Chapter 51

The Science of Levers __________________________________________________________________

Three points determine the class of a lever, the axis (pivot, fulcrum), the resistance, and the force applied to the lever. The arrangement of these points determines the class of lever. First-class lever the axis (A) is in the middle between the force (F) and resistance (R). The force and resistance are on opposite ends. A first class lever favors balance when the axis is in the middle. If the axis moves closer to the resistance arm, force is favored (the force arm is longer than the resistance arm). The longer the force arm, the easier the work is (more force is applied with the same muscle exertion). Most efficient class of levers. Examples: seesaw, hammer removing a nail. Force arm may also be referred to as the force point arm; resistance arm as resistance point arm.
F F R A R F R

Hammer removing a nail

Second-class lever R and F are on the same side of the axis. The F arm is longer than the R arm. Second class levers favor force (power). Examples: pushups, wheelbarrow, nutcracker.
F R F R (c/g) A A F A R

Third-class lever - R and F are on the same side of the axis. The R arm is longer than the F arm. Third class levers favor speed. Examples: shovel, baseball bat, fishing rod, canoe paddle, nearly all muscles of the body (force is the contracting muscle).
A R F R F A A F F A

2 R R A F R AF R
Deltoid Quads Iliopsoas Gluteus maximus Hamstrings Biceps brachii

A F R

A F R

A F R

A F R

Third class levers depict force, but favor speed. The tennis racket example below shows that angular velocity is greatest for arc A because there is greater displacement in the same period of time.
A F C B A R
Angular velocity = angular displacement time

Different class levers provide increases or decreases in three mechanical variables: 1. Force 2. Speed of movement 3. Range of motion A decrease in one of these variables is accompanied by an increase in one or both of the other variables. For example, if the force (F) arm is longer than the resistance (R) arm in a first-class lever, a gain in force results. However, the R arm moves a shorter distance, and thus slower, than the F arm. Hence one variable increases, two decrease. If the R arm is greater than the F arm, a gain in speed and range of motion results, but force is reduced. The F arm is always longer than the R arm in second-class levers. Thus, it produces a gain in force. Because a greater F arm exists, less force is needed to overcome a greater resistance. The R arm is longer than the F arm in third-class levers. Consequently, there is a reduction in force, but a gain in speed and range of motion. If a force greater than the resistance is applied, the R arm will move rapidly and through a range greater than the F arm. To summarize, the two major purposes that levers serve are to either 1) increase force, or 2) increase speed. If the F arm is longer than the R arm, the function of the lever is to increase force (second-class). If the F arm is shorter than the R arm, the lever serves to increase speed (third-class). If both arms are of equal length

(first-class), no advantage is gained by using the lever it does not increase speed or force. Since most of the bony levers have a F arm that is shorter than the R arm (i.e., origin with respect to insertion), the human body is generally considered to be much better equipped to make fast movements than forceful ones. The most common human body lever is the third-class one. A couple of exceptions should be noted. The triceps brachii is a first-class lever. The force point is the insertion on the olecranon process of the ulna. The resistance point is the c/g of the forearm. The axis is the elbow. Since the R arm is greater than the F arm, the triceps brachii yields a gain in speed and range of the hand with a reduction in force.
Triceps brachii - elbow extension - first-class lever FA R
Brachioradialis Biceps brachii or brachialis

- elbow flexion - second-class lever A R F

- elbow flexion - third-class lever AF R

The brachioradialis is a second-class lever. The force point is the insertion on the radial styloid process. The resistance point is the c/g of the forearm. The axis is the elbow. Since the F arm is longer than the R arm, this muscle produces a gain in force with a reduction in speed and range. The biceps brachii and brachialis are third-class levers. The force point for the biceps brachii is the insertion on radial tuberosity. The resistance point is the c/g of the forearm. The axis is the elbow. Such a lever suffers a reduction in force with a gain in range and speed. Since these muscles are strong enough to overcome the forearm, they result in increased speed and range of the hand. Adding external weights to a body segment can cause a shift in the location of its c/g (i.e., resistance point), which can result in a change in the class of lever. For example, without an external weight, the brachioradialis is a second-class lever. With an external weight, it becomes a third class lever. The addition of a weight (as when lifting weights) changed the brachioradialis from a muscle that produced a gain in force to one that results in a gain in speed and range. As such, the brachioradialis works with or compliments the actions of the biceps brachii and brachialis muscles.

Positioning the body (either consciously or unknowingly) may result in changing the lever classification that may be either positive or negative. For example, the foot is used as a second-class lever when one rises on the toes (i.e., heel raises). When the plantar flexors contract, the toes become the fulcrum (axis), the body weight is

the resistance, which lies somewhere between the force point and axis. This lever favors force. By leaning forward, the weight is moved closer to the axis resulting in a longer F arm. The shorter the R arm, the less force is needed to lift the weight. This might be the desired technique if one wants to lift maximum weight. The coach might instead want to stress the gastrocnemius and soleus (and plantaris) muscles by increasing the R arm. This would occur when the weight is behind the heels. In an extreme situation, the person might lean forward sufficiently to position the weight (i.e., c/g) in front of the toes, the calf muscles then function as a first-class lever. Since the F arm is greater than the R arm (in length), the change in class does not affect the force output.
F RA Leaning forward FR A Leaning backward F A R Extreme forward

Some athletes may be endowed with muscle insertions that are farther from their joints than in the average person. Only a small difference is necessary to give considerable mechanical advantage. Consider the third-class lever, for example. Although the R arm will always be longer, positioning the hand close to the resistance makes the resistance easier to handle. Placement of the hand close to the axis makes the resistance much more difficult to overcome. In this fashion, insertions further down the R arm allow better control/power of the limb, thus, strength; however, a short F arm is necessary if great speed is desired of the limb.

A F

A F

AF

Consider the following equation, relative to all three classes of levers:

F and R refer only to rotary components of the actual

forces.

R x ra = resistance torque

Consider a first-class lever (triceps brachii). Given the following information, what is the rotary force (or force torque) of contraction?
10 lb force against table top FA R R arm = 12 inches (i.e., palm is 12 inches from axis) F arm = 1 inch F x 1 inch = 10 lbs x 12 inches F = 120 lbs

Consider a third-class lever (biceps brachii). Given the following information, what is the rotary force (or force torque) of contraction?
16 lb shot in the hand AF R R arm = 14 inches (i.e., from axis to center of shot) F arm = 1 inch F x 1 inch = 16 lbs x 14 inches F = 224 lbs

What if the insertion of the biceps brachii is moved 1 inch further from the elbow (F arm = 2 inches)?
F x 2 inches = 16 lbs x 14 inches; F = 112 lbs

Thus, the biceps brachii is more or less efficient depending on its insertion point. How heavy a dumbbell can Tim and Tom hold if they both have 12 inch forearms and produce 200 lbs of force, but Tims biceps brachii inserts 2 inches from the elbow, whereas Toms insertion is 1.5 inches from the elbow?
Tim: R = (200 lbs x 2 in) 12 in = 33.3 lbs Tom: R = (200 lbs x 1.5 in) 12 in = 25 lbs

Rotational (vertical) component vs. stabilizing (horizontal) component of force The force exerted by a muscle to move an object (e.g., weight) can be broken down to a rotational or vertical component (RC) and a stabilizing or horizontal component (SC). The rotational component is perpendicular to the bone serving as a lever and tends to rotate the bone while the stabilizing component is parallel to the bone and compresses the joint surfaces when the insertion angle () is <90, or pulls them apart when the angle is >90. When the angle is >90, the stabilizing component may be referred to as the dislocating component. VV = VO x sin RC = FO x sin HV = VO x cos SC = FO x cos

Hypotenuse (force) 100 lbs RC SC = 50

Rotational component (RC) = hypotenuse x sin = 100 lbs x sin 50 = 76.6 lbs Stabilizing component (SC) = hypotenuse x cos = 100 lbs x cos 50 = 64.3 lbs Note: 100 = (76.6) 2 + (64.3) 2

When = 30, RC = 100 lbs x sin 30 = 50 lbs; SC = 100 lbs x cos 30 = 86.6 lbs. When = 45, RC = 100 lbs x sin 45 = 70.7 lbs; SC = 100 lbs x cos 45 = 70.7 lbs. When = 75, RC = 100 lbs x sin 75 = 96.6 lbs; SC = 100 lbs x cos 75 = 25.88 lbs.

The larger the angle (up to 90), the greater the rotary force and the less the stabilizing force. Note that the rotary and stabilizing forces are equal when the angle of pull = 45. What force must be exerted by the biceps brachii to start flexion of the forearm ( = 5)? When the angle is 30, what force must be exerted?
F arm = 2 inches R arm = 12 inches A F R = 5 10 lb weight in hand F x 2 inches = 10 lbs x 12 inches F = 60 lbs = 30 = 90 = 120

This (60 lbs) is the force exerted by the biceps brachii when the muscle is at a right angle to the lever. Both angles (the insertion angle, , and its reciprocal) are 90. At this point the force is all rotary (i.e., all 60 lbs is rotary force; R C = 60 lbs x sin 90 = 60 lbs). The muscle is most efficient at this point since no energy is being expended to stabilize the joint. The force exerted by the biceps brachii at an angle of 5 with respect to the lever is:
F5 = 60 lbs sin 5 = 688 lbs

Thus, a muscle must be strong when under stretch. Nearly all of this force is stabilizing (SC = 688 lbs x cos 5 = 685 lbs. When the angle of pull is 30, the force exerted by the biceps brachii is:
F30 = 60 lbs sin 30 = 120 lbs

Approximately 104 lbs (of the 120 lbs) is stabilizing and 60 lbs is rotational when the angle of pull is 30. As the angle of pull approaches 90, more of the force becomes rotary and less stabilizing (i.e., the effectiveness and efficiency of muscle force increase up to 90). When the angle is between 0 and 90, the insertion angle and angle of pull are the same. When the angle exceeds 90 , the reciprocal angle becomes the angle of pull. In the fourth frame of the above diagram, the insertion angle is 120, but the angle of pull is 60. Lets look at the rotary component as a way of determining the best angle of pull. We can continue to use the biceps brachii and a 10 lb weight as the resistance force as an example. We are not trying to determine how much force is exerted by the biceps brachii, but rather the angle at which rotary force is greatest. Thus, we only need to calculate the rotary component using the 10 lb weight as the original force (FO).
RC = 10 lbs x sin 5 = 0.87 lbs RC = 10 lbs x sin 15 = 2.59 lbs RC = 10 lbs x sin 30 = 5 lbs RC = 10 lbs x sin 80 = 9.85 lbs RC = 10 lbs x sin 90 = 10 lbs RC = 10 lbs x sin 120 = 8.66 lbs

These calculations reinforce the fact that a 90 angle is the most efficient and effective angle of pull since all the force being exerted is rotary. Note that when the angle of insertion is 120, the stabilizing component is a negative 5 lbs and is aptly called the dislocating component. Let us consider one more problem working with rotary and stabilizing components of force. Suppose the deltoid is pulling on the abducted humerus with a force of 100 lbs. The action line (hypotenuse) forms a 20 angle (angle of pull) with the humerus. What are the rotary and stabilizing components of the 100 lb force?
100 lbs RC = 100 lbs x sin 20 = 34.2 lbs SC = 100 lbs x cos 20 = 93.9 lbs Observe that the deltoid exerts predominantly a stabilizing force until the distal end of the humerus is pulled well above the glenoid cavity (i.e., when the angle of pull 45). Consider the origin and insertion of the brachialis. It can never achieve a 90 angle relative to the forearm. Thus, it is a good stabilizer. The biceps brachii is even more powerful when the humerus is extended (B) because it is stretched a little more due to its position relative to the shoulder. This occurs even though the angle is 90 in both positions (A and B). A biceps brachii B = 20

8 brachialis Another variable to consider is the distance between the axis and the resistance (weight). Moving the weight closer to the axis will shorten the resistance arm. Torque

If a force exerted on a body that can rotate about a pivot or fulcrum point, the force is said to generate a torque. Thus, muscle force creates a torque. Usually the contraction force of a muscle cannot be measured directly, so torque is used instead. The RC force is perpendicular to the lever arm (i.e., axis to insertion). Torque is the product of the RC force and the perpendicular distance (PD; between the axis and insertion).
100 lbs = 40 RC = 100 lbs x sin 40 = 64.3 lbs Torque = RC x PD = 64.3 lbs x 0.25 ft = 16.1 ft-lbs (3 inches = 0.25 ft) 3 inches

Practical applications of concepts involved with levers and muscle force

Which of the computer operators would be most likely to complain of neck pain? One with the head above the upper torso or one with the head leaning forwards. The weight of the operators heads is 5 kg. Operator As head is erect and operator Bs head is in 45 of flexion. When the head is erect, the distance from the axis of motion (C5 disc) to the c/g of the head is 2 cm. When the head is flexed 45 , the distance is 10 cm. The distance of the erector spinae to the axis of motion is 4 cm when the head is erect and 5 cm when it is flexed 45 . The speed of gravity is 10 m/sec2. What is the force of the erector spinae (and the reaction force on C5) when the head is erect? When the head is flexed 45 ?
5 kg x 10 m/sec2 = 50 N (force of gravity) c/g 0.02 m 0.04 m 50 N 3 cm 25 N (erector spinae) F x fa = R x ra F = (50 N x 0.02 m) 0.04 m = 25 N

The force of the erector spinae is 25 N or 5.63 lbs (N x 0.225 = lbs). This is the muscle force required to maintain the head in an erect posture. The

C5 (axis of motion)

reaction force on C5 is 75 N (16.88 lbs), the sum of the force of gravity and the force of the erector spinae.
F x fa = R x ra F = (50 N x 0.1 m) 0.05 m = 100 N

50 N 100 N 0.05 m 0.1 m

The force of the erector spinae is 100 N or 22.5 lbs. This is the muscle force required to maintain the head in a 45 flexed position. The reaction force on C5 is 150 N (33.75 lbs), the sum of the force of gravity and the force of the erector spinae. What if the person had a small neck (fa = 0.03 m)? The force of the erector spinae would be 167 N (37.6 lbs).

From these calculations, it is obvious that the flexed position puts significantly more strain on the erector spinae (a 4-fold increase in force). The head in the erect position is preferable for minimizing neck pain and upper back tightness.
Problem 2: Lifting boxes

Workers must lift 25 and 46 cm boxes to shoulder height. Both types of boxes weight 18 kg (40 lbs). It is assumed that the erector spinae will counteract the force of the boxes. The force of these muscles operates at a distance of 5 cm from the axis of movement at the L5 disc. Workers have an upper body weight of about 40 kg. With the box lifted to shoulder height, the c/g is 2 cm dorsal to the axis of movement. The 25 cm box is held so that its c/g is 20 cm from the axis of motion. The 46 cm box is held so that its c/g is 40 cm from the axis of motion. The force of gravity acting on each box is 180 N (10 m/sec2 x 18 kg = 180 N). The upper body can exert a counter force of 400 N (10 m/sec2 x 40 kg) if the person leans backwards such that the c/g falls 2 cm behind the axis of motion (L5) resulting in a counter force of 8 Nm (400 N x 0.02 m = 8 Nm).

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What force must the erector spinae muscles exert to lift the 25 cm box? the 46 cm

box?

0.2m 0.4 m 0.05 m 180 N 180 N 560 N 0.02 m L5 400 N 400 N F = (180 N x 0.2 m) 0.05 m = 720 N 180 N x 0.4 m = 72 Nm F= (72 Nm 8 Nm) 0.05 m = 1,280 N 0.05 m 1280 N 0.02 m

When the back is straight, the erector spinae exerts 720 N.

When the person leans backward, the erector spinae exert 560 N (126 lbs). The counter force of 8 Nm is subtracted from the resistance force.

The erector spinae exert 1,280 N (288 lbs) when leaning backwards. Even though both boxes weigh the same, the resistance arm is lengthened with the larger box because the arms must be extended more. The erector spinae must exert more than twice the force to carry the same weight.

Leaning backwards shifts the c/g and, thus, displaces the resistance arm to make it easier. Bringing the load in closer to the the body also shortens the resistance arm

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and will also decrease the weight if the load can be rested on the chest or abdomen. People with large bellies cannot bring the box/load in as close to their bodies, which increases the resistance arm making the load heavier. They tend to shift their c/g back relative to L5 producing lordosis, which lengthens the force arm and decreases the force (load) on the erector spinae.
Problem 3: Leaning over a sink

When standing (position A), the c/g of the head and trunk falls 17 cm from the axis of motion in the L5 disc, and the c/g of the arms falls 20 cm from the L5 disc. When bending over, the c/g of the head and trunk is 31 cm from the L5 disc, and the c/g of the arms is 52 cm from the L5 disc. The person weighs 60 kg. The weight of the arms is assumed to be 6 kg; the upper body is 34 kg. The erector spinae, which counters the force of gravity acting on the head, trunk and arms, is located 5 cm from the axis of motion in the L5 disc. It pulls at an angle of 90 to the surface of the vertebral body. How much force must the erector spinae exert to counter the weight of the head, trunk and arms when standing and when bending over?
(Position A) (Position B) 2732 N 0.31 m 0.05 m 0.17 m 1396 N 0.05 m 340 N 60 N 0.2 m
F=

340 N 0.52 m 60 N

(340 N x 0.31 m) + (60 N x 0.52 m) 0.05 m

F = 2,732 N

F=

( 60 N x 0.2 m) + (340 N x 0.17 m) 0.05 m

F = 1396 N

The resistance offered by the arms and upper body must be considered separately because they have different resistance arms. What if the erector spinae was thicker (stronger) or thinner (consider aging and/or sedentary people) than 5 cm? The calculations will demonstrate that work is decreased as muscle thickness increases.
Problem 4: Getting off the throne

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Is it easier to get off the throne from an erect sitting posture or by leaning forward first? Would armrests help someone who has weak quadriceps? For the example below, the upper body weight is 48 kg. The knees are the axis of motion. It is 33 cm from the c/g of gravity to the knees when sitting erect; 22 cm when leaning forward. The moment arm for the quadriceps with the knees (force arm) is 5 cm.

3168 N 2112 N 0.05 m 0.33 m 480 N F = (480 N x 0.33 m) 0.05 m = 3168 N 0.22 m 480 N 0.05 m

F = (480 N x 0.22 m) 0.05 m = 2112 N

Leaning forward shortens the resistance arm as the c/g is moved forward. Consequently, leaning forward makes it easier to stand up from the throne (about 1000 N/225 lbs easier). Using the arms to push off the knees or an armrest creates a reaction force that acts in the same direction as the quadriceps force, which will also make standing easier. People with weak quadriceps should lean forward and use armrests to stand up.
Problem 4: Squats

Performing squats can be dangerous due, in part, to excessive force acting on the low back. Is it better to lean forward or maintain a more erect posture when performing squats? To answer this question, consider the illustrations below and calculate the muscle force at the low back for each illustration.
c/g of head and trunk from axis = 0.14 m c/g of arms from axis = 0.17 m (L5 is the axis) 0.05 m weight of head, trunk and weights = 600 N weight of arms = 60 N
F= (600 N x 0.14 m) + (60 N x 0.17 m) 0.05 m F=

= 0.31 m = 0.40 m

0.31 m 0.05 m

= 600 N = 60 N
(600 N x 0.31 m) + (60 N x 0.40 m) 0.05 m

F = 1884 N

F = 4200 N

Leaning forward more puts much more pressure/stress on the low back. How much force must the quadriceps exert to assume an upright posture?

13 c/g of head and trunk from axis = 0.14 m (knees are the axis) weight of body and weight = 660 N force arm distance = 0.05 m 0.14 m 0.05 m 660 N 660 N = 0.07 m = 660 N = 0.05 m 0.07 m 0.05 m

F = (660 N x 0.14 m) 0.05 m = 1848 N

F = (660 N x 0.07 m) 0.05 m = 924 N

We can conclude that leaning forward more hurts the low back more, but also lightens the load on the quadriceps. One may be able to lift more weight by leaning forward more, but increases the risk of low back injury. Problem 5: Forces acting on the neck and back

Refer to the illustration below and calculate the force of the erector spinae in the neck when the head is erect (1) and tilted (2), the force of the erector spinae in the low back when carrying the box (3), the erector spinae in the low back when the knee is extended (4) and flexed (5).
a b The weight of the upper body is 40 kg (40 kg x 10 m/sec2 = 400 N). Distances are as follows: a = 0.03 m, b = 0.02 m, c = 0.05 m, d = 0.15 m, e = 0.2 m, f = 0.06 m, g = 0.02 m, h = 0.01 m, i = 0.9 m, j = 0.52 m. 1. F = (45 N x 0.02 m) 0.03 m = 30 N 2. F = (45 N x 0.15 m) 0.05 m = 135 N 3. F =
(180 N x 0.2 m) ( 400 N x 0.02 m) 0.06 m

45 N d e 180 N

1 c 2 f 3 400 N h 4, 5 j g i

4. F = (280 N x 0.9 m) 0.01 m = 25,200 N 5. F = (280 N x 0.52 m) 0.01 m = 14,560 N

280 N

280 N

For solving the force of the erector spinae in the low back when carrying the box (3), 8 Nm (400 N x 0.02 m) must be subtracted because the upper body falls behing the axis (L5) by 2 cm. The resistance arm is shortened and the erector spinae does not have to work as hard. Note that when the knee is flexed, the pelvic region is more stable and the erector spinae does not have to exert as much force to maintain an erect posture.

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Flexing the knees is also important when performing situps. Keeping the knees straight puts more force on the low back (erector spinae) producing lordosis and low back pain. Arching shortens the force arm. Chronic shortening of a muscle leads to adaptive shortening (i.e., the muscle remains shortened lordosis). Flexing the knees shortens the resistance arm, which reduces the force on the low back.

0.05 m

0.04 m

Selected References Dyson, G.H.G. (1962). The Mechanics of Athletics. St. Paul's House, Warwick Lane, London EC4: University of London Press Ltd. Grabiner, M.D. (1993). Current Issues in Biomechanics. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. Hall, S.J. (1999). Basic Biomechanics. Dubuque, IA: WCB McGraw-Hill. Hay, J.G. (1985). The Biomechanics of Sports Techniques. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. LeVeau, B. (1977). Williams and Lissner: Biomechanics of Human Motion. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company. Northrip, J.W., Logan, G.A., and McKinney, W.C. (1974). Introduction to Biomechanic Analysis of Sport. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers. Simonian, C. (1981). Fundamentals of Sports Biomechanics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Williams, M. and Lissner, H.R. (1962). Biomechanics of Human Motion. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company.