatic temperature regulators are
recommended to minimize temperature
fluctuations, and temperature recorders
can provide improved supervision.
Thermocouple-type limit controls
should be present to avoid fires or
melting the thermoplastic due to heater
control malfunctions. Photoelectric
sensors can be used to trigger the ther-
moforming cycle and prevent the sheet
from sagging onto the heating elements.
Figure 13 Electrically Powered Heating Element of a Thermoformer Oven
25
THERMOFORMING EQUIPMENT, continued
Air currents and drafts in the vicinity
of the oven area can cause uneven
heating. This can result in uneven wall
thickness and poor-quality parts. A
guillotine-type, movable shield at the
entrance of the oven and a fixed shield
at the exit will help control premature
convection cooling of the sheet.
MOLD TEMPERATURE
CONTROL
Mold temperature fluctuations can
result in variations in the size and
physical properties of the finished part.
For example, the hotter the mold, the
greater the final shrinkage of the part.
Conversely, the colder the mold, the
more molded-in stress in the part.
Therefore, mold temperatures must be
controlled for high-quality thermo-
formed parts. How this is accom-
plished depends on the type of mold.
Prototype and short-run tooling (such
as wood molds and mineral or pow-
dered-metal-filled epoxy and
polyurethane molds) generally requires
radiant preheating. The mold then
remains hot during the forming run due
to its low thermal conductivity.
Production tooling (such as aluminum
molds) usually has cast-in tubes or
machined channels for the circulation
of a temperature-controlled liquid
which preheats the mold at the start
and then cools the mold as forming
rates increase.
Uniform mold temperature to with-
in 10 to 15F (5 to 10C) over its
entire surface is important to pre-
vent variation in part wall thickness.
For polycarbonate, for example, mold
temperatures can be between 180 and
260F (80 and 125C), depending on
the surface reproduction and optical
clarity required. For ABS, mold tem-
peratures can be between 120 and
200F (50 and 95C). Normally, the
mold temperature should be just below
the demold temperature of the sheet.
Consult the Process Temperature Guide
in Appendix B for mold and demold
temperatures recommended for Bayer
thermoplastics.
Localized mold heating is a technique
using cartridge-type electrical heaters
to achieve more control over material
distribution in the part. The higher
temperature of the section of the mold
where the cartridge heater has been
inserted allows the thermoplastic sheet
to continue to stretch without cooling
or setting up. A typical position for
localized heating would be in the half-
round radius on the top of the rectan-
gular pan mold in Figure 14. This
technique is more effective with metal-
lic than with non-metallic molds
because of better thermal conductivity.
For most thermoplastics, maintain plug
temperature just below that of the sheet
being formed. When thermoforming
ABS sheet, maintain the temperature at
between 250 and 300F (120 and
150C). Lower plug temperatures will
work; but the frequency of mark-off,
chill marks, and improperly formed
parts may increase as the temperature
decreases. While not as critical as
mold temperature control, plug temper-
ature uniformity should be kept within
10F (5C).
Figure 14 Localized Mold Heating
Cartridge Heaters
26
VACUUM AND PRESSURE
REQUIREMENTS
For vacuum forming, consider the vol-
ume of air to be removed and the force
still available when the parts last dim-
ple is formed. Large parts require
evacuation of a large volume of air,
and a high, continuous vacuum after
the part has been formed to help ensure
faster cooling. This cooling provides
better dimensional tolerances, and
sharper detail. Therefore, the vacuum
capabilities of the vacuum thermoform-
ing equipment should comfortably
exceed the vacuum required for the
largest part to be formed.
Reciprocating piston, diaphragm, slid-
ing vane rotary, and eccentric rotor
pumps all establish a good vacuum
but lack the capacity to remove large
volumes of air quickly. Therefore, use
an air accumulator (surge tank) as a
vacuum accumulator. The volume of
the surge tank must be 2.5 times the
volume of the space around the mold,
the vacuum box, and the vacuum lines.
The desirable working vacuum is 12.3
psig (about 25 in. Hg).
For swift delivery of vacuum, locate
surge tanks close to the molds.
Minimize friction losses in connecting
lines by using vacuum hoses having
ample ID and by eliminating right-
angle lines and diameter changes or
restrictions. Where a slow draw is
desirable, consider using an in-line,
full-flow ball valve.
For pressure forming, use a compressed
air supply tank of comparable size to
one used for vacuum forming. Pipe
connections are not as critical because
their effect on pressure drop is less.
Install the pressure reducing valve and
pressure gauge close to the mold.
Locate baffles at the entrance to the
mold so that cold air does not blow
directly onto the heated sheet. When
blowing large billows that must stay
hot until the formed part sets, preheat
the air.
NOTE: A mold-and-pressure-box used
for pressure forming is a potentially
dangerous device. This is a pressure
vessel and must be designed, construct-
ed, and handled accordingly.
SHEET CLAMPING AND
TRANSFER EQUIPMENT
The sheet must be restrained firmly
between two frames for the heating,
forming, and stripping process. These
frames usually consist of angle irons
with non-slip gripping surfaces of
coarse abrasive cloth, rough rubber
pads, or weld spatter. The frames are
pressed together by C-clamps, toggle
clamps, air-cylinder-operated jaws, or
cam- or spring-held devices. The
clamping force must be sufficient to
prevent the sheet from loosening in
the heating oven or when draped over
deep molds.
On automatic thermoformers the sheet
is securely gripped along the side
edges with spring-loaded pin chains in
chain rails or gripping discs mounted
on the transport chain.
27
THERMOFORMING EQUIPMENT, continued
SHEET-FED THERMOFORMERS
Cut-sheet or sheet-fed thermoformers
are typically used for material that is
0.030 to 0.500 in. (0.760 to 12.70 mm)
thick.
Single-Station Thermoformers
With single-station thermoformers, the
clamping, heating, forming, cooling,
and unloading steps are done with the
sheet in a single, stationary location.
Once the sheet is clamped, it remains
stationary. The heaters are slid under
and/or over the sheet to heat it to form-
ing temperature. After the heaters are
removed, the mold and/or plug is
mechanically moved into contact with
the hot sheet. Then a vacuum and/or
pressure are applied to form the part.
The part is cooled in place. The mold
is retracted and the part is unloaded.
(See Figures 15 and 16.)
Figure 15
Mold
Top Heater
Bottom Heater
Sheet
Operation of a Single-Station Thermoformer
Figure 16 Single-Station Thermoformer
28
Shuttle Thermoformer
With a shuttle thermoformer, the sheet
is clamped in a movable frame located
to the side of the stationary heaters.
The frame containing the clamped
sheet is mechanically shuttled (moved)
into the heater or heaters. When the
sheet reaches forming temperature, it is
shuttled (moved) back to the loading
station. There the mold is mechanically
moved into contact with the hot sheet,
and the sheet is formed and cooled.
After the mold is retracted the part is
unloaded.
There may be two molds, one on either
side of the heaters, so that one sheet is
heated while the other is formed,
cooled, and unloaded. This increases
the output over a single-mold thermo-
former without the expense of a second
set of heaters. (See Figures 17 and 18.)
Figure 17 Operation of a Shuttle Thermoformer
Heaters
Sheet 2
Sheet 1
Mold B Mold A
Figure 18 Shuttle Thermoformer
29
THERMOFORMING EQUIPMENT, continued
Rotary Thermoformer
Rotary thermoforming is used for
applications requiring high production
rates. The most commonly used
machines are three- and four-station
thermoformers. Five-station thermo-
formers are less common. The more
stations a rotary thermoformer has, the
higher the production rate and/or the
more complicated the part design can
be achieved.
Production rates are increased because
there are two, three, or four sheets in
the forming process at the same time.
A three-station rotary thermoformer
will have approximately the same out-
put as a shuttle thermoformer with two
molds. A rotary thermoformer with
two heat stations (a four- or five-sta-
tion rotary thermoformer) will operate
at significantly higher production rates.
Generally, the production rate of shut-
tle thermoformers and three-station
rotary thermoformers is limited by the
time necessary to heat the sheet to
forming temperature. Rotary thermo-
formers with two heating stations are
designed so the sheet is uniformly pre-
heated in the first heating station and
subsequently heated to forming tem-
perature in the second heat station.
This divides the heating load between
two separate sets of heaters. With this
process design, two-heat-station ther-
moformers are usually limited by cool-
ing time rather than heating time.
Therefore, the production rate is limit-
ed by how long it takes the part to cool
after forming and before unloading.
While not commonly used, five-station
rotary thermoformers are used for the
production of large parts. The fifth sta-
tion is used for unloading, providing
more cooling time.
Trimming is not considered part of the
thermoforming equipment. However,
there are rotary thermoformers which
have integral trimmers to cut off the
flange either in the forming station or
the unloading station if it is a five-sta-
tion thermoformer. For three- or four-
station machines, it is done in the
forming station. The advantages of
trimming at the thermoformer are
(1) the part is still very warm and easily
trimmed, and (2) the parts, especially
large ones, are easier to handle with the
edge trim removed. (See Figures 19
and 20.)
Figure 19 Operation of a Rotary Thermoformer
F
in
a
l
H
e
a
t
H
e
a
t
e
r
s
P
r
e
-
H
e
a
t
e
r
s
S
t
a
t
io
n

2
P
r
e
-
H
e
a
t
L
o
a
d
/
U
n
lo
a
d
F
o
r
m
i
n
g
S
t
a
t
i
o
n

1
Clamp Frame
Rotary Frame
S
t
a
t
io
n

3

S
t
a
t
i
o
n

4
Mold
Figure 20 Rotary Thermoformer
30
CONTINUOUS THERMOFORMERS
Continuous-type thermoformers are
used for sheet usually less than 0.35 in.
(8.90 mm) thick. Depending on the
type of continuous thermoformer, they
may be fed by a web from a roll or
directly from an extruder. Continuous
thermoformers are ideal for high pro-
duction runs.
Straight-Line, Roll-Fed Thermoformer
In straight-line roll-fed thermoforming,
a continuous web of stock is fed from
a roll and clamped into a chain convey-
or. The web moves through a heater
bank which is usually longer than the
subsequent forming station to allow
sufficient heating time. The hot sheet
continues into the forming station, and
then out. Trimming is usually part of
the operation and done during cooling.
The web is continuously removed from
the parts and reground for subsequent
extrusion. (See Figure 21.)
Drum or Ferris Wheel Thermoformer
This is similar to straight-line, roll-fed
thermoformer, but the web moves onto
a wheel which rotates rather than trav-
eling in a straight line. The wheel
rotates through the heating, forming,
and cooling stations. This type of ther-
moformer takes up much less floor
space than a straight-line thermo-
former. (See Figure 22.)
Figure 22
Operation of a Drum or Ferris Wheel
Thermoformer
Heaters
Roll Stock
~
Mold
Figure 21
Operation of a Straight-Line,
Roll-Fed Thermoformer
Heaters
Mold
Plug
Roll Stock
Figure 23 Roll-Fed Continuous Thermoformers
In-Line Thermoformer
The in-line thermoforming process is
designed to take advantage of the hot
sheet coming off of the extruder, so the
sheet stock does not have to be reheat-
ed. The sheet is mechanically con-
veyed directly from the extruder take-
off to the forming station. There is
usually an extended distance between
the extruder and the thermoformer
allowing the sheet to cool to forming
temperature. This type of thermoform-
ing is usually limited to sheet 0.125 in.
(3.20 mm) thick and applications that
do not require optimum material distri-
bution and close tolerances. This
process is more difficult to control than
other thermoforming processes. The
major disadvantage of an in-line ther-
moformer is that, with the extruder and
former being tied directly together, an
upset in one causes a shutdown in both.
31
THERMOFORMING EQUIPMENT, continued
Figure 25 In-Line Extruder-Fed Drum Thermoformer
Figure 24 In-Line Thermoformer
Mold
Plug
Extruder
Die
32
The thermoformer may be fed sheet
continuously with cut sheet, rolled
sheet, or directly from the extruder.
Generally, cut-sheet stock is cut to
the desired dimensions in-line at the
extruder for a particular forming
machine. Thicknesses of cut-sheet
stock range from 0.030 to 0.500 in.
(0.760 to 12.70 mm), depending upon
finished part design requirements.
Roll-fed or direct extrusion thermo-
forming is limited to sheet under
0.100 in. (2.54 mm) thick.
Sheet stock also includes coextruded
sheet, laminated sheet, and foam-core
sheet. For example, sheet coextruded
of Lustran ABS with a cap of Centrex

weatherable polymer is used for out-

door applications requiring protection
from UV exposure. Decorative and
protective laminated films are used for
such applications as luggage, office
furniture, and for applications needing
abrasion resistance. Foam-core sheet
offers material cost savings and higher
rigidity over solid sheet. However,
foam-core sheet is more difficult to
thermoform and usually has a limited
depth-of-draw capability.
The following sheet properties have a
significant influence on thermoforma-
bility and quality of the formed part:
G Dimensions (length, width,
thickness, and flatness)
G Surface type and color
G Orientation
G Toughness
G Moisture content
G Contamination
SHEET GAUGE UNIFORMITY
Recommended sheet gauge uniformity
for most thermoforming is 1.0% or
less both across the sheet and down the
sheet in the extruded direction. For
more critical commercial thermoform-
ing applications, gauge uniformity of
0.5% is required. This is often neces-
sary when sheet gauge is less than
0.100 in. (2.54 mm). It is difficult to
obtain tolerances as close as these dur-
ing extrusion but the benefits are sig-
nificant, including higher part output
rates, less part-to-part thickness varia-
tions, and less scrap.
ORIENTATION (INTERNAL
STRAIN)
During extrusion, a thermoplastic resin
can be stretched to cause the polymer
molecules to line up more in the direc-
tion of the stretch than in other direc-
tions. This is usually in the direction
of extrusion and is called uniaxial ori-
entation. The amount of orientation
can be determined by placing samples
of the sheet in an oven at 325F (163C)
for 30 minutes between two thin sheets
of aluminum dusted with talc. The
amount of shrinkage represents the
amount of orientation. Shrinkage of
10% to 15% in the direction of the
extrusion is normal for sheet under
0.10 in. (2.50 mm) thick. Shrinkage of
5% to 10% is normal for heavy-gauge
sheet (over 0.100 in./2.50 mm). Shrink-
age in the cross machine direction is
usually lower normally 5% or less.
As a rule, the less the shrinkage in
either direction, the better. A large
amount of orientation will cause differ-
ential drawing during forming. Resis-
tance to draw is greater in the oriented
direction than in unoriented direction.
For sheet thicker than 0.175 in. (4.45
mm), high orientation (more than 15%)
can cause sheet to pull free of the
clamps during the heating step. For
sheet less than 0.175 in. (4.45 mm)
thick, high orientation (more than 25%)
can cause the same thing to happen.
FEEDSTOCK
33
TOUGHNESS
The toughness (impact resistance) of a
sheet is its ability to resist cracking
when struck with an object. Toughness
can influence the performance of the
thermoformed part during assembly,
shipment, or end-use. Impact resis-
tance is most commonly determined
using a falling dart impact test. The
toughness of a sheet of thermoplastic
material is a function of the inherent
properties of the virgin resin as well as
the combined influence of the resin,
extrusion conditions, surface quality of
the sheet, and regrind content.
Other properties, such as tensile stress
at yield and fail, elongation at fail, and
modulus of elasticity (stress divided by
strain or distance) can be tested on
extruded sheet specimens or on molded
parts, per ASTM procedures.
For more information on the typical
properties of sheet extruded from
Bayer thermoplastic resins, contact
your Bayer representative or call Bayer
Polymers at 1-800-662-2927.
MOISTURE CONTENT AND
CONTAMINATION
Moisture in and on the sheet and sur-
face contamination are frequent causes
for thermoforming problems (see
Troubleshooting Guide, page 48).
The hygroscopic nature of thermoplas-
tics causes the absorption of moisture
into the sheet as well as on its surface.
High moisture content can cause sur-
face defects during forming. It can
also cause localized thinning in deep
draw parts. To minimize moisture
absorption, wrap the sheet stock in
polyethylene film after it has been
extruded. A 6-mil film is recommend-
ed, especially for prolonged storage
during periods of high humidity.
Extruded sheet sometimes develops a
static electrical charge. This causes the
sheet to attract dust and foreign parti-
cles from the surrounding environment.
Thermoformed parts made from dusty
or dirty sheet will exhibit surface de-
fects (see Troubleshooting Guide,
page 51). To help prevent the accumu-
lation of dust or dirt on the extruded
sheet, cover or wrap it with polyethyl-
ene film during any prolonged shut-
down periods such as holidays and
weekends.
In many cases, moisture or contamina-
tion problems affect only the top
and/or bottom sheets of a stack of
sheet. Often these sheets can still be
used with good results by simply turn-
ing them over and using the unexposed
side. Moisture can also be driven off
these sheets by placing them around
the thermoformer for several hours or
by heating them very slowly in the
thermoformer.
34
MATERIAL PRE-DRYING AND PRE-HEATING
For the best-quality thermoformed
parts, the sheet must be pre-dried and
properly pre-heated. These two steps,
while often taken for granted, are
very important to the quality of the
final part.
MATERIAL PRE-DRYING
Thermoplastics are hygroscopic materi-
als. During normal shipping and han-
dling, they will absorb atmospheric
moisture which may result in bubble
formation in the sheet or molecular
weight degradation of the polymer
and/or additives. This can adversely
affect the color and decrease the physi-
cal properties of the final product, as
well as contribute to poor control of
thermoforming parameters.
Any circulating air oven able to main-
tain 250F (120C) for polycarbonate
and 180 to 200F (80 to 95C) for
ABS and PC ABS blends, within
10F (5C), should be adequate for
sheet drying. Drying racks in the
oven will allow the heated air to pass
between the sheet. Stacking the sheet
can result in inadequate drying of the
pieces in the center. When properly
designed, the racks can also prevent
excessive sheet warpage if the oven
overheats. The size and capacity of
the oven will be determined by the
thickness of the sheet and the rate at
which it is being used. Table 6 lists
recommended drying times for various
thicknesses of polycarbonate and ABS
sheet. Consult your Bayer representa-
tive or call Bayer Polymers at 1-800-
662-2927 for recommended drying
times for other Bayer thermoplastics.
Pre-dried sheet should not be exposed
to normal room humidity for more than
10 to 15 minutes. Longer exposure
may result in the sheet absorbing
enough moisture to cause bubbles to
form during thermoforming.
Recommended Drying Times for Various Sheet
Thicknesses of Polycarbonate and ABS Table 6
Polycarbonate ABS
Drying Times Sheet Thickness
in (mm)
Drying Times Sheet Thickness
in (mm)
0.020 (0.51) 20 min
0.030 (0.76) 30 min
0.040 (1.02) 40 min
0.060 (1.52) 2 hr
0.080 (2.03) 3.5 hr
0.090 (2.29) 4 hr
0.125 (3.18) 8 hr
0.125 (3.18) 14 hr
0.250 (6.35) 24 hr
0.05 (1.25) 20 sec
0.10 (2.55) 40 sec
0.15 (3.80) 60 sec
0.20 (5.00) 1 min, 15 sec
0.25 (6.35) 1 min, 55 sec
0.30 (7.60) 3 min
0.35 (8.90) 4 min, 35
0.40 (10.15) 6 min, 40 sec
0.45 (11.45) 9 min, 40 sec
0.50 (12.70) 13 min, 5 sec
35
MATERIAL PRE-HEATING
Makrolon

polycarbonate and Lustran

ABS sheet exhibit good hot tear

strength and hot elongation properties
that allow them to be used effectively
in forming intricate shapes. Their soft-
ening point is gradual, permitting a
wide latitude of operating temperatures
and relative ease of process control.
Although Makrolon polycarbonate
sheet requires a relatively high form-
ing temperature, production cycles are
often shorter than those of other ther-
moplastics since the formed sheet
sets quickly.
Before thermoforming, the sheet must
be thoroughly heated to its proper
forming temperature from the surface
to the core and from the center to the
edge of the sheet. The recommended
sheet temperatures for forming Bayer
thermoplastics are listed in the Process
Temperature Guide in Appendix B.
Thermoplastic sheet will visually indi-
cate when it is ready to be formed. As
heat is applied, the sheet will first dis-
tort, then dimple, and begin to smooth
out before finally sagging. Thicker
sheet does not sag significantly more
than thinner sheet because sag is more
dependent on sheet temperature and
total surface than thickness. Excessive
sag in a sheet of large area can often be
controlled by using a metal screen to
shade the center of the sheet, as shown
in Figure 26.
For prototype and single-piece forming,
the oven temperature can be set just
above the forming temperature of the
thermoplastic. For Makrolon polycar-
bonate sheet, this temperature is about
400F (205C). For Lustran ABS sheet,
this is about 350F (175C). This way,
even sheets of differing thicknesses can
be safely left in the oven for irregular
intervals. This method will accommo-
date the variable rate of production in
the thermoformer.
Figure 26
Screening to Shade Hot Spots and
Control Excessive Sag
Radiant Heater
Coil
Clamps
Screen
At more consistent forming rates, the
oven temperature may be set higher for
faster production, but the sheet must be
taken from the oven according to an
established schedule. If not, the sheet
may sag or thermally degrade.
Typical heating times for Makrolon
polycarbonate and Lustran ABS sheet
to reach forming temperatures using
typical commercial heating equipment
are shown in Figure 27 and Figure 28.
The maximum heating rate of thermo-
plastic sheet is approximately 0.5 sec-
onds per mil using sandwich-type
heaters and 0.75 seconds per mil using
single-side heaters. Thermal degrada-
tion of Makrolon polycarbonate sheet
can occur at surface temperatures over
450F (230C) and over 400F (205C)
for Lustran ABS sheet.
Both thin film and heavy sheet should
be heated 20 to 50F (11 to 28C)
higher at the surface than is required
for the forming process. Thin film
loses heat in fractions of a second,
faster than it can be moved from the
preheat oven to the forming station.
Heavy sheet can be held in transit or in
the forming station for a short time to
transfer some of its surface heat to the
inside and equilibrate the heat. This
minimizes imperfections due to surface
roughness in the mold, dirt particles, or
glove marks from hand forming.
Profile or area heating varying the
temperature across the sheet can
help control part thickness or wall
thickness distribution when the part is
formed. This is done by screening or
using multiple heaters and controlling
the temperature of each independently.
36
Figure 27
Typical Heating Times
for Makrolon
Polycarbonate Sheet*
*Using a commercial sandwich-type heater. *Using a commercial sandwich-type heater.
Heating Time, sec.
0.360 (9.14)
0.320 (8.13)
0.280 (7.11)
0.240 (6.10)
0.200 (5.08)
0.160 (4.06)
0.120 (3.05)
0.080 (2.03)
0.040 (1.02)
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
,

i
n
.

(
m
m
)
Figure 28
Typical Heating Times
for Lustran Sheet*
Heating Time, sec.
0.50 (12.70)
0.45 (11.45)
0.40 (10.15)
0.35 (8.90)
0.30 (7.60)
0.25 (6.35)
0.20 (5.00)
0.15 (3.80)
0.10 (2.55)
0.05 (1.25)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
,

i
n
.

(
m
m
)
37
SINGLE-STEP FORMING TECHNIQUES
Figure 30 Drape Forming with a Female Mold
Thick Areas
Thin Corners
Formed Part
Plastic Sheet
Clamp
Seal
Vacuum
Mold
A B
C
In drape forming with a female mold, the heated sheet is held to
the mold to create a seal (A). A vacuum is then drawn pulling the
sheet down into the cavities of the mold (B). After cooling, the
areas reaching the mold last are the thinnest (C).
In single-step thermoforming the pre-
heated material is formed to its final
shape in one operation. There is no
pre-stretching of the material during
the forming process. Several methods
are classified as single-step forming
techniques. They include:
G Drape forming with a male mold
G Drape forming with a female mold
(straight vacuum forming)
G Pressure forming
G Free forming
G Matched-mold forming
G Trapped-sheet pressure forming
G Twin-sheet pressure forming
DRAPE FORMING WITH A
MALE MOLD
Drape forming, also known as vacuum
forming with a male mold, is generally
considered to be the simplest method
of thermoforming. Drape forming is
ideal for deep-draw parts where the
depth-to-diameter draw ratios can be
up to 2:1. Internal mold detail may
also be produced in the drape-forming
process.
Drape forming is accomplished by
pulling the clamped, heated sheet over
the mold, creating a seal, then applying
a vacuum to snug the sheet against the
mold surface. Some thinning will
occur as the vacuum quickly brings the
sheet into contact with all mold sur-
faces. The sheet contacting the highest
part of the mold will solidify at nearly
original thickness, while the last areas
to be formed will be the thinnest and
weakest of the part. Drape forming
with a male mold is shown in
Figure 29.
DRAPE FORMING WITH A
FEMALE MOLD (STRAIGHT
VACUUM FORMING)
One of the more popular methods of
thermoforming is drape forming with a
female mold, also referred to as
straight vacuum forming. Drape form-
ing permits more cavities with smaller
spacing and faster cycles. Drape form-
ing can also produce parts with a stur-
dy frame since the wall thickness at the
edge of the sheet will be nearly the
same as the original sheet.
Figure 29
Drape Forming with a Male Mold
A B
C
Plastic Sheet
Clamp
Mold
Vacuum
Formed Part
Thin
Areas
Thick
Areas
The clamped, heated sheet is pulled over the male mold (A). A
vacuum is applied, snugging the sheet against the mold (B). The
sheet contacting the highest part of the mold will be thickest (C).
38
The sealed sheet is drawn into a female
mold by applying a vacuum below the
sheet to pull it into the molds corners
and cavities. The process is shown in
Figure 30.
This simple process is most suitable for
low-profile parts where deep draw is
not required since the sheet tends to
thin out proportionately to the depth of
the cavity. The thinning of contoured
parts is particularly noticeable when
sharp inside corners must be formed.
PRESSURE FORMING
Pressure forming uses positive air pres-
sure (compressed air at pressures up to
100 psi) to force the sheet into the
mold. Since the force is exerted equal-
ly in all directions, pressure forming
leaves no marks on the surface of the
molded item. Compared to vacuum
forming, the production cycle is faster
with pressure forming because the
sheet can be formed at lower tempera-
tures with higher part definition and
greater dimensional control. Because
higher pressure forces the sheet into
the mold, finished parts exhibit much
more mold surface detail, such as let-
tering or surface texture.
With pressure forming, the clamped,
heated sheet is brought into contact
with the edge of the mold, creating a
seal. Then positive air pressure is
applied opposite the mold side of the
sheet to force it against the mold. A
vacuum is often applied underneath the
sheet as an assist. Pressure forming
with a female mold is shown in
Figure 31.
FREE FORMING
Free forming, also known as billow or
bubble forming, is a method which
produces thermoformed shapes without
using a mold. Because the sheet does
not come in contact with a mold, free-
formed parts exhibit minimal optical
distortion as well as maximum trans-
parency. This is important for applica-
tions such as skylights, window bub-
bles, domes, aircraft canopies, and
visors.
In this process, the clamped, heated
sheet is either blown into a bubble with
air pressure or drawn into a cavity,
without contact, with a vacuum. When
the bubble reaches a specified height
or depth, the positive or negative
pressure holds the sheet until it cools.
Figure 31 The Pressure Forming Process
Hot Plate
Blow Air Plate
O-Ring Seal
Mold
A B
C
Air Pressure
Vent or Vacuum
Pressure forming involves heating the sheet (A), then sealing the
heated sheet against a mold on one side with a pressure box on
the other (B). Pressure is applied through the box while the mold
is vented or a vacuum is applied (C).
Figure 32 Free Forming
Photo
Tube Unit
Solenoid Valve
Controlled by
Photo Tube
Vacuum Box
Light
Source for
Photo Tube
Clamping
Ring
Toggle
Clamp
Thinnest
Free forming involves sealing the heated sheet to a pressure
box, applying a vacuum to draw the sheet in a bubble to a
specified depth, and holding it until the sheet cools. The formed
part exhibits excellent clarity and uniform wall thicknesses.
39
SINGLE-STEP FORMING TECHNIQUES, continued
Figure 33 Matched-Mold Forming
Male Mold
Ram
Female Mold
Formed Part
Trapped Air Vents
A
B
C
Matched-mold forming utilizes both male and female molds.
The heated sheet is sealed to the female mold (A) and the
molds are brought together, with vacuum applied as needed (B).
Parts formed by the matched-mold process exhibit excellent
definition and retain much of the dimensional accuracy of the
mold (C).
Figure 34 Trapped-Sheet Pressure Forming
Sheet
Sheet
Hot Blow
Plate
Female Mold
Sheet
Forming
Basic Components Contact Heating
Air
Vent

A B
C
Air
The plastic sheet is placed between the mold cavity and hot blow
plate (A). The mold cavity seals the sheet against the hot blow
plate while air pressure applied through the female mold blows
the sheet completely against the hot plate (B). The softened
sheet is then formed into the female mold with air pressure
applied through the blow plate (C).
The bubble is usually monitored by a
photoelectric device for consistency.
(See Figure 32.)
Makrolon

polycarbonate is one of the

few thermoplastics that can be success-
fully molded using free-forming tech-
niques. Due to the materials thermo-
elastic behavior at elevated tempera-
tures, polycarbonate sheet fully retains
its impact resistance even at the apex
of the formed bubble. This is the result
of an even wall thickness as the sheet
billows. The practical limit of this
process is a 2:1 diameter-to-height
ratio.
MATCHED-MOLD FORMING
This method of thermoforming can
provide excellent reproduction of mold
detail, including lettering and grained
surfaces, while maintaining the dimen-
sional accuracy of the mold. The
process uses matched molds to shape
the parts. Vacuum is not used. Rather,
the pressure to form the parts is
mechanically induced from the
matched mold halves pressing together.
The sheet is heated to a temperature
significantly lower than that for con-
ventional thermoforming. Matched-
mold forming costs more due to the
tooling cost of two matched molds.
The heated sheet is either clamped over
the female die or draped over the male
die. As the two die sections close
together, the sheet is formed into
shape. Mold vents allow trapped air
to escape. For polycarbonate, the
vents are often connected to a vacuum
to assist in pulling the sheet into the
form. Mold clearance depends upon
the tolerances required of the part.
(See Figure 33.)
TRAPPED-SHEET PRESSURE
FORMING
Plastic sheet is inserted between the
mold cavity and a hot blow plate a
heated steel platen with minute holes to
allow air to be blown through its face.
The mold cavity seals the sheet against
the hot plate. Air pressure applied
from the female mold beneath the sheet
forces the sheet into complete contact
with the heated platen. A vacuum can
also be drawn through the holes in the
platen. After the plastic sheet is soft-
ened, air pressure injected through the
blow plate forms the plastic sheet into
the mold. (See Figure 34.)
40
TWIN-SHEET FORMING
Twin-sheet forming uses two sheets of
plastic and two female molds. The two
sheets are usually heated to forming
temperature in separate clamping
frames. Then the heated sheets are
placed one over the other between
halves of the open mold. A blow pin is
inserted between the heated sheets and
the mold closes and seals the edges of
the sheet. A vacuum is applied from
the mold side of the sheet while air
pressure is injected between the sheets,
forming the plastic to the mold walls.
(See Figure 35.)
Figure 35 The Twin-Sheet Forming Process
Two
Heated
Sheets
Female Mold
Upper Half
Female Mold
Lower Half
A B
Molded Halves
Sealing Sheets
Together
Formed
Hollow
Part
C
D
Vacuum
Air Pressure
Through
Needle
Vacuum
Sheets
Formed
Against Mold
With Air
Pressure
Twin sheet forming begins by placing two heated sheets between two female mold halves
(A). The two female mold halves close into the hot sheets, sealing the sheets together
(B), and a vacuum is drawn through the back of the molds while air pressure is injected in
between the two sheets, forming the sheets against the mold (C). The result is a formed
hollow part with sealed edges (D).
41
Figure 37 Plug-Assisted Pressure Forming
A B
C D
Heater
Seal
Air
Clamp
Air On
Vent
Vent
Air On
Vent
Thick
Walls
Even
Formed Part

Plug-assisted pressure forming starts with heated sheet sealed
to the mold (A). The plug assist moves into the sheet, pre-
stretching it (B). Pressure is applied through the plug along
with a vacuum assist through the mold (C). The formed part
exhibits uniform wall thickness and the detail and definition of
pressure-formed parts (D).
Multiple-step forming involves a pre-
stretching step prior to the forming
operation. Depending on the method,
pre-stretching is accomplished with a
plug assist, a plug assist and
vacuum/air pressure, or vacuum/air
pressure alone. Compared to single-
step methods, pre-stretching promotes
more even material distribution and
wall thickness in the formed part.
Multi-step techniques also allow for
greater draw ratios.
Among the multiple-step forming tech-
niques for Makrolon

polycarbonate
and Lustran

ABS sheet are:

G Plug-assisted vacuum forming
G Plug-assisted pressure forming
G Slip-ring forming
G Vacuum snap-back forming
G Billow snap-back forming
PLUG-ASSISTED VACUUM
FORMING
This technique combines vacuum form-
ing with a plug-assisted pre-stretching
step. The pre-stretching step provides
for a more uniform wall thickness and
prevents the severe thinning which can
occur at the corners or edges in straight
vacuum-formed parts.
The heated sheet is sealed to a female
mold. Then the plug plunges the pre-
heated sheet into the mold, close to but
not touching the bottom. Since the
plug does not touch the sides of the
mold, the sheet is stretched uniformly.
Finally, a vacuum pulls the material
into direct contact with the molds sur-
face, forming the finished part. (See
Figure 36.)
MULTIPLE-STEP FORMING TECHNIQUES
Figure 36 Plug-Assisted Vacuum Forming
A B
C D
Heater
Seal
Clamp
Vacuum
Thick
Walls
Even
Formed Part

The heated sheet is sealed to the mold A). The plug plunges the
sheet into the female mold, uniformly stretching the sheet (B).
A vacuum is then drawn to pull the sheet against the walls of the
female mold (C). The resulting formed part has walls of more
even thickness than can be accomplished by single-step vacuum
forming (D).
42
PLUG-ASSISTED
PRESSURE FORMING
Plug-assisted pressure forming pro-
duces parts having uniform wall thick-
nesses together with the detail and
definition of pressure forming. The
heated sheet is sealed to the mold. The
plug then forces the preheated sheet
into the mold and air pressure is
applied from the plug side. This pres-
sure forces the sheet against the mold
surface, forming the finished part. The
mold is vented or a vacuum is applied
under the sheet as an assist. (See
Figure 37 on page 41.)
SLIP-RING FORMING
Slip-ring forming is similar to snap-
back forming but utilizes a different
method of pre-stretching the sheet.
With this method, the billow is pushed
upward by the rising mold which com-
presses the air ahead of it. Upon com-
pletion of the mold stroke, a vacuum
pulls the air from between the mold
and the sheet, tightly contouring the
sheet to the mold. (See Figure 38.)
Slip-ring forming produces parts with
uniform wall thicknesses, although
final quality is dependent upon control
of the billow formation and the specific
geometry of the parts design.
VACUUM SNAP-BACK FORMING
The snap-back of the heated sheet onto
the male mold during the forming
operation gives this method its name.
Vacuum snap-back forming can reduce
starting sheet size, aids in material dis-
tribution, and minimizes chill marks.
This method of thermoforming pro-
duces very high quality parts having
relatively uniform wall thicknesses.
All phases of this procedure can be
controlled with timers and limit switch-
es to help ensure consistent replication,
part after part.
Figure 38 Slip-Ring Forming
Mold
Sealed Air
Chamber

A B
C D
Mold
Box
Gasket
Seal
Vacuum
Clamp
The heated sheet is clamped over the mold box (A). As the
male mold rises, it forces the air ahead of it to billow the sheet
(B and C). A vacuum is drawn through the male mold, causing
the sheet to conform to the molds shape (D).
Figure 39 Vacuum Snap-Back Forming
Switch
Clamp
Heater
Vacuum
Box
Switch
Starts
and
Stops
Vacuum

Vacuum
Formed Part
Vacuum
A
C
B
D
Atmosphere
The heated sheet seals to the vacuum box (A). A vacuum is
applied through the box to pre-stretch the sheet as the male
mold seals against the box (B). The vacuum in the box is
stopped and a vacuum is applied though the male mold, caus-
ing the pre-stretched sheet to snap back aginst the mold (C).
The formed parts exhibit uniform wall thickness and good
reproductivity (D).
43
MULTIPLE-STEP FORMING TECHNIQUES, continued
In vacuum snap-back forming, the vac-
uum box contacts the clamped sheet
and a vacuum is applied through the
box to pull the sheet into it, forming a
bowl-shaped bubble just ahead of the
male mold. The bubbles concave
shape can be controlled by the amount
of vacuum employed. The bubble does
not contact the walls of the vacuum
box. The male mold reaches its final
position and seals to the sheet. The
vacuum is released and the hot sheet
snaps back around the male mold
through which a vacuum is applied in
order to assist the snap-back effect.
(See Figure 39.)
BILLOW SNAP-BACK FORMING
The billow snap-back process is rec-
ommended for any parts requiring a
uniform, controllable wall thickness.
Once the heated plastic sheet is
clamped and sealed across the pressure
box, controlled air pressure applied
under the sheet causes a large bubble
to form. The sheet pre-stretches about
35% to 40%. Then a plug is forced
into the bubble while air pressure
beneath the sheet remains constant. As
the male plug closes into the pressure
box, vacuum applied from behind the
plug creates a uniform draw. (See
Figure 40.)
Figure 40 Billow Snap-Back Forming
Seal
Pressure Box
Air Relief Air
Vacuum
Air Relief
Air
Male Plug
Air
A
C
B
D
The heated plastic sheet is clamped and sealed across the pres-
sure box (A). The sheet is first blown upward in a billow for a good,
uniform stretch (B). Then, the plug is dropped down to begin form-
ing the inside contour of the shape (C). When the plug closes on
the pressure box, a vacuum from behind the plug pulls the plastic
to complete the draw (D).
44
COOLING AND PART REMOVAL
Much of the heat absorbed during the
heating cycle must be removed from
the thermoplastic part before it can be
demolded. Otherwise, distortions or
warpage in the part may occur. If the
part is formed over a male mold, it
must be removed from the mold before
thermal shrinkage makes removal too
difficult. It may be necessary to retard
the natural cooling rate of heavy-gauge
parts, which are more likely to form
internal stresses.
PART COOLING
Cooling is accomplished by conductive
heat loss to the mold or convective heat
loss to the surrounding air. It is impor-
tant to select the appropriate method.
Conductive cooling while the part is in
contact with the mold is very efficient
if metal molds having water cooling
channels are used. It is important to
maintain a uniform mold temperature.
By keeping the cooling water tempera-
ture at an elevated level, the formation
of chill marks can be minimized or
prevented altogether. Mineral- or
metal-powder-filled thermoset plastic
molds generally remove heat more
slowly, increasing cycle times. Wood
molds, due to their heat build-up, are
not suitable for fast production runs.
Parts with thick walls require long
cooling times. Cooling can be acceler-
ated by using fans to blow air on the
exposed side of the part while it is still
in the mold. The use of fans has the
added advantage of cooling the sheet
clamping frame at the same time as the
part. With Lustran

ABS, a water mist

is sometimes used with fans to increase
the cooling capacity of the air. How-
ever, fans can create drafts which could
possibly interfere with subsequent heat-
ing cycles. Therefore, use draft shields
when cooling parts and heating sheet in
the same vicinity at the same time.
Makrolon

polycarbonate must be
cooled below 290F (145C) and
Lustran ABS must be cooled below
200F (95C) for the part to be dimen-
sionally stable enough to prevent dam-
age during removal. (See the Process
Temperature Guide in Appendix B for
the recommended demold temperatures
for Bayer thermoplastics.) Once the
contact between the mold and the part
is broken, heat transfer is markedly
reduced, though the part will continue
to cool. Therefore, keep the time lapse
between removal and trimming con-
stant from part to part to avoid trim
dimensional error.
PART REMOVAL
Generally, if cooling is accomplished
in a careful, suitable manner that is
compatible with the thermoplastic
material, part removal is simply a mat-
ter of opening the forming station and
ejecting the part by hand. Air ejection
systems and stripping mechanisms are
also often used to assist in part
removal. In addition, spray silicones
and fluorocarbons may be used as
mold release agents.
As previously mentioned, mold design
and surface finish greatly influence
the ease of part removal (see Mold
Design, page 14). If there is an insuf-
ficient number of air holes in molds
that have air ejection systems, increas-
ing the air pressure can sometimes
improve part removal. If not, it might
be necessary to increase the number of
air ejection holes.
Figure 41 Part Cooling with a Water Mist
A water mist is sometimes used to accelerate the cooling of thermo-
formed Lustran ABS sheet.
45
POST-FORMING
effective for trimming. When high-
speed cutting fixtures are used for
production trimming, carbide tips are
recommended. Steel rule dies work
best for punching and stamping.
Cutting oils and other lubricants are
not recommended since they may not
be compatible with the thermoplastic
material. Water can be used as a
coolant.
Trim and scrap can be ground and
reused for extrusion processing, pro-
viding the material is kept free of
contamination and is properly dried.
Use no more than 20% regrind in the
production of extruded polycarbonate
sheet, and no more than 40% in the
production of ABS sheet. (See Re-
grind Usage , page 61. Also consult
your Bayer representative or call Bayer
Polymers at 1-800-662-2927 for more
information on the use of regrind of
Bayer thermoplastics in the extrusion
of sheet.) Discard any degraded, dis-
colored, or contaminated material.
JOINING
A complete description of joining
techniques for parts thermoformed
of Bayer thermoplastics can be found
in the Bayer publications, A Guide
for Joining Techniques and Snap-Fit
Joints in Plastics, which are available
from your Bayer representative or by
calling Bayer Polymers at 1-800-662-
2927. The following is a brief overview
of the methods commonly employed.
After the thermoplastic sheet is
formed, any of several post-forming
steps may be required to finish the
parts. Post-forming may include trim-
ming the edge of the sheet, cutting out
the part, adding holes or vents, or join-
ing or fastening to other parts. Finally,
the part may be painted, decorated, or
otherwise covered.
TRIMMING, CUTTING,
AND FINISHING
Thermoplastics require heavy-duty
cutting and handling equipment.
They can be cut with a shear, saw, hot
knife, or water jets. A saber saw, band
saw, router, or table saw can be very
Figure 42 Steel-Rule Die-Cutting
Steel-rule die-cutting can swiftly and cleanly punch or stamp
parts from a sheet.
Figure 43 Hand Trimming
Cutting openings in contour parts is often done with hand-held
power tools. Carbide tips are recommended.
46
Mechanical Fastening
Of the various methods used to join
thermoformed parts, mechanical fas-
teners are the most satisfactory for sev-
eral reasons:
G Mechanical fastening results in high
joint strength
G The extreme care in surface prepa-
ration necessary with other tech-
niques is avoided
G The ultimate strength of the joint is
immediate and remains stronger for
a longer period of time than with
other methods
G There is no danger from hazardous
chemicals or of chemicals attacking
the thermoplastic material
Thermoformed parts can be joined with
machine screws; bolts, nuts, and wash-
ers; rivets; and spring steel fasteners.
Self-threading screws which may be
either thread-cutting or thread-forming
are an economical means of secur-
ing separable joints. Thread-cutting
screws are preferable to thread-forming
screws because thread-cutting screws
actually remove material during instal-
lation, avoiding high-stress build-up,
Thread-forming screws displace mate-
rial during installation in the receiving
hole, which can cause high stress lev-
els in the part.
Press and Snap Fits
Press and snap fits are a simple, eco-
nomical, and rapid way of joining ther-
moformed components because of their
toughness and flexibility.
Solvent Bonding
Parts thermoformed from thermoplastic
sheet can be solvent-bonded to them-
selves or many other plastics.
Methylene chloride* is a good solvent
if maximum impact strengths are not
required. In order to properly solvent-
bond parts, a good mating surface is
needed along with some method of
applying clamp pressure for approxi-
mately five minutes. The solvent bond
should be dried at least 24 to 48 hours
before being tested.
NOTE: Before working with these
materials, consult the MSDS, product
labels, and other safe handling infor-
mation including the use of personal
protective equipment provided by
the manufacturer.
Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive bonding is also a practical
method of joining parts thermoformed
from thermoplastic sheet, but with the
same limitations as solvent bonding.
Several different adhesive bonding sys-
tems, such as urethanes, epoxies,
acrylics, and silicones, have been used.
CAUTION: Always test an adhesive
system for compatibility with polycar-
bonate or ABS before production.
Figure 44 Mechanically Fastened Thermoformed Parts
Thread-cutting phillips-head screws were used to fasten the metal
piano hinge on the electronic cabinet, which is constructed of
thermoformed components.
*Results of a recent National Toxicology
Program inhalation bioassay on methylene
chloride demonstrated that it is an animal
carcinogen.
47
POST-FORMING, continued
NOTE: Before working with these
materials, consult the MSDS, product
labels, and other safe handling infor-
mation including the use of personal
protective equipment provided by
the manufacturer.
Ultrasonic Bonding
Basically, ultrasonic bonding involves
the conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical vibratory energy which
causes the thermoplastic to melt and
fuse, thereby creating a bond.
Makrolon

polycarbonate can be joined

to itself by this method, and it may be
joined to parts molded of some grades
of Lustran

ABS and Bayblend

poly-
carbonate/ABS blends.
PRINTING AND DECORATING
Parts thermoformed from Bayer ther-
moplastic sheet can be decorated by
the wide variety of methods typically
used for thermoplastics. These tech-
niques include lacquering, painting,
vacuum metallizing, hot stamping, and
silk screening.
Test all ink and decorative coatings for
compatibility with the thermoplastic
before use. It is possible for a part to
lose impact strength as a result of the
coating. Conduct all testing on finished
parts. For more information, consult
your Bayer representative or call Bayer
Polymers at 1-800-662-2927.
Printing
Bayer thermoplastics can be printed by
many techniques including silk screen,
rotogravure, and offset printing.
Generally, no surface preparation other
than cleaning is necessary. Laser print-
ing has also been used successfully for
very fine, high-precision work.
Labeling
Simple, rapid labeling methods are
commonly used. These include hot
stamping, heat transfers, decals, and
gummed or self-adhesive labels.
Again, test the adhesive system for
compatibility with the thermoplastic.
Painting
Some Bayer thermoplastics often
require no painting because of their
availability in a variety of integral col-
ors and superior surface appearance.
Nevertheless, many paint and primer
systems are readily available for gener-
al use on thermoplastics. Among the
specialty coatings used are those such
as conductive coatings which provide
EMI (electromagnetic interference)
shielding for sensitive electronics.
Metallizing
Metallizing offers the combined advan-
tages of plastic and metal. The plastic
provides economy, design freedom, and
corrosion resistance while metallizing
gives the parts a bright, metallic appear-
ance, conductivity, and reflectivity.
Vacuum metallizing is the most com-
mon method of metallizing thermoplas-
tics. This method is best-suited for
highly volatile metals such as alu-
minum. To promote adhesion, a base
coat is usually applied to the cleaned
part. Mold design is critical for parts
to be metallized because metallizing
has a tendency to accentuate imperfec-
tions and to cause large, flat surfaces to
appear convex.
Sputtering is a recently developed
method of metallizing that does not
depend upon a metals volatility.
Essentially any metal or alloy can be
sputtered onto a thermoplastic after a
compatible base coat has been applied.
The flame-and-arc-spray method
involves spraying molten, atomized
metal onto the part surface. The result
is a textured rather than a highly pol-
ished surface. This technique is widely
used for applying EMI coatings. No
adhesive is required.
48
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
Voids or bubbles in formed parts
Crazed or brittle parts
G Excessive moisture.
G Heating sheet too rapidly.
G Uneven sheet heating.
G Mold cooling.
G Overheated part.
G Incompatible mold lubricant.
G Pre-dry sheet as recommended in
Table 6, page 34.
G Preheat sheet.
G Heat sheet on both sides.
G Protect sheet from moisture until
ready to use.
G Lower heater temperature.
G Increase distance between heater(s)
and sheet.
G Blow air across the sheets surface
during heating.
G Check heater output and/or power
consumption.
G Use pattern heating.
G Screen by attaching baffles, masks,
or screening.
G Increase mold temperature.
G Remove part from mold as soon
as it is stable.
G Change mold lubricant.
49
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE, continued
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Warped parts
Texture washout and excess gloss
G Mold too cold.
G Clamp frames too cold.
G Overheated part.
G Uneven part cooling.
G Poor material distribution.
G Poor mold design.
G Poor part design.
G Forming temperature too high.
G Improper heating technique.
G Preheat mold.
G Preheat clamp frames.
G Increase cooling cycle time.
G Use fans to help cool part.
G Decrease mold temperature.
G Add more coolant channels
or tubing to mold.
G Check for plugged water flow.
G For deep drawing, use pre-stretching
or plug assist.
G Check for uneven sheet heating.
G Check sheet gauge.
G Add vacuum holes.
G Add moat to mold at trim line.
G Check for plugged vacuum holes.
G Break up large flat surfaces with ribs
where practical.
G Re-design with tapers or fillets.
G Reduce heater temperature.
G Decrease heater cycle time.
G Heat sheets from smooth side; keep
texture side cool.
G Pre-coat texture with strippable mask
such as Spraylat Corp. TR4997.
50
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Non-uniform drape
Incomplete forming of part,
poor detail
G Uneven sheet heating.
G Sheet too cold.
G Cold clamping frame.
G Insufficient vacuum.
G Vacuum not drawn fast enough.
G Part draw ratio too large.
G Insufficient pressure.
G Poor mold design.
G Check heater output and adjust.
G Use selective screening or shading
to control heating.
G Check for cold air drafts in heating station.
G Increase heating time.
G Increase heater temperature.
G Increase watt density.
G Check for heating uniformity.
G Preheat clamping frame.
G Check for clogged vacuum holes.
G Check for proper location of vacuum
holes.
G Increase number of vacuum holes.
G Increase size of vacuum holes.
G Use vacuum slots instead of holes where
possible.
G Increase size of vacuum holes.
G Increase vacuum surge and/or pump
capacity.
G Increase size of vacuum line and valves;
avoid bends and tee-elbow connections.
G Check for vacuum system for leaks.
G Add plug, pressure, or frame assist.
G Increase air pressure on side of part
opposite mold surface, if mold can
withstand this force.
G Use frame assist.
G Use plug, silicone, slab rubber, or other
pressure assist.
G Add vacuum holes.
G Check for good seal between clamp
frame and vacuum box.
51
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE, continued
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Scorched sheet
Poor surface finish
G Top or bottom surface too hot.
G Mold surface too rough.
G Mold mark-off.
G Draft angle too shallow.
G Air entrapment over smooth mold surface.
G Insufficient vacuum.
G Mold too hot.
G Mold too cold.
G Dirty sheet.
G Dirty mold.
G Dust in atmosphere.
G Contaminated sheet.
G Scratched sheet.
G Decrease heating cycle time.
G Decrease heater temperature.
G Draw-polish mold or use mold material
better suited to mold service requirements.
G Use silicone or powdered mold lubricant
sparingly.
G Increase draft angle.
G Grit-blast mold surface.
G Add vacuum holes in affected area.
G Add vacuum holes.
G Check for proper location of vacuum holes.
G Check vacuum system for leaks.
G Check for plugged vacuum holes.
G Decrease mold temperature.
G Increase mold temperature.
G Clean sheet with deionizing airgun.
G Clean mold with deionizing airgun.
G Clean thermoforming area.
G Isolate thermoforming area and filter air.
G Check quality and type of regrind.
G Separate sheet with paper while in
storage.
G Polish sheet.
52
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Blushing or loss of color
G Insufficient sheet heating.
G Overheated sheet.
G Mold too cold.
G Assist plug too cold.
G Overdrawn sheet.
(Part too thin.)
G Sheet cools before completely formed.
G Poor mold design.
G Uncontrolled use of regrind.
G Lengthen heating cycle.
G Raise temperature of heaters.
G Reduce heater temperature.
G Decrease heating cycle time.
G Check for runaway heaters, if overheating
is localized.
G Increase mold temperature.
G Increase plug temperature.
G Increase sheet gauge.
G Increase sheet temperature.
G Use pre-draw.
G Use plug assist for deep-draw parts.
G Increase stretch rate.
G Move mold into sheet faster.
G Increase vacuum draw rate.
G Be sure molds and plugs are hot.
G Reduce depth of draw.
G Increase mold draft (taper).
G Enlarge radii.
G Check quality of regrind.
G Decrease quality of regrind. (See Regrind
Usage, page 61.)
53
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE, continued
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Chill marks or mark-off
Nipples on mold side of
formed part
G Mold temperature too low; stretching stops
when sheet meets cold mold or plug.
G Insufficient draft angle and radii.
G Plug temperature too low.
G Sheet too hot.
G Vacuum holes too large.
G Dust on mold or sheet.
G Mold too cold.
G Mold surface too smooth.
G Vacuum rate too high.
G Sheet too hot.
G Increase mold temperature.
G Increase draft angles and mold radii.
G Increase plug temperature.
G Use wood plug assist.
G Cover plug with cotton flannel or felt.
G Reduce heater temperature.
G Heat more slowly.
G Use fans to reduce the surface of hot
sheet slightly before forming.
G Decrease hole size.
G Clean mold and sheet with deionizing air
gun.
G Increase mold temperature.
G Draw-sand mold surface with medium-grit
paper.
G Place small orifice over main vacuum hole.
G Decrease heating cycle time.
G Decrease heater temperature.
54
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Webbing, bridging, or wrinkling
G Sheet too hot in center.
G Melt strength of resin too low (sheet sag
too great).
G Sheet too cold in webbing area.
G Mold too cold.
G Vacuum rate too fast.
G Insufficient vacuum.
G Draw ratio too great in area of mold, or
poor mold design or layout.
G Blanks too large for mold.
G Uneven cooling due to slow drape speed.
G Screen center of sheet, allowing edges
to heat first; use taller vacuum box to
provide more pull in area.
G Decrease heating cycle time.
G Decrease heater temperature.
G Change to resin with lower melt index.
G Use minimum sheet temperature.
G Use pattern heating.
G Increase billow height.
G Increase mold temperature to near DTUL
of resin.
G Slow down vacuum rate.
G Use smaller vacuum holes.
G Restrict main vacuum line.
G Check vacuum system for leaks.
G Increase number of vacuum holes or slots.
G Check for clogged vacuum holes.
G Check for proper location of vacuum
holes.
G Increase size of vacuum holes.
G Redesign mold.
G Use plug or ring mechanical assist.
G Use female mold instead of male mold.
G Add take-up blocks to pull out wrinkles.
G Increase draft and radii where possible.
G Increase space between multiple articles.
G Speed up assist and/or mold travel.
G Redesign grid, plug, or ring assists.
G Leave minimum of material around mold.
G Drape at higher speed.
55
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE, continued
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Insufficient draw-down
Poor wall thickness distribution and
excessive thinning in some areas
G Improper sheet heating.
G Insufficient vacuum.
G Excessive thickness variation in sheet gauge.
G Uneven heating.
G Improper forming technique.
G Excessive sag.
G Cold mold.
G Sheet pulls from rails.
G Sheet slips from frame.
G Increase heating time and temperature.
G Check vacuum system for leaks.
G Check sheet gauge.
G Check uniformity of heater output.
G Use screening or shading to control
heating.
G Check for drafts or air current in
heating station.
G Use billow or snap-back forming method.
G Reduce time delay between pre-stretch
and mold drawing.
G Control height.
G Reduce sheet temperature.
G Use pattern heating.
G Increase mold temperature.
G Check for uniform mold heating.
G Check temperature control system for
scale or plugging.
G Air-cool rails prior to heating.
G Move rails in to grasp more sheet.
G Use drag bands at rail edge.
G Increase rail tooth bite.
G Adjust frame alignment.
G Increase frame clamp pressure.
G If retainer springs are used, change to
high-temper springs.
G Pre-heat frames prior to inserting sheet.
G Check heaters around clamp area for
proper operation.
G Screen or shade center of sheet to allow
more heat at perimeter.
56
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Shrink marks
Shiny streaks on part
Excessive shrinkage or distortion of
part after removing from mold
G Inadequate vacuum.
G Mold surface too smooth.
G Part shrinkage during forming.
G Inadequate air pressure, if
pressure-forming.
G Sheet too hot in spots.
G Part not adequately cooled.
G Mold too hot.
G Check vacuum system for leaks.
G Increase vacuum surge tank and pump
capacity.
G Check for plugged vacuum holes.
G Add vacuum holes.
G Increase size of vacuum holes.
G Roughen mold surface.
G Change to lower-conductivity mold
material.
G Increase forming pressure.
G Increase mold temperature.
G Reduce free surface cooling.
G Increase airflow rate.
G Increase air pressure.
G Increase cycle time under pressure.
G Lower heater temperature in overheated
area.
G Use screening or shading to control
heating.
G Decrease heating cycle time.
G Increase distance between heater and
sheet.
G Increase cooling cycle time.
G Use cooling fixtures.
G Increase capacity of cooling system.
G Use fan or vapor spray mist to cool part
faster on mold.
G Reduce mold temperature.
G Increase mold coolant flow rate.
57
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE, continued
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Corners too thin in deep draw
Difficult part removal
G Uncontrolled material distribution.
G Sheet too thin.
G Sheet temperature too high at corners.
G Mold temperature not uniform.
G Drape speed too fast.
G Part or female mold temperature too hot.
G Male mold too cold, part sticking.
G Male mold too hot, causing part distortion.
G Insufficient mold draft.
G Ejection pressure too low.
G Mold undercuts.
G Wood mold.
G Rough mold surface.
G Consider other techniques such as
billow-up, plug assist, etc.
G Use heavier-gauge sheet.
G Use screening or shading to control
heating pattern.
G Adjust temperature control system for
uniformity.
G Check operation of mold heating system.
G Reduce drape speed.
G Increase cooling cycle time.
G Decrease mold temperature.
G Increase mold temperature.
G Decrease mold temperature.
G Increase taper/draft.
G Use female mold.
G Remove part from mold as soon as
possible.
G Add air holes.
G Increase injection pressure.
G Use powdered mold release.
G Use stripping frame.
G Increase air-eject air pressure.
G Remove part from mold as soon as
possible.
G Apply light coating of petroleum jelly to
mold surface.
G Spray mold surface with Teflon* coating.
G Polish corners or entire mold surface.
G Use mold-release agent.
G Use Teflon* spray.
*Teflon is the registered trademark of E.I. DuPont de Nemours.
58
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Loss of vacuum seal
Sheet sticking to plug
Tearing of sheet during forming
G Cold clamp frames.
G Improper spacing between clamp frames
and vacuum box.
G Plug temperature too hot.
G Wood plug assist.
G Mold design.
G Sheet too hot.
G Sheet too cold (usually thinner gauges).
G Poor material distribution.
G Pre-stretch too large.
G Preheat clamp frames.
G Adjust space between clamps and vacuum
box to between 0.50 and 0.750 in. (13 and
19 mm).
G Decrease plug temperature.
G Use mold release agent on plug.
G Apply a Teflon* coating.
G Cover plug with felt cloth or cotton flannel.
G Cover plug with felt cloth or cotton flannel.
G Apply a light coating of petroleum jelly on
plug.
G Use mold-release agent on plug.
G Apply a permanent Teflon* coating to
surface of plug.
G Increase corner radius.
G Decrease heating cycle time.
G Decrease heater temperature.
G Check sheet for uniform heating.
G Preheat sheet.
G Increase heating cycle time.
G Increase heater temperature.
G Check sheet for uniform heating.
G Preheat sheet.
G Check sheet for variations in gauge.
G Check sheet for uneven heating.
G Reduce billow blowing time.
G Reduce billow temperature.
*Teflon is the registered trademark of E.I. DuPont de Nemours.
59
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE, continued
Description of Problem Possible Causes Possible Corrective Action
Cracking of part during service
Whitening of sheet
Poor embossing detail
Excessive sheet sag
Varying sag levels among sheets
Non-uniform billow
G Stress concentration.
G Poor part or mold design.
G Sheet gauge too thin for draw.
G Uneven sheet temperature.
G Sheet too cold.
G Sheet drawn beyond yield point of
material.
G Embossing depth too shallow for
draw ratio.
G Drawing not uniform.
G Sheet too hot.
G Sheet area too large.
G Sheet-to-sheet temperature variation.
G Uncontrolled use of regrind in sheet.
(See Regrind Usage, page 61.)
G Uncontrolled sheet heating.
G Non-uniform die pressure within billow.
G Increase fillets.
G Increase sheet temperature.
G Be sure part is completely formed before
removing from mold.
G Use proper forming temperature and
cooling rate for deep-draw parts.
G Increase mold temperature.
G Re-evaluate design.
G Increase sheet gauge.
G Use screening or shading to control
heating pattern.
G Increase heating cycle time.
G Increase heater temperature.
G Increase speed of drape.
G Increase depth of embossing pattern.
G Decrease draw ratio.
G Use screening or shading to control
heating pattern.
G Use plug assist and/or billow to pre-stretch
sheet.
G Decrease heating cycle time.
G Decrease heater temperature.
G Use screening or shading to control heat-
ing, particularly in the center of the sheet.
G Check for cold air drafts in heating station.
G Be sure all sheet is sufficiently cooled after
extrusion.
G Control quality of regrind.
G Decrease or control percentage of regrind.
G Check heaters for proper operation.
G Use screening or shading to control
heating.
G Check for cold air drafts in heating station.
G Check air pressure system for leaks.
G Check seal between sheet and billow box.
G Redirect incoming air to billow box.
GENERAL
Wear safety glasses and/or face shields
when thermoforming any Bayer ther-
moplastic sheet and use proper gloves
and other appropriate garments when
handling hot tools and auxiliary
equipment.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
PRECAUTIONS
Appropriate literature has been assem-
bled which provides information con-
cerning health and safety precautions
that must be observed when handling
Bayer Polymers products mentioned in
this publication. Before working with
any of these products, you must read
and become familiar with the available
information on their hazards, proper
use, and handling. This cannot be over-
emphasized. Information is available in
several forms, e.g., material safety data
sheets (MSDS) and product labels.
Consult your local Bayer Polymers
representative or contact the Bayer
Product Safety and Regulatory Affairs
Department in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
at 1-800-662-2927.
For materials that are not Bayer
Polymers products, appropriate
industrial hygiene and other safety
precautions recommended by their
manufacturer(s) must be followed.
60
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
REGULATORY COMPLIANCE
Some of the end-uses of the products
described in this brochure must com-
ply with the applicable regulations,
such as the FDA, NSF, USDA, and
CPSC. If you have questions on the
regulatory status of any Bayer thermo-
plastic sheet, please contact your local
Bayer Polymers representative or the
Bayer Regulatory Affairs Manager in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
REGRIND USAGE
Where end-use requirements permit,
regrind may be used with virgin mate-
rial in quantities specified in individual
product information bulletins, provided
that the material is kept free of contam-
ination and is properly dried (see dry-
ing conditions in product information
bulletins). Any regrind used must be
generated from properly molded/
extruded parts, sprues, runners, trim-
mings, and/or film. All regrind used
must be clean, uncontaminated, and
thoroughly blended with virgin resin
prior to drying and processing. Under
no circumstances should degraded,
discolored, or contaminated material
be used for regrind. Materials of this
type should be discarded.
MEDICAL GRADE INFORMATION
It is the responsibility of the medical
device, biological product, or pharma-
ceutical manufacturer to determine the
suitability of all component parts and
raw materials, including Bayer resins,
used in its final product in order to
ensure the safety and compliance with
FDA requirements. This determination
must include, as applicable, testing for
suitability as an implant device and
suitability as to contact with and/or
storage of human tissue and liquids
including, without limitation, medica-
tion, blood, or other bodily fluids.
Under no circumstances may any
Bayer resin be used in any cosmetic,
reconstructive, or reproductive implant
applications. Nor may any Bayer resin
be used in any other bodily implant
applications, or any applications
involving contact with or storage of
human tissue, blood, or other bodily
fluids, for greater than 30 days, based
on FDA-Modified ISO 10993, Part 1
Biological Evaluation of Medical
Devices tests.
The suitability of a Bayer product in
any given end-use environment is
dependent upon various conditions
including, without limitation, chemical
compatibility, temperature, part design,
sterilization method, residual stresses,
and external loads. It is the responsibil-
ity of the manufacturer to evaluate its
final product under actual end-use
requirements and to adequately advise
and warn purchasers and users thereof.
STERILIZATION INFORMATION
The sterilization method and the num-
ber of sterilization cycles a part made
from Makrolon polycarbonate and
Lustran ABS can withstand will vary
depending upon the type and grade of
resin, part design, and processing para-
meters. Therefore, the manufacturer
must evaluate each application to
determine the sterilization method and
the number of cycles for exact end-use
requirements. Parts thermoformed from
Makrolon polycarbonate and Lustran
ABS sheet are sterilizable using ethyl-
ene oxide, radiation, or dry heat. Steam
sterilization methods must not be used
with aromatic grades of Makrolon
polycarbonate and Lustran ABS
because possible hydrolysis of solid
urethane may produce aromatic
amines, such as methylene dianiline
(MDA).
61
GENERAL INFORMATION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT
To get material selection and/or design
assistance, just write or call and let us
know who you are and what your
needs are. So that we can respond effi-
ciently to your inquiry, here are some
of the points of information we would
like to know: physical description of
your part(s) and engineering drawings,
if possible; material currently being
used; service requirements, such as
mechanical stress and/or strain, peak
and continual service temperature,
types of chemicals to which the part(s)
may be exposed, stiffness required to
support the part itself or another item,
impact resistance and assembly tech-
niques; applicable government or reg-
ulatory agency test standards; toler-
ances that must be held in the function-
ing environment of the part(s); and any
other restrictive factors or pertinent
information of which we should be
aware.
In addition, we can provide processing
assistance nationwide through a net-
work of regional Field Technical
Service Representatives. We can help
customers optimize the quality and per-
formance of their parts by offering the
following types of assistance: on-site
processing, equipment, and productivi-
ty audits; start-up and troubleshooting
support; and tool design.
Upon request, Bayer Polymers will
furnish such technical advice or assis-
tance it deems to be appropriate in
reference to your use of our products.
It is expressly understood and agreed
that, since all such technical advice or
assistance is rendered without compen-
sation and is based upon information
believed to be reliable, the customer
assumes and hereby expressly releases
Bayer Polymers from all liability and
obligation for any advice or assistance
given or results obtained. Moreover, it
is your responsibility to conduct end-use
testing and to otherwise determine to
your own satisfaction whether Bayer
Polymers products and information are
suitable for your intended uses and
applications.
For assistance, call 1-800-662-2927 or
visit www.BayerPolymers.com.
62
ABS: Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer.
Absorptance: That fraction of radiant energy that is retained by
the sheet.
Amorphous polymers: Polymers that exhibit a broad melting
range rather than sharp melting points.
Asperities: Microscopic surface roughness.
Assists: Components of a thermoforming mold which are used to
aid in forming the sheet but do not act as molds.
Bent section: A ridge designed into a formed part which unfolds
somewhat to absorb most of the stress when the part is placed
under tension
Biaxial orientation: Stretching of sheet in two
directions.
Billow: Pre-stretching heated sheet by inflation with air pressure.
Billow chamber: A chamber over which heated plastic sheet is
sealed and pre-stretched by an increase in air pressure in the
chamber.
Black body: A body that emits the maximum amount of radiant
energy at a given wavelength.
Bosses: Shoulders often designed into plastic parts for the pur-
pose of allowing parts to be stacked inside each other without
jamming together.
Bursting time: The time required to burst a membrane which is
biaxially inflated under a known differential pressure.
Cavity mold: A cavity inside which the part is formed; often
referred to as a female mold.
Chill line or chill mark: A wave-shaped surface imperfection on
a formed part due to the sheet being cooled prematurely.
Combination mold: A mold which has both positive portions or
ridges and cavity portions.
Computer-aided design (CAD): Computer design of part wall
thickness using geometry or the Finite Element Method (FEM).
Computer-aided engineering (CAE): Computer control of the
thermoforming process.
Conduction: Energy transfer by direct solid contact.
Convection: Energy transfer by moving, flowing fluids or gases.
Core mold: A core over which the part is formed; also known as
a male mold.
Constrained deformation: Sheet stretching while a portion of
the sheet is in contact with the mold.
Crystalline polymers: Polymers that exhibit sharp melting points.
Deformation: Stretching.
Depth of draw: The distance which the plastic sheet is pulled
from its clamped position into a mold:
Draft: The taper or slope of a core or mold that facilitates removal
of the part.
Drawing: The process of stretching a thermoplastic sheet to
reduce its cross-sectional area.
Draw ratio: The ratio of the height of a formed part to its diame-
ter: The method of calculating draw ratio can vary with the geom-
etry of the part.
63
APPENDIX A:
GLOSSARY
Enthalpy: A thermodynamic measure of the intrinsic heat content
of a material.
Epoxy resin: Thermosetting plastic used for the construction of
molds and other tooling.
Equilibration: Allowing a sheet to reach uniform temperature
after the heating source is removed.
Female mold: A cavity-type mold.
Fillet: The curved junction formed where two surfaces meet.
Finite Element Method (FEM): A computer technique for predict-
ing how a sheet of plastic performs under load.
Forming (temperature) range: The sheet temperature range in
which any particular thermoplastic can be formed. In this range,
the sheet is stretchable but not molten.
Free-blown forming: Forming which is done by air pressure
without the use of a mold.
Free surface: The sheet surface not in contact with the mold
surface.
Gels: Hard resinous particles in the sheet.
Glass transition temperature: The temperature range above
which a brittle or tough polymer becomes rubbery.
Grey body: A body emitting a fixed fraction of the maximum
amount of energy, regardless of the wavelength.
Grid or ring assists: Assists that are used for core-type molds to
prevent webbing.
Heat distortion temperature: The temperature at which a plastic
will just start to distort: This may be measured on test bars by
standard ASTM methods under specified loads, or on formed parts
under no load condition.
Heat flux: The energy incident on a surface per unit time
[(Btu/ft
2
)/hr].
Heat transfer: A measure of the coefficient effectiveness of ener-
gy transport between a flowing fluid and the solid surface; also
known as convection heat transfer coefficient.
Hot elongation: The elongation or extensibility of a heated ther-
moplastic sheet. This extensibility varies widely with the material
and is also greatly affected by sheet temperature, speed of
stretching, and method of stretching (by differential air pressure or
mechanical means).
Hot strength: The resistance of a heated thermoplastic material
to being stretched or formed to the shape of the mold.
Hot tear strength: Strength of the molten sheet.
Index: To move a sheet forward a fixed distance.
In-situ trimming: In roll-fed technology, trimming that takes place
while the formed sheet is still on the mold surface.
Male mold: A core-type mold.
Mechanical drawing: The stretching of a plastic sheet by
mechanical devices such as molds and plugs (as opposed to
stretching of the sheet by differential air pressure).
Melt temperature: The temperature range above which a poly-
mer changes from a solid to a viscous liquid.
64
Mold: To shape plastic parts or finished articles by heat and pres-
sure; the cavity or matrix into which the plastic composition is
placed and from which it takes its shape.
Orientation (alignment of polymer chains): The amount of resid-
ual or frozen-in stress in a plastic sheet (usually in a given direc-
tion).
Orientation or internal strain: With a thermoplastic material, this
consists of the stretching of the plastic to cause the polymer mole-
cules to be lined up more in the direction of stretch than in other
directions
Pattern heating: The practice of selectively applying gauze or
screening to a sheet (usually heavy gauge) to achieve uniform
heating rates.
Pin chains: Chains used to accurately feed roll-fed sheet.
Plasticized sheet: Sheet in the molten state.
Plasticizers: Materials which may be added to thermoplastics
to increase toughness and flexibility or to increase the ease of
processing. These materials are usually more volatile than the
plastics to which they are added.
Plastic memory: The tendency of a thermoplastic material which
has been stretched while hot to return to its unstretched shape
when reheated.
Platens: The mounting plates of a press to which the mold
assembly is bolted.
Plug assist: A mechanical device used to aid in sheet stretching
prior to contact with the mold.
Polycarbonate: An amorphous thermoplastic of bisphenol A and
carbonic acid.
Pressure forming: The process by which air pressure is applied
to the sheet to force it against a mold.
Radiant heater: Electrical heater that heats the sheet without
contacting it.
Radiation: Electromagnetic energy transfer or exchange.
Reflectance: The fraction of radiant energy that is reflected at the
surface of a sheet.
Regrind: Pellets formed by grinding molded parts, sprues, run-
ners, webbing, and/or trim as scrap for mixing with virgin resin pel-
lets, remelting, and subsequent extrusion or injection molding.
Replication: Accurate imaging of the mold surface by the hot-
formed sheet.
Roll-fed: Thin-gauge sheet, fed continuously into the thermo-
former.
Sag: Deflection of molten sheet.
Sag bands: Metal support bands in continuous-sheet thermo-
formers that run the length of the oven to help minimize sheet sag.
Sandwich-type heaters: Heaters placed above and below the
sheet.
Set temperature: The temperature below which a part can be
removed from the mold without appreciable distortion.
Sonic velocity: The speed of sound for air exiting a mold cavity
through vent holes.
Strain: Polymer static response to applied stress.
Stress: Externally applied load per projected area of material.
65
GLOSSARY, continued
Surge tank: The tank between the vacuum pump and the mold
allowing near-uniform vacuum to be applied during forming.
Syntactic foam: A mixture of sintered inorganic foam spheres
and plastic foam matrix; used in plugs.
Tensile strength: The pulling stress, in psi, required to break a
given specimen.
Thermal conductivity: The amount of heat in BTUs which can
be conducted through one square foot of any material one inch in
thickness, in one hour, with a one degree Fahrenheit temperature
differential across the thickness (Btu/hr/ft
2
/F/in.).
Thermal diffusivity: A material property that indicates the rate of
heat transmission.
Thermal stability: Resistance to degrading during heating and
plastication.
Thermoforming: The forming of heated plastic materials into
some definite shape by pneumatic and/or mechanical means.
Thermoplastics: Materials that will repeatedly soften when heat-
ed and harden when cooled.
Thermosets: Plastics that solidify when first heated under pres-
sure and which cannot be remelted or remolded without destroy-
ing their original characteristics.
Thin-gauge: Commonly, sheet thickness less than 0.010 in
(0.25 mm).
Transmittance: The amount of radiant energy transmitted by a
body.
Trim: That portion of sheet that is not part of the final product.
Unidirectional orientation: Alignment of the polymer molecules
in one direction much more than in any other direction.
Vacuum forming: Method of forming which uses a vacuum to
pull the sheet against a mold.
Vacuum holes: The holes in the mold through which the air
passes as the plastic sheet is forced against the mold.
Virgin material: Material that has not been reprocessed.
Watt density: A method of rating heater output; the watts per unit
area emitted from radiant heaters.
Wavelength: A measure of the nature of incident electromagnetic
radiation.
Wave number: Reciprocal (in cm) of the wavelength of infrared
radiation; also known as reciprocal wavelength.
Web: A continuous sheet of plastic which is fed to a forming
machine and from which formed parts may be trimmed.
Webbing: An excess fold of plastic which sometimes occurs dur-
ing forming particularly drape forming when a fold of plastic
sheet that cannot be pulled flat against a mold surface.
Yield point: The polymer stress/strain level below which plastic
recovers elasticity.
66
375 325 325 350-375 300 350-375 325 300
(190) (165) (165) (180-190) (150) (180-190) (165) (150)
Lower Thermoforming
Temperature Limit, F (C)
Upper Thermoforming
Temperature Limit, F (C)
Maximum Sheet
Temperature for
Demolding,F (C)
Mold Temperature,
F (C)
Plug Temperature
F (C)
67
APPENDIX B:
PROCESS TEMPERATURE GUIDE FOR THERMOFORMING
BAYER THERMOPLASTICS
Target Sheet Thermoforming Temperature: This is the temperature at which the sheet should be formed under normal operation. This tempera-
ture should be reached throughout the sheet and measured just before the mold and sheet come together. Shallow-draw projects with fast vacu-
um and/or pressure forming will allow somewhat lower sheet temperature and thus a faster cycle. Higher temperatures are required for deep
draws, pre-stretching operations, and detailed molds.
Lower Thermoforming Temperature Limit: This represents the lowest temperature at which material can be formed without creating undue
stresses. This means that the sheet material should touch every corner of the mold before it reaches this lower limit. Material processed below
the lower limit will have greatly increased stresses and strains that later could cause warpage, lower impact strength, and/or other physical
changes in the finished item.
Upper Thermoforming Temperature Limit: This is the temperature at which the thermoplastic sheet begins to degrade or at which the sheet
becomes too fluid and pliable to thermoform. These temperatures normally can be exceeded only with an impairment of the materials physical
properties.
Mold Temperature: High mold temperatures provide high-quality parts: better impact strength and other physical properties; minimum internal
stresses; and better detail, material distribution, and optics. On the other hand, thin-gauge parts can frequently be thermoformed on molds of
35 to 90F (17 to 32C), lowering cycles greatly. The additional stresses produced are not as pronounced in the thin gauges and can usually
be tolerated.
Demold Temperature: This is the temperature at which the part may be removed from the mold without warpage. Sometimes parts can be
removed at higher temperatures if cooling fixtures are used. The set temperature is usually the heat distortion temperature at 66 psi (455 kPa).
Makrolon
Polycarbonate
Lustran
ABS
Centrex
ASA, AES,
ASA/AES
Bayblend
PC/ABS
Blend
Texin
TPU
Cadon
SMA
Triax
PA/ABS
Blend
Makroblend
PC Blend
350 260 260 300 250 300 325 300
(180) (125) (165) (150) (120) (150) (150) (145)
400 380 380 410 360 400 400 310
(205) (195) (165) (210) (180) (205) (205) (155)
290 200 200 200 175 200 200 200
(145) (95) (95) (95) (80) (95) (95) (95)
180-260 120-200 120-200 120-200 100-175 120-200 120-200 120-200
(80-125) (50-95) (50-95) (50-95) (40-80) (50-95) (50-95) (50-95)
10 (5) Lower 250-300 250-300 250-300 200-225 250-325 250-300 225-235
than Sheet (120-150) (120-150) (120-150) (95-110) (120-165) (120-150) (110-115)
Target Sheet Thermoforming
Temperature Limit, F (C)
68
APPENDIX C:
LIST OF TABLES
Page No. Description Table No.
9 Advantages and Limitations of Table 1
Thermoforming
10 Bayer Thermoplastics Available for Table 2
Thermoforming
13 Thermoforming Techniques Table 3
Page No. Description Table No.
16 Recommended Vacuum Hole Diameters Table 4
for Lustran ABS Sheet
22 Design Parameters for Thermoforming Table 5
Parts from Bayer Thermoplastics
34 Recommended Drying Times Table 6
for Various Sheet Thicknesses of
Polycarbonate and ABS
APPENDIX D:
LIST OF FIGURES
69
Page No. Description Figure No.
7 Early Application of Plastic Figure 1
Thermoforming
8 Thermoformed Plastic Sheet in a Modern Figure 2
High-Performance Application
12 The Thermoforming Process Figure 3
14 Multiple-Mold Layout Figure 4
15 Wood and Aluminum Molds Figure 5
17 Typical Temperature-Controlled
Mold Construction Figure 6
18 Heated Plug Assist Figure 7
19 Thermoformed Part Designed with Ribbing Figure 8
20 Location of Maximum Stress in Notched Figure 9
or Grooved Parts
20 Stress Concentration as a Function of Figure 10
Fillet Radius
21 Removable Split Ring for Thermoforming Figure 11
Undercuts
23 Sheet Drying Oven Figure 12
24 Electrically Powered Heating Element Figure 13
of a Thermoformer Oven
25 Localized Mold Heating Figure 14
27 Operation of a Single-Station Figure 15
Thermoformer
27 Single-Station Thermoformer Figure 16
28 Operation of a Shuttle Thermoformer Figure 17
28 Shuttle Thermoformer Figure 18
29 Operation of a Rotary Thermoformer Figure 19
29 Rotary Thermoformer Figure 20
30 Operation of a Straight-Line, Roll-Fed
Thermoformer Figure 21
Page No. Description Figure No.
30 Operation of a Drum or Ferris Wheel Figure 22
Thermoformer
30 Roll-Fed Continuous Termoformers Figure 23
31 In-Line Thermoformer Figure 24
31 In-Line Extruder-Fed Drum Thermoformer Figure 25
35 Screening to Shade Hot Spots and
Control Excessive Sag Figure 26
36 Typical Heating Times for Makrolon Figure 27
Polycarbonate Sheet
36 Typical Heating Times for Figure 28
Lustran Sheet
37 Drape Forming with a Male Mold Figure 29
37 Drape Forming with a Female Mold Figure 30
38 The Pressure Forming Process Figure 31
38 Free Forming Figure 32
39 Matched-Mold Forming Figure 33
39 Trapped-Sheet Pressure Forming Figure 34
40 The Twin-Sheet Forming Process Figure 35
41 Plug-Assisted Vacuum Forming Figure 36
41 Plug-Assisted Pressure Forming Figure 37
42 Slip-Ring Forming Figure 38
42 Vacuum Snap-Back Forming Figure 39
43 Billow Snap-Back Forming Figure 40
44 Part Cooling with a Water Mist Figure 41
45 Steel-Rule Die-Cutting Figure 42
45 Hand Trimming Figure 43
46 Mechanically Fastened Figure 44
Thermoformed Parts
A
ABS, ABS sheet, 8, 16, 17, 18, 23, 25,
32, 34, 35, 36, 41, 44, 45, 46, 47,
61, 63, 67
adhesive systems, 46
cooling, 44
drying times, 34
forming temperature, 35
joining, 47
mold temperatures, 25
multiple-step forming techniques, 41
plug temperature, 18, 25
pre-heating, 35, 36
regrind, 45
sheet drying, 34
sheet forming temperature, 18
sterilization, 61
thermal degradation, 36
thermoforming temperature, 25
ABS/polyamide blends, 8
ABS/SMA terpolymers, 8
acrylic sheet materials, 7
adhesive bonding, 46
Advantages and Limitations of
Thermoforming (Table 1), 9
advantages of thermoforming, 7, 9
aluminum molds, 9, 16, 25
applications, 10, 11
automotive and transportation, 10, 11
business machine, 11
business machines, 10
consumer, 10, 11
electrical/electronic, 10
industrial/mechanical, 10
medical, 11
specialty transportation, 11
area heating, 36
automatic thermoformers, 26
automotive and transportation
applications, 10, 11
B
Bayblend polycarbonate/ABS Blend,
10, 47, 67
Bayer thermoplastic resins, 7, 8, 10, 33
Bayer thermoplastic sheet, 47, 60, 61
regulatory status, 61
Bayer Thermoplastics Available for
Thermoforming (Table 2), 10
biaxial orientation, 63
billow, 19, 26, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 54, 55,
57, 58, 59, 63. See also pre-stretching
billow or bubble forming, 38
pre-draw, 19
pre-heating air, 26
pre-stretch, 59
slip-ring forming, 42
snap-back forming, 41, 43, 55
temperature, 58
billow snap-back forming, 41, 43, 55
Billow Snap-Back Forming
(Figure 40), 43
blow pin, 40
blow plate, 39
blush, 52
bosses, 22, 63
bridging, 14, 54
brittle parts, 48
bubbles, bubble formation, 23, 34, 48
business machine applications, 10, 11
C
Cadon SMA, 11, 67
cam-actuated plugs, 17
cast phenolic molds, 15
cavity mold, 63
cellulosic sheet materials, 7
Centrex ASA, AES, ASA/AES, 11, 32, 67
chill marks, 22, 25, 42, 44, 53, 63
circulating air oven, 23, 34
clamp, clamping frame, 13, 22, 23, 40,
44, 50, 58
clamp, clamping pressure, 26, 55
coefficient of expansion
linear expansion, 22
thermal expansion, 21, 22
coextruded sheet, 9, 32
color, 10, 32, 34, 45, 47, 52
stability, 10
loss of, 52
combination mold, 63
consumer applications, 10, 11
Consumer Product Safety Commission
(CPSC), 61
contamination, contaminated sheet,
33, 45, 51
continuous thermoformer, 30
cooling, 12, 18, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 29,
30, 44, 48, 49, 54, 56, 57, 59, 67
cooling and part removal, 44
cooling cycle, 21, 49, 56, 57
cooling rate, 59
cooling time, 29
core mold, 63
corner radii, 20
corner ribs, 22
cost
equipment, 7, 9
labor, 9
material, 8, 9, 19, 32
thermoforming, 9
tooling, 15, 16, 39
CPSC (Consumer Product Safety
Commission), 61
cracking, 11, 22, 33, 59
crazing, 22, 48
curves, 22
cut-sheet feedstock, 32
cut-sheet thermoformers, 27
cutting and handling equipment, 45
cycle time(s), 9, 17, 44, 56
INDEX
70
D
decals, 47
decorating, 13
deflection temperature, 22
demold temperature, 25, 44, 67
demolding, See part removal
depth of draw, 19, 22, 52, 63
depth-to-diameter draw ratio, 14, 37
depth-to-width ratios, 19
design assistance, 62
Design Parameters for Thermoforming
Parts from Bayer Thermoplastics
(Table 5), 22
detail, 9, 12, 14, 16, 19, 22, 26, 37, 38,
39, 42, 59, 67
die pressure (matched mold forming), 59
differential drawing, 32
dimensional accuracy, 14, 39
dimensional control, 38
dimensional stability, 7, 10, 11, 15
dimensional tolerances, 26
dimpling, 17
dirt, 33, 36
dirty mold, 53
dirty sheet, 53
distortion, 44, 57
draft, 54, 63
draft angle, 21, 22, 51
draft, mold, 16
drape forming
with a female mold, 13, 37
with a male mold, 13, 19, 21, 37
Drape Forming with a Female Mold
(Figure 30), 37
Drape Forming with a Male Mold
(Figure 29), 37
drape speed, 54, 57, 59
draw, 19, 22, 26, 32, 43, 52, 55, 57, 59
draw ratio, 14, 37, 41, 50, 54, 59, 63
drum or ferris wheel thermoformer, 30, 69
dryability, sheet, 22
drying sheet, 23, 33
drying station, 23
drying times
ABS sheet, 34
polycarbonate sheet, 34
Drying Times for Various Sheet
Thicknesses of Polycarbonate and
ABS, Recommended (Table 6), 34
E
Early Application of Plastic Thermoforming
(Figure 1), 7
ejection pressure, 57
ejection systems, 12, 44
electrical heaters, 25
electrical/electronic applications, 10
Electrically Powered Heating Element of a
Thermoformer Oven (Figure 13), 24
electroformed metal molds, 16
elongation, 22, 33, 35
embossing depth, 59
embossing detail, 59
EMI (electromagnetic interference)
shielding, 47
epoxy molds, 9, 15
equipment, 9, 14, 23, 24, 26, 29, 36, 45, 46
cutting and handling, 45
finishing, 23
sheet clamping and transfer, 26
sheet drying, 23
sheet heating (pre-heating), 24
thermoforming, 23
trimming and cutting, 9, 13, 23
equipment capabilities, 19, 22
clamp frame size, 22
clearance for part removal, 22
heating capacity and pattern control, 22
part handling, 22
plug force and speed, 22
vacuum or pressure available, 22
extruded sheet, 9, 32, 33
extruded sheet properties
elongation, 33
modulus of elasticity, 33
tensile strength, 33
tensile stress, 33
extruder-fed feedstock, 32
F
fastening, 45, 46
fatigue performance, 10
FDA (Food and Drug Administration), 61
feedstock
cut sheet, 32
extruder-fed, 32
film, 32
foam-core sheet, 32
rolled sheet, 32
female mold, 12, 13, 14, 37, 38, 39, 40,
41, 54, 57, 63, 64
Figures, List of (Appendix D), 69
fillet(s), 20, 59, 64
finished part requirements, 19, 22
finishing, 13, 23
finishing equipment, 23
foam-core sheet, 32
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 61
forming cycle, 12, 24
forming equipment, 9, 26, 29
forming pressure, 56
forming station, 23
forming techniques
multiple-step, 41
single-step, 37
forming temperature, 12, 18, 24, 27, 28, 29,
31, 35, 36, 40, 49, 59
ABS sheet, 35
polycarbonate sheet, 35
frame assist, 50
free forming, 13, 37, 38, 39
Free Forming (Figure 32), 38
71
G
gauge uniformity, 22, 32
gels, 64
gloss, excess, 49
Glossary (Appendix A), 63
grained surface, 14, 39
H
Hand Trimming (Figure 43), 45
hardwood plug, 18
health and safety precautions, 60
heat transfers, 47
Heated Plug Assist (Figure 7), 18
heater temperature, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
54, 56, 58, 59
heating cycle, 19, 24, 44, 49, 51, 52, 53,
54, 56, 58, 59
heating equipment, 22, 24, 36
heating pattern control, 22
heating time, 29, 36, 50, 55
ABS sheet, 36
polycarbonate sheet, 36
Typical Heating Times for Lustran ABS
Sheet (Figure 28), 36
Typical Heating Times for Makrolon
Polycarbonate Sheet (Figure 27), 36
heating uniformity, 50
history of thermoforming, 7
hot elongation, 35
hot melt strength, 22
hot stamping, 47
hot tear strength, 35
I
ignition, 24
impact resistance, 10, 33, 39
impact strength, 7, 8, 10, 11, 46, 47, 67
improperly dried sheet
bubbles, 23
reduction in physical properties, 23
incomplete forming of part, 50
industrial hygiene, 60
industrial/mechanical applications, 10
infrared heaters, 24
In-Line Extruder-Fed Drum Thermoformer
(Figure 25), 31
in-line forming, 9
in-line thermoformer, 31, 69
In-Line Thermoformer (Figure 24), 31
inserts, 22
inside detail, 19
J
joining, 13, 45-47
joining techniques
adhesive bonding, 46
mechanical fastening, 46
press and snap fits, 46
solvent bonding, 46
ultrasonic bonding, 47
Joining Techniques and Snap-Fit Joints
in Plastics, A Guide for, 45
joint strength, 46
L
labeling, 47
decals, 47
heat transfers, 47
hot stamping, 47
gummed or self-adhesive, labels, 47
labor costs, 9
lacquering, 47
laminated sheet, 9, 32
laser printing, 47
layout, 22
lettering, 14, 22, 38, 39
linear expansion, 22
localized mold heating, 25
Localized Mold Heating (Figure 14), 25
localized thinning, 33
Location of Maximum Stress in Notched or
Grooved Parts (Figure 9), 20
low-profile parts, 38
Lustran ABS, 11, 16, 32, 35, 36, 44, 47,
61, 67, 68
Lustran ABS sheet
forming temperature, 35
mold design, 16
multiple-step forming, 41
thermal degradation, 36
vacuum hole diameters, 16, 17
M
Makroblend PC blends, 10, 67
Makrolon polycarbonate, 10, 17, 35, 36,
39, 41, 44, 47, 67, 69
Makrolon polycarbonate sheet
multiple-step forming, 41
thermal degradation, 36
vacuum hole diameter, 17
male drape forming, 19, 21
male mold, 12, 13, 14, 18, 37, 38, 39, 40,
42, 43, 44, 63, 64
mark-off, mold, 25, 51, 53
marks, 36, 38, 53, 56
matched-mold forming, 12, 13, 14, 39
Matched-Mold Forming (Figure 33), 39
matched-mold tooling, 9
material cost, 9, 19, 32
material distribution, 19, 22, 25, 31, 41, 42,
49, 57, 58, 67
material heating (pre-heating), 34, 35-36, 48
material pre-drying, 23, 34, 48
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS),
46, 47, 60
material selection assistance, 62
mechanical fastening, 46
mechanical stress, 20
Mechanically Fastened Thermoformed Parts
(Figure 44), 46
72
medical applications, 11
medical grade information, 61
melt strength, 54
metallizing, 47
methods of thermoforming
multiple-step, 13
single-step, 13
modulus of elasticity, 22, 33
moisture, 32, 33, 34, 48
affect on color, 34
affect on control of thermoforming
parameters, 34
affect on physical properties, 34
bubble formation, 34
drying sheet, 33
localized thinning, 33
surface defects, 33
mold, 9, 12, 13, 14-18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40,
41, 42, 43, 44, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54,
55, 56, 57, 63, 67
assists, 17
cavity, 14, 39
contamination, 53
coolant, 56
cooling, 16, 48
cost, 16
cycle, 16, 67
dimensional stability, 15
draft, 16, 52, 53, 54, 57
durability, 16
female, 13
heating controls, 23
layout, 14, 54
lubricant, 48, 51
male, 13
mark-off, 51
thermal conductivity, 25
Mold Construction, Typical Temperature-
Controlled, (Figure 6), 17
mold design, 14-18
collapsible core, 17
draft, 16
factors to consider, 14
Lustran ABS sheet, 16
mold materials, 14
part geometry, 17, 42
part removal, 17, 44
pressure forming, 16
radii, 16
split body, 17
thermoforming method, 16
undercuts, 16, 17
vacuum holes, 16, 17
mold detail, 14, 16, 37, 39
grained surfaces, 39
lettering, 39
mold heating, 16, 25, 55
cartridge-type electrical heaters, 25
localized, 25
mold mark-off, 25, 51, 53
mold materials, 14, 15-16, 56
aluminum molds, 9, 15, 16, 25
cast phenolic, 15
cost, 15
durability, 15, 16
electroformed metal, 16
for experimental thermoforming, 15
for large-volume production, 15
for long production runs, 15
for medium runs, 15
for prototyping, 15
for short runs, 15
heat conductivity, 15, 16
metal, 15
plaster molds, 15,
plastic molds, 16, 25
properties and characteristics, 15
sprayed metal molds, 16
steel molds, 16
surface finish, 15
temperature control, 15
wear resistance, 15
wood molds, 15
mold orientation, 16
mold preheating, 25
mold pressure, 9
mold radii, 53, 54
mold release, 57, 58
mold shrinkage, 20, 21
mold spacing, multiple mold layout, 14
mold strength, 15
mold surface, 16, 19, 37, 38, 42, 51, 53,
56, 57
mold temperature, 25, 44, 48, 49, 51, 52,
53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 67
for ABS, 25
for polycarbonate, 25
for thin-gauge parts, 67
mold temperature control, 25
mold types
female molds, 14
male molds, 14
matched molds, 14
mold undercuts, 21, 57
molded-in stress, 9, 25
MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet),
46, 47, 60
multi-cavity molds, 9
multiple parts, 22
multiple-mold layout, 14
Multiple-Mold Layout (Figure 4), 14
multiple-step forming techniques, 13, 41
billow snap-back forming, 41, 43
plug-assisted pressure forming,
13, 41, 42
plug-assisted vacuum forming, 13, 41
slip-ring forming, 13, 41, 42
vacuum snap-back forming, 13, 41, 42
INDEX, continued
73
N
National Science Foundation (NSF), 61
nipples, 53
non-uniform drape, 50
NSF (National Science Foundation), 61
O
offset printing, 47
openings, 22
Operation of a Drum or Ferris Wheel
Thermoformer (Figure 22), 30
Operation of a Rotary Thermoformer
(Figure 19), 29
Operation of a Shuttle Thermoformer
(Figure 17), 28
Operation of a Single-Station
Thermoformer (Figure 15), 27
Operation of a Straight-Line Roll-Fed
Thermoformer (Figure 21), 30
optical distortion, 38
optical properties, 22
orientation (internal strain), 32
output rate, 32
outside detail, 19
oven, 23
circulating air, 23
convection, 24
sheet drying, 23
size and capacity, 23
temperature, 35, 36
thermoformer (pre-heating), 23, 24
overheated part, 48, 49
over-stretching, 22
P
packaging, 9
painting, 47
part cooling, 12, 44, 49
Lustran ABS, 44
Makrolon polycarbonate, 44
plastic molds, 44
thick walls, 44
wood molds, 44
Part Cooling with a Water Mist
(Figure 41), 44
part cracking, 59
part definition, 38
part design, 9, 14, 19, 20, 21, 22, 29, 32,
49, 59, 63
bosses, 22, 63
changes, cost of, 9
costs, 9
dimensions, 9, 21, 32
elasticity, 22
equipment capabilities, 19
fillets, 20
finished part requirements, 19
material characteristics, 19
reproducing detail, 19
ribbing, 19
shrinkage, 20, 21
stress concentration, 20
thermoforming technique, 19
part distortion, 56, 57
part ejection
automatic, 12
manual, 12
part failure, 22
part geometry, 17, 42
part handling, 22
part layout, 22
part removal, 12, 17, 22, 44, 57
part service life, 20
part shrinkage, 25, 56
part strength, 20
part temperature, 57
part thickness, 19, 32, 36
part tolerances, 21
pattern heating, 48, 54, 55, 57, 59, 65
personal protective equipment, 46, 47
physical properties, 23, 24, 25, 34, 67
physical testing, 8
plaster molds, 15
plastic molds, 16, 17, 44
plug, plug assists, 12, 14, 17-18, 19, 23,
25, 27, 41, 42, 43, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
54, 57, 58, 59, 65
cam-actuated, 17
for experimental or short runs, 18
heating controls, 23
thermal conductivity, 17
plug design
friction, 17
material, 18
mold shape, 17
surface, 17
plug force, 22
plug speed, 22
plug surface, 17
plug temperature, 18, 25, 52, 53, 58, 67
plug travel, 23
plug-assisted pressure forming, 13, 41, 42
Plug-Assisted Pressure Forming
(Figure 37), 41
plug-assisted pre-stretching, 41
plug-assisted vacuum forming, 13, 41
Plug-Assisted Vacuum Forming
(Figure 36), 41
polishing, 13
polycarbonate, polycarbonate sheet, 8, 13,
17, 23, 25, 34, 35, 36, 39, 41, 44, 45,
46, 47
drying, 23
drying times, 34
forming temperature, 35
free-blowing, 13
regrind, 45
polycarbonate/ABS blend,
polycarbonate/ABS blend sheet, 8, 10,
23, 47, 67
polycarbonate/polyester blends, 8
poor detail, 50
poor embossing detail, 59
74
post-forming, 12, 13, 45
adding holes or vents, 45
cutting out the part, 45
joining or fastening, 13, 45
polishing, 13
printing and decorating, 13
sanding, 13
trimming, 13, 45
pre-drying, 23, 34, 48
pre-heating, 34, 35, 36, 48
heavy sheet, 36
thin film, 36
press and snap fits, 46
pressure assist, 50
pressure box, 43
pressure forming, 9, 13, 16, 26, 37, 38, 41,
42, 56, 65
cycle times, 9
detail, 9
mold design, 16
mold pressure, 9
Pressure Forming Process, The
(Figure 31), 38
pre-stretching, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 37, 41,
42, 49, 58, 59, 63, 67
printing and decorating, 13, 47
Process Temperature Guide for
Thermoforming Bayer Thermoplastics
(Appendix B), 67
product information bulletins, 61
product labels, 46, 47, 60
production cycle, 35, 38
production molds/tooling, 9, 25
production trials, 8
profile heating, 36
properties, 10, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 32, 33,
34, 35
electrical, 10
elongation, 35
sheet, 32
tear strength, 35
prototype forming, 35
prototype mold materials, 15
prototype parts, 9
prototype tooling, 25
punching and stamping, 45
R
radiant heaters, 24
radii, 16, 52, 54
regrind, 22, 30, 33, 45, 46, 51, 52, 59,
61, 65
ABS sheet, 45
polycarbonate sheet, 45
regulatory compliance, 61
Removable Split Ring for Thermoforming
Undercuts (Figure 11), 21
removable split rings, 21
removal, part, 12
reproducing detail
inside detail, 19
outside detail, 19
residual stress, 22
ribbing, 19
rigidity, 10, 11, 16, 19, 32
ring assists, 14, 17, 18, 54
rod assists, 14
roll feedstock, 23, 32
Roll-Fed Continuous Thermoformers
(Figure 23), 30
roll-fed continuous thermoformer, 30
rotary thermoformer, 29
Rotary Thermoformer (Figure 20), 29
rotogravure printing, 47
S
safety, 46, 47, 60
sag, 24, 35, 36, 55, 59, 65
scorching, scorched sheet, 51
scrap, 13, 14, 22, 32, 45
scratches, 13, 51
Screening to Shade Hot Spots and Control
Excessive Sag (Figure 26), 35
secondary operations, 8
set temperature, 67
set-up time, 22
shapes, 22
sheet
coextruded, 32
contamination, 53
foam-core, 32
laminated, 32
materials, 7
sag, 35, 36, 59
sticking, 58
surface temperature, 36
temperature, 16, 18, 35, 52, 53, 54, 55,
56, 57, 58, 59
thermal degradation, 36
sheet clamping and transfer equipment, 26
sheet drying equipment, 23, 34
Sheet Drying Oven (Figure 12), 23
sheet gauge, 17, 32, 49, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59
sheet gauge uniformity, 32
sheet heating, 48, 49, 50, 52, 55, 59
sheet pre-drying and pre-heating, 34
sheet properties, 32, 33, 35
elongation, 35
impact resistance, 33
modulus of elasticity, 33
tear strength, 35
tensile stress, 33
toughness, 33
sheet thermoforming temperature, 67
sheet thickness, 19, 23, 24
sheet-fed stock, 23
sheet-fed thermoformers, 27
short-run tooling, 25
shrink marks, 56
shrinkage, 20-21, 25, 32, 44, 56
after-mold shrinkage, 20, 21
in-service shrinkage and expansion, 20
mold shrinkage, 20
INDEX, continued
75
shuttle thermoformer, 28, 29
Shuttle Thermoformer (Figure 18), 28
silk screening, 47
single-mold thermoformer, 28
Single-Station Thermoformer
(Figure 16), 27
single-station thermoformers, 27
single-step thermoforming, 13, 37
drape forming with a female mold, 13, 37
drape forming with a male mold, 13, 37
free forming, 13, 37
matched-mold forming, 13, 37
pressure forming, 13, 37
trapped-sheet pressure forming, 13, 37
twin-sheet pressure forming, 13, 37
slip-ring forming, 13, 41, 42
Slip-Ring Forming (Figure 38), 42
snap-back forming, 55
solvent bonding, 46
specialty coatings, 47
specialty transportation applications, 11
sprayed metal molds, 16
static electrical charge, 33
steel molds, 16
Steel-Rule Cutting Die (Figure 42), 45
sterilization, 61
Lustran ABS, 61
Makrolon polycarbonate, 61
sticking, 57
straight vacuum female forming, 19
straight vacuum forming, 13, 21, 37
straight-line, roll-fed thermoformer, 30
streaks, 56
strength, 11, 20, 46, 47
stress, 9, 20, 22, 25, 44, 46, 63
stress concentration, 20, 59
Stress Concentration as a Function of
Fillet Radius (Figure 10), 20
stress distribution, 20
surface appearance, 11, 47
surface contamination, 33
surface defects, 33
surface detail, 22
surface finish, 15, 16, 38, 44, 51
surface roughness, 36, 63
surface temperature, 36
surface texture, 38
surge tank, 26
T
Tables, List of (Appendix C), 68
tear strength, 11, 35
tearing, 58
technical advice and assistance, 8, 62
temperature control, 15, 25, 55
tensile elongation, 22
tensile strength, 11, 66
tensile stress, 33
Texin TPU, 11, 67
texture, 22, 38, 47, 49
texture washout, 49
thermal conductivity, 17, 25, 66
mold, 25
plug, 17
thermal degradation, 36, 67
Lustran ABS sheet, 36
Makrolon polycarbonate sheet, 36
thermal expansion, 21, 22
thermal resistance, 8, 10
thermal shrinkage, 44
thermal stability, 10
Thermoformed Part Design with Ribbing
(Figure 8), 19
Thermoformed Plastic Sheet in a Modern
High-Performance Application
(Figure 2), 8
thermoformers
automatic, 26
continuous, 30
cut-sheet, 27
drum or ferris wheel, 30
in-line, 31
rotary, 29
sheet-fed, 27
shuttle, 28
single-mold, 28
single-station, 27
straight-line, roll-fed, 30
web- or roll-fed, 30
thermoformer oven, 23, 24
thermoformer platen, 16
thermoforming equipment, 9, 23, 26, 27,
28, 29
thermoforming method, 13, 16
thermoforming process, 12, 13, 23, 31
forming cycle, 12
methods of thermoforming, 13
Thermoforming Process, The, (Figure 3), 12
thermoforming technique, 19
depth of draw, 19
part design, 19
part shrinkage, 20
reproducing detail, 19
ribbing, 19
Thermoforming Techniques (Table 3), 13
thermoforming temperature, 67
thermoforming, history of, 7
thermoplastic polyurethanes, 8
thickness, 22, 32, 68
thin sheet, 23, 32
thin-gauge parts, 67
mold temperature, 67
thin-gauge sheet, 19
thinning, 33, 37, 38, 41, 55
timing controls, 23
cooling, 23
heating, 23
plug travel, 23
tolerances, 31, 32, 39
tooling, 9, 12, 25, 39
costs, 39
matched tooling, 9
production, 25
76
prototype, 25
short-run, 25
toughness, 11, 32, 33
transparency, 8, 10, 38
trapped-sheet pressure forming, 13, 37, 39
Trapped-Sheet Pressure Forming
(Figure 34), 39
Triax alloys, 67
Triax Polyamide/ABS blend, 10
trim, 9, 14
reclamation, 9
trimming, 13, 23, 29, 30, 44, 45, 69
trimming and cutting tools, 9, 13, 23
twin-sheet pressure forming, 13, 37, 40
Twin-Sheet Forming Process, The,
(Figure 35), 40
U
ultrasonic bonding, 47
undercuts, 16, 17, 21, 22, 57, 69
uneven heating, 25, 58
uneven part cooling, 49
uneven sheet heating, 48, 49, 50
uneven wall thickness, 25
uniaxial orientation, 32
uniform draw, 14, 43
uniform mold temperature, 44
United States Dairy Association
(USDA), 61
USDA (United States Dairy Association),
61
UV exposure, 32
V
vacuum, 13, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 37, 38,
39, 40, 41, 50, 51, 54, 56
vacuum box, 26, 43, 54, 58
vacuum draw rate, 52
vacuum forming, 9, 13, 15, 21, 26, 37,
38, 41, 66
vacuum hole diameter
Lustran ABS sheet, 16, 17
Makrolon polycarbonate sheet, 17
Vacuum Hole Diameters for Lustran ABS
Sheet, Recommended (Table 4), 16
vacuum holes, 16, 17, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54,
56, 66
clogged, 50, 54, 56
location, 50
Lustran ABS sheet, 16
Makrolon polycarbonate sheet, 17
mold design, 17
number, 50
part geometry, 17
size, 17, 50, 54, 56
vacuum metallizing, 47
vacuum pumps, 26
vacuum rate, 53
vacuum slits/slots, 17, 50
vacuum snap-back forming, 13, 41, 42, 43
Vacuum Snap-Back Forming
(Figure 39), 42
vacuum surge tank, 56
vibration dampening, 11
vinyl sheet materials, 7
voids, 48
W
wall thickness, 9, 14, 16, 19, 20, 25, 36,
37, 39, 41, 42, 43, 55
female mold, 14
male mold, 14
precision, 9
radii, 16
uneven, 25
variation, 25
warping, warped parts, 22, 23, 34, 44,
49, 67
waste, 13
weatherability, 11
weatherable polymers, 8
webbing, 14, 18, 22, 54, 66
web-fed thermoformer, 30
whitening, 59
wood mold, 9, 15, 25, 44, 57
Wood Molds (Figure 5), 15
wood plug/plug assist, 18, 58
wrinkling, 54
INDEX, continued
77