Chapter 7 How Cells Harvest Energy
Bonus topics
-oxidation evolution of metabolism
Organisms: classified based on how they obtain energy
autotrophs: are able to produce their own organic molecules through photosynthesis heterotrophs: live on organic compounds produced by other organisms All organisms use cellular respiration to extract energy from organic molecules. During respiration, electrons are shuttled through electron carriers to a final electron acceptor. aerobic respiration: final electron acceptor is oxygen (O2) anaerobic respiration: final electron acceptor is an inorganic molecule (not O2) fermentation: final electron acceptor is an organic molecule
Aerobic respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2
G = -686kcal/mol of glucose G can be even higher than this in a cell This large amount of energy must be released in small steps rather than all at once.
6CO2 + 6H2O
Fig 7.2
The goal of respiration is to produce ATP energy is released from oxidation reactions in the form of electrons electrons are shuttled by electron carriers (e.g. NAD+) to an electron transport chain electron energy is converted to ATP at the electron transport chain
NAD+ is an electron carrier.
NAD accepts 2 electrons and 1 proton to become NADH the reaction is reversible
Fig 7.1
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Cells are able to make ATP via:
1. substrate-level phosphorylation: transferring a phosphate directly to ADP from another molecule
Fig 7.4
2. oxidative phosphorylation: use of ATP synthase and energy derived from a proton (H+) gradient to make ATP
The complete oxidation of glucose proceeds in stages:
1. glycolysis 2. pyruvate oxidation 3. Krebs cycle 4. ETC & chemiosmosis 5. to drive ATP synthase
Fig 7.5
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Glycolysis
converts glucose to pyruvate
2 molecules of pyruvate are formed from one glucose
occurs in the cytoplasm a 10-step biochemical pathway net production of 2 ATP molecules by substrate-level phosphorylation 2 NADH produced by the reduction of NAD+
Fig 7.6
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Glycolysis
Step A: priming reactions Step B: cleavage and rearrangement Step C: oxidation Step D: ATP generation
Fig 7.6
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Glycolysis
For each glucose 2 ATP 2 NADH 2 pyuvate
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without oxygen, pyruvate is reduced in order to oxidize NADH back to NAD+
when oxygen is present, pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA which enters the Krebs cycle
Fig 7.8
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For glycolysis to continue, NADH must be recycled to NAD+ by either: 1. aerobic respiration : occurs when oxygen is available as the final electron acceptor 2. fermentation : occurs when oxygen is not available; an organic molecule is the final electron acceptor The fate of pyruvate depends on oxygen availability.
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in the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is oxidized
occurs at the plasma membrane in prokaryotes occurs in the mitochondria in eukaryotes in mitochondria, a multienzyme complex pyruvate dehydrogenase catalyzes the reaction
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The products of pyruvate oxidation include:
one CO2 one NADH one acetyl-CoA (which consists of 2 carbons from pyruvate attached to coenzyme A)
Acetyl-CoA proceeds to the Krebs cycle.
Fig 7.9
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The Krebs cycle oxidizes the acetyl group from pyruvate occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria biochemical pathway of 9 steps first step: acetyl group + oxaloacetate citrate (2 carbons) (4 carbons) (6 carbons)
Krebs cycle Citric acid cycle Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle
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Fig 7.11
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The remaining steps of the Krebs cycle: release 2 molecules of CO2 reduce 3 NAD+ to 3 NADH reduce 1 FAD (electron carrier) to FADH2 produce 1 ATP regenerate oxaloacetate After glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and the Krebs cycle, glucose has been oxidized to: six CO2 four ATP ten NADH two FADH2
these electron carriers proceed to the electron transport chain
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The electron transport chain (ETC) is
a series of membrane-bound electron carriers embedded in the mitochondrial inner membrane e-s from NADH and FADH2 are transferred to complexes of the ETC each complex transfers the electrons to the next complex in the chain as the electrons are transferred, some electron energy is lost with each transfer this energy is used to pump protons (H+) across the membrane from the matrix to the inner membrane space a proton gradient is established the higher negative charge in the matrix attracts the protons (H+) back from the intermembrane space to the matrix
the accumulation of protons in the intermembrane space drives protons into the matrix via diffusion
Fig 7.12
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most protons move back to the matrix through ATP synthase
ATP synthase is a membrane-bound enzyme that uses the energy of the proton gradient to synthesize ATP from ADP + Pi
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energy lost by electrons in stage 4 used to create proton gradient protons move down gradient through F0 complex channel this drives the rotation of the F1 complex resulting in phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
Fig 7.15
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The complete oxidation of glucose proceeds in stages:
1. glycolysis 2. pyruvate oxidation 3. Krebs cycle 4. ETC & chemiosmosis 5. to drive ATP synthase
Fig 7.14
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Theoretical energy yields
38 ATP per glucose for bacteria 36 ATP per glucose for eukaryotes
Fig 7.16
Actual energy yield: 30 ATP per glucose for eukaryotes
reduced yield is due to leaky inner membrane and use of the proton gradient for purposes other than ATP synthesis
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Regulation of aerobic respiration is by feedback inhibition
a step within glycolysis is allosterically inhibited by ATP and by citrate high levels of NADH inhibit pyruvate dehydrogenase high levels of ATP inhibit citrate synthetase
Fig 7.17
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Catabolism overview
Fig 7.20
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If O2 not available, either: 1. anaerobic respiration: use of inorganic molecules (other than O2) as final electron acceptor
anaerobic respiration by methanogens methanogens use CO2 CO2 is reduced to CH4 (methane) anaerobic respiration by sulfur bacteria reduce inorganic sulphate (SO4) hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
2. fermentation: use of organic molecules as final electron acceptor
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1. ethanol fermentation
occurs in yeast CO2, ethanol, and NAD+ are produced
Fig 7.19
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2. lactic acid fermentation
occurs in animal cells (especially muscles) electrons are transferred from NADH to pyruvate to produce lactic acid
Fig 7.19
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