L-27

Photoconductivity and
Photovoltaics
 The phenomenon of an increase in the electrical
conductivity of insulating crystal when the light radiation
falls on the crystal is called Photoconductivity.
 Photoconductivity has practical application in television
cameras, infrared detectors, light metres and indireatly
photographic process. Photoconductivity arises because the
incident photons excile the electrons from valance band
into conduction band, while they become mobile, creation
of holes in the valance band,where they are also mobile.

 Inperfections introduce discrete energy levels in
the forbidden energy gap. Which are often called
traps .
 Photoconductivity is the process
where electrons (hole) are freed from bound
state by photons , pass sometime in the
conduction band (valance band) in which they
act as current carriers and are finally recaptured
by traps.

 L-28
Simple model of
photoconductors
 (Variation of Photoconductivity with
illumination)
 Supposed that electron hole pairs are
produced uniformly
 throughout the volume of the crystal by
light source.
 It is convenient to suppose that the
mobility of the holes may be neglected in
comparision with the t mobility of the of
the electrons
 This model is highly hypothetical and rarely exist in
reality.
 Based on this model , the rate of change of
electron concentration n is given by
dn = L – Anp = L- An2 using n = p --------(1)
dt
 Similarly The hole concentration is
 dp = L- Anp ---------(2)
 dt

 L→ is number of photons absorbed per
unit volume of the specimen per unit time.
 Anp→ gives the recombination rate .It is
proportional to the product of hole and
electron concentration
 A→ proportionally constant
 In steady state

 dn =0
 dt
 Therefore Eqn.(1)
 L- An2 = 0
 i.e

 An2 = L
 n0 =( L/A) 1/ 2
 Therefore in steady state the electron
Conductivity
 σ = n0 e μ = ( L/A) 1/ 2 e
μ --------(4)
 Where μ is electron mobility.
 Therefore photocurrent will vary with
light intensity as L 1/ 2.
 If the light is switched off , the decay of


 dn = - An2 since L =0 -------(5)

 dt
 Its solution is
 dn/ n2 =-Adt
 Integrating 1/n - At + c
 At t =0 , n = n0 therefore c= 1/ n0
 Thus 1/n = At + 1/ n0


 1/n = (1+ At n0)/ n0

 n = n0 / (1+ At n0)
 n= n0
 1+ Atn0
 where n0 conc. At t = 0 i.e when light was turned off .

 1 = At n0 +1 = At + 1 ------(6)
n n0 n0
 let carrier concentration drop to n0/2 in time t0
 t0 = 1/ A n0 = 1
 A (L/ A)1/2 [n0 from eqn.
(3)]
t0 = (LA) -1/2 [From eqn. L- A n02 = 0 ,A = L/ n02]

t0 = (L. L/ n02 ) -1/2 = (L2/ n02 ) -1/2 = n0 / L--------(7)

 Therefore combining with eqn. (4) we get, n0 = σ / e μ
 Eqn (7) gets the form
 t0 = σ / e μ L -------- (8)
 Where t0 = response time.
 Therefore response time should be directly proportional
to Photoconductivity at a given illumination level
sensitive photoconductors have long response time .
 Sensitivity or Gain Factor
 G = number of carrier crossing the specimen
 number of photons absorbed in the specimen
 Let d = thickness of specimen.
 Crosssection area = unity
 The voltage v produces the particle
current (flux)
 Jn = I / e = n0 μv / d ----------(1)
 By eqn. (3)
n0 = (L/ A)1/2
 Eqn. (1) gets the form
 Jn = Particle flux Jn = I / e = v μ (L/ A)1/2 . Ld
 d .DL
 = v μ. Ld -------(2)
d2 .( AL)1/2


As G = Particle flux = Jn / Ld
 Ld
 G = v μ. Ld = vμ ------(3)
 d2 .( AL)1/2Ld d2.( AL)1/2
 The transit time Td of a carrier between the
electrode is given by.
 Td = d = d2 -----------(4)
 (v μ /d) vμ
Te = time of the electron before recombination is
Te = (AL) -1/2 ---------(5)
 Te = (AL) -1/2 = vμ --------
(6)
 Td d2 / vμ d2.( AL)1/2
 From eqn. (6) and (3)
 G = Te / Td -----------(7)
 i.e gain is equal to the ratio of the
carrier life time to the transit time.
 Limitations
 The relation (7) shows that this expression for
gain is quite general and is not limited to the
specific model.
 If Tc = is taken as observed time
 Then value of G from eqn. (7) are very much
longer than those observed experimentally
 This shows the failure of the model and
suggests that a new element must be added to
the present picture of the photoconductivity
process . This new element is effect of traps.
 L-29
Effect of traps
 A trap is an impurity atom or other imperfection
in crystal capable of capturing an electron or
hole, the captured carriers may be re emitted at a
subsequent time , and may move to another
traps
 There are two types of traps
 One type helps electrons and hole to recombine.
This type of trap is called recombination centre .
 Second type of trap does not contribute directly
in an important way to recombination but effect
the freedom of motion of charge.
 A trap is an impurity atom or other imperfection
in crystal capable of capturing an electron or hole,
the captured carriers may be re emitted at a
subsequent time , and may move to another traps
 There are two types of trapes
 One type helps electrons and hole to
recombine. This type of trap is called
recombination centre .
 Second type of trap does not contribute
directly in an important way to recombination but
effect the freedom of motion of charge.
 A trap is an impurity atom or other imperfection
in crystal capable of capturing an electron or hole,
the captured carriers may be re emitted at a
subsequent time , and may move to another traps
 There are two types of trapes
 One type helps electrons and hole to
recombine. This type of trap is called
recombination centre .
 Second type of trap does not contribute
directly in an important way to recombination but
effect the freedom of motion of charge.
 Empty Conduction Band

Trap
Trap Recombination centre

Trap

Photon Full Valence Band

N E2
Trap
E1
 Consider a crystal with N electron trap
level per unit volume . Let temp. is low .
 Let us assume that recombination
coefficient a is same for electron hole
recombination as for electron trap capture
 Then dn / dt = L - An2 becomes


 dn / dt = L - An(N+n) + Bnt ----------(1)

 Where n = connc. Of electrons in conduction
band.
 Bnt= rate of thermal evaporation of
trapped carrier back into the conduction band
 This term to be neglected
 In steady state

n0(n0 + N) = L /A ---------------(2)
 it is difficult to grow crystals with trap
concentration N much less than 1014 cm-3 .
 In the limit n0 << N , we have.

 n0 = L/ AN ------------(3)
 At high level of illumination if n0 >> N
 n0 = (L/A)1/2 -------------(4)
 The decay of the carrier (photoelectrons) on switching off
the light is given by
 log n+N - log n0 + N = NAt
 n n0

 In the limit N >> n0 , the above solution reduce to
 n = n0e-NAt
 So the time for the signal (photocurrent) to fall to e-1 of
initial value is
 t0 = 1 / NA
 comparing this result with eqn. t0 = n0/ L ( in the
absence of trap)
 The presence of traps reduces the conductivity and also
reduces the response time .
 Now improve the model , working in the
approximation n<<N .
 We new assume E1, the heightof traps above
valance band , >> kT
 And E2, the depth of the traps below the conduction
band but not much larger kT
 We must then consider the thermal excitation
the trapped electrons back to the valence band. &
ultimately the trap population decays .
 If N>> nt E1 >>n where nt = is concentration of e- in traps .

 Then rate eqn. are

dn = L + Bnt – ANn - Cnnt

dt ----------(5)

dnt = ANn - Bnt

dt

Here Bnt → thermal ionisation rate of trapped carriers.

Cnnt → recombination of electrons with trapped holes
 The conc. Of trapped holes is
 n + nt = nt as long nt >>n
 in steady state under illumination, we have
 dn/dt = 0, Bnt = 0,ANn = 0 then L = C n0 nt then n0
= L/ Cnt
 dnt/dt =0 ANn0 = B nt then n0 = Bnt /
AN
so that on multiplying no2 = L/ Cnt x Bnt / AN

 n0= ( BL/ ANC)1/2 ------------(6)

 t0 = 1/ Cn0 = n0 AN -------(7)
 L B
 Thus the response time is increased by
factor AN/ B >>1
This feature is in agreement with
the experimental result.
 Application of
photoconductivity
 Photoconductivity effects find applications
in T.V cameras light meter infrared
detectors and indorsed in photographic
process
 L-30
Photoelectric cell
 The device with the help of with light
energy is converted to electrical energy
are called Photoelectric cell
Photoelectric cell are three types
 Photoconductive Cell
 Photovoltaic Cell
 Photo emissive Cell
 Photoconductive Cell
 Principle ----- Photoconductive Cell are
based on the principle that the electrical
resistant of semiconductor like bad sulphide,
selenium etc., decreases when they are
exposed to radiation . The decrease in
resistance( or increase in conductivity) of
semiconductors on exposing to light may be
explained as follows
 If a photon striking the surface of such
photosensitive material has energy
 E = hν greater than the energy gap
between the valance band and conduction band of
the material .The sufficient energy will be imparted
to an electron to raise into conduction band .
Therefore , a hole is left in valance band. This
electron hole pair is free to serve as current carriers
and hence the conductivity of materials increase or
electrical resistance is reduced
 Construction and working
 Commonly material used in photoconductive cell is
the cadmium sulphide (Cds)
 In this cell , thin film of cds is deposited on
one side of an iron plate and placed below a
transparent metal film. When light radiation of
sufficient energy falls on
 Transparent foil , the electrical resistance of cds
larger gets reduced and electrical conductance is
increased . Consequentely , a current starts flowing in
the battery circuit connected between the iron plate
and transparent metal foil
 Purpose of battery:---- It generates a direction
and provide a path for a current to flow.
 Characteristics:------ Graph shows the
relationship between illumination and resistance.
When there is no illumination the cell has a range
of 100kΩ which is called dark resistance. When
illumination with strong light, the cell resistance
falls to few hundred ohms (light resistance).The
ratio of dark to light resistance of cell is 1000:1
 •+ -

•Transparent metal sheet Light

R
CdS

•Iron plate
 Spectral response
 The response is sensitive to visible light .
It is maximum over the visible region and
traps off towards the ultraviolet and
infrared. It is closely matched the
response of human eye.
 Use of photoconductive cell
 -- To measure the intensity of illumination
 --- To work as ON- OFF switch.
 In street lighting control. l
 In camera exposure setting.
 In counting application.
 In aircraft and missile tracking system
 In burglar alarm.
 As voltage regulator
 Advantages
 1—High sensitivity
2-- Low cost
 3 – Long life
4--- High voltage capability.
 5—Hight dark to light resistance ratio
(1000:1)
 Drawbacks
 1 --- The current changes with change in
light intensity with a time lag.
 2--- A relatively narrow spectral response.
 Photo Diode
 A photo diode is a reverse biased P-N
junction diode which is designed to
respond to photon absorption.
 Principle
 A reverse biased P-N junction diode has a
reverse saturation current which is mainly
due to flow of the minority carriers. If light
is allowed to fall on such a reverse biased
P-N junction diode , addition electron –hole
pairs are generated in both P and N region .
It produced a very large change in minority
carriers conc. And hence increases the
reverse current through the diode.
 2000 Lm/m2

Diode 1500 Lm/m2

Current
1000 Lm/m2
(mA)
Dark current

Reverse Voltage V
 Working and
Characteristics
 When photodiode is kept under dark condition and
sufficient reverse voltage is applied, then almost
constant current is obtained , This current is called
dark current because it flows when no light is
incident . It is proportional to the concentration of
minority carriers ( hole in N and electrons in P
region) and is denoted by Id
 Under large reverse bias condition , the total
current is given by
 I = Is + Id
 Where Is = short circuit current and is
proportional to light intensity.
 With any bias V, the reverse current due to thermal
electron hole pairs i.e.
 Dark current is given by.
 Id = I0 (1- e ve/ ηkT )
 Hence the V-I Characteristics photo diode is given by
 I = Is+ I0 (1- e ve/ ηkT )
 Where η = 1 for Ge and 2 for Si.
 Only the curve representing the dark current passes
through the origin.
 The current increases in the level of illumination.
 Uses
 Photodiode can turn its current ON and OFF in
nanosecond therefore , it is used where light is
required to be switched OFF and ON at a very
fast rate
 A photodiode is used in light detection in light
operated switches, reaching of computer punched
cards and type etc.
 In optical communication system.
 Used in instrumentation, control automation and
communication

 Photo-Voltaic cell
 Becquarel in 1839 discovered that when a pair of
electrodes is immersed in an electrolyte and light
is allowed to incident on one of them , a potential
difference is created between electrodes . This
phenomenon is called photovoltaic effect. Device
based on this effect are known as
Photo-Voltaic cell . This
photovoltaic cell are the divices in which light
energy is use to creat a potential difference so
developed is directly proportional to the
frequency and intensity of incident light.
 Semiconductor

Metal Light
+

-
 Construction and working
 A basic photovoltaic cell consist of a piece of
semiconducting material bonded to a metal plate used for
preparing photovoltaic cell . When light is made to fall
on semiconducting material , valance electrons and hols
are liberated from its crystal structure. The electrons so
librated move towards the metal plate and holes flowin
opposite direction . Thus a potential difference is created
between the semiconducting material and metal plate .
Then the conventional current (due to holes) flows in the
external circuit through a load resistor r.

 Acttually photo-Voltaic cell a thin metallic
film of silver, gold or platinum is deposited
on a semiconducting layer like cuprous
oxide (Cu2o) or iron selenide . The whole
arrangement is then attached to a metal
plate (say copper)
 When external light is allowed to fall on metallic
film F, it penetrates easily and the barrier layer
between metallic film and the semiconductor ,
photoelectrons emission occurs, The ,
photoelectrons so emitted from the layer , move
towards the metallic film , consequently , the
metallic film F becomes negatively charged and
copper base plate positively charged . Hence a
potential difference is developed between two end a
current flows in the external circuit.
 Light
-

Mettalic film
Cu2O
R
Cu plate

+
 Uses of Photo-Voltaic cell
 1 – Operation of relays
 2 -- Photographic exposure
 3 -- Direct reading illumination metro.
 Solar cell
 A Solar cell or solar battery is basically a
P-N junction diode which converts solar
energy into electrica energy . It is also
called a solar energy converter and simply
a photodiode operator at zero bias voltage
.
 I
Glass Sun Light +

Metal rings
P
RL

Metal contact -
 Construction
 a solar cell consist of a P-N junction diode
generally made of Ge or Si . It can also be
gallium arsenide (GaAs) The P-N junction diode
placed in a can with window on top so that light
may fall upon Pand N type materials . The
thickness of both P- region and N-region is kept
small . so that in P- region electrons generated
can diffuses to junction before recombination
and similarly in N- region hole generated diffuse
to junction before they recombine.
 A heavy doping of P and N region
recommended to obtain a large
photovoltage . a nickel plate ring is
provided around the P-layer which acts as
+ve output terminal . A metal contact at
the bottom serves as –ve output terminal .
 Working
 When light is allowed to fall on P-N junction
diode, photons collides with valance
electrons and impart them sufficient energy
enabling them to leave their parent atoms .
Thus electron hole pairs are generated in
both the P and N side of the junction . These
electron and holes reach the depletion layer
W by diffusion then separated by the strong
barrier field.
 P
- +

W
- +
N
 However the minority carrier, electrons in p-side
drawn the potential barrier to reach the N side
and holes in N side moves to P- side . There flow
constitute the minority current which is directly
proportional to illumination .
 The accumulation of electrons and holes on the
two sides of the junction gives rise to an open
circuit voltage( voc) which is function of
illumination.
 Characteristics
 --- It may be seen that 100mW/cm2
[Link] open circuit voltage is
obtain 0.57V and short circuit current is
50A
 Maximum power output is obtained
when the cell is operated at the knee of
the curve
 Uses
 Solar cell are used in satellites and space
vechicles to supply power to electronic
and other equipments or to charge
storage batteries.