Oracle & Distributed Databases

Unit 5

Unit 5
Structure: 5.1 Introduction Objectives 5.2

Distributed Databases Overview

Distributed Processing Self Assessment Questions

5.3

Features of Distributed versus Centralized Databases Self Assessment Questions

5.4

Uses of Distributed Databases Self Assessment Questions

5.5

Distributed Database Management Systems (DDBMS) Self Assessment Questions

5.6

Reference Architecture for Distributed Databases Self Assessment Questions

5.7

Types of Data Fragmentation 5.7.1 5.7.2 5.7.3 5.7.4 Horizontal Fragmentation Derived Horizontal Fragmentation Vertical Fragmentation Mixed Fragmentation

Self Assessment Questions 5.8 Integrity Constraints in Distributed Databases Self Assessment Questions 5.9 5.10 5.11 Summary Terminal Questions Answers to Self Assessment Questions

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5.1 Introduction
A distributed database is a network of databases managed by multiple database servers that are used together. They are not usually seen as a single logical database. The data of all databases in the distributed database can be simultaneously accessed and modified. The primary benefit of a distributed database is that the data of physically separate databases can be logically combined and potentially made accessible to all users on a network. Each computer that manages a database in the distributed database is called a node. The database to which a user is directly connected is called the local database. Any additional databases accessed by this user are called remote databases. When a local database accesses a remote database for information, the local database is a client of the remote server. This is an example of client/server architecture. While a distributed a database enables increased access to a large amount of data across a network, it must also hide the location of the data and the complexity of accessing it across the network. The distributed database management system must also preserve the advantages of administrating each local database as through it were not distributed. Objectives: By the end of this unit we will learn the following topics Distributed processing Comparison of centralized and distributed databases Different uses of distributed databases Discussion of Distributed DBMS Reference Architecture for Distributed Databases Types of Data Fragmentation Integrity constraints in Distributed Databases
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5.2 Distributed Processing

A Distributed processing system is one in which several autonomous processors and data stores supporting processes and/or databases interact in order to cooperate to achieve an overall goal. The processes coordinate their activities and exchange information transferred over a communication network. Nowadays distributed processing is the important area of information processing and also it is implemented using the concept of Distributed databases. A Distributed Database is a collection of data, which belong logically to the same system but are spread over the sites of computer network. The two important aspects of a distributed database: Distribution: The data are not resided in centralized place Logical Correlation: The data are tied themselves with some properties

Let us understand the above terminologies by taking an example. Consider a Bank Transaction. Here the bank has three branches at different locations. At each branch the computer controls the teller terminals of the branch and the account database of the branch. Each local branch database is termed as SITE of the distributed database connected by a communication network. All the local transactions are managed by these local computers and will therefore be called as local applications. An example of local application is a debit or a credit application performed on an account stored at the same branch at which the application is requested. Also there are some applications which accesses data at more than one branch known as Global applications or Distributed applications, i.e. for example the transfer of funds from account of one branch to an account of other branch. This is not that simple issue as it involves updating the databases at two different places.

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We can now summarize the above aspects and let us reform the definition of the distributed database as a collection of data, which are distributed over different computers of a computer network. Each site of the network has autonomous processing capability and can perform local applications and also it participates at least in one global application, which requires accessing data at several sites using a communication subsystem. The most important aspect expected from the system is the cooperation between the autonomous sites. Self Assessment Questions 5.2 1. The two important aspects of a distributed database are and . 2. In distributed databases, all the local transactions are managed by local computers and will therefore be called as .

5.3 Features of Distributed versus Centralized databases

It is better if we look at the typical features of the centralized database and compare them with the corresponding features of distributed databases. The following table gives the comparative study of the main features.
Sl.No 1 Features Centralized control Centralized databases The idea of centralization is much emphasized here. Here a Database administrator (DBA) takes care about the safety of the data Data independence means that the actual organization of the data is transparent to the programmer. Here a notion called Conceptual schema is used which gives the conceptual view of the data. Distributed databases Here the idea of distribution of the data is considered. A hierarchical approach of administration like Global administrator, local administrator is incorporated. Here a notion called Distribution transparency is used which makes the program unaffected by the movement of the data from one site to another.

Data independence

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Reduction of redundancy

Here the redundancy is reduced as far as possible.

Here the redundancy is an added feature as the locality of applications is increased if the data is replicated at all sites where the applications needed it and also the reliability of the application can be increased. Here Complex physical structures will not support the efficient data access as the data is distributed. This can be solved using the concepts like local and global optimization, which determines the optimum procedure for accessing the data at different sites. Here it is difficult as the transactions may be initiated at different sites simultaneously. Special algorithms have to be used to take care about this aspect.

Complex physical structures and efficient access

The efficient access of the data is supported by the complex physical data structures like secondary indexes, interfile chains and so on.

Integrity, Recovery and Concurrency control

Here this problem can be solved easily as it is controlled at one point. Transaction atomicity is the concept used for this purpose i.e the sequence of operations performed either completely or not performed at all. Maintained by centralized data base administrator.

Privacy Security

and

Maintained by Local Data Base Administrators at different sites

Self Assessment Questions 5.3 1. A hierarchical approach of administration like Global administrator, local administrator is incorporated in databases. 2. means that the actual organization of the data is transparent to the programmer.

5.4 Uses of Distributed Databases

There are several reasons why distributed databases are developed. The following is a list of the main motivations. Organizational and economic reasons Usage and interconnection of existing databases Incremental growth of an organization Reduced communication overhead
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Performance aspects Increased reliability and availability Organizational and economic reasons: Many organizations are decentralized, and a distributed database approach fits more naturally the structure of the organization. With the recent developments in computer technology, the economy-of-scale motivation for having large, centralized computer centers is becoming questionable. The organizational and economic motivations are probably the most important reason for developing distributed databases. Interconnection of existing databases: Distributed databases are the natural solution when several databases already exist in an organization and the necessity of performing global applications arises. In this case, the distributed database is created bottom-up from the preexisting local databases. This process may require a certain degree of local restructuring; however, the effort which is required by this restructuring is much less than that needed for the creation of a completely new centralized database. Incremental growth: If an organization grows by adding new, relatively autonomous organizational units (new branches, new warehouses, etc.), then the distributed database approach supports a smooth incremental growth with a minimum degree of impact on the already existing units. Reduced communication overhead: In a geographically distributed database like the database of Example 1.1, the fact that many applications are local clearly reduces the communication overhead with respect to a centralized database. Therefore, the maximization of the locality of applications is one of the primary objectives in distributed database design. Performance considerations: The existence of several autonomous processors results in the increase of performance through a high degree of parallelism. This consideration can be applied to any multiprocessor system,
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and not only to distributed databases. However, distributed databases have the advantage in that the decomposition of data reflects application dependent criteria which maximize application locality; in this way the mutual interference between different processors is minimized. Reliability and availability: The distributed database approach, especially with redundant data, can be used also in order to obtain higher reliability and availability. However, obtaining this goal is not straightforward and requires the use of techniques which are still not completely understood. The autonomous processing capability of the different sites does not by itself guarantee a higher overall reliability of the system, but it ensures a graceful degradation property; in other words, failures in a distributed database can be more frequent than in a centralized one because of the greater number of components, but the effect of each failure is confined to those applications which use the data of the failed site, and system crash is rare. Self Assessment Questions 5.4 1. The and economic motivations are probably the most important reason for developing distributed databases. 2. The approach supports a smooth incremental growth with a minimum degree of impact on the already existing units. 3. The existence of several results in the increase of performance through a high degree of parallelism. complete

5.5 Distributed Data Base Management Systems (DDBMS)

A Distributed Database Management System helps in the creation and management of distributed databases. The software requirements for building a distributed database are: The Database Management Component (DB)
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The Data Communication Component (DC) The Data Dictionary (DD), which gives the idea of data distribution in the entire network. The Distributed Database Component (DDB) The figure 5.1 can show the interaction between the above components. The services supported by the above components are Remote database access to an application program. Some degree of distribution transparency Support for database administration and control Support for concurrency control and recovery of distributed transactions

The different types of the Distributed database accesses available a. Remote access via DBMS primitives: Here the application issues a request, which refers to remote data. Fig 5.2 shows this scenario. This request is automatically routed by the DDBMS to the site where the data is located; then it is executed and the corresponding result is returned. b. Remote access via auxiliary program: Here the application requires the auxiliary program to be executed at the remote site, which accesses the remote database and returns the result to requesting application. Fig. 5.3 gives the exact picture about the concept.

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Terminals

Local Database 1

DB

DC DDB

DD

Site 1

Site 2

Local Database 1

DB

DC
DDB

DD

Terminals

Fig. 5.1: Components of a commercial DDBMS

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Application program

DATABASE ACCESS PRIMITIVE

DBMS1

Site 1

Site 2

DBMS2

Database 2

RESULT

Fig. 5.2: Remote access via DBMS primitives

Application program

REQUEST FOR EXECUTION OF AUXILLARY PROGRAM

DBMS1

Site 1 GLOBAL RESULT Auxiliary program

DATABASE ACCESS PRIMITIVES AND RESULTS

Site2

DBMS

Database 2

Fig. 5.3: Remote access via an auxiliary program

Self Assessment Questions 5.5 1. A helps in the creation and management of distributed databases.

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2. An application requires the to be executed at the remote site, which accesses the remote database and returns the result to requesting application.

5.6 Reference Architecture for Distributed Databases

Here we have suggested reference architecture for the distributed databases as shown in the figure 5.4. The different levels are conceptually helpful to understand the functioning of the whole system. The various stages of the architecture are as follows. Global Schema: defines all the data, which are contained in the distributed database as if it is a centralized system. Here a set of global relations is used. Fragmentation Schema: Each global relation is split into several nonoverlapping portions that are called as Fragments. The mapping between the global relations and fragments is defined in the Fragmentation Schema. It is a one to many relations such that several fragments correspond to one global relation but only one global relation corresponds to one fragment. They are indicated as Ri, the ith fragment of the global relation R. Allocation Schema: The fragments are really the logical portions of the global relation, which are physically dispersed at different sites of the network. This schema defines at which site(s) a fragment is allocated. It is to be noted that depending upon the requirement more than one fragment may be allocated at a site. So this mapping determines whether the system is a Redundant or a Non Redundant System. Local Mapping Schema: We have already described the relationships between the objects at the three top levels of this architecture. These three levels are site independent; therefore, they do not depend on the
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data model of the local DBMSs. At a lower level, it is necessary to map the physical images to the objects that are manipulated by the local DBMSs. This mapping is called a local mapping schema and depends on the type of local DBMS; therefore in a heterogeneous system we have different types of local mappings at different sites.
Global schema

Fragmentation schema

Allocation schema

Local mapping schema 1

Local mapping schema 2

Other sites

DBMS of site 1

DBMS of site 2

Local DB1

Local DB2

Fig. 5.4: A reference architecture for distributed databases

This architecture provides a very general conceptual framework for understanding distributed databases. The three most important objectives that motivate the features of this architecture are the separation of data fragmentation and allocation, the control of redundancy, and the independence from local DBMSs.

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Separating the concept of data fragmentation from the concept of data allocation: This separation allows us to distinguish two different levels of distribution transparency, namely fragmentation transparency and location transparency. Fragmentation transparency is the highest degree of transparency and consists of the fact that the user or application programmer works on global relations. Location

transparency is a lower degree of transparency and requires the user or application programmer to work on fragments instead of global relations; however, he or she does not know where the fragments are located. Explicit control of redundancy: The reference architecture provides explicit control of redundancy at the fragment level. Independence from local DBMSs: This feature, called local mapping transparency, allows us to study several problems of distributed database management without having to take into account the specific data models of local DBMSs. Another type of transparency, which is strictly related to location transparency, is replication transparency. Replication transparency means that the user is unaware of the replication of fragments. Self Assessment Questions 5.6 1. Each global relation is split into several non-overlapping portions that are called as . 2. transparency is a lower degree of transparency and requires the user or application programmer to work on fragments instead of global relations. 3. transparency means that the user is unaware of the replication of fragments.

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5.7 Types of Data Fragmentation

There are two different types of fragmentation. Horizontal and Vertical fragmentation can decompose the global relations into fragments. We will first consider these two types of fragmentation separately and then consider the more complex fragmentation, which can be obtained by applying a composition of both. In all types of fragmentation, a fragment can be defined by an expression in a relational language (we will use relational algebra), which takes global relation as operands and produces the fragment as result. For example, if a global relation contains data about employees, a fragment which contains only data about employees who work at department D1 can be obviously defined by a selection operation on the global relation. Some rules, which must be followed when defining fragments Completeness Condition: All the data of the global relation must be mapped into the fragments; i.e., it must not happen that a data item that belongs to a global relation does not belong to any fragment. Reconstruction Condition: It must always be possible to reconstruct each global relation from its fragments. The necessity of this condition is obvious in fact, only fragments are stored in the distributed database, and global relation has to be built through this reconstruction operation if necessary. Disjoint Condition: It is convenient that fragments be disjoint, so that the replication of data can be controlled explicitly at the allocation level. 5.7.1 Horizontal Fragmentation Horizontal Fragmentation consists of partitioning the tuples of a global relation into subsets; this is clearly useful in distributed databases, where each subset can contain data that have common geographical properties. It

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can be defined by expressing each fragment as a selection operation on the global relation. Example: let a global relation be SUPPLIER (SNUM, NAME, CITY) Then the horizontal fragmentation can be defined in the following way: SUPPLIER1 = SLCITY =Manipal SUPPLIER SUPPLIER2 = SLCITY =Udupi SUPPLIER Now let us verify whether this fragmentation fulfills the conditions stated earlier. The completeness condition: If Manipal and Udupi are the only possible values of the CITY attribute, then it satisfies this condition. The reconstruction condition: can be verified easily, because it is always possible to reconstruct the SUPPLIER global relation through the following operation. SUPPLIER = SUPPLIER1 UN SUPPLIER2 The disjoint ness condition is clearly verified. Qualification: The predicate, which is used in the selection operation and defines a fragment, is called as Qualification. For instance, in the above example the qualifications q1 : CITY = Manipal q2 : CITY = Udupi We can generalize from the above example that in order to satisfy the completeness condition, the set of qualifications of all fragments must be complete, at least with respect to the set of allowed values. The reconstruction condition is always satisfied through the union operation, and the disjoint ness condition requires that qualifications be mutually exclusive.

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5.7.2 Derived Horizontal Fragmentation This is a type of fragmentation, which is derived from the horizontal fragmentation of another relation. Example: Consider a global relation SUPPLY (SNUM, PNUM, DEPTNUM, QUAN) where SNUM is a supplier number. If it is required that a fragment has to contain the tuples for suppliers, which are in a given city, and then we have to go for derived fragmentation. A semi-join operation with the fragments SUPLIER1 and SUPLIER2 is needed in order to determine the tuples of SUPPLY, which correspond to the suppliers in a given city. The derived fragmentation of SUPPLY can be therefore defined as follows: SUPPLY1 = SUPPLY SJSNUM=SNUMSUPPLIER1 SUPPLY2 = SUPPLY SJSNUM=SNUMSUPPLIER2 The reconstruction of the global relation SUPPLY can be performed through the union operation as was shown for SUPPLIER. The completeness of the above fragmentation requires that there be no supplier numbers in the SUPPLY relation, which are not contained also in the SUPPLIER relation. This is a typical, and reasonable, integrity constraint for this database and usually is called as the referential integrity constraint. The disjoint ness condition is satisfied if a tuple of the SUPPLY relation does not correspond to two tuples of the SUPPLIER relation that belong to two different fragments. In this case this condition is easily verified, because the supplier numbers are unique keys of the SUPPLIER relation. 5.7.3 Vertical Fragmentation The Vertical fragmentation of a global relation is the subdivision of its attributes into groups; fragments are obtained by projecting the global relation over each group. This can be useful in distributed databases where
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each group of attributes can contain data that have common geographical properties. The fragmentation is correct; if each attribute is mapped into at least one attribute of the fragments; moreover, it must be possible to reconstruct the original relation by joining the fragments together. Example: Consider a global relation EMP (EMPNUM, NAME, SAL, TAX, MGRNUM, DEPTNUM) A vertical fragmentation of this relation can be defines as EMP1=PJ EMPNUM,NAME, MGRNUM, DEPTNUM EMP EMP2=PJ EMPNUM, SAL,TAX EMP The reconstruction of relation EMP can be obtained as EMP=EMP1JN EMPNUM=EMPNUM EMP2 This is because; EMPNUM is a key of EMP. Let us draw some important points to be noted from this example. The purpose of including the key of the global relation into each fragment is to ensure the reconstruction property. An alterative way to provide the reconstruction property is to generate tuple identifiers that are used as system-controlled keys. This can be convenient in order to avoid the replication of large keys; moreover, users cannot modify tuple identifiers. Let us finally consider the problem of fragment disjoint ness. First, we have seen that at least the key should be replicated in all fragments in order to allow reconstruction. In fact, if we include the same attribute in two different vertical fragments, we know exactly that the column that corresponds to this attribute. For example, consider the following vertical fragmentation of relation EMP: EMP1 = PJEMPNUM,NAME,MGRNUM,DEPTNUM EMP EMP2 = PJEMPNUM,NAME,SAL,TAX EMP

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The attribute NAME is replicated in both fragments. We can remove this attribute when we reconstruct relation EMP through an additional projection operation. EMP = EMP1 JNEMPNUM=EMPNUM PJEMPNUM, SAL, TAX EMP2 5.7.4 Mixed Fragmentation The fragments that are obtained by the above fragmentation operations are relations themselves, so that it is possible to apply the fragmentation operations recursively, provided that the correctness conditions are satisfied each time. The reconstruction can be obtained by applying the reconstruction rules in reverse order. Example: Consider the same global relation EMP (EMPNUM, NAME, SAL, TAX, MGRNUM, DEPTNUM) The following is a mixed fragmentation, which is obtained by applying the vertical fragmentation of the previous example, followed by a horizontal fragmentation on DEPTNUM: EMP1 = SLDEPTNUM
10 PJEMPNUM, NAME, MGRNUM, DEPTNUM EMP 20 PJEMPNUM, NAME, MGRNUM, DEPTNUM EMP

EMP2 = SL10<DEPTNUM

EMP3 = SLDEPTNUM>20 PJEMPNUM, NAME, MGRNUM, DEPTNUM EMP EMP4 = PJEMPNUM, NAME, SAL , TAX EMP
EMP

EMP4 h

EMP1

EMP2

EMP3

Fig. 5.5: The fragmentation tree of relation EMP

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The reconstruction of relation EMP is defined by the following expression: EMP = UN (EMP1, EMP2, EMP3) JNEMPNUM = EMPNUM PJEMPNUM, SAL, TAX EMP4 A fragmentation tree can conveniently represent mixed fragmentation (as shown in the above figure). In a fragmentation tree, the root corresponds to a global relation, the leaves corresponds to the leaves correspond to the fragments, and the intermediate nodes correspond to the intermediate results of the fragment-defining expressions. The EXAMPLE_DDB: The following codes shows the global and fragmentation schemata of EXAMPLE_DDB. Most of the global relations of EXAMPLE_DDB and their fragmentation have been already introduced. A DEPT relation, horizontally fragmented into three fragments on the value of the DEPTNUM attribute, is added. Global schema EMP (EMPNUM, NAME, SAL, TAX, MGRNUM, DEPTNUM) DEPT (DEPTNUM, NAME, AREA, MGRNUM) SUPPLIER (SNUM, PNUM, DEPTNUM, QNUM) Fragmentation schema EMP1 = SLDEPTNUM 10 PJEMPNUM, NAME, MGRNUM, DEPTNUM(EMP) EMP2 = SL10<DEPTNUM 20 PJEMPNUM, NAME, MGRNUM, DEPTNUM(EMP) EMP3 = SLDEPTNUM >20 PJEMPNUM, NAME, MGRNUM, DEPTNUM(EMP) EMP4 = PJEMPNUM, NAME, SAL, TAX(EMP) DEPT1= SLDEPTNUM
10(DEPT) 20(DEPT)

DEPT2= SL10<DEPTNUM

DEPT3= SLDEPTNUM>20(DEPT) SUPPLIER1 = SLCITY = SF (SUPPLIER) SUPPLIER2 = SLCITY = LA (SUPPLIER)

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SUPPLY1 = SUPPLY SJSNUM=SNUMSUPPLIER1 SUPPLY2 = SUPPLY SJSNUM=SNUMSUPPLIER2 Self Assessment Questions 5.7 1. Horizontal and Vertical fragmentation can decompose the relations into fragments. 2. fragmentation consists of partitioning the tuples of a global relation into subsets. 3. The Vertical fragments are obtained by the global relation over each group. 4. The reconstruction of mixed fragmentation can be obtained by applying the rules in reverse order.

5.8 Integrity Constraints in Distributed Databases

When an update performed by a database application violates an integrity constraint, the application is rejected and thus the correctness of data is preserved. A typical example of integrity constraint is referential integrity, which requires that all values of a given attribute of a relation exist also in some other relation. This constraint is particularly useful in distributed databases, for ensuring the correctness of derived fragmentation. For example, since the SUPPLY relation has a fragmentation which is derived from that of SUPPLIER relation by means of a semi-join on the SUPNUM attribute, it is required that all values of SUPNUM in SUPPLY be present also in SUPPLIER. Integrity constraints can be enforced automatically by adding to application programs some code for testing whether the constraint is violated. If so, the program execution is suspended and all actions already performed by it are cancelled, if necessary. One of the most serious disadvantages of integrity constraints is the loss in performance that is due to the execution of the integrity tests; this loss is
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very important in distributed databases. The major problems in applying integrity checking might increase the need of accessing remote sites. It is necessary to consider also integrity checking in the design of the distribution of database. Self Assessment Questions 5.8 1. A typical example of integrity constraint is , which requires that all values of a given attribute of a relation exist also in some other relation. 2. The major problems in applying integrity checking might increase the need of accessing sites.

5.9 Summary
By the discussions made in this unit you have come to know the importance of data distribution and distributed processing. Also we have discussed about the software requirement for managing the distributed database. In this unit we have studied reference architecture for distributed database. Also the different types of fragmentation techniques are discussed. We have also seen some demonstration examples. Some ideas about integrity constraints are given.

5.10 Terminal Questions

1. How might a distributed database designed for a LAN differ from one designed for a WAN? 2. Differentiate between features of the centralized database and distributed databases 3. Discuss the relative advantages of centralized and distributed databases 4. Name the different types of accesses available in distributed databases 5. Explain how the following differ: fragmentation transparency, replication transparency and location transparency
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6. When is it useful to have replication or fragmentation of data? Explain your answer

5.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions

Answers to Self Assessment Questions 5.2 1. Distribution and Logical Correlation
2. Local applications

Answers to Self Assessment Questions 5.3 1. distributed

2. Data independence

Answers to Self Assessment Questions 5.4 1. organizational 2. distributed database 3. autonomous processors Answers to Self Assessment Questions 5.5 1. Distributed Database Management System 2. Auxiliary program Answers to Self Assessment Questions 5.6 1. Fragments 2. Location 3. Replication Answers to Self Assessment Questions 5.7
1. global 2. Horizontal 3. projecting 4. reconstruction

Answers to Self Assessment Questions 5.8 1. referential integrity

2. remote Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 109