Sensors
Sensors are the components of the system that provide the inputs that enable the computer (ECM) to carry out the operations that make the system function correctly. In the case of vehicle sensors it is usually a voltage that is represented by a code at the computers processor. If this voltage is incorrect the processor will probably take it as an invalid input and record a fault. The fact that the controller itself receives an incorrect sensor signal normally means that the sensor and/or the circuit that connects it to the controller is not working properly and, as with many other parts of electronic systems, it may not be the sensor itself that is at fault. However, it is probable that a fault code has been produced that says sensor fault. This just means that the sensor signal that reached the controller was defective. It is quite possible that the sensor is functioning correctly, but the circuit connecting it to the ECM is defective. There is, therefore, good reason for knowing how sensors work, what type of performance they give when they are working properly, and how to check their performance so that efcient diagnosis and repair can take place.
5.1 Electromagnetic sensors
Electromagnetic sensors are often used to sense the speed and/or angular position of a rotating object. Two common uses are: (1) crankshaft position for ignition and fuel injection control; and (2) road wheel rotational speed relative to vehicle frame for anti-lock braking (ABS) and traction control (TCS). The interactions between electricity and magnetism are used in various ways to produce the desired sensing effect. However, there are two types of sensor that are widely used in vehicle systems: variable reluctance and Hall type sensors. 5.1.1 THE VARIABLE RELUCTANCE TYPE SENSOR This type of sensor is used in many vehicle applications, such as ignition systems, engine speed sensors for fuelling, and wheel speed sensors for anti-lock braking etc. Air has a greater reluctance (resistance to magnetism) than iron and this
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fact is made use of in many sensors. The basic principle of operation of a variable reluctance type sensor (Fig. 5.1) may be understood from the following description. The principal elements of the sensor are:
an iron rotor with lobes on it; a permanent magnet; a metallic path (the pole piece) for carrying the magnetic ux; a coil, wound around the metallic path, in which a voltage is induced.
Fig. 5.1 The basic principle of the variable reluctance sensor
The reluctor disc has a number of tabs on it and these tabs are made to move through the air gap in the magnetic circuit. The movement of the reluctor tabs, through the air gap is achieved by rotation of the reluctor shaft. The voltage induced in the sensor coil is related to the rate of change of magnetic ux in the magnetic circuit. The faster the rate of change of magnetic ux the larger will be the voltage that is generated in the sensor coil. When the metal tab on the reluctor rotor is outside the air gap, the sensor voltage is zero. As the tab moves into the air gap the ow of magnetism (ux) increases rapidly. This causes the sensor voltage to increase, quite quickly, to a maximum positive value. Figure 5.2 shows the approximate behaviour of the voltage output as the reluctor is rotated. Figure 5.2(a) shows the reluctor tab moving into the air gap. As the metal tab moves further into the gap the voltage begins to fall and, when the metal tab is exactly aligned with the pole piece, the sensor voltage falls back to zero.
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Reluctor rotor
Magnet
(a) + V V +
(b) V+ Rotation (d)
(c) + V
Fig. 5.2 The voltage pattern from a variable reluctance sensor
(Although the magnetic ux is strongest at this point, it is not changing and this means that the voltage is zero.) Figure 5.2(b) shows that there is zero voltage when the reluctor tab is in alignment with the pole piece. As the metal tab continues to rotate out of the air gap and away from the pole piece, the rate of change of the magnetic ux is rapid, but opposite in direction to when the tab was moving into the air gap. This results in the negative half of the voltage waveform as shown in Fig. 5.2(c). When the tab has moved out of the air gap the sensor voltage returns to zero. While the rotor shaft continues to turn another tab will enter the air gap and the above process will be repeated. If the sensor coil is connected to an oscilloscope the pattern observed will be similar to that shown in Fig. 5.2(d). Crankshaft position sensor Figure 5.3 shows a crankshaft sensor. Here the reluctor disc is attached to the engine ywheel. The permanent magnet, the pole piece and the sensor coil are attached to the cylinder block. As each metal tab on the reluctor disc passes the sensor pole piece a voltage is induced in the sensor winding. The size of this voltage, induced in the sensor winding, depends on engine speed; the faster the engine speed the higher the sensor voltage. Each time a reluctor passes the pole piece an alternating current waveform is produced and at high engine speed the voltage produced by the sensor can be of the order of 100 V and some sensor circuits are designed to restrict the maximum voltage. In order to provide a top dead center (TDC) reference, there is a missing tab on the reluctor disc which means that the TDC position is marked by the absence of a voltage and this gap is used to indicate to the ECM that the TDC position has been reached. The voltage waveform to be expected from this type of sensor is
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Fig. 5.3 Variable reluctance crank speed and position sensor
Fig. 5.4
A crank sensor voltage pattern
shown in Fig. 5.4. The missing wave at the TDC position is evident at the left-hand side of the pattern. ABS wheel sensor The principle of operation of many ABS wheel sensors is the same as for the crank sensor. However, the purpose for which it is used is somewhat different. To obtain the most effective braking, and to allow the driver to retain control of the vehicle, the wheels should not lock up under braking. The ABS sensor is used
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to assess slip between the tyre and the surface on which the tyre is working. The purpose of the ABS sensors is to detect when wheel lock-up is about to occur. This condition is indicated when the rotational speed of the reluctor ring (sensor rotor) is slow in relation to the sensor pick-up, which is xed to the brake back plate, or equivalent. The layout of the sensor and its voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 5.5.
Fig. 5.5 ABS wheel speed sensor layout and voltage waveform
5.1.2 HALL EFFECT SENSORS Figure 5.6 shows the principle of a Hall type sensor. The Hall element is a small section of semiconductor material such as silicon. When connected as shown in
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Circuit 1 I Hall element Circuit 2
R
O
Zero volts
(a) I
R N
Voltage due to magnetism across the Hall element
(b) I
O
Zero volts, because magnetism is removed from the Hall element
(c)
Metal plate diverts the magnetism away from the Hall element
Fig. 5.6
The principle of a Hall type sensor
Fig. 5.6(a), the battery will cause current to ow through the semiconductor Hall element and battery circuit, but there will be no current in the circuit which is at right angles to the battery circuit, as shown by a zero reading on the voltmeter. When a magnetic eld is imposed on the Hall element, as shown in Fig. 5.6(b), a current will ow in circuit 2. When the magnetic effect is prevented from reaching the Hall element, as in Fig. 5.6(c), the current will cease to ow in circuit 2. The result is that the current in circuit 2 can be switched on and off by shielding the Hall element from the magnetic eld. When the metal plate that is inserted between the magnet and the Hall element is mounted on a rotating shaft, the Hall current can be switched on and off at any desired frequency. The Hall type sensor produces an output power that is virtually constant at all speeds. Hall effect
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sensors are used wherever other electromagnetic sensors are used, e.g. engine speed and crank position, ABS wheel sensors, camshaft (cylinder) identication (for ignition and fuelling) etc. The voltage from a Hall element is quite small and it is common practice for Hall type sensors to incorporate an amplifying and pulse-shaping circuit. The result is that the sensor produces a digital signal, i.e. it is a rectangular waveform as shown in Fig. 5.7.
Fig. 5.7
A Hall sensor output signal
5.2 Optical sensors
When light is directed onto semiconductor materials, energy is transferred to the semiconductor and this produces changes in the electrical behaviour of the semiconductor. This effect is used in optoelectronic devices, either as a photodiode, or as a phototransistor.
Fig. 5.8
An optoelectronic sensor
Figure 5.8 shows a vehicle speed sensor. The photocoupler consists of an infrared beam that is directed onto a photodiode. The infrared beam is interrupted
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by the light-shielding rotor (chopper) that is driven by the speedometer drive. In this way the light-sensing element is switched on and off at a frequency that is related to speed. Optical sensors may be used in any application where electromagnetic sensors are used. They are found in vehicle speed sensing, ignition systems, steering systems etc. These sensors require a power source, and the voltage pattern that is typical of the signal from this type of sensor is shown in Fig. 5.9.
Fig. 5.9
Signal from an optoelectronic (light sensitive) sensor
5.3 Combustion knock sensors
A knock sensor that is commonly used in engine control systems utilizes the piezoelectric generator effect, i.e. the sensing element produces a small electric charge when it is compressed and then relaxed. Materials such as quartz and some ceramics like PZT (a mixture of platinum, zirconium and titanium) are effective in piezoelectric applications. In the application shown, the knock sensor is located on the engine block adjacent to cylinder number 3 (Fig. 5.10). This is the best position to detect vibrations arising from combustion knock in any of the four cylinders. Because combustion knock is most likely to occur close to TDC in any cylinder, the control program held in the ECM memory enables the processor to use any knock signal generated to alter the ignition timing by an amount that is sufcient to eliminate the knock. When knock has ceased the ECM will advance the ignition, in steps, back to its normal setting. The mechanism by which vibrations arising from knock are converted to electricity is illustrated in Fig. 5.11. The sensor is accurately designed and the center bolt that pre-tensions the piezoelectric crystal is accurately torqued. The steel washer that makes up the seismic mass has very precise dimensions. When combustion knock occurs,
