History of Anesthesia

 Nero(AD 37-65) – greek and roman surgeons gave the potion of condemned (Wine And Vinegar)
 Ambroise Pare – compression of blood vessels and nerves near surgical site in 16th century
 Also found out that half frozen soldiers have higher pain threshold
 Refrigeration anesthesia was revived in 1941 for amputation in world war II.
 Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) – Laughing gas - NO2 and O2 combination
 Crawford Williamson Long – administered the 1st ether anesthetic
 James Simpson – instituted the use of chloroform anesthesia in 1847
 Friedrich Trendelenburg – ET Anesthesia
 Chevalier Jackson – Laryngoscope
 Harvey Cushing – founded the unconscious/unaware anesthesia
 Ether synthesized in 1540 by Cordus
 Ether used as anesthetic in 1842 by Dr. Crawford W. Long
 Ether publicized as anesthetic in 1846 by Dr. William Morton
 Chloroform used as anesthetic in 1853 by Dr. John Snow
 Local anesthesia with cocaine in 1885
 Thiopental first used in 1934
 Curare ( a muscle paralyzing agent) first used in 1942 - opened the “Age of Anesthesia”

Basic Principles of Anesthesia

Anesthesia defined as the abolition of sensation

Analgesia defined as the abolition of pain

“Triad of General Anesthesia”

1. need for unconsciousness

2. need for analgesia
3. need for muscle relaxation

Factors that Determine the Choice of Anaesthesia

1. Patient physical condition

2. Patient’s age
3. Medication taken
4. Type and probable duration of operation
5. Laboratory findings
6. Any known idiosyncracies
7. Patient’s preference

Types of Anesthesia

General Anesthesia
Association pathway are broken in the cerebral cortex to produce more or less complete lack of sensory perception
and motor discharge
Unconsciousness is produced when blood circulating to the brain contains an adequate amount of anesthetic agent.
General anesthesia results in an immobile, quiet patient who does not recall the procedure.
 Stages of General Anesthesia
From To Patient’s Reaction Nursing Action

Analgesia Loss of consciousness Drowsy, dizzy Close suites door, keep

Induction stage room quiet stand by to
assist
Excitement/ Relaxation May be excited with irregular Secure patient properly,
delirium, Loss breathing and movements of the remain at the side of the
of extremities patient quietly but ready
consciousness Susceptible to external stimuli to assist anesthesiologist
(e.g. noise, touch) as needed

Regular respiration
Position patient and prep
Surgical Loss of reflexes; Contracted pupils
skin only when
Anesthesia Depression of vital Reflexes disappear
anesthesiologist indicates
Relaxation function Muscle relax
this stage in reached
Auditory sensation loss
Danger Stage Prepare for
Respiratory failure; Not breathing
Vital functions cardiopulmonary
possible cardiac arrest Little or no pulse or heartbeat
too depressed resuscitation

1. Inhalational Anesthetic Agents

Inhalational anesthesia refers to the delivery of gases or vapors from the respiratory system to produce anesthesia
Pharmacokinetics--uptake, distribution, and elimination from the body

Two Methods of Administration Inhalation

Gases and vapors can be delivered via face mask or endotracheal tube.
Mask Inhalation
Anesthetic gas or vapor of a volatile liquid is inhaled through a face mask attached to an anesthesia machine
by breathing tubes.
The mask must fit the face tightly to minimize escape of gases into environment.
Endotracheal Administration
Anesthetic vapor or gas is inhaled directly into trachea through a nasal or oral tube inserted between vocal
cords by direct or blind laryngoscopy. The tube must be securely fixed in place to minimize tissue trauma. The
patient is given oxygen before and after suctioning. Intubation, insertion of tube directly to the trachea and
extubation removal of tube.

2. Intravenous
A drug that produce hypnosis, sedation, amnesia and or analgesia that is injected directly into the circulation, usually
via the peripheral vein.

Nitrous Oxide

 Prepared by Priestley in 1776

 Anesthetic properties described by Davy in 1799
 Characterized by inert nature with minimal metabolism
 Colorless, odorless, tasteless, and does not burn
 Simple linear compound
 Not metabolized
 Only anesthetic agent that is inorganic
 Major difference is low potency
 Weak anesthetic, powerful analgesic
 Needs other agents for surgical anesthesia
 Low blood solubility (quick recovery)
Nitrous Oxide Systemic Effects

 Minimal effects on heart rate and blood pressure

 May cause myocardial depression in sick patients
 Little effect on respiration
 Safe, efficacious agent

Nitrous Oxide Side Effects

 Manufacturing impurities toxic

 Hypoxic mixtures can be used
 Large volumes of gases can be used
 Beginning of case: second gas effect
 End of case: diffusion hypoxia
 Diffusion into closed spaces
 Inhibits methionine synthetase (precursor to DNA synthesis)
 Inhibits vitamin B-12 metabolism
 Dentists, OR personnel, abusers at risk

Halothane

 Synthesized in 1956 by Suckling

 Halogen substituted ethane
 Volatile liquid easily vaporized, stable, and nonflammable
 Most potent inhalational anesthetic
 Efficacious in depressing consciousness
 Very soluble in blood and adipose
 Prolonged emergence

Halothane Systemic Effects

 Inhibits sympathetic response to painful stimuli

 Inhibits sympathetic driven baroreflex response (hypovolemia)
 Sensitizes myocardium to effects of exogenous catecholamines-- ventricular arrhythmias
 Johnson found median effective dose 2.1 ug/kg
 Limit of 100 ug or 10 mL over 10 minutes
 Limit dose to 300 ug over one hour
 Decreases respiratory drive-- central response to CO2 and peripheral to O2
 Respirations shallow-- atelectasis
 Depresses protective airway reflexes
 Depresses myocardium-- lowers BP and slows conduction
 Mild peripheral vasodilation

Halothane Side Effects

“Halothane Hepatitis” - 1/10,000 cases

 fever, jaundice, hepatic necrosis, death
 metabolic breakdown products are hapten-protein conjugates
 immunologically mediated assault
 exposure dependent
Malignant Hyperthermia
1/60,000 with succinylcholine to 1/260,000 withouthalothane in 60%, succinylcholine in 77%
Classic-- rapid rise in body temperature, muscle rigidity, tachycardia, rhabdomyolysis, acidosis, hyperkalemia, DIC
most common masseter rigidity
family history
high association with muscle disorders
autosomal dominant inheritance
diagnosis--previous symptoms, increase CO2, rise in CPK levels, myoglobinuria, muscle biopsy
physiology--hypermetabolic state by inhibition of calcium reuptake in sarcoplasmic reticulum
treatment--early detection, d/c agents, hyperventilate, bicarb, IV dantrolene (2.5 mg/kg), ice packs/cooling blankets,
lasix/mannitol/fluids. ICU monitoring
Susceptible patients-- preop with IV dantrolene, keep away inhalational agents and succinylcholine

Enflurane
 Developed in 1963 by Terrell, released for use in 1972
 Stable, nonflammable liquid
 Pungent odor
Enflurane Systemic Effects
 Potent inotropic and chronotropic depressant and decreases systemic vascular resistance-- lowers blood
pressure and conduction dramatically
 Inhibits sympathetic baroreflex response
 Sensitizes myocardium to effects of exogenous catecholamines-- arrhythmias
 Respiratory drive is greatly depressed-- central and peripheral responses
 increases dead space
 widens A-a gradient
 produces hypercarbia in spontaneously breathing patient

Enflurane Side Effects

 Metabolism one-tenth that of halothane-- does not release quantity of hepatotoxic metabolites
 Metabolism releases fluoride ion-- renal toxicity
 Relaxes the uterus (can cause spontaneous birth) in pregnant woman.
 Epileptiform EEG patterns

Isoflurane
 Synthesized in 1965 by Terrell, introduced into practice in 1984
 Not carcinogenic
 Nonflammable,pungent
 Less soluble than halothane or enflurane

Isoflurane Systemic Effects

 Depresses respiratory drive and ventilatory responses-- less than enflurane
 Myocardial depressant-- less than enflurane
 Inhibits sympathetic baroreflex response-- less than enflurane
 Sensitizes myocardium to catecholamines -- less than halothane or enflurane
 Produces most significant reduction in systemic vascular resistance-- coronary steal syndrome, increased ICP
 Excellent muscle relaxant-- potentiates effects of neuromuscular blockers

Isoflurane Side Effects

 Little metabolism (0.2%) -- low potential of organotoxic metabolites
 No EEG activity like enflurane
 Bronchoirritating, laryngospasm

Sevoflurane and Desflurane

 Low solubility in blood-- produces rapid induction and emergence
 Minimal systemic effects-- mild respiratory and cardiac suppression
 Few side effects
 Expensive

Intravenous Anesthetic Agents

 First attempt at intravenous anesthesia by Wren in 1656-- opium into his dog
 Used in anesthesia in 1934 with thiopental
 Many ways to meet requirements-- muscle relaxants, opoids, nonopoids
 Appealing, pleasant experience

Thiopental
 Barbiturate
 Water soluble
  Alkaline
 Dose-dependent suppression of CNS activity--decreased cerebral metabolic rate (EEG flat)

Thiopental Systemic Effects

 Varied effects on cardiovascular system in people-- mild direct cardiac depression-- lowers blood pressure--
compensatory tachycardia (baroreflex)
 Dose-dependent depression of respiration through medullary and pontine respiratory centers

Thiopental Side Effects

 Noncompatibility
 Tissue necrosis--gangrene
 Tissue stores
 Post-anesthetic course

Etomidate
 Structure similar to ketoconozole
 Direct CNS depressant (thiopental) and GABA agonist

Etomidate Systemic Effects

 Little change in cardiac function in healthy and cardiac patients
 Mild dose-related respiratory depression
 Decreased cerebral metabolism

Etomidate Side Effects

 Pain on injection (propylene glycol)
 Myoclonic activity
 Nausea and vomiting (50%)
 Cortisol suppression

Ketamine
 Structurally similar to PCP
 Interrupts cerebral association pathways -- “dissociative anesthesia”
 Stimulates central sympathetic pathways

Ketamine Systemic and Side Effects

 Characteristic of sympathetic nervous system stimulation-- increase HR, BP, CO
 Maintains laryngeal reflexes and skeletal muscle tone
 Emergence can produce hallucinations and unpleasant dreams (15%)

Propofol
 Rapid onset and short duration of action
 Myocardial depression and peripheral vasodilation may occur-- baroreflex not suppressed
 Not water soluble-- painful (50%)
 Minimal nausea and vomiting

Benzodiazepines
 Produce sedation and amnesia
 Potentiate GABA receptors
 Slower onset and emergence

Diazepam
 Often used as premedication or seizure activity, rarely for induction
 Minimal systemic effects-- respirations decreased with narcotic usage
 Not water soluble-- venous irritation
 Metabolized by liver-- not redistributed

Lorazepam
 Slower onset of action (10-20 minutes)-- not used for induction
  Used as adjunct for anxiolytic and sedative properties
 Not water soluble-- venous irritation

Midazolam
 More potent than diazepam or lorazepam
 Induction slow, recovery prolonged
 May depress respirations when used with narcotics
 Minimal cardiac effects
 Water soluble

Narcotic agonists (opiods)

 Used for years for analgesic action-- civil war for wounded soldiers
 Predominant effects are analgesia, depression of sensorium and respirations
 Mechanism of action is receptor mediated
 Minimal cardiac effects-- no myocardial depression
 Bradycardia in large doses
 Some peripheral vasodilation and histamine release -- hypotension
Side effects nausea, chest wall rigidity, seizures, constipation, urinary retention
 Meperidine, morphine, alfentanil, fentanyl, sufentanil are commonly used

Naloxone is pure antagonist that reverses analgesia and respiratory depression nonselectively-- acts 30 minutes,
effects may recur when metabolized

Muscle Relaxants
Current use of inhalational and previous intravenous agents do not fully provide control of muscle tone
First used in 1942-- many new agents developed to reduce side effects and lengthen duration of action
Mechanism of action occurs at the neuromuscular junction

Neuromuscular Junction

Nondepolarizing Muscle Relaxants

 Competitively inhibit end plate nicotinic cholinergic receptor
 Intermediate acting (15-60 minutes): atracurium, vecuronium, mivacurium
 Long acting (over 60 minutes): pancuronium, tubocurarine, metocurine
 Difference-- renal function
 Nondepolarizing Muscle Relaxants
 Tubocurare-- suppress sympathetics, mast cell degranulation
 Pancuronium-- blocks muscarinics
 Reversal by anticholinesterase-- inhibit acetylcholinesterase
 neostigmine, pyridostigmine, edrophonium
 side effects muscarinic stimulation

Depolarizing Muscle Relaxants

Depolarize the end-plate nicotinic receptor
  Succinylcholine used clinically
 short duration due to plasma cholinesterase
 side effects-- fasiculations, myocyte rupture, potassium extravasation, myalgias
 sinus bradycardia-- muscarinic receptor
 malignant hyperthermia

Local Anesthetics
 Followed general anesthesia by 40 years
 Koller used cocaine for the eye in 1884
 Halsted used cocaine as nerve block
 First synthetic local-- procaine in 1905
 Lidocaine synthesized in 1943

Local Anesthetics
 Mechanism of action is by reversibly blocking sodium channels to prevent depolarization
 Anesthetic enters on axioplasmic side and attaches to receptor in middle of channel
 Local Anesthetics
 Linear molecules that have a lipophilic and hydrophilic end (ionizable)
 low pH-- more in ionized state and unable to cross membrane
 adding sodium bicarb-- more in non-ionized state

Two groups: esters and amides

1. esters metabolized by plasma cholinesterase
2. amides metabolized by cytochrome p-450

Local Anesthetic Toxicity

Central nervous system
initially-- lightheadedness, circumoral numbness, dizziness, tinnitus, visual change
later-- drowsiness, disorientation, slurred speech, loss of consciousness, convulsions
finally-- respiratory depression
Local Anesthetic Toxicity
Cardiovascular
myocardial depression and vasodilation-- hypotension and circulatory collapse

Allergic reactions-- rare (less than 1%)

preservatives or metabolites of esters
rash, bronchospasm

Prevention and Treatment of Toxicity

Primarily from intravascular injection or excessive dose -- anticipation
aspirate often with slow injection
ask about CNS toxicity
have monitoring available
prepare with resuscitative equipment, CNS-depressant drugs, cardiovascular drugs
ABC’s

Cocaine
 South American Indians used to induce euphoria, reduce hunger, and increase work tolerance in sixth century
 Many uses in head and neck-- strong vasoconstrictor,no need for epinephrine
 Mechanism is similar-- blocks sodium channel, also prevents uptake of epinephrine and norepinephrine
 Cocaine
 May lead to increased levels of circulating catecholamines-- tachycardia, peripheral vasoconstriction
 Safe limits (200-400 mg)-- use with epinephrine clinically