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Data Encoding Chapter 5 (part 1)
CSE 3213 Fall 2011
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Signal Encoding Techniques
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Encoding Techniques
Digital data, digital signals (5.1) Analog data, digital signals (5.3) Digital data, analog signals (5.2) Analog data, analog signals (5.4)
Digital Data, Digital Signals (5.1)
Digital signal
discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses each pulse is a signal element binary data encoded into signal elements
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Terminology (1)
Unipolar
all signal elements have same sign
Polar
one logic state represented by positive voltage the other by negative voltage
Data rate
rate of data transmission R, in bits per second
Duration or length of a bit
time taken for transmitter to emit the bit (1/R)
Terminology (2)
Modulation rate
rate at which the signal level changes measured in baud = number of signal elements per second
Mark and Space
binary 1 and binary 0 respectively
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Interpreting Signals
Need to know
timing of bits - when they start and end signal levels
Factors affecting successful interpreting of signals
signal to noise ratio data rate bandwidth encoding scheme
Comparison of Encoding Schemes (1)
Factors to compare: Signal Spectrum
lack of high frequencies reduces required bandwidth concentrate power in the middle of the bandwidth
Clocking
synchronizing transmitter and receiver, using either
external clock, or sync mechanism based on signal
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Comparison of Encoding Schemes (2)
Error detection
responsibility of data link control but can be built in to signal encoding for faster detection
Signal interference and noise immunity
some codes are better than others
Cost and complexity
higher signal rate ( and thus data rate) lead to higher costs some codes require signal rate greater than data rate
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Encoding Schemes (1)
B8ZS HDB3
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Encoding Schemes (2)
Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L) Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI) Bipolar -AMI Pseudoternary Manchester Differential Manchester B8ZS HDB3
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Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits Voltage constant during bit interval
no transition during a bit (no return to zero voltage) absence of voltage for 0, constant positive voltage for 1 more often, negative voltage for 1, and positive voltage for 0 (NRZ-L)
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Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
Non-return to zero, inverted on ones Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit Data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at beginning of bit time
transition (low to high or high to low) denotes a binary 1 no transition denotes binary 0
An example of differential encoding
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NRZ-L and NRZI Examples
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Differential Encoding
NRZI is an example of differential encoding Data represented by changes rather than levels More reliable detection of transition rather than levels If the leads from an attached device to a twisted-pair lines are accidentally inverted, all 1s and 0s for NRZ-L will be inverted. This does not happen with differential encoding (NRZI).
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NRZ pros and cons
Pros
easy to engineer make good use of bandwidth
Cons
presence of a DC component lack of synchronization capability
Used for magnetic recording Not often used for signal transmission
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Multilevel Binary
Use more than two signal levels
Bipolar-AMI Pseudoternary
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Bipolar-AMI
binary 0 represented by no line signal binary 1 represented by positive or negative pulse binary 1 pulses alternate in polarity no loss of sync if a long string of 1s occurs (long strings of 0s still a problem) no net DC component lower bandwidth easy error detection
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Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary
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Pseudoternary
Same as bipolar-AMI, except that
binary 1 represented by absence of line signal binary 0 represented by alternating positive and negative pulses
No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI
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Multilevel Binary Issues
Synchronization needed for long runs of 0s or 1s can insert additional bits that force transitions (used in low-rate ISDN). scramble data (later). Overcoming NRZ problems, but Not as efficient as NRZ each signal element represents only one bit instead log23 = 1.58 bits in a 3-level system. receivers must distinguish between three levels (+A, -A, 0). requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same probability of bit error.
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Theoretical Bit Error Rate
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Biphase Encoding
Manchester
Transition in middle of each bit period Transition serves as clock and data Low to high represents 1 High to low represents 0 Used by IEEE 802.3
Differential Manchester
Mid-bit transition is for clocking only Transition at start of a bit period represents 0 No transition at start of a bit period represents 1 Note: this is a differential encoding scheme Used by IEEE 802.5
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Manchester Encoding
has transition in middle of each bit period transition serves as clock and data low to high represents 1 high to low represents 0 used by IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet, baseband coaxial cable and twisted pair bus LANs)
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Differential Manchester Encoding
mid-bit transition is for clocking only transition at start of bit period representing 0 no transition at start of bit period representing 1 this is a differential encoding scheme used by IEEE 802.5 (token ring LANs using shielded twisted pair)
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Biphase Pros and Cons
Pros
synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking) no dc component has error detection
Absence of expected transition
Cons
at least one transition per bit time and possibly two maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ requires more bandwidth
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Modulation Rate (1)
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Modulation Rate (2)
expressed in baud (Bd) named after Jean-Maurice-mile Baudot, the French inventor of the Baudot code used in telegraphy 1 Bd = 1 signal/sec D = R/L = R/(log2M)
D = modulation rate, baud R = data rate, bps L = number of bits per signal element M = number of different signal elements = 2L
Example: R = 1 Mbps, L = 0.5 D = 2 MBd
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Normalized Signal Transition Rates
Table 5.3
Scrambling (1)
Biphase encoding is widely used in LANs, at high data rates (up to 10Mbps). Biphase encoding not widely used in long distance communications:
high signaling rate relative to the data rate more costly in long-distance applications
Alternative: use other schemes in combination with scrambling Bipolar AMI + scrambling B8ZS and HDB3
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Scrambling (2)
Use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce constant voltage These filling sequences must
produce enough transitions to sync be recognized by receiver and replaced with original be same length as original
Design goals
have no DC component have no long sequences of zero level line signal have no reduction in data rate give error detection capability
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B8ZS
Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution Based on bipolar-AMI If octet of all 0s and last voltage pulse preceding was positive encode as 000+-0-+ If octet of all 0s and last voltage pulse preceding was negative encode as 000-+0+ Causes two violations of AMI code Unlikely to occur as a result of noise Receiver detects and interprets as octet of all zeros
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B8ZS and HDB3
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HDB3
High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros Based on bipolar-AMI String of four 0s replaced with one or two pulses
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Summary
Reading
Section 5.1, Stallings book Homework: problems 5.6 to 5.9, Stallings book
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