Chapter 2

Vectors, Tensors, and Curvilinear

Coordinates
2.1 Introduction
Many machine parts and structures have curved surfaces which dictate
the use of curvilinear coordinate systems. In particular, it is dicult to
formulate a general theory of shells without an adequate knowledge about
the coordinates of curved surfaces.
Although a rectangular system may be inscribed conveniently in certain
bodies, deformation carries the straight lines and planes to curved lines and
surfaces; rectangular coordinates are deformed into arbitrary curvilinear co-
ordinates. Consequently, we are unavoidably led to explore the dierential
geometry of curved lines and surfaces using curvilinear coordinates, if only
in the deformed body.
In general, coordinates need not measure length directly, as Cartesian
coordinates. The curvilinear coordinates need only dene the position of
points in space, but they must do so uniquely and continuously if they
are to serve our purpose in the mechanics of continuous media. A familiar
example is the spherical system of coordinates consisting of the radial dis-
tance and the angles of latitude and longitude: Spherical coordinates have
the requisite continuity except along the polar axis; one is a length and two
are angles, dimensionless in radians.
2003 by CRC Press LLC
Figure 2.1 Curvilinear coordinate lines and surfaces
2.2 Curvilinear Coordinates, Base Vectors, and Metric
Tensor
The position of point A in Figure 2.1 is given by the vector
r = x
i

i
, (2.1)
where x
i
are rectangular coordinates and
i
are unit vectors as shown.
Let
i
denote arbitrary curvilinear coordinates. We assume the existence
of equations which express the variables x
i
in terms of
i
and vice versa;
that is,
x
i
= x
i
(
1
,
2
,
3
),
i
=
i
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
). (2.2), (2.3)
Also, we assume that these have derivatives of any order required in the
subsequent analysis.
2003 by CRC Press LLC
Figure 2.2 Network of coordinate curves and surfaces
Suppose that x
i
= x
i
(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) are the rectangular coordinates of point
A in Figure 2.1. Then x
i
(
1
, a
2
, a
3
) are the parametric equations of a curve
through A; it is the
1
curve of Figure 2.1. Likewise, the
2
and
3
curves
through point A correspond to xed values of the other two variables.
The equations x
i
= x
i
(
1
,
2
, a
3
) are parametric equations of a surface, the

3
surface shown shaded in Figure 2.1. Similarly, the
1
and
2
surfaces
correspond to
1
= a
1
and
2
= a
2
. At each point of the space there is a
network of curves and surfaces (see Figure 2.2) corresponding to the trans-
formation of equations (2.2) and (2.3).
By means of (2.2) and (2.3), the position vector r can be expressed in
alternative forms:
r = r(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = r(
1
,
2
,
3
). (2.4)
A dierential change d
i
is accompanied by a change dr
i
tangent to the

i
line; a change in
1
only causes the increment dr
1
illustrated in Fig-
ure 2.1. It follows that the vector
g
i

r

i
=
x
j

j
(2.5)
is tangent to the
i
curve. The tangent vector g
i
is sometimes called a base
vector.
2003 by CRC Press LLC
Figure 2.3 Tangent and normal base vectors
Let us dene another triad of vectors g
i
such that
g
i
g
j

i
j
. (2.6)
The vector g
i
is often called a reciprocal base vector. Since the vectors g
i
are
tangent to the coordinate curves, equation (2.6) means that the vectors g
i
are normal to the coordinate surfaces. This is illustrated in Figure 2.3.
We will call the triad g
i
tangent base vectors and the triad g
i
normal base
vectors. In general they are not unit vectors.
The triad g
i
can be expressed as a linear combination of the triad g
i
,
and vice versa. To this end we dene coecients g
ij
and g
ij
such that
g
i
g
ij
g
j
, g
i
g
ij
g
j
. (2.7), (2.8)
From equations (2.6) to (2.8), it follows that
g
ij
= g
ji
= g
i
g
j
, g
ij
= g
ji
= g
i
g
j
, (2.9), (2.10)
g
im
g
jm
=
i
j
. (2.11)
The linear equations (2.11) can be solved to express g
ij
in terms of g
ij
, as
follows:
g
ij
=
cofactor of element g
ij
in matrix [g
ij
]
|g
ij
|
. (2.12)
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The rst-order dierential of r is dr = r
,i
d
i
g
i
d
i
, and the corre-
sponding dierential length d is given by
d
2
= dr dr = g
ij
d
i
d
j
. (2.13)
Equation (2.13) is fundamental in dierential geometry, and the coecients
g
ij
play a paramount role; they are components of the metric tensor. Lit-
erally, a component g
ii
provides the measure of length (per unit of
i
)
along the
i
line; a component g
ij
(i = j) determines the angle between

i
and
j
lines.
For practical purposes, we may employ unit vectors e
i
and e
i
, tangent
to the
i
line and normal to the
i
surface, respectively:
e
i
=
g
i

g
ii
, e
i
=
g
i

g
ii
. (2.14a, b)
If the coordinate system is orthogonal, then
g
ii
=
1
g
ii
, g
ij
= g
ij
= 0 (i = j).
In the rectangular Cartesian system of coordinates,
g
ij
= g
ij
=
ij

ij
.
In accordance with (2.5) and (2.9),
g
ij
=
x
k

i
x
k

j
. (2.15)
By the rules for multiplying determinants
|g
ij
| =

x
i

x
j

x
i

2
.
Since this quantity plays a central role in the dierential geometry, we
employ the symbol
g |g
ij
| =

x
i

2
. (2.16a, b)
2003 by CRC Press LLC
Also, from (2.11), it follows by the rules for multiplying determinants and
by using (2.16a) that
|g
im
g
jm
| = |g
ij
||g
ij
| = |g
ij
|g = |
i
j
| = 1,
and therefore
|g
ij
| =
1
g
. (2.16c)
2.3 Products of Base Vectors
The vector product of g
i
and g
j
is normal to their plane but zero if
i equals j. In general, the vector product has the form
g
i
g
j
= M
ijk
g
k
, (2.17a)
where M is a positive scalar and
ijk
is the permutation symbol dened
by (1.5) and (1.6). Conversely,
g
i
g
j
= N
ijk
g
k
, (2.17b)
where N is another positive scalar. To determine M and N from (2.17a)
and (2.17b), we form the scalar (dot) products of these equations with
g
m

ijm
and g
m

ijm
, respectively, and recall (1.12c) to obtain
M =
1
6

ijk
g
k
(g
i
g
j
), (2.18a)
N =
1
6

ijk
g
k
(g
i
g
j
). (2.18b)
Now, the vectors g
i
of (2.18a) can be expressed in terms of the reciprocal
vectors g
i
according to (2.7); then
M =
1
6

ijk
g
im
g
jn
g
kl
g
l
(g
m
g
n
). (2.19a)
It follows from (2.19a), (2.17b), and (1.9) that
M =
1
6

ijk

mnl
g
im
g
jn
g
kl
N = |g
ij
|N. (2.19b)
2003 by CRC Press LLC
In like manner,
N = |g
ij
|M. (2.20)
Recall (2.5) and (1.6):
g
i
r
,i
=
x
k

i

k
,
i

j
=
ijk

k
.
Then (2.18a) assumes the forms:
M =
1
6

ijk

lmn
x
l

i
x
m

j
x
n

k
=

x
i

.
By the notation (2.16a)
M =

g. (2.21a)
In accordance with (2.16a), (2.19b), and (2.21a),
N =
1

g
. (2.21b)
With the notations of (2.21a, b), the equations (2.17a, b) take the forms:
g
i
g
j
=

g
ijk
g
k
, g
i
g
j
=

ijk

g
g
k
. (2.22a, b)
It follows that

g
ijk
= g
k
(g
i
g
j
),

ijk

g
= g
k
(g
i
g
j
). (2.23a, b)
Let us dene
e
ijk

g
ijk
, e
ijk

g

ijk
. (2.24a, b)
Then, according to (2.22a, b) and (2.23a, b)
e
ijk
= g
k
(g
i
g
j
), e
ijk
= g
k
(g
i
g
j
), (2.25a, b)
g
i
g
j
= e
ijk
g
k
, g
i
g
j
= e
ijk
g
k
. (2.26a, b)
2003 by CRC Press LLC
Figure 2.4 Contravariant and covariant components of vectors
2.4 Components of Vectors
Any vector can be expressed as a linear combination of the base vectors g
i
or g
i
. Thus, the vector V has alternative forms (see Figure 2.4):
V = V
i
g
i
= V
i
g
i
. (2.27a, b)
The alternative components follow by means of (2.6) to (2.8)
V
i
= g
i
V , V
i
= g
i
V , (2.28a, b)
V
i
= g
ij
V
j
, V
i
= g
ij
V
j
. (2.29a, b)
The components V
i
and V
i
are called contravariant and covariant compo-
nents, respectively. The full signicance of these adjectives is discussed in
Section 2.7.
In general, the base vectors (g
i
, g
i
) are not unit vectors. The vector V
can also be expressed with the aid of the unit base vectors ( e
i
, e
i
) dened
by (2.14a, b). By (2.14a, b) and (2.27a, b), we have
V = V
i

g
ii
e
i
= V
i

g
ii
e
i
. (2.30a, b)
The coecients (V
i

g
ii
) and (V
i

g
ii
) are known as the physical compo-
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Figure 2.5 Physical components
nents of the vector V :
P
V
i
V
i

g
ii
,
P
V
i
= V
i

g
ii
. (2.31a, b)
Notice that the physical components
P
V
i
and
P
V
i
are in directions tan-
gent to the
i
line and normal to the
i
surface, respectively. The physical
components (2.31a, b) represent the lengths of the sides of the parallel-
ograms formed by the vectors (V
i
g
i
) and (V
i
g
i
) of Figure 2.4. In the
three-dimensional case, these components are the lengths of the edges of
the parallelepipeds constructed on the vectors (V
i
g
i
) or (
P
V
i
e
i
) and (V
i
g
i
)
or (
P
V
i
e
i
) (see Figure 2.5). Furthermore, by forming the scalar product of
the vector V of equation (2.27b) with e
j
, by considering (2.14a), and the
orthogonality condition (2.6), it follows that the term V
i
/

g
ii
is equal to
the length of the orthogonal projection of V on the tangent to the
i
line.
In a similar way, by multiplying (2.27a) with e
j
and in view of (2.14b) and
(2.6), it can be shown that the term V
i
/

g
ii
is equal to the length of the
orthogonal projection of V on the normal to the
i
surface.
The products of vectors assume alternative forms in terms of the con-
travariant and covariant components. For example,
V U = V
i
U
i
= V
i
U
i
= V
i
U
j
g
ij
= V
i
U
j
g
ij
, (2.32ad)
V U = e
ijk
V
i
U
j
g
k
= e
ijk
V
i
U
j
g
k
, (2.33a, b)
U (V W) = e
ijk
U
i
V
j
W
k
= e
ijk
U
i
V
j
W
k
, (2.34a, b)
U (V W) = (U
i
W
i
)(V
j
g
j
) (U
i
V
i
)(W
j
g
j
). (2.35)
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Figure 2.6 Elemental parallelepiped
Recall that the result of the vector product V U is a vector normal to
the plane formed by the vectors V and U. The magnitude of this vector is
equal to the area of the parallelogram with sides V and U. From (2.33a)
it is apparent that the vector product satises the anticommutative law:
V U = U V . (2.36)
Recall also that the value of the scalar triple product U (V W) repre-
sents the volume of the parallelepiped whose edges are the vectors U, V
and W. It follows from (2.34a), the denitions (2.24a), and the properties
of the permutation symbol
ijk
(1.7) and (1.8) that
U (V W) = V (W U) = W (U V ) (2.37a, b)
and
U (V W) = U (W V ), (2.38a)
= V (U W), (2.38b)
= W (V U). (2.38c)
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2.5 Surface and Volume Elements
An elemental volume dv bounded by the coordinate surfaces through the
points (
1
,
2
,
3
) and (
1
+ d
1
,
2
+ d
2
,
3
+ d
3
) is shown in Figure 2.6.
In the limit, the volume element approaches
dv = dr
1
(dr
2
dr
3
)
= r
,1
(r
,2
r
,3
) d
1
d
2
d
3
= g
1
(g
2
g
3
) d
1
d
2
d
3
=

g d
1
d
2
d
3
. (2.39)
The elemental parallelepiped of Figure 2.6 is bounded by the coordinate
surfaces with areas ds
i
and unit normals
e
i
=
g
i

g
ii
.
The area ds
1
is
ds
1
= e
1
(g
2
g
3
) d
2
d
3
.
By (2.22a) we have
ds
1
= e
1
g
1

g d
2
d
3
=

g
11

g d
2
d
3
. (2.40a)
Likewise,
ds
2
=

g
22

g d
3
d
1
, (2.40b)
ds
3
=

g
33

g d
1
d
2
. (2.40c)
In subsequent developments (see, e.g., Sections 2.11 and 3.3), we enclose
a region by an arbitrary surface s. Then, we require a relation which
expresses an element ds of that surface in terms of the adjacent elements
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Figure 2.7 Elemental tetrahedron
ds
i
of the coordinate surfaces. To that end, we examine the tetrahedron
of Figure 2.7 which is bounded by triangular elements of the coordinate
surfaces s
i
and the triangular element of the inclined surface s. The areas
of these elements are (1/2)ds
i
and (1/2)ds, where the ds
i
correspond to the
areas of the quadrilateral elements of Figure 2.6 and equations (2.40ac).
In keeping with the preceding development, one can view the inclined face
as an element of another coordinate surface, viz., the

1
surface ( lines

2
and

3
lie in surface s s
1
). The edges of the inclined triangular face have
length

g
22
d

2
and

g
33
d

3
; these are rst-order approximations (valid
in the limit: d
i
, d

i
0). The corresponding area of the inclined surface
is [see (2.40a)]
1
2
ds
1
2
d s
1
=
1
2

g
11

g d

2
d

3
.
For such enclosed tetrahedron
1
2
ds
i
e
i
=
1
2
ds n, (2.41)
wherein n is the unit normal to s as e
i
is the unit normal to the surface
s
i
. Our reference to a second coordinate system

i
is merely an artice to
identify the area d s
1
with the previous formulas for the area ds
i
. Equa-
tion (2.41) holds for any surface s with unit normal n and any regular coor-
dinate system
i
at a point of the surface. If n = n
i
g
i
, then in accordance
with (2.40ac), equation (2.41) is expressed by three scalar equations:
g
1
(ds
i
e
i
) =

g d
2
d
3
= ds n
1
, (2.42a)
g
2
(ds
i
e
i
) =

g d
3
d
1
= ds n
2
, (2.42b)
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g
3
(ds
i
e
i
) =

g d
1
d
2
= ds n
3
. (2.42c)
2.6 Derivatives of Vectors
In accordance with (2.5)
g
i,j

g
i

j
=

2
r

j
=

2
x
p

p
. (2.43ac)
Since the derivatives are supposed to be continuous,
g
i,j
= g
j,i
. (2.44)
The vector g
i,j
can be expressed as a linear combination of the base vec-
tors g
i
or g
i
:
g
i,j
=
ijk
g
k
=
k
ij
g
k
, (2.45a, b)
where the coecients are dened by

ijk
g
k
g
i,j
,
k
ij
g
k
g
i,j
. (2.46a, b)
The coecients
ijk
and
k
ij
are known as the Christoel symbols of the
rst and second kind, respectively. According to (2.44) and (2.46a, b), the
symbols are symmetric in two lower indices; that is,

ijk
=
jik
,
k
ij
=
k
ji
.
From (2.9), (2.44), and (2.46a) it follows that

ijk
=
1
2
(g
ik,j
+ g
jk,i
g
ij,k
). (2.47)
Using (2.7), (2.8), and (2.46a, b), we obtain the following relations:

ijk
= g
kl

l
ij
,
k
ij
= g
kl

ijl
. (2.48a, b)
Dierentiating (2.6) and employing (2.45a), we obtain
g
i
,k
g
j
= g
i
g
j,k
=
i
jk
.
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It follows that
g
i
,k
=
i
jk
g
j
. (2.49)
The partial derivative of an arbitrary vector V (2.27a, b) has the alter-
native forms
V
,i
= V
j
,i
g
j
+ V
j
g
j,i
= V
j,i
g
j
+ V
j
g
j
,i
.
In accordance with (2.45b) and (2.49),
V
,i
= (V
j
,i
+ V
k

j
ki
)g
j
V
j
|
i
g
j
, (2.50a, b)
but also
V
,i
= (V
j,i
V
k

k
ji
)g
j
V
j
|
i
g
j
. (2.51a, b)
Equations (2.50b) and (2.51b) serve to dene the covariant derivatives of
the contravariant (V
i
) and covariant (V
i
) components of a vector.
Observe that the covariant derivative (V
j
|
i
or V
j
|
i
) plays the same role
as the partial derivative (V
j,i
) plays in the Cartesian coordinate system,
that the base vector (g
i
or g
i
) plays the same role as the unit vector
i
in
the Cartesian system, and that the metric tensor (g
ij
or g
ij
) reduces to the
Kronecker delta
ij
in the Cartesian coordinates.
From the denition (2.46a), the Christoel symbol
ijk
in one coordinate
system

i
is expressed in terms of the symbols in another system
i
by the
formula:

ijk
=
lmn

k
+ g
lm

j
. (2.52)
Equation (2.52) shows that the Christoel symbols are not components of
a tensor (see Section 2.7).
From the denitions (2.16a), from (2.9), (2.12), and (2.49), it follows that
g
g
ij
= gg
ij
and
1

i
=
j
ji
. (2.53)
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2.7 Tensors and Invariance
In the preceding developments we have introduced indicial notations,
which facilitate the analyses of tensors and invariance. Also, certain ter-
minology has been introduced, e.g., covariant, contravariant and invariant.
We have yet to dene tensors, tensorial transformations, and to demon-
strate their roles in our analyses, most specically the invariance of those
quantities which are independent of coordinates. These specics are set
forth in the present section.
Recall that a system of nth order has n free indices and contains 3
n
components in our three-dimensional space. If the components of a system,
which are expressed with respect to a coordinate system
i
, are transformed
to another coordinate system

i
according to certain transformation laws,
then the system of nth order is termed a tensor of nth order. The impor-
tant attributes of tensors (e.g., invariant properties) are a consequence of
the transformations which dene tensorial components. The explicit ex-
pressions of tensorial transformations follow:
Consider a transformation from one coordinate system
i
to another

i
,
that is to say,

i
=

i
(
1
,
2
,
3
),
i
=
i
(

1
,

2
,

3
).
The dierentials of the variables

i
transform as follows:
d

i
=

j
d
j
.
This linear transformation is a prototype for the transformation of the
components of a contravariant tensor.
In general, T
i
(
1
,
2
,
3
) and T
i
(

1
,

2
,

3
) are components of a rst-order
contravariant tensor in their respective systems, if
T
i
=

j
T
j
, T
i
=

i

j
T
j
. (2.54a, b)
The component of a rst-order tensor is distinguished by one free index and
a contravariant tensor by the index appearing as a superscript.
The functions F
ij
(
1
,
2
,
3
) with n superscripts are the components of
an nth-order contravariant tensor, if the components F
ij
(

1
,

2
,

3
) are
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given by the transformation:
F
ij

n superscripts
=

q


n partial derivatives
F
pq
.

n superscripts
(2.55)
Consider the transformation of the tangent base vectors g
i
(
i
) to another
coordinate system g
i
(

i
); by the chain rule for partial derivatives, we have
g
i

r

i
=
r

i
g
j
. (2.56)
This linear transformation is the prototype for the transformation of the
components of a covariant tensor.
The functions P
ij
(
1
,
2
,
3
) with n subscripts are components of an
nth-order covariant tensor, if the components P
ij
(

1
,

2
,

3
) are given by
the transformation:
P
ij

n subscripts
=

p

j


n partial derivatives
P
pq
.

n subscripts
(2.57)
A tensor may have mixed character, partly contravariant and partly co-
variant. The order of contravariance is given by the number of superscripts
and the order of covariance by the number of subscripts. The components
of a mixed tensor of order (m+n), contravariant of order m and covariant
of order n, transform as follows:
m superscripts

T
ij
kl

n subscripts
=
m partial derivatives

q


r

l


n partial derivatives
m superscripts

T
pq
rs
.

n subscripts
(2.58)
Observe that the transformations (2.55), (2.57), and (2.58) express the
tensorial components in one system

i
as a linear combination of the com-
ponents in another
i
. The distinction between the contravariance (super-
scripts) and covariance (subscripts) is crucial from the mathematical and
physical viewpoints. First, we observe that addition of tensorial compo-
nents is meaningful if, and only if, they are of the same form, the same
2003 by CRC Press LLC
order of contravariance and covariance; then the sum is also the compo-
nent of a tensor of that same order: e.g., if A
ij
k
and B
ij
k
are components
of tensors in a system
i
, then (C
ij
k
= A
ij
k
+ B
ij
k
) is also the component
of a tensor in that system. The proof follows from (2.58). Second, the
product of tensorial components is also the component of a tensor: e.g., if
T
ij
and S
mn
are components of tensors in a system
i
, then the product
Q
ij
mn
T
ij
S
mn
is also the component of a tensor in that system. Note that
the latter is a tensor of fourth order. Again, the proof follows directly from
the transformation (2.58).
Consider a summation of the form Q
ij
mi
; this might be termed a contrac-
tion, wherein a system of second order is contracted from one of fourth
order Q
ij
mn
by the repetition of the index i and the implied summation.
According to (2.58)
Q
kl
pq
=

q
Q
ij
mn
.
The contracted system has the components
Q
kl
pk
=

p
Q
ij
mn
.
Note that

k
=

n

i
=
n
i
.
Therefore,
Q
kl
pk
=

p
Q
ij
mi
.
In words, the latter components are the components of a second-order ten-
sor; it is a mixed tensor of rst-order contravariant (one free superscript)
and rst-order covariant (one free subscript). It is especially important to
observe that one repeated index is a superscript and one is a subscript;
one indicating the contravariant character, the other indicating the co-
variant character. Such repetition of indices and implied summation (one
superscriptone subscript) is an inviolate rule to retain the tensorial char-
acter.
Let us now consider the further contraction Q
ij
ij
= T
ij
S
ij
. Again, T
ij
and S
ij
, hence Q
ij
ij
are tensorial components. In the light of (2.55) and
(2.57)
T
ij
S
ij
=

n
T
mn

j
S
pq
.
2003 by CRC Press LLC
According to the chain rule for partial dierentiation
T
ij
S
ij
=

p

n
T
mn
S
pq
=
p
m

q
n
T
mn
S
pq
= T
mn
S
mn
. (2.59)
In words, this quantity is unchanged by a coordinate transformation. Such
quantities are invariants; they have the same value independently of the
coordinate system. The invariance hinges on the notions of covariance and
contravariance. An invariant function of curvilinear coordinates is obtained
by summations involving repeated indices which appear once as a super-
script and once as a subscript. Invariants have special physical meaning
because they are not dependent on the choice of coordinates. They are eas-
ily recognized as zero-order tensors (no free indices). However, care must
be taken that repeated indices appear once as a superscript and once as
a subscript, for otherwise the sum is not invariant. Cartesian coordinates
are the exception because the covariant and contravariant transformations
are then identical. For example, the Kronecker delta
i
j
is a tensor in the
Cartesian system x
i
. It can be written with indices up or down, that is,

i
j
=
ij
=
ij
. Note that g
ij
and g
ij
are the contravariant and covariant
components obtained by the appropriate transformations of
ij
from the
rectangular to the curvilinear coordinate system:
g
ij
=
x
k

i
x
l

kl
=
x
k

i
x
k

j
, g
ij
=

i
x
k

j
x
l

kl
=

i
x
k

j
x
k
;

ij
are components of the metric tensor in a Cartesian coordinate system.
Recall the denition (2.6) of the reciprocal vector g
i
and also (2.56).
Then
g
i
g
j
=
i
j
= g
i
g
k

j
.
The latter holds generally if, and only if,
g
i
= g
m

m
. (2.60)
It follows from (2.56) and (2.60) that the components g
ij
and g
ij
transform
according to the rules for covariant and contravariant components, respec-
tively. Similarly, from equations (2.25a, b), the components e
ijk
and e
ijk
are, respectively, covariant and contravariant:
e
ijk
=
x
l

i
x
m

j
x
n

k

lmn
, e
ijk
=

i
x
l

j
x
m

k
x
n

lmn
.
2003 by CRC Press LLC
Note: The Christoel symbols do not transform as components of a
tensor; see equation (2.52).
A mathematical theoremknown as the quotient lawproves to be use-
ful in establishing the tensor character of a system without recourse to the
transformation [i.e., (2.55), (2.57), and (2.58)]: If the product of a system
S
pr...
ij...
with an arbitrary tensor is itself a tensor, then S
pr...
ij...
is also a tensor
(for proof see, e.g., J. C. H. Gerretsen [6], Section 4.2.3, p. 46).
Note the signicant features of tensors, the signicance of the notations
(superscripts signify contravariance, subscripts covariance), the summation
convention, the linear transformations and the identication of invariance.
Invariants are especially important to describe physical attributes which
are independent of coordinates; the conventions enable one to establish
such quantities. The linear transformation of tensorial components is also
very useful: If all components vanish in one system, then all vanish in every
other system. This means that any equation in tensorial form holds in every
coordinate system.
2.8 Associated Tensors
Let T
ij
denote the component of a covariant tensor. The component of
an associated contravariant tensor is
T
pq
= g
pi
g
qj
T
ij
. (2.61)
Because g
ij
and T
ij
are components of contravariant and covariant tensors,
respectively, the reader can show that T
pq
is the component of a contravari-
ant tensor. Moreover,
T
ij
= g
pi
g
qj
T
pq
. (2.62)
The components of the covariant, contravariant, or mixed associated tensors
of any order are formed by raising or lowering indices as in (2.61) and (2.62),
that is, by multiplying and summing with the appropriate versions of the
metric tensor, g
ij
or g
ij
. Observe that the base vectors conform to this rule
according to (2.7) and (2.8).
If the tensors are not symmetric in two indices, it is essential that the
proper position of the indices is preserved when raising or lowering indices.
For example, this can be accomplished by placing a dot ( ) in the vacant
position:
T
j
i
= g
ip
T
pj
, T
i
j
= g
ip
T
pj
,
2003 by CRC Press LLC
T
ij
= g
ip
T
p
j
= g
jp
T
p
i
, T
ij
= g
jp
T
i
p
= g
ip
T
j
p
.
If T
ij
is symmetric, that is, T
ij
= T
ji
, then there is no need to mark the
position:
T
j
i
= T
j
i
= T
j
i
.
2.9 Covariant Derivative
The essential feature of the covariant derivative is its tensor character.
For example, V
j
|
i
of (2.50b): Since V
j
|
i
= g
j
V
,i
, it follows from the
tensorial transformation (Section 2.7) that V
j
|
i
transform as components
of a mixed tensor.
Because of the invariance property, it is useful to dene covariant dier-
entiation for tensors of higher order. Equation (2.50b) is the prototype for
the covariant derivative of a contravariant tensor. The general form for the
covariant derivative of a contravariant tensor of order m follows:
F
ijm
|
p
F
ijm
,p
+ F
qjm

i
qp
+ F
iqm

j
qp
+ + F
ijq

m
qp
. (2.63)
The covariant derivative of (2.63) includes the partial derivative (under-
lined) but augmented by m additional terms, each is a sum of products
in which a component F
qjm
is multiplied by a Christoel symbol
i
qp
; in
each of the latter, the index p of the independent variable of dierentia-
tion and the dummy index q appear as subscripts, and a dierent index of
the component F
ij
is the superscript; that superscript on F
ij
, which is
replaced by the dummy index q.
Equation (2.51b) is the prototype for the covariant derivative of a covari-
ant component. The general form for a tensor of order n follows:
P
ijn
|
p
P
ijn,p
P
rjn

r
ip
P
irn

r
jp
P
ijr

r
np
. (2.64)
The covariant derivative again includes the partial derivative (underlined)
but again it is augmented by n additional terms, each is a sum of products
in which a component P
rjn
is multiplied by a Christoel symbol
r
ip
; here
each symbol has the index p of the variable of dierentiation as a subscript,
the dummy index r as a superscript and successive subscripts of the com-
ponent P
ij
appear as the second subscript on the Christoel symbol
r
ip
;
that subscript on P
ij
, which is replaced by the dummy index r.
2003 by CRC Press LLC
The covariant derivative of a mixed component follows the rules for the
contravariant and covariant components: The partial derivative is aug-
mented by terms formed according to (2.63) or (2.64) as the component
has contravariant or covariant character, respectively:
T
ijm
kln
|
p
= T
ijm
kln,p
+ T
qjm
kln

i
qp
+ + T
ijq
kln

m
qp
T
ijm
rln

r
kp
T
ijm
klr

r
np
. (2.65)
In general, the order of covariant dierentiation is not permutable. If A
j
denotes a covariant component of a tensor, then generally
A
j
|
kl
= A
j
|
lk
.
According to (2.64)
A
j
|
kl
A
j
|
lk
= R
i
jkl
A
i
, (2.66)
where
R
i
jkl

i
jl,k

i
jk,l
+
m
jl

i
mk

m
jk

i
ml
. (2.67)
These comprise the components of the Riemann-Christoel tensor or the
so-called mixed-curvature tensor. The signicance of the latter term is ap-
parent when we observe that all components vanish in a system of Cartesian
coordinates; then A
j
|
kl
= A
j
|
lk
= A
j,kl
. The components in any coordi-
nates of an Euclidean space can be obtained by a linear transformation,
i.e., the appropriate tensorial transformation from Cartesian components.
It follows that the Riemann-Christoel tensor vanishes in Euclidean space.
This fact imposes geometrical constraints upon the deformation of contin-
uous bodies, as described in the subsequent chapters.
The associated curvature tensor has the components
R
ijkl
= g
im
R
m
jkl
, (2.68a)
=
lji,k

kji,l
+
m
jk

ilm

m
jl

ikm
, (2.68b)
=
1
2
(g
jk,il
+ g
il,jk
g
ik,jl
g
jl,ik
)
+ g
mn
(
jkm

iln

jlm

ikn
). (2.68c)
From the denition (2.68c) and the symmetries of the components of the
metric tensor (g
ij
= g
ji
) and of the Christoel symbol (
ijk
=
jik
) it fol-
2003 by CRC Press LLC
lows that
R
ijkl
= R
jikl
, (2.69a)
R
ijkl
= R
ijlk
, (2.69b)
R
ijkl
= R
klij
. (2.69c)
2.10 Transformation from Cartesian to Curvilinear
Coordinates
According to (2.55), (2.57) and (2.58), if all components of a tensor van-
ish in one coordinate system, then they vanish in every other. This means
that an equation (or equations) expressed in tensorial form holds in every
system. This is especially important in any treatment of a physical prob-
lem, since any coordinate system is merely an artice, which is introduced
for mathematical purposes: Often a Cartesian system is the simplest; an
expression in the Cartesian system may be a special form of a tensorial
component. Provided that the tensorial character is fully established, the
generalization to another system is readily accomplished.
The Cartesian coordinates have several distinct features: The coordinate
is length or, stated mathematically, the component of the metric tensor is
the Kronecker delta:
g
ij
= g
ij
=
ij

ij

i
j
.
Also, the position of the sux (superscript or subscript) is irrelevant. It fol-
lows too that the Christoel symbols vanish; hence, the covariant derivative
reduces to the partial derivative, e.g.,
V
i
|
j
= V
i
|
j
= V
i
,j
= V
i,j
.
Additionally, the components of vectors or second-order systems in orthog-
onal directions have simpler interpretations, geometrically and physically.
2003 by CRC Press LLC
Figure 2.8 Region of integration
2.11 Integral Transformations
In the analysis of continuous bodies, especially by energy principles, in-
tegrals arise in the form
I
___
v
A
i
B
,i
dv =
___
v
A
i
B
,i
_
g d
1
d
2
d
3
, (2.70)
where the integration extends through a volume v. A
i
and B are as-
sumed continuous with continuous derivatives. The region of integration is
bounded by the surface s in Figure 2.8. The entire bounding surface s is di-
vided into surfaces s and

s by the curve c such that
3
lines are tangent to s
along c. If the surface s is irregular, e.g., possesses concave portions, the
derivation must be amended; the surface s must be subjected to additional
subdivision. Still the nal result (2.72) holds.
One term of (2.70) is
I
3

___
v
A
3
B
,3
_
g d
3
d
1
d
2
. (2.71a)
2003 by CRC Press LLC
The integral (2.71a) can be rewritten as follows:
I
3

__
_
_

s
s
A
3
B
,3
_
g d
3
_
d
1
d
2
.
The term in braces can be integrated by parts so that
I
3
=
__
_
_
A
3
B
_
g d
1
d
2

s

_
A
3
B
_
g d
1
d
2

s
_

___
_
A
3
_
g
_
,3
B d
1
d
2
d
3
.
If n
i
represent the components of the unit normal vector n = n
i
g
i
, then
according to (2.42c)
_
_
g d
1
d
2
_

s
= n
3
d

s,
_
_
g d
1
d
2
_
s
= n
3
d s.
The negative sign in the second equation arises because n e
3
= 1 on s.
The integral I
3
follows:
I
3
=
__
s
A
3
B n
3
ds
___
v
1
_
g
_
A
3
_
g
_
,3
B dv. (2.71b)
The other terms of the integral I are similar. Consequently,
I
___
v
A
i
B
,i
dv =
__
s
A
i
B n
i
ds
___
v
1
_
g
_
A
i
_
g
_
,i
B dv. (2.72)
Equation (2.72) is one version of Greens theorem, one which is particularly
useful in applications of the energy principles to continuous bodies. From
(2.72) a series of useful formulations can be derived.
In a subsequent application of (2.72) we encounter vectors s
i
, which
transform as contravariant tensorial components, and a vector V . Then
from (2.72) it follows that
___
v
s
i
V
,i
dv =
__
s
(s
i
n
i
) V ds
___
v
1
_
g
_
_
g s
i
_
,i
V dv.
(2.73)
Integral transformations, which express certain surface integrals in terms
of line integrals are presented in Section 8.11.
2003 by CRC Press LLC