Matter Waves

Nature of a wave
 A wave is described by frequency ν, wavelength λ,

phase velocity u and intensity I
 A wave is spread out and occupies a relatively large

region of space
Nature of a particle
 A particle is specified by mass m, velocity v,

momentum p, and energy E
 A particle occupies a definite position in space.

In order for that it must be small
Light
 Interference and Diffraction experiments showed the

wave nature of light
 Blackbody radiation and Photoelectric effect can be

explained only by considering light as a stream of
particles
So is light a
wave or a particle
?
How are they related?
E = hν
 E– energy of the photon

 ν – frequency of the wave
 h– plank's constant
p=h/λ
 p – momentum of the particle

 λ - wavelength of the photon
The de Broglie Hypothesis
 If light can act like a wave sometimes and like a particle

at other times, then all matter,
matter usually thought of as
particles, should exhibit wave-like behaviour
 The relation between the momentum and the

wavelength of a photon can be applied to material
particles also
Prince Louis de Broglie

(1892-1987)
de Broglie Wavelength
h

mv
Relates a particle-like property (p)

to a wave-like property (λ)
The frequency
 De Broglie postulated that all particles satisfy

Einstein’s relation
E  hf
In other words,
E
ƒ
h
Example: de Broglie wavelength of an electron
Mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg

Speed = 106 m / sec
6.63 ×10−34 Joules ⋅ sec −10

λ= −31 6
= 7 .28 × 10 m
(9.11 × 10 kg)(10 m/sec)
This wavelength is in the region of X-

rays
Example: de Broglie wavelength of a ball
 Mass = 1 kg
Speed = 1 m / sec
6.63 ×10−34 Joules ⋅ sec

λ= = 6.63 × 10−34 m
(1 kg)(1 m/sec)
Theoretical implication – The Bohr
postulate
 Consider standing waves produced in a stretched

string tied at two ends
 Condition for these standing waves is that the length

of the string should be integral multiple of λ/2
 Consider the string to form a circular loop.
 Condition for these standing waves in this

configuration is that the length of the string should
be integral multiple of λ
2πr = nλ
2πr = n (h/mv)
mvr= n (h/2π)
 The result says that the angular momentum of the

orbiting electron will be an integral multiple of h/2π
 This is nothing but first postulate of bohr
The Davisson-Germer Experiment
The Davisson-Germer Experiment
Bragg Scattering
Bragg scattering is used to determine the structure of the atoms in a crystal

from the spacing between the spots on a diffraction pattern (above)
The Diffraction
X-rays electrons
The diffraction patterns are similar because

electrons have similar wavelengths to X-rays
The Two-Slit Experiment
Shockwave Flash
Object
Wave-like Behaviour of Matter
 Evidence:
– electron diffraction
– electron interference (double-slit experiment)
 Also possible with more massive particles,

such as neutrons and α-particles
 Applications:
– Bragg scattering
– Electron microscopes
– Electron- and proton-beam lithography
Wave-Particle Duality
particle wave function

Schrödinger’s Equation
 Solve this equation to obtain ψ
 Tells us how ψ evolves or behaves

in a given potential
 Analogue of Newton’s equation

in classical mechanics
Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961)

Schrödinger’s Equation
• This was a plausibility argument, not a derivation. We
believe the Schrödinger equation not because of this argument,
but because its predictions agree with experiment.
• There are limits to its validity. In this form it applies only to

a single, non-relativistic particle (i.e. one with non-zero rest
mass and speed much less than c)
• The Schrödinger equation is a partial differential equation in

x and t (like classical wave equation). Unlike the classical wave
equation it is first order in time.
• The Schrödinger equation contains the complex number i.

Therefore its solutions are essentially complex (unlike classical
waves, where the use of complex numbers is just a
mathematical convenience).
Interpretation of |ψ| 2
 The quantity |ψ| 2 is interpreted as the probability that

the particle can be found at a particular point x and a
particular time t
 The act of measurement ‘collapses’ the wave function

and turns it into a particle
Neils Bohr (1885-1962)

Wave Function
 Completely describes all the properties of a

given particle
 Called ψ = ψ (x,t); is a complex function of

position x and time t
Wave-Particle Duality
particle wave function

Matter Waves

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Nature of a wave

 A wave is described by frequency ν, wavelength λ,

 A wave is spread out and occupies a relatively large

 A particle is specified by mass m, velocity v,

 A particle occupies a definite position in space.

 Interference and Diffraction experiments showed the

 Blackbody radiation and Photoelectric effect can be

 E– energy of the photon

 p – momentum of the particle

 If light can act like a wave sometimes and like a particle

 The relation between the momentum and the

Prince Louis de Broglie

Relates a particle-like property (p)

 De Broglie postulated that all particles satisfy

Mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg

6.63 ×10−34 Joules ⋅ sec −10

This wavelength is in the region of X-

6.63 ×10−34 Joules ⋅ sec

 Consider standing waves produced in a stretched

 Condition for these standing waves is that the length

 Condition for these standing waves in this

 The result says that the angular momentum of the

Bragg scattering is used to determine the structure of the atoms in a crystal

The diffraction patterns are similar because

 Also possible with more massive particles,

particle wave function

 Solve this equation to obtain ψ

 Tells us how ψ evolves or behaves

 Analogue of Newton’s equation

Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961)

• There are limits to its validity. In this form it applies only to

• The Schrödinger equation is a partial differential equation in

• The Schrödinger equation contains the complex number i.

 The quantity |ψ| 2 is interpreted as the probability that

 The act of measurement ‘collapses’ the wave function

Neils Bohr (1885-1962)

 Completely describes all the properties of a

 Called ψ = ψ (x,t); is a complex function of

particle wave function

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