PHOTONIC MAPPING OF MAGNETIC FIELDS BY MEANS OF A FERROFLUID HELE-SHAW CELL

By Michael Monroe Snyder B.S., Murray State University, 2007

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of the University of Louisville In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science

Department of Physics and Astronomy University of Louisville Louisville, Kentucky

April 2010

Copyright 2010 by Michael Monroe Snyder All rights reserved

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PHOTONIC MAPPING OF MAGNETIC FIELDS BY MEANS OF A FERROFLUID HELE-SHAW CELL By Michael Monroe Snyder

A Thesis Approved on

May 5, 2010

By the following Thesis Committee

______________________________ (Thesis Director)

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

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DEDICATION

To: Marie, Carrie, Cecilia, Catherine, and Cade.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to thank Dr. P.J. Ouseph, for his patience, guidance and friendship. I will miss our morning meetings. I also would like to thank Dr. France for sharing his lab and advice; and Dr. Kielkopf and Dr. Sumanesekera for the sharing of lab equipment and expertise. I would like to thank my two collaborators, Timm Vanderelli and John R. Shearer for sharing their work and data.

ABSTRACT This investigation describes and demonstrates a novel technique for the visualization of magnetic fields. Two ferrofluid Hele-Shaw cells have been constructed to facilitate the imaging of magnetic field contours. The instruments are made up of two glass plates with a magnetic sensitive fluid sandwiched between the glass plates. Using different magnet configurations and lighting, highly structured pictures are obtained of one of the universe's forces. The pictures are studied in detail and compared to computer models.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.......v ABSTRACT...vi LIST OF TABLES.....ix LIST OF FIGURES.....x CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. B. II. The objective........1 Background and layout....6

EQUIPMENT & DATA PROCESSING A. B. C. D. E. F. G. Equipment........7 Image processing.....7 Curve fitting.....8 Video frame subtraction.11 Video frame stacking.11 False color data overlays11 France diagrams.....13

III.

PRIMARY DATA A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L. M. N. Magnet configurations...15 Layout of image panels..17 The study of one disc magnet19 The study of three disc magnets.24 The study of five disc magnets..29 The study of seven disc magnets...34 The study of nine disc magnets..39 Summary of the disc magnet series...44 The study of one ring magnet....45 The study of two ring magnet....51 The study of three ring magnets.56 The study of four ring magnets..61 The study of five ring magnets..66 Summary of the ring magnet series...71 vii

IV.

SINGLE MAGNET TIME STUDY A. B. Lab Video..72 Separation band.73

V.

DARKROOM CONTACT PRINTS A. B. C. Making contact prints79 Spring semester of 200780 The Farside82

VI.

Z AXIS LIGHTING A. Using a different light source.88

VII. VIII. IX.

DIPOLE PICTURES.92 COMPUTING VECTOR FIELDS OF PERMANENT MAGNETS94 IMPERFECTIONS A. B. An eight dipole magnet configuration.103 Three significant imperfections...106

X.

CONCLUSIONS A. B. Experimental Conclusions...113 Discussion of the list of optical candidates..115

REFERENCES117 APPENDIX A. APPENDIX B. MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENTS..118 THREE MATLAB SCRIPTS..121

VITA125

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LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE

1. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 9 and Figure 10..20 2. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 13 and Figure 14.25 3. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 17 and Figure 18.30 4. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 21 and Figure 22.35 5. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 25 and Figure 26.40 6. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 29 and Figure 30.47 7. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 33 and Figure 34.52 8. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 37 and Figure 38.57 9. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 41 and Figure 42.62 10. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 46 and Figure 47...67 11. Ring magnet field measurements in gauss units....118 12. Disc magnet field measurements in gauss units....119 13. Video V1 magnet magnetic field measurements in gauss units....120

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LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE

1. Two ferrofluid Hele-Shaw cells. Cell on right has a center hole in glass......1 2. Showing the axis and radial light injection alignment of the ferrofluid cells.....2 3. Standard ferrofluid cell experimental layout..5 4. The hyperbola shape of a lamp projecting light onto my apartment wall..9 5. Multiple ellipse fits overlaid in blue onto a ferrofluid photograph..10 6. Layouts of the photographic panels in Chapter III...18 7. Magnetic field measurements of the S1 one disc magnet configuration..20 8. Stacked frame photographs of the S1 one disc magnet configuration..21 9. Photographs of the one disc magnet configuration with upward LED.22 10. Photographs of the one disc magnet configuration with left facing LED23 11. Magnetic field measurements of the S3 three disc magnet configuration...25 12. Stacked frame photographs of the S3 three disc magnet configuration..26 13. Photographs of the three disc magnet configuration with upward LED.27 14. Photographs of the three disc magnet configuration with left facing LED.28 15. Magnetic field measurements of the S5 five disc magnet configuration30 16. Stacked frame photographs of the S5 five disc magnet configuration....31 17. Photographs of the five disc magnet configuration with upward LED...32 18. Photographs of the five disc magnet configuration with left facing LED...33

19. Magnetic field measurements of the S7 seven disc magnet configuration..35 20. Stacked frame photographs of the S7 seven disc magnet configuration.36 21. Photographs of the seven disc magnet configuration with upward LED.37 22. Photographs of the seven disc magnet configuration with left facing LED38 23. Magnetic field measurements of the S9 nine disc magnet configuration....40 24. Stacked frame photographs of the S9 nine disc magnet configuration41 25. Photographs of the nine disc magnet configuration with upward LED...42 26. Photographs of the nine disc magnet configuration with left facing LED..43 27. Magnetic field measurements of the R1 one ring magnet configuration.46 28. Stacked frame photographs of the R1 one ring magnet configuration48 29. Photographs of the one ring magnet configuration with upward LED....49 30. Photographs of the one ring magnet configuration with left facing LED50 31. Magnetic field measurements of the R2 two ring magnet configuration.51 32. Stacked frame photographs of the R2 two ring magnet configuration53 33. Photographs of the two ring magnet configuration with upward LED54 34. Photographs of the two ring magnet configuration with left facing LED...55 35. Magnetic field measurements of the R3 three ring magnet configuration...56 36. Stacked frame photographs of the R3 three ring magnet configuration..58 37. Photographs of the three ring magnet configuration with upward LED.59 38. Photographs of the three ring magnet configuration with left facing LED.60 39. Magnetic field measurements of the R4 four ring magnet configuration61 40. Stacked frame photographs of the R4 four ring magnet configuration...63 41. Photographs of the four ring magnet configuration with upward LED...64

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42. Photographs of the four ring magnet configuration with left facing LED...65 43. Magnetic field measurements of the R5 five ring magnet configuration66 44. Stacked frame photographs of the R5 five ring magnet configuration68 46. Photographs of the five ring magnet configuration with upward LED...69 47. Photographs of the five ring magnet configuration with left facing LED...70 48. Magnetic field measurements of the V1 disc magnet configuration...74 49. Starting frame of time study video, with forming separation band.76 50. Frame from middle of time study video, with the separation band formed.77 51. Ending frame of time study video, with large separation band...78 52. Experimental setup for making top and bottom photographic contact prints..80 53. Spectrograph readings of a ferrofluid cell for a centered spirograph pattern..83 54. B&W contact prints of R1 magnet upper row, and R2 magnet lower row..84 55. B&W contact prints of R3 magnet upper row, and R4 magnet lower row..85 56. B&W contact prints of R5 magnet upper row, and S5 magnet lower row..86 57. Four nearside large magnet ring contact prints from earlier experiment.87 58. Enlarger light source configuration.89 59. Wood mask with V1 magnet placed in the center with overhead led lighting89 60. Five pictures of lighting along the z axis, with both enlarger and LED lighting.91 61. Upper photo shows LED aligned between poles, lower photo shows pole93 62. Some dipole volume units used to calculate permanent magnet fields..95 63. Showing that the central feature, matches the computed surface plot on top..96 64. Stacked photographs of three 25.4mm cube magnets with one magnet flipped..98 65. Computation surface plot of three cube magnets with one magnet flipped.99

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66. Computation contour plot of three cube magnets with one magnet flipped99 67. Computational surface plots of R1, R2, and R3 magnets..101 68. Computed surface plots of R4 and R5 magnets, compare with Figures 54-56..102 69. Eight dipole cube magnet configuration labeled as George...104 70. Photograph of the eight dipole cube magnet configuration..105 71. Computational contour graph of the eight dipole cube magnet configuration.105 72. Computational contour graph of the eight dipole cube magnet configuration.106 73. Diffraction patterns of a point light source (bubble) on farside of glass..108 74. Study of north-north and north-north sets of magnets being rotated109 75. Study of north-south and north-south sets of magnets being rotated110 76. Close up of the diffraction pattern of a light source changing with the field...111 77. Showing that the computed field components match the light point source....112 78. Author working in Silicon Valley as a network engineer.....125

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION A. The objective. The purpose of my experiments is to analyze the lines that have been seen and photographed in a thin layer of ferrofluid while in the presence of an external magnetic field and determine their cause. Ferrofluid is a fluid containing dispersed nanoscale magnetic particles. Each particle is a magnetic domain which is colloidally stabilized to prevent agglomeration. In other words, each ferrofluid particle has a magnetic moment and either coulombic or steric repulsion to stop them from clustering together. A Hele-Shaw cell consists of two flat plates that are parallel to each other and separated by a small distance, and at least one of the plates is transparent. They are mostly used in chemistry and fluid dynamics to study fluid viscosity and density gradients.

Figure 1. Two ferrofluid Hele-Shaw cells. Cell on right has a center hole in glass. 1

Figure 1 is showing part of the construction of two different ferrofluid Hele-Shaw cells. Each cell is made of two circular, optically flat windows of glass sandwiched together with a very thin layer of ferrofluid in between the glass plates. Light is injected radially into the edges at regular intervals, as seen in Figure 2. We define the flat plane of the glass as the xy plane; the light was injected into the outside edges of the glass, and the pictures were taken by a camera on the z axis.

Figure 2. Showing the axis and radial light injection alignment of the ferrofluid cells. Two versions of the apparatus were utilized. The first one was made up of two 150mm diameter BK7 glass windows with a parallelism of 1 arc minute. The second was made up of two 114mm diameter windows with a center hole of 38mm diameter. Both

were filled with a commercial ferrofluid EFH1 which uses light mineral oil as a medium, and has an average particle size of ten nanometers. We estimate the fluid layer is roughly a micron in thickness because the windows have a rated optical flatness of wavelength at 650nm, which is liberally rounded up to be 500nm per side when the windows are butted and glued together. Optical glue was used on the edges of the glass windows and capillary action used to draw the ferrofluid inside each cell. After looking at Figure 1 and Figure 2 and glancing at Figure 3, the reader might think that the ferrofluid cells are simple passive devices that are well defined and easily understood. Please disabuse yourself of this notion before you continue reading. It is true that the cells only have two moving parts, the edge injected photons and the ferrofluid particles, but the interaction between the photons and particles is not well understood, nor can they be directly isolated and studied in macroworld experiments. A well defined system does not necessarily have a well defined solution; for example a helium atom only has three moving parts. The short list of candidates that could be used to describe ferrofluid operation includes refraction, reflection, diffraction, evanescent waves, polarization extinction, internal reflection, birefringence, Faraday rotation and scatter. I will discuss each of the candidates one by one at the conclusion.

I believe scatter is the most general of these terms; and since I will show conclusively that the photons are originating in the xy plane and being recorded in the z plane, it is the term I will use most often in this document. My general use of scatter does not exclude contributions of refraction, reflection, diffraction, evanescent waves, polarization extinction, total internal reflection, birefringence, and Faraday rotation. Figure 3 shows the basic experimental setup. In the upper left hand photograph you can see the video camera behind the ferrofluid cell. The standard setup is to have the magnets and the camera on the same z axis with the cell between them. In the lower left hand side photograph, we can see the light that video camera is detecting and displaying on the monitor. In the lower right photograph we can see the different color LEDs, in this case a LED set of a red, yellow, and green repeated fifteen times for a total of forty five LEDs. In the foreground of the bottom right photograph in Figure 3, we can see that the magnet configuration being studied is two ring magnets stacked on top of each other. This is very common in my experiments; I will start with a single magnet, in this example a 50.8mm outside diameter and 25.4mm inside diameter neodymium ring with 6.35mm thickness. The magnets are magnetized through their thickness and can be stacked thus producing different strength fields while maintaining the same two dimensional geometry at the surface of the ferrofluid cell. The setup is shown horizontally but it can be used vertically with a magnet underneath the cell and a camera mounted above it. The old box seen in the pictures of Figure 3 came from a drill press purchased to produce the cell PVC mounts.

Figure 3. Standard ferrofluid cell experimental layout. In the upper left corner, a camera is seen behind the cell. Lower left corner displays video monitor. Upper right hand corner shows cell LEDs on. Lower right hand corner shows magnet reflection.

B.

Background and layout. I believe the first use of ferrofluid cell was by R. E. Rosensweig in the book

Ferrohydrodynamics (Rosensweig. 1985). Dr. Rosensweig was using a Hele-Shaw cell to investigate the microscopic proprieties of ferrofluids. The next use is believed to by Timm Vanderelli of Ligonier, Pennsylvania. Timm was an inventor who perfected the manufacture of the ferrofluid cells around 2004 and sold them as a Magnetic Flux Viewer. In 2006, I was a physics undergrad looking for a project for my optics class. Timm had been on one of the physics website forums and I was a member of the same forum. He had been kicked off the site for posting messages that his invention allowed people to view the A field. In hindsight, the non-unique A field is perpendicular to the H field and the H field is perpendicular to the E field. After Timm had been kicked off the website, I emailed him and had him send me one of the cells. I still have the first one, it was a 50mm ferrofluid cell that I used as optics project. We started a friendship and started sharing data. I could see the curves and shapes were geometric and started investigating the cells observed geometry. This document is the result of four years of experimental investigation. It is written in an experimental what done it format. I use few references because it is how I think. I am not using data or equations from other sources, instead am performing experiment after experiment looking for a simple answer to the ferrofluid cells operation. I believe experimental data comes first. One can have stacks of books on theories and mathematics, but at the end of the day they have to match the real world experiments.

CHAPTER II

EQUIPMENT & DATA PROCESSING

A.

Equipment. The still photographs were taken with a either a nine megapixel Fujifilm S9100 or

a three megapixel Nikon 995 digital camera and the movies were filmed with a CoVi CVQ-2110 security camera. The digital CoVi video system provided two simultaneous video streams, the first stream at thirty frames a second at 720x418 resolution, and another stream at three frames a second of 1280x720 resolution. The majority of the pictures in this document came from the CoVi 1280x720 video stream. All raw video and still photographs have been archived and are available for inspection. B. Image processing. The video data and still photographs have been processed with various contrast, exposure, and unsharp filters. Data reduction using both Matlab and Photoshop scripts and operations, have been performed on the presented photographs. One should note that great care has been used in the choice and sequence of reduction operations to maintain data integrity in the interest of studying the geometry present in the photographs. For example, an unsharp filter subtracts a slightly blurred background to increase local contrast for better edge detection.

C. Curve fitting. The curve fittings were done in Matlab using two public scripts downloaded from the Matlab Central File Exchange. The preferred script is called Ellipse fit by Taubin's Method (Taubin, G. 1991) A second selected script was called Ellipse Fit using Least Squares criterion. Since it took less than a second to run either script with the same selected points, both scripts were used and their results compared and found to be consistent with each other. The final criteria was would the equations returned by the scripts plot directly and seamlessly over the patterns observed in the photographs? The answer to this question was that the plots of the equations did directly match the patterns in the photographs. A problem arose that the observed patterns were wider than one pixel, meaning there was a set of possible equations that matched the selected points yet had different areas. In other words because the line thickness of the patterns was greater than one pixel, there was a family of related solutions instead of a single solution. This problem was addressed by curve fitting each observed conic section five times using eleven data points per fit, for a total of fifty five data points. The coefficients of the five curve fits was averaged together to produce an average conic section equation. Proof that this method worked was that the averaged coefficient equation was then plotted and overlaid on top of the original photographs and found to match the observed conic section pixel by pixel. The averaged coefficient equation had more area than the minimum area fit and less area than the maximum area fit.

The equations that both curve fitting scripts return is a well known bivariate quadratic function of the form: Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 . This equation works well for this experimental work. It is easily plotted, and derivatives can be taken of the polynomial form, and it can easily be manipulated into the standard forms of either the hyperbola or ellipse equations. In Figure 4, I have picked eleven points along the dark shadow on the wall (there is lighter shadow slightly above the darker shadow) and plotted the resulting equation on the right hand photograph. The light from the lamp is encountering the circular lamp shade and producing a radial dependent conic section on the wall. In figure 5, a pole of a disc magnet is viewed in the center of the ferrofluid cell and photographed producing a radial dependent conic section pattern per each LED light source. I have curve fitted a family of conic sections (ellipses of slightly different areas) and plotted the results back onto the original photograph in blue to verify that the curve fitting method produces valid results.

Figure 4. The hyperbola shape of a lamp projecting light onto my apartment wall.

Figure 5. Multiple ellipse fits overlaid in blue onto a ferrofluid photograph. Figure 5 and all the photographs of Chapter III allow me to present my first conclusion of this thesis. I will add additional conclusions as I present data from each experiment. Conclusion 1 is easily verified by plotting the curve fitted equations back onto the original photographs

Conclusion 1 When circular shaped magnets are placed in the center of the ferrofluid cell with xy plane edge lighting, the cell produces bright conic sections observed from the z axis.

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D.

Video frame subtraction. Once an experimental configuration is set up, the video scenes are static for the

various amounts of time the scene is shown in the video. One can easily have 60 or 100 frames (the CoVi video system records three frames a second at 1280x720 resolution) that show the same picture with only minor variations. For example, some of the LEDs of the cell apparatus were programmed to flash on and off at 1.5 hertz. This minor variation allows us to process and subtract consecutive video frames from one another and to show the difference between frames, which in turn allows us to see the contributions the flashing LED makes to the overall picture. E. Video frame stacking. Another video processing technique was to add a large number of similar frames and average the superimposed frames in Matlab to produce a single photograph of stacked frames. This increases the signal to noise ratio providing a significantly better pictures from a video data stream. F. False color data overlays.

Since the magnetic field strength was measured for each magnetic configuration of Chapter III, superimposing the field readings onto the original video scenes is possible by using some of the underused RGB channels of the photographs. Here is how the false color process works. All forty five LEDs of the ferrofluid cell are wired in series and powered with 140 volts direct current. All the LEDs have the same series current but red LEDs are more efficient than yellow or green LEDs. The CCD chip inside the camera is more efficient for red wavelengths than for the green or blue wavelengths.

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Hence the most interesting channel is the red channel, leaving two other unused channels than could be used to hold other information by displaying false colors. This is exactly what has been done using Matlab scripts to add extra data into underused channels for comparison purposes. The reader has already seen one false color technique used in Figure 5, the conic section equations were plotted into the blue channel of the photograph. Note the data in Figure 7, which is a plot of the S1 magnetic field measurements. Superimposing the Figure 7 data into one of the photographs is relatively easy as seen in upper right photograph of Figure 9. In Figure 9, all of the colors have been changed. Here is what has happened. Channel one (red) holds the interesting lab data. Channel two (green) and channel three (blue) have uninteresting data. To make the best use of all three channels, the processing script first moves the channel one data into channel two. The red features hence have become green features. Now the red and blue channels are unused, so we insert the positive magnetic field data of the horizontal field (away from center) into the red channel. In the cases of the ring magnets, the horizontal magnetic field (going into the center) has some negative values. In these cases, the data value are changed into positive values and then inserted into the blue channel. Hence in the upper right photograph of Figure 9 which shows a single disc magnet with an upward facing LED light source, the false color red represents horizontal field data that has positive values, the false color green is the original data, and the negative values of the horizontal field would be displayed as blue. This process sounds complex but it is really just an easy way to look at two sets of data at the same time.

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G.

Polar diagrams. Consider the final method used to display data in the image panels of Chapter III.

Last semester I wanted an easy way to examine to the radial data in the photographs. After thinking for a while, I wrote an image transform to show what the photographs would look like without a radial dependency. I named it a Polar diagram. Think of the Polar diagram as having a picture printed on the bulk edge of paper sheets rolled up in your hand. You release your hand and the sheets unroll onto a desk as flat layers. Notice if you could stretch each sheet to the same length, you would have a new image with the papers laying flat. It is a way of encoding video data from polar to Cartesian coordinates and back again. It is a one to many transform that has a reverse operation, because we are using a known sequence of placing image values in a new photographic matrix. The method works quite well. First think of a radial point in a center of a photograph. Now, have the computer search in a circle for pixels one pixel away from the center pixel. Place this set of pixels into a new row vector. Next, find pixels two pixels away from the center point. Place these into the next row vector. Repeat until the edge of the photograph is found. One might think that a collection of different length row vectors has little use; but each row vector has the same radian length which is zero to
2 .

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Either bicubic sampling or nearest neighbor interpolation can be used to extend each row vector to a standard length. The resulting image is the same as the original but now outward from the center point has become up, and inward to the center point has become down. You can see how effective the transform is by looking at the bottom of Figure 8. As a comparison, note that the blue horizontal lines seen every 24 pixels in the bottom of Figure 8 are not part of the transform script. The blue lines were added earlier to the image above the transformed image, as concentric circles every 24 pixels or 4.8mm of glass surface. The concentric circles have been transformed into straight lines with the same spacing by unrolling the image around a center point. The Polar transform works in both directions, each row of the new image is just the row number distance from a given center point, and each column number is just a radian fraction of 2 . There is no reason that the created row vectors have to be found by searching for new pixels in circles. If you search in an elliptical path, then each row vector could make up 0 to 2 of an ellipse. Using a simple set of forward and reverse transforms, this method could process any cyclic pattern in order to either add or remove or change cyclic dependencies in image data.

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CHAPER III

PRIMARY DATA

A.

Magnet configurations. This data section is intended to be a complete and definitive study of ten different

neodymium magnet configurations. The first five configurations were made by progressively stacking 25.4mm diameter, 3.175mm thick disc magnets. Disc magnet stacks of one, three, five, seven, and nine magnets were placed under the cell apparatus and photographed from above. The same stacks were also measured with a gauss meter 6mm above the magnets surface and the data recorded. The thickness of the glass plates in the ferrofluid cells is 6mm, so readings 6mm above a magnets surface is the same as the field strength applied to the ferrofluid. The second five configurations were made by progressively stacking 50.8mm outside diameter, 25.4mm inside diameter, 6.35mm thick ring magnets. Ring magnet stacks of one, two, three, four, and five magnets were placed under the working cell apparatus and photographed from above. The magnetic fields due to the ring configurations were measured with a gauss meter 6mm above the magnets surface and the data recorded. Appendix A has three tables of recorded magnetic field readings.

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The disc and ring magnets were both magnetized through their thickness; meaning if you laid them on a flat surface (which we will define as the xy plane) then their magnetic moments are aligned along the z axis. Viewed from above, one would be looking at a magnetic pole. The B field readings of the different configurations where taken twice, once with the hall sensor probe aligned along the vertical z axis and then with the probe aligned to the horizontal xy plane. The measurement procedure was to first find the extrema in the center of each magnet and then to measure every two millimeters away from the center for a total 34 readings covering a radius of 68mm. Since the disc and ring magnets used in this chapter have radial dependencies, we called the horizontal xy measurements the rho field and vertical measurements the z field. For simple labeling of the photographs and data tables, we use the labels S1, S3, S5, S7, S9, R1, R2, R3, R4, and R5 to refer to the different configurations. In other words a label of S3 refers to the standard configuration of three stacked disc magnets and the R4 label refers to a standard configuration of four stacked ring magnets. In the photographs that have plotted conic sections an addition letter is added to the stack configuration label, either R or D. The label R simply means the conic section opens to the right and D means it opens downward. For example, S7R is a label for a photograph of seven disc magnets with a conic section that opens to the right.

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B.

Layout of image panels. All the photographic data presented in this chapter has come from a single lab

video called lab0'a_video.avi, which is included with the electronic version of this document. The images from thousands of frames seen in the video have been carefully selected, and the conic sections have been curved fitted and plotted into the photographic panels and the magnetic field data has been plotted into the panels. The panels are made up of four related pictures from a single experimental scene in the video. The individual photographs are not intended to stand on their own. Instead, slightly different pictures of the same scene are placed in a panel to compare and contrast the differences of the photographs.

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Figure 6. Layouts of the photographic panels in Chapter III.

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In Figure 6, the reader can see the layouts of photographic panels presented in this Chapter. It is a simple system with the same photographs being used to show different data. I am presenting the studies of ten magnet configurations, each with three panels for a total of thirty figures. The first panel has two original photographs made of stacked video frames and the inverted versions of the same two photographs. The second panel shows the contribution of a single LED in false colors located at the bottom of the screen on the left hand side, and the right hand upper photograph shows the horizontal field plotted in red and blue false colors. The lower right hand side shows the curve fitted equation plotted in blue. The third sheet has the same layout as the second sheet, but it shows the contribution of a single LED on the right hand side. C. The study of one disc magnet. We begin with the study of one disc magnet of the dimensions 25.4mm diameter, and 3.175mm thick, magnetized through the thickness. The magnetic field measurements can be seen in Figure 7. The curve fitting results can be seen in Table 1. The equation that the curve fitting returned the coefficients is of the quadratic form: Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 which does not directly tell us which conic section we have fitted. If the discriminant, B 2 4 AC of the quadratic equation, is less than zero

then the conic section is an ellipse, and greater than zero then it is a hyperbola. In this case the observed shape produced from one disc magnet is a hyperbola. In Figure 8 we see the original photographs made from the stacked video frames. In Figure 9 we can see the contributions of a single LED located at the bottom of the ferrofluid cell and in Figure 10 we can see the contributions of single LED located to the right.

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Figure 7. Magnetic field measurements of the S1 one disc magnet configuration.

Table 1. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 9 and Figure 10.
S1D A B C D E F S1R A B C D E F Fit 1 0.001847 -0.001282 -0.004810 0.698230 -0.079023 22.426000 Fit 1 -0.004568 -0.000904 0.002397 -0.020445 0.727850 22.420000 Fit 2 0.001318 -0.001448 -0.004869 0.696700 -0.071428 22.889000 Fit 2 -0.004511 -0.000435 0.001566 -0.022385 0.719940 22.523000 Fit 3 0.001078 -0.001701 -0.004882 0.703110 -0.071136 23.330000 Fit 3 -0.004499 -0.000715 0.001830 -0.022201 0.706060 22.292000 Fit 4 0.001909 -0.001771 -0.004779 0.700200 -0.068675 22.574000 Fit 4 -0.004724 -0.000982 0.003181 -0.023228 0.789680 23.206000 Fit 5 0.001463 -0.001754 -0.004859 0.704040 -0.071544 23.375000 Fit 5 -0.004502 -0.000263 0.003148 -0.033575 0.757250 22.085000 Average 0.00152282 -0.00159112 -0.00483956 0.70045600 -0.07236120 22.91880000 Average -0.00456056 -0.00065969 0.00242424 -0.02436680 0.74015600 22.50520000

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Figure 8. Stacked frame photographs of the S1 one disc magnet configuration. 21

Figure 9. Photographs of the one disc magnet configuration with upward LED. 22

Figure 10. Photographs of the one disc magnet configuration with left facing LED. 23

D.

The study of three disc magnets.

The next step is three stacked disc magnets each with the dimensions of 25.4mm diameter, and 3.175mm thick, magnetized through the thickness. The magnetic field measurements can be seen in Figure 11. The curve fitting results can be seen in Table 2. In this case the quadratic discriminant from the curve fitting shows that the observed shape produced from three disc magnets is a hyperbola. In Figure 12 we see the original photographs made from the stacked video frames. In Figure 13 we can see the contributions of a single LED located at the bottom of the ferrofluid cell and in Figure 14 we can see the contributions of single LED located to the right. The upper left hand corner photograph of Figure 13 is from the correct S3 dataset but is not the correct photograph for the panel. Because of the long sequence of computer processing needed to create the panels, this single error was not corrected.

24

Figure 11. Magnetic field measurements of the S3 three disc magnet configuration. Table 2. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 13 and Figure 14.
S3D A B C D E F S3R A B C D E F Fit 1 0.000163 -0.001138 -0.004270 0.684530 -0.066131 25.965000 Fit 1 -0.003771 -0.000085 0.001697 -0.011507 0.731610 25.821000 Fit 2 -0.000064 -0.001268 -0.004417 0.722090 -0.072856 27.326000 Fit 2 -0.004016 -0.000560 0.000803 -0.006604 0.785610 28.249000 Fit 3 0.000989 -0.001273 -0.004315 0.699160 -0.065749 25.753000 Fit 3 -0.004169 -0.000456 0.002023 -0.008877 0.809110 28.444000 Fit 4 0.002475 -0.002071 -0.004308 0.720270 -0.043647 25.765000 Fit 4 -0.003829 -0.000331 0.000450 -0.005749 0.742970 27.182000 Fit 5 -0.000232 -0.000572 -0.004106 0.708110 -0.061189 25.495000 Fit 5 -0.003931 -0.000018 0.001109 -0.014017 0.772320 27.154000 Average 0.00066612 -0.00126422 -0.00428322 0.70683200 -0.06191440 26.06080000 Average -0.00394310 -0.00029002 0.00121640 -0.00935064 0.76832400 27.37000000

25

Figure 12. Stacked frame photographs of the S3 three disc magnet configuration. 26

Figure 13. Photographs of the three disc magnet configuration with upward LED. 27

Figure 14. Photographs of the three disc magnet configuration with left facing LED. 28

E.

The study of five disc magnets.

The next step is five stacked disc magnets each with the dimensions of 25.4mm diameter, and 3.175mm thick, magnetized through the thickness. The magnetic field measurements can be seen in Figure 15. The curve fitting results can be seen in Table 3. In this case the quadratic discriminants from the curve fitting show that the five magnet configuration produced two different shapes. The fit of the upward facing LED pictures is an ellipse and the left facing LED pictures is a hyperbola. In Figure 16 we see the original photographs made from the stacked video frames. In Figure 17 we can see the contributions of a single LED located at the bottom of the ferrofluid cell and in Figure 18 we can see the contributions of single LED located to the right.

29

Figure 15.Magnetic field measurements of the S5 five disc magnet configuration. Table 3. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 17 and Figure 18.
S5D A B C D E F S5R A B C D E F Fit 1 0.000563 -0.000896 -0.004018 0.729460 -0.032153 28.812000 Fit 1 -0.004055 -0.000671 0.000792 -0.047213 0.776650 29.608000 Fit 2 -0.000277 -0.000398 -0.004065 0.729310 -0.034140 29.743000 Fit 2 -0.004037 -0.001106 0.001690 -0.060832 0.803460 29.800000 Fit 3 -0.002047 0.000183 -0.004010 0.716260 -0.037322 30.698000 Fit 3 -0.003829 -0.001091 0.001141 -0.052795 0.761430 28.727000 Fit 4 -0.001261 -0.000184 -0.004147 0.715940 -0.027919 29.929000 Fit 4 -0.003878 -0.000863 0.001483 -0.052914 0.776940 27.975000 Fit 5 -0.000947 -0.000474 -0.004061 0.706790 -0.033918 30.240000 Fit 5 -0.003757 -0.001161 0.001487 -0.056243 0.768670 27.951000 Average -0.00079376 -0.00035378 -0.00406014 0.71955200 -0.03309040 29.88440000 Average -0.00391134 -0.00097826 0.00131855 -0.05399940 0.77743000 28.81220000

30

Figure 16. Stacked frame photographs of the S5 five disc magnet configuration. 31

Figure 17. Photographs of the five disc magnet configuration with upward LED. 32

Figure 18. Photographs of the five disc magnet configuration with left facing LED. 33

F.

The study of seven disc magnets.

The next step is seven stacked disc magnets each with the dimensions of 25.4mm diameter, and 3.175mm thick, magnetized through the thickness. The magnetic field measurements can be seen in Figure 19. The curve fitting results can be seen in Table 4. In this case the quadratic discriminants from the curve fitting shows that the observed shapes produced from seven disc magnets are ellipses. In Figure 20 we see the original photographs made from the stacked video frames. In Figure 21 we can see the contributions of a single LED located at the bottom of the ferrofluid cell and in Figure 22 we can see the contributions of single LED located to the right.

34

Figure 19. Magnetic field measurements of the S7 seven disc magnet configuration. Table 4. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 21 and Figure 22.
S7D A B C D E F S7R A B C D E F Fit 1 -0.002564 -0.000498 -0.003837 0.703190 -0.032894 30.547000 Fit 1 -0.003820 -0.000325 0.000731 -0.059869 0.759010 30.803000 Fit 2 -0.002015 -0.000536 -0.003980 0.689750 -0.030606 30.284000 Fit 2 -0.003674 -0.000484 -0.000165 -0.057339 0.774520 30.436000 Fit 3 -0.002361 -0.000299 -0.003716 0.725200 -0.032056 28.671000 Fit 3 -0.003669 -0.000716 -0.000467 -0.052360 0.755000 30.408000 Fit 4 -0.001862 0.000042 -0.003728 0.672760 -0.042077 29.254000 Fit 4 -0.003700 -0.001138 -0.001626 -0.055818 0.718860 31.190000 Fit 5 -0.002051 -0.000157 -0.003861 0.688020 -0.040221 29.946000 Fit 5 -0.003764 -0.000618 0.000380 -0.050102 0.784730 30.914000 Average -0.00217056 -0.00028960 -0.00382452 0.69578400 -0.03557080 29.74040000 Average -0.00372532 -0.00065629 -0.00022933 -0.05509760 0.75842400 30.75020000

35

Figure 20. Stacked frame photographs of the S7 seven disc magnet configuration. 36

Figure 21. Photographs of the seven disc magnet configuration with upward LED. 37

Figure 22. Photographs of the seven disc magnet configuration with left facing LED. 38

G.

The study of nine disc magnets.

The next step is nine stacked disc magnets each with the dimensions of 25.4mm diameter, and 3.175mm thick, magnetized through the thickness. The magnetic field measurements can be seen in Figure 23. The curve fitting results can be seen in Table 5. In this case the quadratic discriminants from the curve fitting indicate that the observed shapes produced from nine disc magnets are two different shapes. The fit of the upward facing LED pictures is a hyperbola and the left facing LED pictures is an ellipse. In Figure 24 we see the original photographs made from the stacked video frames. In Figure 25 we can see the contributions of a single LED located at the bottom of the ferrofluid cell and in Figure 26 we can see the contributions of single LED located to the right.

39

Figure 23. Magnetic field measurements of the S9 nine disc magnet configuration. Table 5. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 25 and Figure 26.
S9D A B C D E F S9R A B C D E F Fit 1 0.000308 -0.001310 -0.003658 0.752360 -0.054504 31.248000 Fit 1 -0.003553 -0.000137 -0.001218 -0.015699 0.738720 32.660000 Fit 2 -0.000999 -0.000522 -0.003951 0.765400 -0.052769 32.754000 Fit 2 -0.003577 0.000036 0.000322 -0.005950 0.756600 31.195000 Fit 3 0.002274 -0.001594 -0.003673 0.828890 -0.059918 31.241000 Fit 3 -0.003344 -0.000336 -0.001076 -0.019504 0.730360 30.739000 Fit 4 0.000000 -0.000775 -0.003878 0.787520 -0.049489 32.608000 Fit 4 -0.003430 -0.000222 -0.001497 -0.027853 0.761350 32.626000 Fit 5 0.000762 -0.001679 -0.003586 0.795410 -0.060991 31.421000 Fit 5 -0.003457 0.000266 -0.000464 -0.008849 0.763020 32.264000 Average 0.00046925 -0.00117589 -0.00374902 0.78591600 -0.05553420 31.85440000 Average -0.00347228 -0.00007858 -0.00078645 -0.01557100 0.75001000 31.89680000

40

Figure 24. Stacked frame photographs of the S9 nine disc magnet configuration. 41

Figure 25. Photographs of the nine disc magnet configuration with upward LED. 42

Figure 26. Photographs of the nine disc magnet configuration with left facing LED. 43

H.

Summary of the disc magnet series.

I have two trends to point out from the disc magnet series, starting at section C and going through section G. Did the reader notice that the F term of the curve fitting parameters was increasing each time we added magnets and increased the field? In the Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 equation; coefficient F is just a constant with the units of squared millimeters, but our measured constant is increasing each time that magnets were added. Clearly there is a correlation to the field strength of the S series magnets being observed in the ferrofluid cell and the F parameter of the fitted conic sections. The second trend is of the conic sections that were being fitted, starting with the weakest S1 & S3 magnets, all the solutions were hyperbolas. The stronger S5, S7, and S9 magnets had mixed results with both hyperbolas and ellipses. If we add one more data point, a stronger disc magnet from Chapter IV labeled V1 which has the dimensions of 34.925mm diameter and thickness of 12.7mm, then a trend is quite clear. The conic sections of the V1 magnet can be seen in Figure 5 of chapter II. All of the curve fit solutions of the V1 magnet are ellipses. If we compare the maximum field strength of all six magnets, then the trend is easy to see, (S1 1073, S3 1477, S5 1703, S7 1832, S9 1945, V1 2246), notice that stacking four more magnets onto S5 only increased the field strength by 242 gauss, because the added magnets were far away from the xy plane of the ferrofluid cell.
Conclusion 2 The conic sections produced by weaker disc magnets were observed to be hyperbolas, and the conic sections produced by stronger disc magnets were observed to be ellipses.

44

I.

The study of one ring magnet.

Lets state the obvious; ring magnets are different than disc magnets because they have a hole in the center of the magnet. One can not make the same magnetic field with a current winding as a permanent ring magnet. The problem being that you would need dipole moments side by side, and in a complete circle to duplicate the field. I searched for a simple analytic solution without success. The hole in the ring magnet allows some of the vertical B field loops to pass through the center instead of being forced to the outside of the magnet diameter, which creates a different magnetic field than a disc magnet. For example compare Figure 27 and Figure 23. Notice that there are negative vertical and horizontal field measurements in the center of the R1 magnet. The dimensions of the first ring magnet are 50.8mm outside diameter, 25.4mm inside diameter, and 6.35mm thick. All the curve fitted conic sections studied in this series of ring magnets are ellipses. In fact, we have a brand new elliptical conic section that is found in the center of the ring magnets which can be seen in Figure 30. I will show in the next four sections that the new conic sections dimensions are strongly correlated to the negative horizontal field measurements of the ring magnet. The new conic section has given a new label called I which stands for inside, so a label of R3DI means the inside ellipse of a standard stack of three ring magnets that is lighted from a LED at the bottom of the photograph..

45

Figure 27. Magnetic field measurements of the R1 one ring magnet configuration.

In Figure 27, notice the points of the zero crossing horizontal field red line. One should examine the ring magnet horizontal field data values in Table 11 of Appendix A. On the right hand side of the table, the data of interest is highlighted in blue where the zero crossing locations of the horizontal field are shifting inward by two millimeters for each ring magnet R1 though R4 and roughly one millimeter for R5. This same trend will be in seen in the next twenty figures.

46

Figure 28 shows the original stacked frame photographs and Figure 29 shows the contribution of the upward facing LED. Figure 29 had a script error with the wrong photograph being shown on the lower left hand side of the panel. Since the scripts where run overnight for three days in certain sequences; it would be hard to repair a single photograph of a panel. The reader is assured that the correct frame can be shown in the included lab video that matches the right hand side plotting of the conic sections. Table 6. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 29 and Figure 30.
R1D A B C D E F R1DI A B C D E F R1R A B C D E F R1RI A B C D E F Fit 1 -0.002454 -0.000108 -0.003922 0.340300 0.002347 60.959000 Fit 1 -0.013307 0.000348 -0.008637 0.860390 0.008879 8.303500 Fit 1 -0.003771 -0.000071 -0.001453 -0.015020 0.390770 57.478000 Fit 1 -0.008832 0.000497 -0.013436 -0.036250 0.872020 7.861500 Fit 2 -0.002279 -0.000227 -0.003934 0.345190 -0.001191 60.386000 Fit 2 -0.013323 0.000378 -0.008666 0.883070 0.007314 7.977500 Fit 2 -0.003861 -0.000084 -0.001251 -0.011540 0.402720 58.695000 Fit 2 -0.009012 0.000779 -0.013708 -0.052739 0.873930 8.165500 Fit 3 -0.002273 -0.000198 -0.004007 0.348450 0.000704 61.435000 Fit 3 -0.013456 -0.000083 -0.008491 0.888700 0.017097 7.670200 Fit 3 -0.003740 -0.000133 -0.001803 -0.010045 0.396560 58.630000 Fit 3 -0.008980 0.000571 -0.013561 -0.036755 0.864780 8.258200 Fit 4 -0.002462 -0.000180 -0.003937 0.339620 0.004552 61.159000 Fit 4 -0.014034 0.000408 -0.008844 0.898400 0.001415 8.298800 Fit 4 -0.003790 -0.000047 -0.001516 -0.016481 0.398940 57.821000 Fit 4 -0.008870 0.000563 -0.013930 -0.046722 0.914050 7.330500 Fit 5 -0.002588 -0.000111 -0.003902 0.332360 0.009560 61.200000 Fit 5 -0.013920 0.000637 -0.008710 0.918560 0.003667 7.986200 Fit 5 -0.003876 -0.000059 -0.001627 -0.013632 0.407320 58.760000 Fit 5 -0.008751 0.000428 -0.014146 -0.048913 0.936470 6.689900 Average -0.00241124 -0.00016501 -0.00394050 0.34118400 0.00319427 61.02780000 Average -0.01360800 0.00033762 -0.00866966 0.88982400 0.00767428 8.04724000 Average -0.00380764 -0.00007865 -0.00152998 -0.01334360 0.39926200 58.27680000 Average -0.00888878 0.00056777 -0.01375620 -0.04427580 0.89225000 7.66112000

47

Figure 28. Stacked frame photographs of the R1 one ring magnet configuration. 48

Figure 29. Photographs of the one ring magnet configuration with upward LED. 49

Figure 30. Photographs of the one ring magnet configuration with left facing LED. 50

Figure 31. Magnetic field measurements of the R2 two ring magnet configuration.
J. The study of two ring magnets.

The next step is a stack of two ring magnets with each having the of the dimensions of 50.8mm outside diameter, 25.4mm inside diameter, and 6.35mm thick. The magnetic field measurements can be seen in Figure 31. The curve fitting results can be seen in Table 7. In Figure 32 we see the original photographs made from the stacked video frames. In Figure 33 we can see the contributions of a single LED located at the bottom of the ferrofluid cell and in Figure 34 we can see the contributions of single LED located to the right.

51

Table 7. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 33 and Figure 34.
R2D A B C D E F R2DI A B C D E F R2R A B C D E F R2RI A B C D E F Fit 1 -0.002065 -0.000352 -0.003800 0.383210 -0.000857 63.174000 Fit 1 -0.017146 0.001148 -0.011097 1.055200 -0.004446 1.750700 Fit 1 -0.003782 -0.000241 -0.001629 -0.008291 0.409490 61.629000 Fit 1 -0.011126 0.001377 -0.015898 -0.037481 1.009100 2.937400 Fit 2 -0.001898 -0.000359 -0.003818 0.381500 0.003459 62.290000 Fit 2 -0.017175 0.001148 -0.010887 1.055400 0.012406 2.063800 Fit 2 -0.003695 -0.000144 -0.001647 -0.014040 0.392490 60.425000 Fit 2 -0.010536 0.000845 -0.016105 -0.015049 1.049100 2.143000 Fit 3 -0.001671 -0.000324 -0.003754 0.360610 0.001655 60.552000 Fit 3 -0.017198 0.000325 -0.011049 1.053100 0.020974 2.005700 Fit 3 -0.003770 -0.000008 -0.001724 -0.005517 0.417900 62.517000 Fit 3 -0.010637 0.000863 -0.016809 -0.012232 1.092000 1.103600 Fit 4 -0.002154 -0.000213 -0.003808 0.374780 0.007044 62.818000 Fit 4 -0.016985 0.000868 -0.010677 1.049800 0.001190 1.985400 Fit 4 -0.003690 -0.000125 -0.001690 -0.006250 0.404890 60.259000 Fit 4 -0.010557 0.001372 -0.016679 -0.033854 1.079600 1.261000 Fit 5 -0.001731 -0.000316 -0.003815 0.382270 0.002421 62.531000 Fit 5 -0.017154 0.001185 -0.011025 1.044400 0.004236 2.406500 Fit 5 -0.003774 -0.000042 -0.001515 -0.008663 0.419380 61.137000 Fit 5 -0.010615 0.000947 -0.016657 -0.018951 1.073300 1.908400 Average -0.00190370 -0.00031265 -0.00379886 0.37647400 0.00274454 62.27300000 Average -0.01713160 0.00093478 -0.01094700 1.05158000 0.00687190 2.04242000 Average -0.00374216 -0.00011197 -0.00164122 -0.00855230 0.40883000 61.19340000 Average -0.01069420 0.00108081 -0.01642960 -0.02351340 1.06062000 1.87068000

52

Figure 32. Stacked frame photographs of the R2 two ring magnet configuration. 53

Figure 33. Photographs of the two ring magnet configuration with upward LED. 54

Figure 34. Photographs of the two ring magnet configuration with left facing LED. 55

Figure 35. Magnetic field measurements of the R3 three ring magnet configuration.
K. The study of three ring magnets.

The next step is a stack of three ring magnets with each having the of the dimensions of 50.8mm outside diameter, 25.4mm inside diameter, and 6.35mm thick. The magnetic field measurements can be seen in Figure 35. The curve fitting results can be seen in Table 8. In Figure 36 we see the original photographs made from the stacked video frames. In Figure 37 we can see the contributions of a single LED located at the bottom of the ferrofluid cell and in Figure 38 we can see the contributions of single LED located to the right.

56

Table 8. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 37 and Figure 38.
R3D A B C D E F R3DI A B C D E F R3R A B C D E F R3RI A B C D E F Fit 1 -0.001769 -0.000097 -0.003782 0.412000 0.016067 62.860000 Fit 1 0.021526 -0.000498 0.014538 -1.325100 -0.003045 6.619700 Fit 1 -0.003599 -0.000518 -0.001539 -0.015690 0.390330 60.607000 Fit 1 -0.014064 0.004369 -0.018185 -0.196340 1.014000 1.143500 Fit 2 -0.001714 -0.000234 -0.003768 0.406730 0.014631 62.323000 Fit 2 0.022975 -0.000591 0.014774 -1.419800 -0.005704 7.915400 Fit 2 -0.003667 -0.000159 -0.001354 -0.021874 0.421820 61.737000 Fit 2 0.012967 -0.003302 0.019285 0.185920 -1.116900 0.797970 Fit 3 -0.001798 -0.000033 -0.003775 0.408340 0.012261 62.694000 Fit 3 0.022139 -0.000846 0.014406 -1.380900 -0.008630 7.583200 Fit 3 -0.003573 -0.000002 -0.001266 -0.008038 0.434040 61.140000 Fit 3 0.014094 -0.000283 0.020757 0.011495 -1.284600 5.490200 Fit 4 -0.001916 -0.000180 -0.003732 0.396470 0.007355 63.275000 Fit 4 0.021841 -0.000164 0.015150 -1.351200 -0.026630 7.345900 Fit 4 -0.003623 -0.000268 -0.001463 -0.011626 0.420510 62.012000 Fit 4 0.014488 0.002591 0.021235 -0.088796 -1.364800 7.724000 Fit 5 -0.001877 -0.000184 -0.003739 0.393740 0.010036 62.091000 Fit 5 0.022882 -0.000688 0.014376 -1.425100 -0.014909 8.175500 Fit 5 -0.003586 -0.000307 -0.001486 -0.017361 0.402840 60.438000 Fit 5 0.014114 -0.001393 0.020276 0.074331 -1.199200 2.996500 Average -0.00181450 -0.00014577 -0.00375916 0.40345600 0.01206992 62.64860000 Average 0.02227260 -0.00055741 0.01464880 -1.38042000 -0.01178368 7.52794000 Average -0.00360976 -0.00025067 -0.00142144 -0.01491772 0.41390800 61.18680000 Average 0.00831980 0.00039641 0.01267360 -0.00267800 -0.79030000 3.63043400

57

Figure 36. Stacked frame photographs of the R3 three ring magnet configuration. 58

Figure 37. Photographs of the three ring magnet configuration with upward LED. 59

Figure 38. Photographs of the three ring magnet configuration with left facing LED. 60

Figure 39. Magnetic field measurements of the R4 four ring magnet configuration.
L. The study of four ring magnets.

The next step is a stack of four ring magnets with each having the of the dimensions of 50.8mm outside diameter, 25.4mm inside diameter, and 6.35mm thick. The magnetic field measurements can be seen in Figure 39. The curve fitting results can be seen in Table 9. In Figure 40 we see the original photographs made from the stacked video frames. In Figure 41 we can see the contributions of a single LED located at the bottom of the ferrofluid cell and in Figure 42 we can see the contributions of single LED located to the right.

61

Table 9. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 41 and Figure 42.
R4D A B C D E F R4DI A B C D E F R4R A B C D E F R4RI A B C D E F Fit 1 -0.001758 0.000149 -0.003653 0.424040 0.008885 64.193000 Fit 1 0.029043 0.003304 0.022283 -1.683100 -0.129440 14.310000 Fit 1 -0.003521 -0.000411 -0.001503 -0.030858 0.422630 62.120000 Fit 1 0.020836 -0.003567 0.028769 0.134920 -1.607000 12.485000 Fit 2 -0.001613 0.000260 -0.003561 0.417110 0.001894 62.772000 Fit 2 0.040988 -0.002122 0.018606 -2.639000 0.077201 33.779000 Fit 2 -0.003518 -0.000320 -0.001456 -0.035643 0.438540 63.432000 Fit 2 0.022483 -0.000049 0.027568 0.047519 -1.524800 10.989000 Fit 3 -0.001580 0.000325 -0.003561 0.419770 0.010367 62.447000 Fit 3 0.036534 -0.000852 0.021157 -2.291600 0.002782 26.750000 Fit 3 -0.003516 -0.000492 -0.001633 -0.039951 0.417990 63.667000 Fit 3 0.021352 -0.002966 0.029097 0.159390 -1.610800 12.066000 Fit 4 -0.001623 0.000292 -0.003452 0.420120 0.019464 62.071000 Fit 4 0.030847 0.003038 0.021811 -1.887300 -0.121880 19.308000 Fit 4 -0.003471 -0.000439 -0.001450 -0.032174 0.425570 62.952000 Fit 4 0.019018 -0.000809 0.030569 0.059654 -1.686400 13.172000 Fit 5 -0.001459 0.000381 -0.003457 0.415120 0.024529 61.178000 Fit 5 0.032052 0.002298 0.022771 -1.957800 -0.102290 20.748000 Fit 5 -0.003416 -0.000470 -0.001493 -0.030199 0.402810 61.661000 Fit 5 0.020470 -0.002119 0.029085 0.122360 -1.638000 12.940000 Average -0.00160654 0.00028153 -0.00353684 0.41923200 0.01302772 62.53220000 Average 0.03389280 0.00113320 0.02132560 -2.09176000 -0.05472532 22.97900000 Average -0.00348836 -0.00042647 -0.00150684 -0.03376500 0.42150800 62.76640000 Average 0.02083180 -0.00190193 0.02901760 0.10476860 -1.61340000 12.33040000

62

Figure 40. Stacked frame photographs of the R4 four ring magnet configuration. 63

Figure 41. Photographs of the four ring magnet configuration with upward LED. 64

Figure 42. Photographs of the four ring magnet configuration with left facing LED. 65

Figure 43. Magnetic field measurements of the R5 five ring magnet configuration.
M. The study of five ring magnets.

The last step is a stack of five ring magnets with each having the of the dimensions of 50.8mm outside diameter, 25.4mm inside diameter, and 6.35mm thick. The magnetic field measurements can be seen in Figure 43. The curve fitting results can be seen in Table 10. In Figure 44 we see the original photographs made from the stacked video frames. In Figure 45 we can see the contributions of a single LED located at the bottom of the ferrofluid cell and in Figure 46 we can see the contributions of single LED located to the right.

66

Table 10. Conic section down and right facing curve fits of Figure 46 and Figure 47.
R5D A B C D E F R5DI A B C D E F R5R A B C D E F R5RI A B C D E F Fit 1 -0.001702 -0.000141 -0.003435 0.399870 -0.008615 59.403000 Fit 1 0.033260 0.001262 0.018091 -2.784700 0.016966 48.822000 Fit 1 -0.003416 -0.000375 -0.001580 -0.018819 0.418500 62.191000 Fit 1 0.022543 -0.007975 0.026141 0.121490 -1.783600 20.375000 Fit 2 -0.001670 -0.000189 -0.003551 0.401900 -0.003589 61.342000 Fit 2 0.031352 -0.001455 0.019843 -2.492200 0.080271 39.980000 Fit 2 -0.003461 -0.000133 -0.001331 -0.008658 0.443700 62.863000 Fit 2 0.029499 0.000990 0.023726 -0.287040 -1.695000 21.316000 Fit 3 -0.001685 -0.000166 -0.003601 0.401170 -0.012810 61.898000 Fit 3 0.032100 0.004423 0.019781 -2.570100 -0.146520 41.854000 Fit 3 -0.003449 -0.000372 -0.001594 -0.028483 0.417410 64.008000 Fit 3 0.037101 -0.011992 0.021041 0.251060 -1.539400 20.060000 Fit 4 -0.001604 -0.000191 -0.003566 0.398040 -0.011567 60.624000 Fit 4 0.031747 0.002160 0.020542 -2.583400 -0.095096 43.012000 Fit 4 -0.003304 -0.000375 -0.001546 -0.017531 0.408900 60.855000 Fit 4 0.030364 -0.004234 0.026218 0.059043 -1.865600 24.538000 Fit 5 -0.001685 -0.000199 -0.003504 0.393660 -0.008483 61.728000 Fit 5 0.029397 0.003754 0.019159 -2.372500 -0.071344 37.824000 Fit 5 -0.003329 -0.000192 -0.001341 -0.016058 0.430420 59.928000 Fit 5 0.021412 -0.010049 0.030236 0.229060 -2.229000 32.100000 Average -0.00166896 -0.00017689 -0.00353162 0.39892800 -0.00901280 60.99900000 Average 0.03157120 0.00202896 0.01948320 -2.56058000 -0.04314460 42.29840000 Average -0.00339206 -0.00028928 -0.00147848 -0.01790986 0.42378600 61.96900000 Average 0.02818380 -0.00665203 0.02547240 0.07472260 -1.82252000 23.67780000

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Figure 44. Stacked frame photographs of the R5 five ring magnet configuration. 68

Figure 46. Photographs of the five ring magnet configuration with upward LED. 69

Figure 47. Photographs of the five ring magnet configuration with left facing LED. 70

N.

Summary of the ring magnet series.

In sections I though M of this chapter, there is an observed pattern of a closed ellipse located in the same location as the negative values of the horizontal magnetic field of the ring magnets. This relationship is seen in every plot and photograph and Polar diagram of Figure 27 though 47. The reason for trend of decreasing area of negative values located in the center of the ring magnets is presented as when the stacked magnet volume increases and thus the related magnetic field strength increases; then the stacked ring magnets act similarly to a disc magnet stack which does not have negative values present in the horizontal magnetic field.

Conclusion 3 The minor radius length and location of the ellipses observed in the centers of the ring magnets can be defined by the radius length of the negative horizontal field values measured in the center of the ring magnets.

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CHAPTER IV

SINGLE MAGNET TIME STUDY A. Lab Video. Single Magnet Time Study is the name of a lab video filmed on January 27,

2010. The video is included with the electronic version of this document and the reader is encouraged to view it. This video is of primary importance because it eliminates the index of refraction as a primary cause of the observed conic sections of the ferrofluid cell. The video was filmed over two hours with a single magnet and the ferrofluid medium was allowed to separate during the filming. The video is filmed at three frames a second and processed to play back at thirty frames a second; hence the play time of two hours of record time is around four minutes. The video shows areas of the ferrofluids cell to greatly change density, as the ferrofluid rushes to the strong magnet in the center. As this density change is happening, the observed line geometry never changes. This geometry is invariant as large bands of different ferrofluid particle densities appear in the ferrofluid. This is presented as proof that the line geometry is not a function of the larger ferrofluid particles that produce the observed background light levels. The smaller particles below optical wavelengths mostly likely would behave similar to their larger brethren.

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In other words, the ferrofluid has an average light level that is observed by the camera, and this background light level drops to near zero in some areas of the cell, yet adjacent to these drop out bands the observed lines stop and then restart after a gap. The fact the background light level drops is taken to mean the density of optical particles is dropping as each particle with a magnetic moment rushes to the 2246 gauss central magnet, yet the lines outside the unstable areas never change location. In Figure 48 the magnetic field measurements of the 34.925mm diameter, 12.7mm thick disc magnet is shown. Two areas of interest in Figure 48 are where the vertical magnetic field crosses over from negative to positive at -25mm and then later from positive to negative at 22mm.
B. Separation band.

Figure 49 is an early frame of the time study lab video that shows a particle depletion or a separation band beginning to form. In Figure 50 the separation band is becoming larger, and finally, in Figure 51 the separation band is over 30 pixels wide. In the pictures the superimposed blue rings are spaced every 24 pixels or 4.8mm. Why did a separation band form at that location? It is because of two reasons, the first being the magnetic particles are confined to a micron thickness of the cell, and the second reason being that the orthogonal magnetic field component magnitudes are drastically changing in comparison with each other in certain areas. The vertical magnetic field changes sign as it crosses a zero boundary and the horizontal field is approaching a maximum.

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Figure 48. Magnetic field measurements of the V1 disc magnet configuration. You can see this in the false color images in Figures 49-51. The false color image on the left hand side shows the positive vertical magnetic field in the color red and negative vertical magnetic field in the color blue. As one looks at the image, one could imagine red vertical field loops coming at the reader from the center of the magnet and blue vertical field loops going away from the reader through the outer pars of the ferrofluid cell. The right hand side false color image shows the horizontal components of the same magnetic field, but now the positive horizontal field is spreading away from the center of the magnet.

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If one looks in the middle of the panel where the two Polar diagrams met, then one would see the interacting field components. Where the lower left hand side blue color ends, the lower right hand side red color begins. It should be obvious that free dipoles are always attracted to other dipole fields. One only has to walk through a room with unsecured magnets and with a large magnet in ones hand, to be violently reminded that dipoles like each other as unsecured magnets leap to join their brethren. In the radial areas where the separation band forms, the individual dipole moments of the particles have two different possible paths to lower energy areas of the dipole field. At a certain radius the vertical field is zero in strength, as it changes direction and the horizontal field is slowly increasing. Each particle would experience acceleration to either travel closer or farther away from the magnet, and few particles would be present in the unstable band. For a given plane of a dipole field, there would be unstable regions that would affect other dipoles by pushing and pulling free dipoles from certain areas. Jupiter's rings being effected by Jupiters magnetic field, the Suns magnetic field effecting the Solar System's main asteroid belt, and atomic magnetic fields affecting atomic orbitals quickly come to mind after watching the Single Magnet Time Study video. For example, does one of the components of the Suns magnetic field change sign at the asteroid belt distance?

Conclusion 4 The index of refraction of the ferrofluid medium is not directly responsible for the observed conic sections, because large variations of ferrofluid particle densities have been observed without affecting the conic section geometry.

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Figure 49. Starting frame of time study video, with forming separation band. 76

Figure 50. Frame from middle of time study video, with the separation band formed. 77

Figure 51. Ending frame of time study video, with large separation band. 78

CHAPTER V

DARKROOM CONTACT PRINTS A. Making contact prints.

The purpose of this experiment was to verify the patterns at the surface of the ferrofluid cell were the same as viewed by the digital CCD detectors. Where the images real and convergent or virtual and divergent? This minor experiment turned out to be of significant importance. As seen in Figure 52, making a photographic contact print is not complicated. Black and white photographic paper is cut to size and applied to each side of the ferrofluid cell. A magnet is applied to one side of the ferrofluid cell on top of one of the pieces of paper and then the edge lighting is turned on to expose the paper. We define the side with the magnet, as the nearside image and side of the ferrofluid cell without the magnet as the farside image. The exposure time is found by trial and error, and in this case, nine seconds gave the best pictures. Once the paper is exposed, it is developed by standard photographic chemical processes which produce a negative image. Hence the areas where the photographic paper absorbed the greatest amount of photon energy become black and areas that received the least amount of photon energy stay white.

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Unlike a common CCD detector which is most sensitive to red light, a sheet of black and white photographic paper is more sensitive to blue wavelengths and higher energy photons such as ultraviolet wavelengths.

Figure 52. Experimental setup for making top and bottom photographic contact prints.

B.

Spring semester of 2007.

In the spring semester of 2007, my undergrad measurements project was to take pictures of both sides of the ferrofluid cell in operation using a pair of computer controlled digital cameras and to show that the same geometry could be seen on both sides of the cell. The experiment was a success but in hindsight I had missed something. In figure 54, the upper left corner contact print is the nearside image of the R1 magnet and the upper right corner contact print is the farside image of the R1 magnet both taken at the same time. The first question that comes to mind is what is that dark spots in the foreground of all the contact prints? The answer is because this ferrofluid cell has been in use for many years; its outer surface is no longer in pristine condition. Because we are using edge lighting that propagates within the cell by means of internal reflection, any imperfections on the ferrofluid cell surface are easily identified as light leaks onto the surface of the contact paper.

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Next question, why are the nearside and farside images different? I had done this contact paper experiment before as seen in Figure 57. In the figure, the upper left hand image is 101.6mm outside diameter, 88.9mm inside diameter, 12.7 mm ring magnet with a 50.8mm outside diameter, 25.4mm inside diameter, and 6.35mm thick ring mounted in the center of the larger ring. In the upper left hand corner contact print of Figure 57, a ring magnet within ring magnet configuration, has both poles facing the camera being the same type (north-north) making the central field of the inside ring magnet stronger and the spirograph pattern smaller in diameter, compared to a standard R1 ring magnet. On the upper right hand side, it is just the single 101.6mm outside diameter, 88.9mm inside diameter, 12.7 mm ring magnet. In both pictures of the bottom row of Figure 57, it is the same ring magnet inside ring magnet as the upper left hand corner contact print, but now the outside ring magnet has the opposite pole facing the camera making the smaller ring magnets field weaker, increasing the size of the spirograph pattern. In my previous contact print session, I had only taken nearside images like in Figure 57. Recently with some extra photographic paper, I repeated the contact paper experiment to survey the ring and disc magnet configurations.

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C.

The Farside.

Lets rule some things out before we continue. The first thing is that I had noticed that the farside prints were much different when I was working in the darkroom. I immediately checked the contact spacing for the prints because contact is required to bring the image into focus. Remember the foreground dark spots that come from the imperfections on the glass surface? Both the nearside and farside prints had sharply defined dark spots, meaning both were making good contact with the glass surface; anything else would blur the imperfections. Second thought was maybe it was related to different sides of the ferrofluid cell, so I flipped the cell over and tried the opposite sides of the apparatus and got the same results. The chemical processing was the same, the exposure times of the prints were simultaneous, and the photographic paper was cut from the same 8x10 sheets. At the end of the night after I had ruled everything else out, there was only one way of looking at it; the nearside and farside contact prints are not the same images. The next day I checked some of the observed conic sections with a small Ocean Optics computer based spectrograph, and found that the frequencies were roughly the same, within the limits of the spectrograph on both sides of the glass, but the intensities were different. An initial inspection showed a photon count of 1700 on the nearside of the glass and for the same spirograph pattern on the farside of the glass the photon count was around 600 as seen in Figure 53.

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Figure 53. Spectrograph readings of a ferrofluid cell for a centered spirograph pattern. The contact prints of Figures 54-56 and the spectrograph readings make it clear that the intensities of the observed conic sections are not the same on both sides of the glass. In Figure 55, the lower right hand image is the farside contact print of the R4 magnet configuration and the nearside print is on the left. I believe the small circle on the right hand corner R4 farside print is a bundle of vertical magnetic loops passing directly in the center of the magnet. Back in Chapter III, Figure 40 shows a similar small circle in the center of the spirograph pattern.

Conclusion 5 Different sides of the ferrofluid cell emit different numbers of photons for a given field geometry.

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Figure 54. B&W contact prints of R1 magnet upper row, and R2 magnet lower row.

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Figure 55. B&W contact prints of R3 magnet upper row, and R4 magnet lower row.

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Figure 56. B&W contact prints of R5 magnet upper row, and S5 magnet lower row.

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Figure 57. Four nearside large magnet ring contact prints from earlier experiment.

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CHAPTER VI Z AXIS LIGHTING

A.

Using a different light source.

The motivation for this experiment was try something different than the xy plane edge lighting the ferrofluid cell. Something that would not have the edge lighting internal reflections. How about an old fashion darkroom enlarger aligned on the z axis? After all, it is a good point source of light with even light coverage. In Figure 58 the reader can see the layout of the z axis lighting experiment. A 100mm ferrofluid cell is mounted between a digital camera and a darkroom enlarger. The upper right hand corner photograph of Figure 60 is the resulting picture. It is a 25.4mm cube magnet sitting on top of a ferrofluid cell with a cone of light shining down on the magnet from the darkroom enlarger. All resulting conic sections of light have been verified to be ellipses. The other pictures of Figure 60 are made by holding two LEDS over the magnets and taking pictures from below. The picture in the center of Figure 60 is the common R1 magnet with two LEDS being held in my fingertips forming two intersecting circles of light in the center of the magnet. An interesting effect occurred when part of the light cone is blocked. As present in the upper right hand corner photograph of Figure 60, part of the ellipse disappears. I dont have a picture of a blocked light cone, but I do have a picture of a related effect.

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Figure 58. Enlarger light source configuration.

Figure 59. Wood mask with V1 magnet placed in the center with overhead led lighting.

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In figure 59, I am using a wood mask 12mm thick with a central hole drilled for the V1 magnet. After adding the magnet, I slowly waved a led over a series of drilled holes for the purpose of evenly lighting them with vertical light. The observed effect is where there is no light, there is little to see. On the left hand side of Figure 59, notice the light passing through the drilled holds has no radial wings, for a lack of better words. On the right hand side, once the V1 magnet is added, then the vertical light has picked up small wings for both the clockwise and counter clockwise radial sides of the magnet. In other words, the little wing shaped light blurs are forming into a circle around a disc magnet. This effect seems to be either a selective diffraction alignment of the ferrofluid particles or evanescent in nature. The reasoning being the normal diffraction pattern seen in the left hand side of Figure 59 around the mask openings has changed into a selective radial pattern as seen on the right hand side. Evanescent waves are difficult to explain because near field effects are not usually taught in schools. The have a characteristic short range and tend to propagate on surfaces. One could think of evanescent waves as the higher order terms of EM waves interacting with a surface. Small aperture diffraction and evanescent effects are not exclusive; one can have both at the same time (Fornel, 2001).

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Figure 60. Five pictures of lighting along the z axis, with both enlarger and LED lighting.

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CHAPTER VII DIPOLE PICTURES

Up to this chapter, I have only shown pictures with a pole facing the camera. Our next step would be to study dipole pictures, or the profile view of a magnet. Both upper and lower pictures seen in Figure 61 are dipole pictures. The ferrofluid cell seen in Figure 61 is114mm in diameter with a 38mm hole in the center. The magnet being studied is a 25.4mm sphere with a blue plastic rod showing the magnetic moment alignment. The small plastic rod is embedded in epoxy putty, and the rod was aligned with the magnetic moment of the sphere as the putty hardened. The reason for this experiment was to take pictures where the magnetic moment direction was exactly known. In the two photographs of Figure 61, neither the magnet nor the cell has been moved. The only change is a different cell LED was turned on. The upper photograph shows a LED directly bisecting the north and south poles of the magnet, showing a straight line. The lower photograph shows a LED directly aligned with a pole of the magnet showing two lines forming a LED facing lobe. The LEDs in this ferrofluid cell produce light cones with approximately 30 degree coverage. This ferrofluid cell is a special case because the light cant continue to the other side of the ferrofluid cell, because of the hole in the center surrounded by black paper the magnet itself. In dipole pictures from other cells, the straight line changes direction after it bisects the physical magnet and then continues at an angle.

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Figure 61. Upper photo shows LED aligned between poles, lower photo shows pole. 93

CHAPTER VIII COMPUTING VECTOR FIELDS OF PERMANENT MAGNETS.

After researching the subject, I was surprised at the complexity of analytic solutions of permanent magnets. One would think any radial magnet would have one or two page exact analytic solution but as mentioned in Chapter III, ring magnets have complex field with no easy equivalent current winding. On the other hand, computational depiction of the vector field for any permanent magnet turned out to be a direct process because a permanent magnet can be approximately modeled as a summation of a volume of dipoles in matrix form. In three dimensions one creates a single unit volume matrix with a number of dipoles computed within the volume; and then matrix offset superposition is used, adding the effects of each repeated volume until the volume of the permanent magnet is filled. In other words, the non-scalar dipole field of a small volume is computed which takes less than minute for a 605 by 605 by 3 matrix. This basic building block can be added as small parts of any volume shape, creating a superimposed vector solution for the whole permanent magnet. Computers can add matrixes very quickly after the first dipole matrix is made. Some computed unit dipoles can be seen in Figure 62. In practice, a selected unit dipole is repeatedly added with different offsets to create a column dipole that matches the thicknesses of a magnet being observed with the ferrofluid cell.

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Figure 62. Some dipole volume units used to calculate permanent magnet fields. As a consequence, computing the field of a permanent magnet is relatively easy; it is just a row summation of column dipoles which is a summation of unit dipoles. What is a bit harder is to show the vector components in a meaningful way. The slopes and contours of computed matrixes are quite steep and have negative values. The easiest way, found through trial and error, is to square and add the computed field components and then to display the result as a log of the values. Taking a log of a matrix reduces the visual slopes seen in the plots but still displays the same geometry. A log display of concentric circles is still concentric circles. Seen in Figure 62, adding the squares of the components displays the geometry that had negative values as positive. In the upper left hand corner there is an x dipole moment, but it is clear both the poles of the dipole are facing the same direction.

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Figure 63. Showing that the central feature, matches the computed surface plot on top.

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This plotting effect comes from the squaring of the field components. The original matrix is still intact; it is just the plotting that shows the poles as positive and facing the same upward direction. The contour plot directly below the surface plot shows correct dipole contours. Does the method work? Once the scripts were written, my first test was to compute the field of two R1 magnets next to each other. There had been an anomalous feature that showed up between two ring magnets with the same poles facing the camera. The plotted spike seen in the central geometry on top, matches the anomalous feature seen in the photograph. Literally, a summation of dipole matrixes produced the same features seen in a photograph of the ferrofluid cell. Only the magnet dimensions had been entered into the Matlab scripts. Later in Figure 77, the same anomalous feature can be seen between two sets of magnets with their north poles facing the camera on the z axis. The next test of my scripts was to try something more difficult, three cube magnets next to each other with the cube in the center in the opposite alignment. You can see this picture in a stacked photograph panel in Figure 64. In Figure 65, a single field component (to preserve sign information) is shown as a surface plot. Figure 66, shows the same field component as a contour plot. The reader is invited to compare Figure 64 through Figure 66. The photographic contours appear to match the computational contours.

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Figure 64. Stacked photographs of three 25.4mm cube magnets with one magnet flipped. 98

Figure 65. Computation surface plot of three cube magnets with one magnet flipped.

Figure 66. Computation contour plot of three cube magnets with one magnet flipped. 99

My next task was to create the computational surface plots of the R1 through R5 magnet series in Figure 67 and Figure 68. In Figure 67 notice the center of the R1 plot is not closed, the surface plotting stops before it reaches the center of the ring magnet. Table 11 of Appendix A, shows the horizontal field of the ring magnet is decreasing in the number of negative values, starting with R1 and going to R5. The computed series of plots of R1 though R5 shows the open center in R1 changing to a closed center in R5. I believe that the two are the same trend and that the contact prints of Figure 54 though Figure 56 also shows the same trend. In other words, the gauss readings of ring magnets, the conic section study of the ring magnets, the photographic contact prints of the ring magnets and the computed surface plots of the ring magnets all match. The exclamation mark of these correlations can be seen in one feature. In figure 67, notice the spike that has formed as the central surface closed in the R1 thought R5 plots. In the lower right hand side corner of Figure 55 which is the R4 magnet, and upper right hand side corner of Figure 56 which is the R5 magnet, notice the circle feature in the farside contact prints. I believe that the spikes seen in Figure 68 are leaving their marks as small circles in Figures 55 and 56 but not in Figure 54 because the spike has not yet formed!

Conclusion 6 The lines and arcs observed in ferrofluid cells can be used to locate surface features of the computed field values or the measured field values of the magnetic field applied the ferrofluid cells.

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Figure 67. Computational surface plots of R1, R2, and R3 magnets. 101

Figure 68. Computed surface plots of R4 and R5 magnets, compare with Figures 54-56. 102

CHAPTER IX IMPERFECTIONS A. An eight dipole magnet configuration.

In this chapter we are going to look at a more complex magnet configuration and then focus our attention onto one significant imperfection that was seen in several photographs. The motivation of this experiment was to create a complex ferrofluid picture so that I could then apply the computational methods from Chapter VIII. Online, I found a configuration of eight magnets that would create uniform field in the center of the configuration. I have had requests for pictures of uniform fields in the past, and the field effects adjacent to the magnets would be complex. I made the holder for the eight magnets which was an octagon shape from PVC plastic, and proceeded to insert the 25.4mm cubes in the correct order. I have worked the cube magnets for a long time and have some experience with getting them into mounts.

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Getting three magnets adjacent to each other is difficult, getting eight cube magnets adjacent to each other near impossible. Each magnet in the mount increases the force needed to get the next magnet into the mount. Long story short, it took all my strength but I managed to get the last magnet into the mount. Not surprising, two of the magnets had the wrong alignments as the blue arrows indicate in Figure 69. If the top left and top right magnets had been aligned outward then the configuration would have produced a uniform field in the center. The alignments of the magnets could not be changed because of the energy holding the magnets in place. It is rare for a physicist to stare at an experiment, and have the experiment stare back at him. Figure 70 shows the resulting ferrofluid photograph.

Figure 69. Eight dipole cube magnet configuration.

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Figure 70. Photograph of the eight dipole cube magnet configuration.

Figure 71. Computational contour graph of the eight dipole cube magnet configuration. 105

Figure 72. Computational contour graph of the eight dipole cube magnet configuration. The reader is invited to compare Figure 70 with Figure 71 and Figure 72. All the features present in Figure 71 are found in Figure 70. Let me stress that one is merely a computational plot which is a function of magnet locations, magnet alignment, and magnet volumes. The other is a real world photograph of light scattering from the xy plane to the z plane showing the contours of the magnetic vector field created from eight different magnets applied to the ferrofluid cell.
B. Three significant imperfections.

Figure 70 has three imperfections that I wish to bring to your attention. The first imperfection is the dull round circle in the center of the image. This dull circle is from a ferrofluid particle film that precipitates onto the glass after a few minutes.

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Normally, the ferrofluid cell is only used a few minutes per magnet. If a magnet is left too long, a film starts to form adjacent to the magnet. The film brightens the images where it is present. After a few weeks, it is absorbed back into the solution. While having a magnet afterimage is not desirable, overall it does not effect cell operation or the observed image geometries. The Single Magnet Time Study video shows a good example of the ferrofluid particle film forming adjacent to the magnet. The second imperfection is the long scratch that happened in the darkroom experiment. It is one scratch of many, but it is one of the larger ones. In Figure 70 one can see the scratch in the lower center of the ferrofluid cell. The scratch is the reason I flipped the cell over for the newest experiment, placing the scratch on the farside of the cell where it is less noticeable. The third imperfection is significant. After it was seen in the photographs, I inspected the cell with a laser pointer and found it. It is a bubble in the glass, which must have formed when the glass was made. Optical glass is sold in different grades, and even the higher grades of glass are allowed to have a number of imperfections per piece. The bubble is on the far side of the glass, away from the camera. Being a bubble, it is highly reflective of the internal reflections produced by the edge lighting. Acting as a point source of light and reflecting a cone of light onto the ferrofluid surface. On the right hand side of Figure 73, the bubble imperfection can be seen without a magnetic field applied to the cell. Notice that it has the classic diffraction pattern of a point light source, the same one seen with night time stars. On the left hand side of Figure 73, is a part of Figure 70, note the diffraction pattern has changed with the applied magnetic field. Part of the pattern now drifts in the direction of the contours of the field.

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Figure 73. Diffraction patterns of a point light source (bubble) on farside of glass. I checked my photograph archive and found two series of pictures from the fall of 2009 with the same defect. In the earlier experiment I taken wood dowels and embedded two 12.7mm diameter by 50.8mm magnets, side by side in each dowel. Some of the dowels had magnetic moments in the same direction, and others had one north and south aligned magnets side by side. The wood dowels allowed me to rotate each set of magnets and film the interaction of the fields. The study of the rotation of the north-north magnet sets can be seen in Figure 74. The study of the rotation of the north-south magnet sets can be seen in Figure 75. While the magnetic field studies seen in the two figures are interesting, it is the bubble imperfection that should draw your attention. Its point source diffraction pattern is changing each time the applied magnetic field is changing.

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Figure 74. Study of north-north and north-north sets of magnets being rotated. 109

Figure 75. Study of north-south and north-south sets of magnets being rotated.

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Figure 76. Close up of the diffraction pattern of a light source changing with the field.

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Figure 76 shows it all, as the applied magnet changes, the photographed diffraction pattern of the point source of light is changing. Figure 77 shows the point source light pattern in relation to computational field components. Figure 59 in chapter VI showed a similar pattern with radial clockwise and counter clockwise diffraction rays.

Conclusion 7 The diffraction pattern of small cones of light passing through the ferrofluid cell indicate contour seeking behavior, matching the contours of the magnetic field present in the ferrofluid.

Figure 77. Showing that the computed field components match the light point source.

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CHAPTER X CONCLUSIONS A. Experimental Conclusions.

Conclusion 1 When circular shaped magnets are placed in the center of the ferrofluid cell with xy plane edge lighting, the cell produces bright conic sections observed from the z axis.

Conclusion 2 The conic sections produced by weaker disc magnets were observed to be hyperbolas, and the conic sections produced by stronger disc magnets were observed to be ellipses.

Conclusion 3 The minor radius length and location of the ellipses observed in the centers of the ring magnets can be defined by the radius length of the negative horizontal field values measured in the center of the ring magnets.

Conclusion 4 The index of refraction of the ferrofluid medium is not directly responsible for the observed conic sections, because large variations of ferrofluid particle densities have been observed without affecting the conic section geometry.

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Conclusion 5 Different sides of the ferrofluid cell emit different numbers of photons for a given field geometry.

Conclusion 6 The lines and arcs observed in ferrofluid cells can be used to locate surface features of the computed field values or the measured field values of the magnetic field applied the ferrofluid cells.

Conclusion 7 The diffraction pattern of small cones of light passing through the ferrofluid cell indicate contour seeking behavior, matching the contours of the magnetic field present in the ferrofluid.

Clearly conclusions 1 through conclusions 7, supported by 77 figures of photographs, experimental layouts, computational plots and appendixes of measured field values and Matlab scripts and three videos, is an overwhelming argument. One of my professors has stated that extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof. Unfortunely, I am an experimentalist and not sure how my work applies on the theory side of physics. Had I had a better understanding and relied strictly on theory, many of my experiments probably would not have been performed because the experiments would be been thought unnecessary.

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I can only state the obvious, as seen in Figures 69-72, the edge lighted ferrofluid cell displays the main features of contours of the magnetic field. Figure 73 and Figure 76 show an isolated optical effect that is responsible for the contour seeking behavior of the ferrofluid cells. I am not sure how the characterize this isolated effect nor which theories to apply to it. I am sure no matter which name is given to it, the photographs will stay the same.

B.

Discussion of the list of optical candidates. The thesis committee directed this section to be deleted.

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REFERENCES

Fornel, Frederique de. (2001), Evanescent Waves. New York, Springer

Rosensweig, R. E. (1985), Ferrohydrodynamics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Taubin, G. (1991), G. ,Estimation Of Planar Curves, Surfaces And Nonplanar Space Curves Defined By Implicit Equations, IEEE Trans. PAMI, Vol. 13, 1115-1138.

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APPENDIX A. MAGNET FIELD MEASUREMENTS

Table 11. Ring magnet field measurements in gauss units.

Z reading ring x1 -173.3 -167.7 -137.9 -80.3 14.9 137.6 292.5 560.4 767.6 937.3 1001.4 1027.5 978.9 882.9 701.1 506.4 331.8 207.5 98.0 23.5 -22.4 -39.3 -81.9 -103.5 -109.5 -108.5 -103.5 -96.0 -86.2 -77.3 -70.3 -65.7 -59.2 Z reading ring x2 57.3 66.6 135.8 231.9 418.4 731.5 1055.9 1222.2 1402.6 1513.0 1504.4 1410.9 1165.0 874.9 570.8 394.9 109.1 43.0 -16.4 -79.0 -101.9 -118.2 -119.4 -117.8 -114.3 -107.1 -97.1 -92.0 -87.4 -80.4 -75.1 -67.2 -62.9 Z reading ring x3 276.2 413.2 470.4 585.8 837.2 1056.4 1337.8 1554.4 1716.4 1816.5 1769.7 1587.8 1332.0 950.4 654.4 400.5 231.5 106.4 12.9 -44.9 -84.2 -108.9 -116.4 -120.3 -120.3 -117.5 -111.1 -106.7 -100.8 -95.3 -89.6 -82.6 -76.5 Z reading ring x4 615.7 655.0 729.1 887.3 1090.8 1307.5 1568.7 1845.6 1902.9 1906.1 1796.9 1410.3 1129.4 934.0 693.8 406.3 191.7 102.3 37.9 -10.1 -60.7 -84.3 -93.6 -102.5 -105.4 -106.1 -104.6 -101.4 -98.0 -95.0 -90.2 -86.3 -81.7 Z reading ring x5 763.1 777.8 853.2 1029.7 1171.7 1430.5 1719.8 1943.6 2069.6 2094.2 2029.7 1826.4 1539.0 1205.4 925.8 632.9 371.9 214.9 141.8 65.1 -5.3 -35.9 -58.0 -74.6 -84.5 -91.9 -96.5 -97.1 -95.7 -94.4 -91.6 -88.2 -84.7 XY reading ringx1 0.0 -41.8 -105.0 -215.6 -265.0 -318.5 -322.3 -280.0 -124.5 80.4 235.6 422.1 641.4 704.3 701.4 651.2 555.2 447.7 356.9 286.0 238.7 200.1 155.1 132.3 99.3 85.8 74.4 63.7 54.8 45.5 39.2 33.2 29.5 XY reading ringx2 0.4 -74.2 -169.3 -265.9 -317.9 -331.8 -284.2 -136.2 82.6 349.8 573.6 771.3 962.6 1032.5 999.2 930.8 846.2 730.4 624.2 520.6 435.7 355.6 290.3 254.4 198.3 176.8 159.6 136.9 115.6 100.4 90.2 78.6 67.8 XY reading ringx3 0.1 -135.4 -230.9 -268.8 -277.8 -246.9 -122.1 106.7 325.9 671.4 936.1 1123.9 1219.2 1212.3 1151.2 1074.0 937.3 816.8 676.8 603.6 533.6 457.3 377.9 336.4 284.6 248.8 208.9 184.5 164.0 143.6 124.6 108.2 96.1 XY reading ringx4 0.1 -135.9 -200.0 -239.5 -220.4 -129.5 56.1 307.6 601.3 818.6 1155.6 1356.7 1413.1 1381.8 1309.3 1204.2 1070.1 938.9 762.8 663.5 591.1 509.1 455.4 386.9 344.6 293.6 254.8 219.4 191.5 174.3 155.7 142.7 125.1 XY reading ringx5 0.1 -68.1 -153.4 -181.9 -142.6 -68.9 87.7 334.4 640.9 934.6 1133.6 1340.7 1428.4 1422.7 1356.7 1228.9 1103.2 1010.0 863.5 746.3 668.1 583.3 505.1 444.7 390.7 352.4 307.5 273.2 241.2 212.8 193.7 174.5 156.7

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Table 12. Disc magnet field measurements in gauss units.

Z reading disc x1 1072.6 1073.5 1055.8 962.6 740.7 549.9 402.6 272.1 144.5 78.2 34.3 8.0 -7.1 -22.5 -27.2 -29.2 -29.5 -28.9 -27.6 -26.4 -24.2 -22.4 -20.8 -19.1 -17.2 -15.7 -14.1 -13.4 -12.3 -12.2 -10.3 -10.4 -8.5 Z reading disc x3 1477.3 1471.9 1457.5 1424.2 1313.0 1107.1 881.0 653.5 453.6 311.7 204.5 133.0 81.7 47.4 12.1 -5.5 -18.3 -25.7 -29.5 -32.5 -33.1 -32.8 -31.6 -31.2 -28.9 -27.9 -25.9 -24.2 -22.6 -21.1 -19.9 -18.5 -17.0 Z reading disc x5 1702.7 1703.2 1687.0 1595.4 1468.4 1279.9 987.6 779.0 556.0 392.7 299.8 191.2 131.0 84.6 47.9 24.3 6.4 -9.3 -17.4 -22.4 -26.1 29.0 -30.1 -30.2 -30.1 -29.6 -29.4 -28.2 -27.1 -25.5 -24.4 -22.9 -21.2 Z reading disc x7 1832.7 1817.7 1741.7 1682.7 1501.3 1279.3 989.8 744.1 550.9 445.3 323.9 221.2 166.5 120.0 80.6 52.3 22.8 9.0 -3.6 -10.9 -16.4 -21.6 -24.5 -26.4 -27.3 -27.6 -27.8 -27.2 -26.9 -26.1 -25.1 -23.9 -23.0 Z reading disc x9 1945.2 1938.4 1900.6 1832.5 1683.8 1492.0 1225.3 911.5 735.4 564.6 449.7 315.5 249.4 190.9 133.3 101.9 72.1 44.2 23.6 11.7 2.0 -6.7 -12.8 -16.7 -19.1 -21.2 -22.7 -23.5 -23.8 -23.8 -23.6 -23.1 -22.4 XY reading disc x1 -0.5 106.6 216.4 348.4 450.8 499.5 524.5 505.3 440.9 398.7 331.0 266.5 211.3 172.9 144.1 122.6 98.8 76.5 66.4 56.5 46.7 40.7 34.4 27.6 25.0 21.9 18.8 15.6 13.5 11.6 10.3 9.2 7.9 XY reading disc x3 -0.4 103.9 264.4 439.9 577.1 644.0 681.8 666.2 620.7 543.4 484.7 425.6 347.0 287.2 244.3 222.0 194.1 159.2 140.2 117.6 100.1 84.9 71.6 62.9 56.9 49.3 43.7 37.3 32.7 29.6 26.3 24.1 20.9 XY reading disc x5 -0.4 149.9 359.1 548.9 672.5 753.8 790.2 774.3 724.2 674.1 581.6 514.6 407.9 366.8 321.1 286.8 253.9 211.3 183.3 160.4 141.6 123.9 105.9 93.0 81.5 71.8 64.8 56.3 50.2 45.6 41.0 36.9 32.0 XY reading disc x7 0.0 198.1 364.9 567.9 712.5 787.1 798.1 781.6 729.6 669.7 616.5 588.7 519.8 451.9 406.5 392.4 354.2 315.1 274.9 244.1 213.5 188.7 167.2 147.6 130.0 118.9 112.2 99.9 88.9 81.7 72.4 65.0 58.9 XY reading disc x9 0.1 157.7 340.9 487.9 633.4 773.0 860.7 898.6 879.1 818.1 748.9 684.4 602.4 534.5 475.6 414.3 359.7 325.3 288.2 255.4 225.9 200.9 181.6 163.0 145.8 128.9 117.4 105.2 92.4 84.0 73.2 68.1 61.7

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Table 13. Video V1 magnet magnetic field measurements in gauss units.

Z reading video magnet 2246.0 2228.6 2179.5 2105.4 2024.9 1889.8 1678.5 1307.9 1102.9 862.3 563.9 312.1 156.6 32.7 -23.3 -67.0 -86.5 -96.5 -99.4 -98.4 -94.5 -88.8 -82.4 -75.4 -69.7 -64.9 -60.1 -54.1 -49.8 -45.9 -43.7 -40.1 -35.7 XY reading video magnet -0.3 -142.3 -333.1 -468.0 -623.5 -797.6 -928.1 -1088.1 -1163.3 -1197.0 -1143.3 -1018.2 -894.5 -769.0 -661.8 -537.2 -446.0 -370.0 -321.9 -263.0 -209.1 -175.7 -148.4 -126.6 -105.4 -89.0 -77.1 -67.5 -59.3 -52.5 -45.8 -39.7 -34.9 Z reading double layer glass no fluid 1372.1 1365.5 1322.8 1265.4 1216.2 1116.3 1018.7 869.0 704.2 576.9 432.3 326.5 238.1 136.9 85.2 61.2 26.1 -0.1 -15.7 -23.3 -31.3 -34.5 -37.3 -38.4 -38.4 -37.5 -36.2 -34.8 -32.9 -31.6 -30.4 -28.8 -27.0 Z reading double layer glass with fluid 1389.9 1375.1 1333.1 1269.2 1206.8 1109.7 990.0 817.1 678.1 576.9 426.0 303.2 206.6 126.3 84.0 40.4 8.6 -14.7 -27.5 -35.5 -39.8 -42.1 -42.6 -42.6 -41.2 -39.6 -37.7 -35.6 -34.0 -32.3 -30.4 -28.7 -26.8

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APPENDIX B. THREE MATLAB SCRIPTS

% - eightway script -------------------------------------------------make_magnet_eigthway % Call make_magnet script to return a full matrix. % by adding row vectors % script rotates the returned magnet matrixs and saves result. offset=55; state(1,:)=[offset,0,180]; s1=imrotate(cubey,state(1,3),'bicubic','crop'); s1=s1(228-75+state(1,1):228+75+state(1,1),228-75+state(1,2):228+75+state(1,2),:); state(2,:)=[-offset,0,180]; s2=imrotate(cubey,state(2,3),'bicubic','crop'); s2=s2(228-75+state(2,1):228+75+state(2,1),228-75+state(2,2):228+75+state(2,2),:); state(3,:)=[0,offset,0]; s3=imrotate(cubey,state(3,3),'bicubic','crop'); s3=s3(228-75+state(3,1):228+75+state(3,1),228-75+state(3,2):228+75+state(3,2),:); state(4,:)=[0,-offset,0]; s4=imrotate(cubey,state(4,3),'bicubic','crop'); s4=s4(228-75+state(4,1):228+75+state(4,1),228-75+state(4,2):228+75+state(4,2),:); rf=((2)^.5)/2; state(5,:)=[round(offset*rf),round(offset*rf),225]; s5=imrotate(cubey,state(5,3),'bicubic','crop'); s5=s5(228-75+state(5,1):228+75+state(5,1),228-75+state(5,2):228+75+state(5,2),:); state(6,:)=[round(offset*rf),round(-offset*rf),135]; s6=imrotate(cubey,state(6,3),'bicubic','crop'); s6=s6(228-75+state(6,1):228+75+state(6,1),228-75+state(6,2):228+75+state(6,2),:); state(7,:)=[round(-offset*rf),round(offset*rf),135+180];

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s7=imrotate(cubey,state(7,3),'bicubic','crop'); s7=s7(228-75+state(7,1):228+75+state(7,1),228-75+state(7,2):228+75+state(7,2),:); state(8,:)=[round(-offset*rf),round(-offset*rf),225+180]; s8=imrotate(cubey,state(8,3),'bicubic','crop'); s8=s8(228-75+state(8,1):228+75+state(8,1),228-75+state(8,2):228+75+state(8,2),:); close all h=figure; contour(s5(:,:,1)+s6(:,:,1)+s7(:,:,1)+s8(:,:,1)+s1(:,:,1)+s2(:,:,1)+s3(:,:,1)+s4(:,:,1),45); xlabel('Distance (millimeters)','FontSize',12,'FontName','Times') ylabel('Distance (millimeters)','FontSize',12,'FontName','Times') title('Eight Dipole Contour Plot','FontSize',12,'FontName','Times','FontWeight','b') print( h ,'-r300','-dpng', ['s:\george_c.png']); h=figure; surfc(log((s5(:,:,1)+s6(:,:,1)+s7(:,:,1)+s8(:,:,1)+s1(:,:,1)+s2(:,:,1)+s3(:,:,1)+s4(:,:,1))/1200+2)); shading interp xlabel('Distance (millimeters)','FontSize',12,'FontName','Times') ylabel('Distance (millimeters)','FontSize',12,'FontName','Times') zlabel('Normalized Strength','FontSize',12,'FontName','Times') title('Eight Dipole Contour Plot Surface Plot','FontSize',12,'FontName','Times','FontWeight','b') print( h ,'-r300','-dpng', ['s:\george_s.png']); % - eightway script -------------------------------------------------% - make magnet eightway script -------------------------------------------------height=25.4 fastdipole07; % Call fastdipole script to return a column diople of height=25.4 magnet=zeros(455,455,3); mask=false(151,151); for xx=-12.7:12.7 % make logical mask for yy=-12.7:12.7 x=round(xx+75); y=round(yy+75); if x>0 && x<152 && y>0 && y<152 if ~mask(x,y) mask(x,y)=true; end end end end

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for x=1:151 for y=1:151 if mask(x,y)

%make magnet matrix from column matrix by reading mask.

magnet=magnet+column_dipole(302-227+x-75:302+227+x-75,302-227+y-75:302+227+y-75,4:6); end end end cubey=magnet; % - make magnet eightway script -------------------------------------------------% - fastdipole script -------------------------------------------------% Column Height is supplied by calling script width=150; % Maximum Width of Viewing Plane of Ferrofluid Cell. steps=32; % Number of Poles per Volume Element, e.g. 8 steps is 4 dipoles per unit. maxtrix_width=round(455/2+width/2)-1; % Number of Maxtrix Elements on Each side of Origin. column_dipole=zeros(2*maxtrix_width+1,2*maxtrix_width+1,9); % Maxtrix for z=6:6+height-1 % Viewing Plane is Always at Least 6 Millimeters from Volume Elements % The z Viewing Plane is a Summation of All the z Volume Elements Placed onto One Plane. for x=-maxtrix_width:maxtrix_width xx=x+maxtrix_width+1; % x Maxtrix Index for y=-maxtrix_width:maxtrix_width yy=y+maxtrix_width+1; % y Maxtrix Index s=1; % beginning sign of s flag toggle. for pole=-.5:1/steps:.4999999 % Starting at -.5 and not Including .5, compute +/- poles sx=s*(pole+x); % Adding coordinate distortions for x moment dipole s=s*-1; % Toggle s for next pole rp=sx*sx+y*y+z*z; rp=rp*real(sqrt(rp)); % by Trial and Error, Quickest way of Computing rp^(3/2) column_dipole(xx,yy,1)=sx/rp+column_dipole(xx,yy,1); % i componet at location xx,yy,zz column_dipole(xx,yy,2)= y/rp+column_dipole(xx,yy,2); % j componet at location xx,yy,zz column_dipole(xx,yy,3)= z/rp+column_dipole(xx,yy,3); % k componet at location xx,yy,zz end s=1; % begining sign of s flag toggle. for pole=-.5:1/steps:.4999999 % Starting at -.5 and not Including .5, compute +/- poles

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sy=s*(pole+y); % Adding coordinate distortions for a y moment dipole s=s*-1; % Toggle s for next pole rp=x*x+sy*sy+z*z; rp=rp*real(sqrt(rp)); % by Trial and Error, Quickest way of Computing rp^(3/2) column_dipole(xx,yy,4)= x/rp+column_dipole(xx,yy,4); % i componet at location xx,yy,zz column_dipole(xx,yy,5)=sy/rp+column_dipole(xx,yy,5); % j componet at location xx,yy,zz column_dipole(xx,yy,6)= z/rp+column_dipole(xx,yy,6); % k componet at location xx,yy,zz end s=1; % begining sign of s flag toggle. for pole=-.5:1/steps:.4999999 % Starting at -.5 and not Including .5, compute +/- poles sz=s*(pole+z); % Adding coordinate distortions for a z moment dipole s=s*-1; % Toggle s for next pole rp=x*x+y*y+sz*sz; rp=rp*real(sqrt(rp)); % by Trial and Error, Quickest way of Computing rp^(3/2) column_dipole(xx,yy,7)= x/rp+column_dipole(xx,yy,7); % i componet at location xx,yy,zz column_dipole(xx,yy,8)= y/rp+column_dipole(xx,yy,8); % j componet at location xx,yy,zz column_dipole(xx,yy,9)=sz/rp+column_dipole(xx,yy,9); % k componet at location xx,yy,zz end end end end % - fastdipole script --------------------------------------------------

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VITA

The author, Michael M. Snyder, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1967. My family moved to western Kentucky when I was a child. I finished elementary school but did not finish high school in Murray, Ky. I dropped out of high school my senior year. I attended Institute of Electronic Technology in Paducah Kentucky, and received an applied science degree in March 1991. I worked in electronics and then switched over to working with computers, starting with SCO Unix. In 2000, I moved to San Jose, California and made a living as a network engineer as seen in Figure 78.

Figure 78. Author working in Silicon Valley as a network engineer.

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When the technology business cycle declined in Silicon Valley, I moved back to western Kentucky and started a networking business that lasted seven years. I also started attending night time classes at Murray State University. In 2007, I graduated with a Bachelors of Science degree with a major in physics and a minor in mathematics. In the fall of 2008, I was admitted into the University of Louisvilles physics program as a graduate teaching assistant. In spring of 2010, I was admitted into the universitys doctorate program. After completing my Master of Science degree, I plan on taking some time off for my family, and then to complete the doctorate program.

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