il AIR COMPRESSOR INSTALLATION GUIDE Edition 1 - June 1996 Note: This publication serves as a general guide for proper compressor installations, More detailed information or guidelines should be obtained from the respective manufacturer.— AAdas Copco — AIR COMPRESSOR INSTALLATION GUIDE 1.0 INTRODUCTION .. 2.0 INSTALLATION CHECK LISTS 2.1 Compressor room 2.2 Cooling water system . 2.3 Ventilation air . 2.4 Compressor air intake . 2.5 Electrical system check list... 3.0 BASIC DATA 3.1 Site conditions ..... 3.1.1 Ambient temperature 3.1.2 Atmospheric pressure 3.1.3 Relative humidity .. 3.1.4 Airborne dust load 3.1.5 Cooling water quality .. 3.1.5.2.1 For a once through system 3.1.5.2.2 For an open recirculating system 3.2 Compressed air quality ... 3.2.1 Condensation and water separation 3.2.2 Air quality classes Compressed air capacity 3.4.1 Airflow conversion formula 3.4.2 Calculation example ..... 3.4.3 Air leakage - power loss .. 3.5 Air pressure .... 3.6 Regulating system 3.7 Cagi / Pneurop test co 4.0 INSTALLATION HINTS .. 4.1 General considerations .. 4.1.1 Centralized or decentralized compressor stations 4.1.2 Choice between one large or several small compressors ..... 4.2 Elektronikon control systems. 4.2.1. Sequence control 4.2.2 Central governor...tl AIR COMPRESSOR INSTALLATION GUIDE 4.2.3 Remote monitoring .. 4.3 Compressor room... 4.3.1 Compressor room layout 4.3.2 Water pipework accessories 4.3.3 Condensate drains 4.4 Sizing of water pumps ... 4.5 Sizing of water pipes . 4.6 Lifting facilities ..... 4.7 Compressor room ventilation . 4.7.1 Calculation of the required ventilation air flow .. 4.7.2 Sizing of ducting... 4.8 Cooling water systems 4.8.1 Open cooling systems ... 4.8.1.1 Once through cooling system . 4.8.1.2 Evaporative cooling tower 4.8.2 Fully sealed recirculating systems .. 4.8.2.1 Air-water heat exchanger .. 4.8.2.2 Water-water heat exchange 4.8.2.3 Closed cooling tower .. 4.9 Cooling tower sizing 5.0 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM AND INSTALLATION .... 5.1 Insulation classes 5.2 Starting systems 5.2.1 D.O.L. - starting .. 5.2.2 The star-delta starter . 5.2.3 The auto transformer starter 5.3 Motor protection.. 5.3.1 Time lag fuses . 5.3.2 Thermal relays. 5.3.3 Magnetic relays 5.3.4 Thermistors . 5.4 Electrical cable sections 6.0 AIR RECEIVER ... 7.0 SIZING OF AIR PIPING 7.1 Airnet layout. 8.0 CONVERSION TABLES...il 1.0 INTRODUCTION This compressor guide has been made to provide those who work daily with air compressors an easy tool to help them decide as well as providing them with useful information on compressor installations. Where appropriate reference is made to existing information. This booklet will contribute towards: - Increased knowledge for Sales, Service and Technical people involved in installations. - Improved reliability and efficiency of equipment. - Better control on air leakages and pressure drops in the air net. - Aspects of minimizing the life cycle cost.tl 2.0 INSTALLATION CHECK LISTS Read each question carefully and mark (x) in the correct boxes. 2.1 Compressor room YES NO a. Isthe entrance to your compressor room high enough and wide enough to get your compressor(s) IN and out? b. Is the room large enough to give you adequate free space around your compressor(s) for installation, ventilation, inspection, maintenance and service? c. Do you have sufficient space above and around your compressor(s) for you to remove the electric motor and place it on the floor? d. Have you enough space in your compressor room to allow you to install a second compressor in the future? e. Does your compressor room have overhead lifting to facilitate major overhauls? f. If no overhead hoist is available, are you able to use a mobile crane, or fork lift truck in your compressor room to lift and move heavy parts like motor, compressor elements and coolers? g. Is the floor area where you will place your compressor(s) made of smoothed level concrete? Not more than 6 mm ('/s in.) unevenness is allowed.F Will your floor be splashed frequently with water while cleaning? \f YES, you should place your compressor on a raised concrete plinth 100-50 mm (4-6 in.) high. Will your floor support the static load imposed on it by your compressor? Do you have the necessary foundation-bolts for anchoring your compressor(s)? Foundation-bolts are only needed for piston compressors on special foundations; they are NOT needed for PACK compressors. Do you have Atlas Copco drawings showing compressor dimensions, maintenance space, installation proposals and foundation needs? See Section 4.3 YES NO2.2 Cooling water system Is the WATER you use to cool your compressor acceptable? a. Is your cooling water free from sand and other solid particles? b. Have you checked with the quality of your cooling water and compared with the manufacturing recommendations? Is the pressure in your cooling water system ©. between 3-5.5 bar (44-80 psig)? d. Is the water inlet temperature less than 35°C (95F)? e. Is the water outlet temperature less than 50°C (122F)? Temperatures above 50°C (122F) increase the risk of scale forming in cooling jackets and coolers. f. Ifyou are using a cooling tower to cool the water, does the tower have a chemical dosage system to prevent scale and algae growth? Bacteria checks are becoming standard procedures in many countries. g. Do you have the right flow of cooling water? h. Are water pipes correctly sized? i. Did you provide the cooling water system with accessories (manometer, temperature in heater, valves, others)? See Section 3.1.5, 4.4 and 4.5 tl YES NOll 2.3 Ventilation air Do you have sufficient VENTILATION in your compressor room? a. Are you aware that nearly all the electric energy to your compressor motor is converted into heat? And are you aware that this heat MUST be removed from the compressor room by either ventilation air or cooling water? Never operate air compressors in sealed or air-tight room. b. Doyou have sufficient fan capacity to limit compressor room temperature increase to 5°C? c. Have you planned for adequate ventilation air for your air cooled dryer? If you multiply your compressor shaft input in kW by 0.012, you'll get the dryer’s ventilation air need in m/sec. d. If you use a ventilation duct with your air-cooled compressor, have you checked that there is little or no duct pressure drop? It must, in all circumstances be less than 30 Pa (3 mm water column). e. Do you take in your ventilation air from the coldest and cleanliest location outside your compressor room? f. If your compressor operates in dusty surroundings have you fitted a ventilation air INLET PANEL FILTER to reduce dust, sand and other particles to a minimum? g. If you have fitted an inlet panel filter, have you installed a ventilation fan? h. Does your outlet opening have a wall louver to prevent ingress of dust? i. Has the ventilation opening an adequate area? Ventilation air speed should not exceed 5 m/s through an unrestricted opening and not exceed 2.5 m/s through louvers or panel filters. See Section 4.2 YES NO2.4 Compressor air intake Is the INTAKE of suction to your compressor adequate? a. Is your air intake outside i) atleast 3 m (10 ft) above ground level? ii) raised above the roof level? b. Have you fitted your outside air intake with i) arain cover? ii) a protective net or screen? iii) a pre-filter to reduce high air pollutant levels? While the standard paper filter in the compressor is adequate, you will be able to reduce the number of paper filter replacements, if you fit a pre-filter. c. Does your air intake pipe duct i) have a circular cross-section? ii) have at least the same diameter as the suction pipe connection to the standard suction filter? iii) have more than two bends in it? If YES to iii), then you must increase pipe duct diameter by 50% to avoid flow restrictions caused by more than two bends. d. Is your air intake pipe duct i) properly supported? ii) anti-corrosion treated on the inside? ili) more than 10 m (30 ft) in length? If YES to iii), then you must increase pipe duct diameter by 50% to avoid flow restrictions caused by the pipe length. See Section 4.7 tl YES NO— Aides Copeo — 2.5 Electrical system check list Do you have the correct ELECTRICAL SYSTEM for your compressor(s)? a. Is the voltage and frequency of your electricity supply at your connection point the same as that required by the motor fitted in your compressor? b. Does your electricity supply have enough capacity for your compressor motor during starting? Direct-on-line (DOL) starters need SIX TIMES the rated motor current while starting. Star-delta (Y/D) starters need TWICE the rated motor current at start. c. Have you provided an isolator switch in the electricity supply line to your compressor? This gives you possibilities to do maintenance on electrical equipment without stopping more than ‘one compressor. d. Are the fuses/circuit heaters correctly sized? e. Does your electricity supply have sufficient capacity to allow you to install a second compressor at a later date? f. Are your electric power cables to be carried on cable ladders? Floor conduits for power cables make inspection/ access difficult; they are generally more expensive and less flexible. g. Are cable sections sufficiently sized? See Section 5.3 and 5.4 YES NOll 3.0 BASIC DATA 3.1 Site conditions 3.1.1 Ambient temperature The manufacturer is stating the maximum inlet conditions. If in doubt, please check with your local Atlas Copco Company or their agent. Stationary compressors are in most cases designed for a maximum inlet temperature of 40°C For portable compressors in general, a maximum of 50°C is stated. These inlet air temperatures may in any case not be exceeded. Please note that there can be a difference between the inlet temperature of the compressor and the ambient temperature as specified in geographical and climatological data of the plant site. These data only indicate outside temperatures measured in shady places. The inlet temperature of a compressor can exceed this ambient temperature considerably if the compressor is installed in a badly ventilated room. Also other installed machinery, like boilers or engines can increase the room temperature considerably. In case the compressor is installed outdoors some precautions should be taken. Direct sun rays can considerably increase the body temperature of the compressor and temperatures more than 60°C are sometimes measured on canopy parts and inside electrical cubicles. In any case rain and sun protection should be provided for outdoor installations. Special attention should be made to avoid any recirculation of cooling air which can be caused by improper sealing of canopy parts or cooling air deflections caused by wind or obstruction due to walls too close to the outlet gratings of the compressor. The dominant wind direction in the area should be taken into account when a compressor room layout has to be made. For compressors installed indoors, a normal warming-up of approximately 5°C has to be considered when evaluating the actual maximum inlet temperature of the unit. Those five degrees should then be added to the climatological maximum condition in order to determine the maximum inlet temperature of the compressor. Please note that a warming-up in a compressor room can only be limited by adequate ventilation of the room.— Aidan Copco — Notes a Influence of ambient temperature on the power requirement of the compressor: For each 10°C higher ambient temperature the power consumption of the compressor decreases with 1%. Influence of cooling temperature on permitted output in percentage of rated output for electric motors. Cooling temp. (°C) Permitted output vs rated output (%) 3.1.2 Atmospheric pressure The ambient pressure and temperature decreases with altitude. A decreasing atmospheric pressure will affect the pressure ratio of compressors and therefore has an influence on power and capacity. For each 1000 m higher altitude the approximate power consumption decreases; 4% for Single Stage Oil Injected Compressors 6% for Double Stage Oil Injected Compressors 7% for Double Stage Oil Free Compressors Changes in ambient conditions will also affect the available power from diesel engines and electric motors. For diesel driven units the derating of engine power is more important than the reduction of power absorbed by the compressor, and therefore the altitude operation of standard units is limited to 1000 m. For electric driven units the derating of the electric motor is less than the reduction of power input for the compressor and altitude operation is only limited by the outlet temperatures of the element(s).—_« Sitlas Copeo —n Influence of the altitude operation on permitted output of the electric motor: Altitude above sea level 1,000] 1,500] 2,000] 2,500} 3,000] 3,500] 4,000 Permitted output vs rated output (%) 3.1.3 Relative humidity The relative humidity at a certain temperature will determine the amount of water vapour in the air. This data is extremely important when an evaporation cooling tower has to be selected. The size of an evaporation cooling tower is determined by 4 factors: - wet bulb temperature - warm water temperature - cold water temperature - cooling water flow (See section 4.8) Note: Influences of atmospheric pressure and relative humidity on mass output flow: For a quick estimation of the possible mass flow rate, the following table will give a good estimation. We stress again that it is important to keep the air as cool and as dry as possible. High air intake temperature causes a decrease in mass air flow of approximately 3% for each 10°C above the reference ambient temperature.— icles Copco —a Mass flow reduction due to high intake temperature and humidity: Example: Intake temperature 30°C, relative vapour pressure 0.20 (20% RH), mass outputs to be reduced by a factor of 0.959 ‘so that a compressor with a FAD = 1/0.959 = 1.043 is needed. 3.1.4 Airborne dust load Standard stationary compressors are normally equipped with paper filter elements with an efficiency of SAE fine: Particle Size 1 micron 98% 2 micron 99.5% 3 micron 99.9% The lifetime of the intake filters will be reduced drastically when dust concentrations above 150 mg/m* (machine shop operation) are experienced. In some cases pre-filters are to be installed. This can be done either directly upstream the compressor intake or at the inlet to the compressor room. Please note that we only allow a maximum under pressure of 50 m/ bar across air filters. Suction openings in compressor rooms should be foreseen preferably 3m above ground level in order to prevent too much dust sucked in.tl 3.1.5 Cooling water quality For water-cooled compressors, it is imperative to check the quality of the water available. In our water-cooled compressors, we use tube in shell coolers. These coolers are to be protected against scaling, corrosion and fouling The water quality on site will determine not only the type of water treatment to be foreseen, but in some cases will also be the base criteria for selecting the type of cooling system to be used. In all cases, it is advisable to have a water sample analyzed in order to confirm whether the available water meets our specification. This will avoid bad experiences and unnecessary maintenance cost in the future. The cooling water quality must meet certain minimum requirements. 3.1.5.1 General rules Calcium, bicarbonate and free carbon dioxide concentrations have to be approximately in equilibrium at the maximum occurring temperature in the cooling system (less than 90°C). The acidity degree pH has to be limited. The concentration of the different components in the water has to be limited. Concentration of suspended solids, iron and other metals has to be limited. Oxygen should be present in a concentration sufficient to maintain passivity of metals present in the circuit. Remark: No oxygen for water containing high iron and/or manganese concentrations.i ? 3.1.5.2 Specific rules 3.1.5.2.1 For a once through system (water temperature less than 90°C) - Atthe maximum water temperature, equilibrium should be reached or the water should be slightly scaling. - Recommended maxim: Chlorides - Cl : 150 mg/l Sulphates - SO,” : 250 mg/l Total solids (Residue at 105°C) : 750 mg/l Iron - Fe 2 0.2 mg/l Manganese - Mn 2 0.1 mg/l Remark 1: For water with a carbonate hardness (temporary hardness) less than 1 mval/l or 50 mg/l CaCog itis advisable to keep the chloride concentration as low as possible. Remark 2: For water with an oxygen content less than 3 mg/l an iron concentration can be tolerated up to 0.3 mg/l. 3.1.5.2.2 For an open recirculating system (water temperature less than 90°C) - Make-up water: Carbonate hardness (temporary hardness) less than 1 mvalil or 50 mg/l CaCos,. - Circulating water (recommended composition): Equilibrium conditions at the maximum temperature in the system. RSI (Rysnar Index) Tendency of water 70-75 significant corrosion 7.5-9.0 heavy corrosion 9.0 and higher corrosion intolerable Acompletely closed cooling water system is recommended as this offers the optimal control on water quality, greatly reducing the need for regular cleaning.— Atlas Copco —az 3.2 Compressed air quality The quality of the compressed air can be specified by different factors such as temperature, amount of dust, oil content, pressure dewpoint, etc. For these applications where the oil content in the compressed air represents a danger for malfunction (instrument air) or for spoilage of the end product (foal, pharmaceutical, jet weaving looms), the selection of an oil free compressor is a must. Typical figures for oil carry-over are 5 to 10 ppm on oil injected compressors. These references will be influenced by discharge temperature, load/no-load cycle, maintenance of the unit and contamination of the separator. Addition of filters after an oil injected compressor does improve the air quality. However as this does not guarantee oil free air at all circumstances, it is not advisable to recommend oil injected compressors for these cases where oil contamination is prohibited. Another important criteria in quality of compressed air is the dryness of the air. Certain applications do require the use of special desiccant dryers in case low dewpoints are specified. These desiccant dryers require inlet air without any oil or water droplets as this will contaminate the desiccant material. For these applications, pre-filters should be installed upstream the dryer. Dust removal filters are to be installed after the dryer. For applications below 2°C, dewpoint is not required, the use of refrigerant dryers is still advisable as water vapour will cause corrosion in airnet piping and water condensation will eventually reduce the lifespan of tools and components.—_ Silas Copeo —_ 3.2.1 Condensation and water separation 01 015 02 03 0405060708 09 1 ative pour aroseire LIL 40 0 20 18 5 aN 8 ~~ 60 \ e \ 50, 18 a5 1 * 35, 28 fen ops —+1 2 \ ress os Ne iyo omperance °C saga, IN wot bulb tomporature °C) ereence, —— Example: Dry-bulb temperature: 20°C Wet-bulb temperature: 16°C We read with the above graph a relative vapour pressure of 0.70, which corresponds to 12 g/m? (at 20°C air inlet temperature) Condensation in Intercooler At 1.8 bar effective and 25°C we find 8.2 g/m® Separation = 12 - 8.2 = 3.8 g/m® Condensation in Aftercooler At 7 bar effective and 25°C we find 2.9 g/m? Separation = 8.2 - 2.9 = 5.3 g/m* The separation degree was assumed to be 100%. In reality it will be approximately 85%.ll 3.2.2 Air quality classes Maximum Solids Content Max. particle size (um) | Max. concentration (mg/m*) 0.4 01 1 5 15 40 Maximum Water Content or- > Dewpoint is 10°C below the lowest temperature in the system Maximum Oil Content Max. concentration ” (mg/m*) 0.01 0.1 1 5 (for oil injected compressors) 25 © droplets, aerosols and vapour—a Altlas Copeo —_ 3.3 Air dryers The outlet air of an air compressor is always 100% saturated with water vapour. Any further reduction of temperature will cause the formation of water condensation in the outlet piping. This condensation is not only harmful for the piping system, but will also shorten the lifespan of condensed air equipment. In some applications it will also spoil the end product. In all cases it is therefore recommended to install air dryers after the compressor. The dryness of the air is expressed in : - relative humidity - pressure dewpoint - atmospheric dewpoint In the below mentioned graph, the relation atmospheric and pressure dewpoint can be found. 0 20bar 70 20ar 60 Wear 50 Tar Sbar 40 Soar 2bar Effective Pressure 30 1 ar 20 10 obar Pressure Dewpoint (°C) ° “10 -30 -40 -60 60 -60 50 -40 -30 20 “10 o +10 ‘Atmospheric Dewpoint (°C) Lori id a dt 152 34568 182 84566 i682 39456 8 oo o1 1 10 Water content (g/m? Wet Air)3.3.1 Sizing of dryers Dryers are to be sized based on the full load operation of all installed compressors. The required dewpoint and actual working condition will determine the size and type of dryer. For refrigerant dryers, the dryer inlet air temperature and cooling media temperature might differ from the quoted reference conditions. For these applications, a derating factor has to be used. The required size of the dryer can then be found using the formula: _ Qret Q dryer = 15 % 5%. += 20%, Note: Specific energy consumption is based on packaged power input. Power consumption at zero flow only if specified by the manufacturer.— Atlas Copco — 4.0 INSTALLATION HINTS 4.1 General considerations 4.1.1 Centralized or decentralized compressor stations The advantages of one centralized compressor station are: - Lower installation cost Since a centralized compressor station will use a large compressor unit, the investment cost (purchase of the unit + accessories) and the floor space requirement will be lower than for decentralized stations using several small units. The air intake filtration, ventilation requirements, cooling water treatment, air cooling and drying are located in one place. Also, noise reduction becomes easier. - Lower power cost A large unit operating at full load has a more economic power consumption than several small units, even when also operating at full load. - Lower maintenance cost Savings in labour time spent for routine maintenance work. Easier application and control of more sophisticated maintenance methods such as (remote) condition monitoring (pressures, temperatures and vibration levels) and oil analysis. Better possibility for full-automatic remote control and sequence operation. The advantages of a decentralized compressor station are: Smaller airnet and inherently less air leakage and less pressure drop - Separate airnets can operate at different pressures - Flexibility in case of breakdown Conclusion A decentralized com) pressor station is installed when the compressed air is used for special applications such as: - Different working pressures - Warm air required for e.g. pneumatic operation of forging tools - _ Air blast for high-voltage electric breakers - Pneumatic conveying of materials In most other cases, a centralized compressor station is preferred.— itles Copco —a 4.1.2 Choice between one large or several small compressors Let us assume that a compressed air requirement of 100% has to be met Following points should be considered when making the choice between installing one compressor or two compressors with a flow rate of 50% each: - The cost of a production stop - The power facilities - The load cycle - The distribution system extension costs - The available floor space In many cases, one of the two 50% flow rate compressors can provide enough reserve flow rate so that at least some production can continue in case of an unscheduled compressor shut-down. If production continuity is vital, three 50% flow rate compressors should be installed: two compressors to meet the air consumption and one for stand-by. In such installations two compressors will nearly always be fully loaded while the stand-by unit is not in operation. This has the advantage that two units are running at high efficiency, as the efficiency of a compressor is maximized at full load. The same is valid for an electric motor. When running near to the rated power, the efficiency and power factors are close to maximum. With three 50% flow rate compressors, the third compressor is available for meeting peak demands and allows scheduled maintenance jobs without loss of production. The use of several compressors with sequence control is a potential solution for the dilemma of the low efficiency of an oversized compressor and the inability to cover peak demands with decreased production as a consequence. In the case of one large compressor, a 10% flow rate compressor is sometimes installed which meets the low compressed air demands during the weekends and night shifts. Another point to be considered when installing a large compressor is the possibility that it may disturb the main voltage supply by too high inrush currents.—a Silas Copco —a 4.2 Elektronikon control systems 4.2.1 Sequence control In case several units are connected in parallel, it is advisable to opt for sequence operation. Where the pressure is sensed on the common header or receiver, extra precautions should be taken to avoid overpressures just after the compressor. The ES 100 elektronikon selector switch nowadays available can be installed on elektronikon controlled compressors as well as electro-pneumatic controlled units. The use of this new type of sequencer has several extra features. The main feature is that a small operating pressure band between loading and unloading can be adjusted. This is achieved by controlling the airnet pressure with only one pressure sensor/transducer. This transducer is sensing continuously the pressure variations in the airnet and the microprocessor in the sequence selector is deciding which and when a particular compressor has to be loaded or unloaded. 4.2.2 Central governor The Central governor not only sequences the connected compressors. It will also select the most appropriate machine to run in order to match as much as possible the air capacity to the actual air consumption. Considerable energy savings is possible.il 4.2.3 Remote monitoring In order to remotely control and monitor the compressors a remote monitoring software (ES400) or telemonitoring package (ES500) can be used. Elektronikon Products Bresso Praouct Labels esor Rely htoriace Not Poss £803 Temperature Kt £820 Conta! Governor 8 Compressors E530 Centra Governor 12 Compressors E80 Ramat Hontonng Sot F100: Proseute Conor MKS SSO Teemontoing Sys Noe: ES 500 loca developed product n Ais Copco SEA eS a0 Electro Paoumnatle loc -Prvstio with ES 0% sktrocikon GAs00 MK 6845-75 0K zRZAse (GA 900 Spare Parts GA90.915-GA 110-200 sone (0k BO HH) AH mH HH} Note: ES 500 doesnot raquira ES 400 in cate menitoringis not requited by the customer 4.3 Compressor room 4.3.1 Compressor room layout Adequate space must be provided around the compressors, dryers and receiver for proper ventilation and for regular inspection and maintenance. Minimum dimensions between compressor-wall- centerlines are therefore given. Sometimes the location can be determined by the quality of the intake air. This has to be cool, clean and dry and therefore the compressor center should be away from steam, chemical vapour, engine exhaust and dust. All ducts have to be installed so that they can be removed very easily in case of repair works.Adas Copeo INSTALLATION PROPOSALS Inet bctngll 4.3.2 Water pipework accessories slo oO: oer 1: Water Shut-off Valve 2: Inet Water Pressure Gauge ‘3: Inlet Water Temp Gauge 4 Outlet Water Pressure Gauge 6 Drain Vave The installation of the extra cooling water drain valves will facilitate the draining of all cooling water in case of long stand-still periods or repair works. Cooling water inlet and outlet pipes should be provided with shut-off valves, so that the unit can be isolated from the main water supply. Extra valves in inlet and outlet should be foreseen for cleaning, rinsing or for drainage. A manometer should be installed in the water inlet and outlet pipe. A temperature gauge in the inlet water pipe should be provided. In closed cooling systems, the following devices should be installed: - Expansion vessel Will compensate for changes of volume of water caused by temperature differences and water losses. The expansion tank should be installed close to the water pump inlet. : Safety valve Whenever a circulating pump fails, it is possible that the water starts boiling and to prevent excessive pressure a safety valve is required. - Air venting device When filling the system, the air must be evacuated from the pipes. Therefore vent cocks as well as drain plugs should be provided. An automatic de-aeration device can also be provided.= Copco ; 4.3.3 Condensate drains To evacuate all condensation water from dryers and compressors, sewers are to be provided. They will facilitate checking of the operation of all condensation drain traps. The outlet of all condensation drain pipes has to be situated above the water-level so that their operation can be confirmed at all times. No manual shut-off valves are to be installed in the automatic drain lines. —— Automatic and manual drain line Drained condensate level 4.4 Sizing of water pumps Water pumps should be sized in order to limit the water temperature increase in the compressor to 10°C (warm climate) or 15°C (in the colder countries). Corresponding flow and pressure drop in the compressor system should be verified with the manufacturer's specifications. The minimum pressure head of the pump should be equal to the total pressure drop in the water system, i.e., pressure drop in piping, compressor circuit, cooling tower and height. An extra of 10 to 20% in water flow at a certain minimum water head should be taken as reserve. The maximum water pressure of 5.5 bar to 7 bar that should not be exceeded. (consult compressor specifications) A standby water pump should always be foreseen,i F 4.5 Sizing of water pipes The water speed through water feedpipes should be limited to 3 to 4 m/sec. Pressure drops can be calculated by using the following graphs: 10 10 0 1 2 3 ms 4 A lL = pressure drop per pipe length Table 4.5— Aas Copeo —x Pressure drop in cooling water pipes in bar/m _- Py ‘ave a: comesponing pipe length 008 s00K8 00x 200% 00% BE) rome _ toa EE : HEH _— q IF M4 toa ts? a ‘tbow 20" FRR ct HS inner dlamster of ppain mm re ee 200 900 pe Example: Pipe length = 50 m, inner diameter = 70 mm, water speed = 1.2 m/s 4 P=50mx 2x 10° bat/m = 0.1 bar Additional pressure drop is caused by valves, Tee-pieces, elbows, etc. Above mentioned graph shows these pressure drops expressed in corresponding pipe length. Example: Ashut-off valve in a 50 mm pipe creates a pressure drop which corresponds to a pressure drop caused by 330 x 50°mm = 16.5 m pipe of 50 mm, which is 16.5 x 3 x 10* = 0.05 bar at a water speed of 1.2 m/s. d = inner diameter of cooling water pipe. (see table 4.5 pressure drop in cooling water pipes in bar/m).i F 4.6 Lifting facilities The heaviest part in a compressor is in most cases the electric motor. Although an electric motor only has to be removed once every 24000 hrs or 40000 hrs (depending on the type of motor), it is still good practice to foresee from the beginning adequate lifting facilities. Coolers and compressor elements can be heavy items, the existence of an overhead crane or hoist will therefore reduce maintenance time considerably. 4.7 Compressor room ventilation The total quantity of energy delivered to the compressor in the form of electricity is completely transformed into heat during compression. In the case of water-cooled compressors, most of this heat is taken outside of the compressor room. For air-cooled compressors, nearly all the heat will be dissipated in the compressor room if no ducting is provided. The required ventilation air flow rate for the room depends on three factors: Type of unit (air-cooled or water-cooled) - Installation of ducting (inlet and/or outlet ducting) - Warming-up of the compressor room For water-cooled units, the room ventilation should be calculated based on the electric motor losses (6% of shaft input of compressor) + 2% of radiation. For air-cooled units, a lot of cooling air is blown into the room and in most cases extra in and/or outlet ducting is required to keep room ventilation and room temperature within acceptable limits. An outlet duct for air-cooled units is recommended as this will remove heat equal to 80% of the shaft input of the compressor.— dlas Copco —a 4.7.1 Calculation of the required ventilation air flow Air-Cooled Machines N Qy =1.05 x Water-Cooled Machines N 0. a * OF Q,, = Required Ventilation (m°s) N= Shatt Input of the Compressor (KW) AT = Room Temperature minus Ambient Temperature Note: The DT (warming up of the compressor room) should be limited *in accordance to the maximum ambient temperature. For high ambient conditions, the warming-up temperature (DT) should be kept to 5°C. When more than one compressor is installed, it is advisable to install several ventilating fans instead of one big fan. The fans should be mounted onto the wall in such a way that each of them creates an airflow lengthwise of the compressor. Thermostatic control can be foreseen. Air inlet gratings provided in the wall at approximately 3 m from the ground level should be sized so that the air speed through the free area keeps below 5 m/sec (normal +/-3 m/ sec).The ventilation air speed should not exceed 2.5 m/sec through louvers or panels filters. The quantity of air which is used as a base for the calculation of the inlet grating should include the F.A.D. of the compressors and cooling air sucked in by the ventilators. Those ventilation openings should be installed at the shady side of the building. The air intake openings are to be provided with grids or louvers in order to keep out rain, leaves etc., the free area of these grids or louvers is approximately 60% of the total area. Eventually air panel filters behind the grid or louver can be installed when required For air-cooled FD dryers the ventilation air need can be found by multiplying the compressor shaft input in KW by 0.012.— Sittas Copeo —x 4.7.2 Sizing of ducting When designing the duct installation, take into account that the total pressure drop over the duct (inlet as well as outlet) should not exceed 30 PA or 3 mm H.O at maximum ambient conditions. Velocities of 3 m/sec are considered as normal. Always install ducts with a minimum area equal to the grating foreseen on the compressor. A maximum of 2 bends should be considered. Those bends should have a radius equal to at least the width of the ducting. Rectangular shaped bends are not acceptable. In case a length of more than 6 m and 2 bends are foreseen some calculations should be carried out to verify the total pressure drop of the ducting. Pressure drop in duct A p=pdxftot with dynamic pressure In which p is density (1.2 kg/m?) and ¥ is velocity Dynamic pressure pd for air with density of 1.2 kg/m Air Speed (m/s) pd (Pa) 5.4 3.5 7.3 4 9.6 45 12.1 5 15 Total resistance f tot= (Lx fd x correction factor) + (n x fb) + fg with L= length of duct number of bends fd = flow resistance fb = resistance in elbows fg = resistance in outlet screens— Aidias Copco — Flow resistance fd for round ducts, the values per unit of pipe length are stated in the following table - for rectangular ducts the hydraulic diameter dh is introduced: 0 6/70 ~=|80 ~=—|90 a67 [ose [oss 0.92 o29 |o26 |o2s |o20 joie foi7 jot [015 jota [013 12 [on for [0099 |o.095 |oos |o0ss [oes [0.080 | 0.076 0.073 |0.071 [0.069 [0.067 [0.068 |oose | 0.060 [0.058 [0.056 | 0.055 0.055 | 0.052 [0049 [0.048 |o.0as [ooas |o.0ss |ooas [0.042 0.040 0.030 [0.039 [0.09 [007 | 0.036 |0.035 [0.033 [ooss |o0s2 [0031 0.030 [0.030 10.030 [oe [oe [oo [002s |oo2r |ooe7 |o.026 0.026 | 0.026 |0.02 [0.02 | 0.024 |o.02s | ooze [o023 [0.023 | 0.023 800 | 0.023 [ooze |ooze |oo2t |o0e1 |o020 |o.020 [0020 [0.020 |o.or9 900 | 0.019 [o.o19 |oote fore [oote foo1s |o018 joo |o017 |oo17 1000 | 0.017 | 0.017 Joo1e Joos |oors [oo1s |o.o16 [0.015 |oo1s |oo1s ttoo | 0015 [0.015 foo1s [0.015 [0015 [0015 |o.015 [oor [oor |oots 1200 | 0.014 [oo14 |oo13 [0.013 [0013 [0.013 | 0.013 [0.013 [0.013 | 0.013 1300 | 0.013 [0.012 ]o.o12 |o.012 [0.012 |o012 |o.012 |oo12 |oor2 joote 1400 | 0012 [oor [oon foo [oo [oo [oo [oo10 [oot |ooio 1500 | 0.010 | 0.010 [0.010 [0.010 | 0.0090 | 0.0099 | 0.0099 | 0.0098 | 0.0097 | 0.0097 1600 | 0.0096 | 0.0085 | 0.0095 | 0.0004 | 0.0098 | 0.0092 | 0.0091 | 0.0090 [0.0080 | 0.0098 4700 | 0.0088 | 0.0088 | 0.0087 | 0.0086 | 0.0086 | 0.0085 | 0.0088 | 0.0084 [0.0084 | 0.0088 1200 | 0.0082 | 0.0082 | 0.0082 | 0.0081 | 0.0081 | 0.0080 | 0.0080 | 0.0079 [0.0078 [0.0078 4900 | 0.0078 | 0.0078 | 0.0077 | 0.0076 | 0.0075 | 0.0075 | 0.0075 | 0.0074 | 0.0074 | 0.0073 2000 | 0.0073 | 0.0073 | 0.0072 | 0.0072 | 0.0072 | 0.0072 | 0.0071 | 0.0071 | 0.0071 | 0.0071 Note: The values in the above table are for air velocities of 3 m/s. At other velocities a correction factor must be applied.i z velocity m/s correction factor 2 Resistance fb in elbows Losses caused by change in direction are listed for 90 bends in the table below. A part proportional to the bending angle has to be taken for bends below 90° (e.g. fore 30°, one third of the values below has to be taken). LJ! mR" b _ Rectangular elbows rea r=15a r=2a b/a=0.25 0.48 0.19 0.17 b/a=0.5 0.30 0.15 0.13 bla>1 0.23 0.15 0.13 diameter = a ~ 0.25 Round elbows _ r=2a 0.14 Resistance fg of outlet screens The resistance of outlet screens : % free area louvers perforated sheets w@ ny) Not Allowed oO O: Cipco Calculation example for ducting: Rectangular duct 1000 x 600 mm . b/a=1.6 - 2bendsr=a - length = 6 m - free area of grid is 60% (louvers) _ 4x 1000 x 600 = = 750 2 (1000 + 600) From table fd = 0.024 From table fb = 0.23 From table fg = 4 - total friction resistance f tot = (Ix fd) + (nx fb) + fg | = length of the duct n= number of bends f tot = (6 x 0.024) + (2 x 0.23) +4=4.6 - pressure drop in duct From table fd = 5.4 Pa (air speed = 3 m/s) AP =f tot x fd = 4.6 x 5.4 = 24.8 Pa which is below 30 Pa.— Atlas Copeo —x 4.8 Cooling water systems For water-cooled units, the possibility of different heat removal systems exists. Open cooling systems: - once through system - evaporative cooling tower Fully sealed recirculating systems: - _ air-water heat exchanger - water-water heat exchanger - closed cooling tower The choice of cooling system used is depending on following main points: - — water quality and volume available - ambient conditions - cost 4.8.1 Open cooling systems 4.8.1.1 Once through cooling system This system is in most cases not a good economical solution. It will only be used in case a private water source is available. The use of a solenoid vaive in the cooling water inlet piping is to be foreseen in order to keep the compressor at working temperature during stopping and to avoid water pressure in the cooler during long stop times. In case there is a risk that the compressor water system will be empty, e.g. when the cooling water is connected to a sewer, it is advisable to connect the magnetic valve to the outlet.ll The main disadvantages of an open system are: - high operation cost 50 times more water is used than in an evaporating system - water treatment is very expensive, difficult to control and nearly always necessary - risk fouling of coolers with sand 4.8.1.2 Evaporative cooling tower Hot water is supplied from the compressor to the cooling tower where it is diffused. Air is blown in a counter-flow direction. Some water will evaporate. Since water absorbs heat when changing from liquid to vapour, the heat is taken from the water. The amount of evaporated water in the air is limited and after some time the saturation point will be reached. Air is blown constantly through the system (counter stream) so that saturated air is replaced with unsaturated air. The temperature difference between water in and out the tower is called the range. The difference between water out and wet-bulb temperature of the in-going air is called the approach. The larger the tower, the closer the approach. An approach temperature of 5°C is a feasible value. Even in the warmest countries, wet bulb temperatures seldom exceeds 28°C which means that a cooling water temperature of 33°C is possible. One of the disadvantages of the evaporative cooling tower is that impurities from the cooling air will gather in the cooling water. Scaling, corrosion or bacteriological problems can occur in the system. In most cases a water treatment system is required in order to control the concentration of minerals in the make-up water. The advantages of an open cooling tower can be summarized as follows: - small space requirement - simple construction and installation - low investment cost and power consumption— Altlas Copeo —x The disadvantages of an open cooling tower can be summarized as follows: - ambient air in contact with cooling water - scaling/corrosive water requires water treatment 4.8.2 Fully sealed recirculating systems 4.8.2.1 Air-water heat exchanger Ambient air is blown over the pipe bundle or plates by means of a fan which either pushes or draws air through the core. The air can be directed horizontally or vertically. The cooling capacity depends on the temperature of the ambient air and flow rate of the water. The air coolers must be designed for the local maximum ambient temperature. Itis possible to obtain an approach of 5 to 10°C. This means that a water temperature of 35°C can be achieved with a maximum ambient temperature of 25 to 30°C. The advantages of this system are the following: - low maintenance cost - no need for make-up water - high quality water can be used for initial fill in the compressor cooling system possibility for corrosion is reduced to a minimum heat recovery is possible - compressor maintenance requirements are reduced Disadvantages - higher power consumption higher investment cost applications are limited to ambient temperatures of 30°C risk for clogging up in dusty environmentstl 4.8.2.2 Water-water heat exchanger The hot water for the compressor is fed to a heat exchanger which is cooled down by exchanging heat with another cooling medium (water). Different types of heat exchangers exist. The simplest type is the heat exchanger consisting of a pipe within a pipe, counter-flow or parallel flow. Another construction is the shell core exchanger. In case seawater or other aggressive or contaminated water is used as a cooling media, the use of an extra plate heat exchanger offers many advantages. Advantages - acclosed cooling system for the compressor will reduce maintenance work on the compressor coolers to a minimum - contamination is limited to the plate heat exchanger for which the maintenance work is rather easy to perform. Corrosion, or sealing in the extra heat exchanger will be lower as temperatures are low (max. 50°C) - any clogging or leak will not endanger directly the compressor components Disadvantages - higher investment cost - higher power cost ‘Compressor ! | Heat Exchanger Cooling Tower P1=3xP2 8: Outlet water temperature compressor (max 50°C) Té: Inlet water temperature compressor (max 35°C) T2: Warm water in cooling tower T1: Cold water in heat exchange 3: Pump capacity 1 2: Pump capacity 2— Hitlas Copeo —« 4.8.2.3 Closed cooling tower The open cooling tower exposes cooling water directly to the atmosphere, whereas the closed cooling tower does not expose the cooling air to the coolant. Heat is transferred from the internal fluid circuit through the walls of pipes to the external water circuit. 4.9 Cooling tower sizing The maximum water outlet temperature for a compressor is 50°C. The approach temperature of a cooling tower is influenced by the relative humidity of the ambient air. The lower the relative humidity the better the evaporative cooling tower will cool. Approach temperatures of 5°C are possible. Considering an ambient temperature of 35°C a cooling water temperature of 30°C is feasible. In high humidity and high ambient conditions it is good practice to limit the cooling water temperature increase to 10°C. The corresponding water flow can be found in the AML. When you know the total cooling water requirement and its allowed temperature increase, you can calculate the heat amount the cooling tower. Heat amount (kcal/sec)= AT*Q 4 Tis the increase of cooling water temperature in °C Qis the cooling water flow in Vsec— Alddas Copco =x 5.0 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM AND INSTALLATION 5.1 Insulation classes The power delivered by a motor is limited by the temperature rise of the windings. Depending on the temperature rise the winding insulation can withstand continuously, there are different classes designated by characters A, E, B, F, H to choose from 405 120 130 40 180 °C Critical Temperature 155, aT ary 10 °C Permissible Temperature Rise 125, 75 40 40 ry TOME °C Max. Temperature of Cooling Medium E B F H Motors are normally provided with class F or class B insulation. In most applications, the ambient temperature is below the maximum allowed cooling air temperature of 40°C and neither is the allowed temperature increase of 15°C/10°C reached. Such a motor has an output reserve for unforeseen conditions. Insulation classes The quality of insulation on the windings is decisive for the service life of a motor. The lifespan of the insulation and of the motor depends on the temperature increase and is halved for each 10°C above the permissible temperature rise, which is 120°C for class B and 140°C for class F. Effect of the winding temperature on the insulation lifespan.i : Life % 50 40 . 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 Excess Temperature Rise When operating at altitude, the density of the air decreases and consequently also the cooling efficiency. Therefore, the maximum allowed temperature of the cooling air is decreased and the figures in the lower frame (insulation classes) have to be replaced by the figures of the below mentioned table. Insulation class A Altitude 1000 40 2000 34 3000 28 4000 22 Maximum cooling air temperature (°C) for different insulation classes at altitude.— Silas Copco — 5.2 Starting systems 5.2.1 D.O.L. - starting 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 t IL: Start Current In: Nominal Current By far the most common method of starting the polyphase squirrel- cage motor is “across-the-line” starting, connecting the machine directly to the plant distribution system at full voltage, using either a manual or magnetic starter. This method is mostly termed “direct- on-line” starting (D.O.L). Each motor is specified by a thermal capacity. When this energy is accumulated in the motor, it will reach the maximum allowed temperature for its winding. This thermal capacity is mostly expressed as the time (in seconds) during which a current equal to 6 times the rated current can be tolerated. This is normally between 12 and 15 seconds. The D.O.L. starting of large motors therefore results in a massive, short term, current surge, which often cannot be tolerated by the local supply.— Aldlax Copco — 5.2.2 The star-delta starter K1: line contactor bo r * K2: star contactor ly —9 * K3: delta contactor F1: overload relay 0,9, pg « P = geet 1D — Star-delta starters are used in areas where the power supply is inadequate to supply full starting current without objectionable voltage drop. The motor is started with the windings in a star or wye connection, reducing the voltage and the current in the windings to approximately 58% while the line current is reduced to one third. After a preset time, a timer will switch over and the motor will be connected in delta. Given the maximum current allowed, the moment of switching over to the delta connection can be selected without exceeding the allowable current. ILA: Direct on line current ILY: Star current "N: asynchronised speed "S: synchronised speed | allowed PNAS: Speed ‘» Switch-over timei z 5.2.3 The auto transformer starter “ee KI 75% 65% 55% K2 The auto transformer starter is generally used for larger motor types (or high voltage motors) and is suitable for motors which do not have both ends of each phase brought out to terminals. The auto transformer has usually three reduced voltage tapings: 55, 65, 75%, are probably the figures most used today. This method of starting is similar to the star-delta starter. First, we switch to a reduced voltage and when the motor has sufficiently accelerated, we switch to the full-voltage position. However, here, the size of the reduced voltage can be selected, whereas in star- delta 58% had to be used. By using the Korndorfer connection method, there is no break in the supply voltage and the transients are suppressed by part of the transformer, acting as a choke after the start contractor (K) has opened and before (K) has closed.tl 5.3 Motor protection Protectors based on monitoring the line current are: 5.3.1 Time lag fuses These fuses prevent sustained overcurrent while avoiding nuisance blow-out on starting or momentary overcurrent. Normally, fuses have an operating value of 125% of the rated current. They are used for protecting small motors, but not for larger motors. The thermal model of the fuse does not match motor heating characteristics. If the fuse protects the motor from slight overloads, it melts too quickly on transient heavy overloads. On the other hand, if the fuse melts only on sustained overload, it may not protect the motor against a prolonged overload that goes beyond the thermal capacity of the motor. 5.3.2 Thermal relays These relays depend on heating an element by the line current to actuate the protection mechanism. The heat-sensitive element is mostly of the bimetallic type. The thermal model is a better approach than fuses. But the ambient temperature can be quite different from the motor ambient when located at some distance, and in these conditions, magnetic relays are often used. 5.3.3 Magnetic relays These relays are responsive solely to the magnetic field set up by the line current. As soon as the magnetic field is sufficiently strong to move an iron core or to attract an armature, the relay will trip. All the above do not respond to overtemperatures caused by hot ambient conditions or blocked ventilation and therefore we prefer temperature-responsive protectors.— Alas Copeo — 5.3.4 Thermistors These are assembled as integral parts of the motor in order to protect against dangerous overheating or failure to start. Thermistors are small enough to be embedded in the stator slots so that they are Closely thermally coupled to the motor windings. They are fed back to an amplifier with sufficient power to interrupt the contactor holding coil. Thermistor circuits with their capability of a more complete protection are becoming increasingly popular. 5.4 Electrical cable sections The maximum nominal current through electrical cables is depending on the cable insulation material, conductor material. The voltage drop must not exceed 5% of the nominal voltage. It may be necessary to use cables with larger section than those stated to comply to this requirement. Cable Section in mm? Nominal Current in AmpsCalculation of voltage drop V3 xIx1xcos 0 XxA AV= 1 = length of the cable in m J = Current in Amps. cos @ = power factor x = specific conductance in S/m/mm? (56 for cupper) A= cross section in mm? Useful formula: Active power = P E = Line voltage I= Line current cos © = Power factor VBE x1x cos Note: The maximum line current of an electric motor is the nominal or rated current as stated on the motor dataplate times the service factor. Effect showing Current (1), Speed (n), Efficiency and power factor (cos 0) as a function of the voltage at constant output (P). 90 100 110 % Voltage— Atlas Copco — 6.0 AIR RECEIVER The function of the air receiver is to store compressed air. It also acts as an additional condensate separator. Furthermore, the air receiver ensures a ‘steady air flow to the compressed air equipment and equalizes momentary pressure variations in the airnet which could cause frequent loading/unloading of the compressor. The design, construction and inspection of the air receiver with its accessories are governed by regulations of the local pressure vessel authorities. The air receiver volume V can be calculated: Q, = compressor FAD (V/s) P, sompressor air inlet pressure (bar absolute) ompressor air inlet temperature (K) T, = air receiver air temperature (K) ressure switch setting = P unload - P load sycle frequency = 1 cycle/30 sec Example: - compressor air inlet pressure (bar absolute) = 1 bar (a). - Ap=0.8bar - Inlet temperature 7, = 7, = 273+20°C - fax = 1 Cycle/30 sec - Q.=584Vs 0.25 x 584 x 1 1/30 x 0.8 x 293 V=54751; ul LOCATION OF AN AIR RECEIVER Most compressors are provided with aftercooler and water traps. A good water trap has an efficiency of 80-90%. The rest of the condensate flows; as mist, with the compressed air into the outlet piping. As the air receiver can act as an additional water separator, it should be installed as close as possible to the compressors and at the coldest place (e.g. outdoors). In the air receiver the speed of the air will decrease and most of the residual condensate will run down to the bottom of the receiver which should be connected to an automatic and manual drain. Stand-alone air dryers should preferably be installed downstream of the receiver. This configuration represents the following advantages: - less water load to the dryer - lower inlet temperature for the dryer - steady air stream through the dryer - prevents desiccant degradation 7.0 SIZING OF AIR PIPING The airnet starts with the discharge pipe connecting the compressor to the main header. The diameter is at least equal to the compressor discharge connection and all parts are as short as possible. The common header should be sized for the total capacity of all installed compressors plus eventual expansions. As a quick reference the following table of recommended flows through pipes can be used ‘Actual pipe diameter (mm) Rate of flow (Vs) at 7 bar 6 i 9 t~—‘CSY 12 5 16 10 __ 22 27 “36 42 _ 53. 100 69 180 81 _ 240 105 410 130 610 155, : 900 The indicated pipe diameters are valid for pipe lengths not exceeding 100 m. If the distance is longer than 100 m, the next pipe diameter can be taken. After selection of the pipe diameter, the pressure drop can be calculated considering the pipe length, number of bends and working pressure.— idles Copco Compressors Receiver Main Header By-pass By-pass Following formula is used to calculate the pressure drop in a pipe: Op xL Ap= fx pete pressure drop (bar) friction factor = volume rate of flow at free air condition (m/s) pipe length (m) pipe inner diameter (mm) p= initial absolute air pressure (bar absolute) ABOU For hydraulic smooth pipes such as commercial or galvanized steel pipes used for the compressed airnet, the value of friction factor equals: 6 x 10°Equivalent pipe length in m Inner pipe diameter in mm 25 | 40 80 Seat valve 36 | 5-10 Diaphragm valve | 12 | 20 Gate valve 03 | 05 Elbow 15 | 25 Bend R=d 03 | 05 Bend R = 2d 0.15 Hose connection T- piece| 2 Reducer 05 Pressure drop table for valves, bends, etc. Pipe fittings and valves are expressed in equivalent pipe length, as can be seen in the above table. - The dimensions of the compressed air pipe system should be such that the maximum pressure drop in the air pipe to the most distant point is 0.1 bar. However, in a 3 bar effective airnet, the 0.1 bar pressure drop represents a relatively higher energy loss than in a 7 bar effective airnet. Therefore, it is better to specify that the pressure drop should be lower than 1.5% of the working pressure. The recommended compressed air flow velocity is between 6 and 10 m/s in order to avoid excessive pressure drops in the pipe lines. The importance of an adequately sized airnet will become evident from a simple example: A flow rate of 100 I/s has to be supplied over a distance of 50 m at a pressure of 7 bar effective with a maximum p = 0.3 bar.— Silas Copco — As a first evaluation of pipe diameter, the earlier table (pipe diameter versus flow) can be used. (see section 7.0). 100 I/s > 53 mm diameter The pressure drop calculated in the 50 m pipe equals: 1,6 x 10° x 0,100 '®° x 50 rr 53° x8 A p= 0,03 bar In case 10 bends (R=d) and 1 diaphragm valve are installed, the extra pipe length equals to 10x0,6+1x3=9m 1,6x 10° x 0,118 x 59 Pe ee 53° x8 A p= 0,04 bar 7.1 Airnet layout The most efficient way to distribute the compressed air to the various locations is by using a ring loop system. The pressure drop calculation of such a main loop system has to be simplified as follows: Hoader ing Loop L Main Header Branch PipesINSTALLATION PROPOSAL The total flow rate Q_ flows through the discharge pipe and the riser. Half of the flow rate will enter the left header and the other half the right header. It is assumed that the air flow in the left header gradually decreases to zero by the flow rates which flow through the subheaders and drop lines, so that the average losses in the left header are equal to the pressure drop if half of the flow had to cross the complete length. Qn Quy L oo Air Flow in Header In order to calculate the pressure drop in the ring loop one has to consider the pressure drop caused by 25% of the total air flow along half of the total ring loop length.; F Example: Compressor flow rate: 250 I/s at 7 bar. 1). Main pipe to the ring loop (Riser) total flow: 250 l/s. —> diameter pipe 80 mm (see table) length : 20m 8bends : 8m 2Tpieces : 14m Svalves : 22,5m Areducer : 2m Total length: 66,5m 1.85 1,6 x 10° x 0,25 '®° x 66,5 80° x8 Ap = 0,03 bar 2). Ring loop (Header) total flow: 250 = 62,5 Vs 4 —> diameter pipe 42 mm (see table) length =: 84m 2bends : 1,2m Total length: 85,2 m 1,6 x 10° x 0,0625 '® x 85,2 p> 42°>x8 Ap =0,08 bar3). — Atlas Copco —a Conclusion: too high pressure digs, therefore we select 53 mm 1.85 1,6 x 10° x 0,0625 185 x 85,2 Ap= 53°x8 Ap =0,02 bar Subheader total flow: 62,5 = 15,63 l/s 4 —> diameter pipe 22 mm (see table) length: 25 = 12.5 m 2 1,6 x 108 x 0,01563 °° x 12,5 bp = 225 x8 Ap =0,02 bar Total pressure drop main pipe + ring loop system. 0,002 + 0,002 + 0,003 = 0,007 bar. which is smaller than 0,1 bar.— Sddas Copco Branch pipes are further distributing the compressed air to the various locations. As a quick reference the following table for maximum flows can be used: Maximum Recommended Flow Through Branch Lines Nominal Pipe Diameter in mm Air Flow in I/s 6 25 8 : 57 10 12.6 15 23.4 20 35 25 65 32 40 200 50. 65 80. The above table can be used for branch pipes not exceeding 15 m of length. The total pressure drop of the piping system can be calculated by adding main pipe pressure drop, ring and branch pipe pressure drops (including additional pressure losses in valves and bends). The total should not exceed 0.1 bar.i Installation hints: Compressed air pipes should be installed in such a way that they can be reached from all directions. Pipe installations in trenches under the floor should be avoided since they are difficult to maintain and to repair. Adequate condensate drainage is difficult too. Air leak detection becomes problematic. Horizontally installed pipes should slope down 1% - 2% towards the air consumption point. In this way, the condensate is carried to predetermined locations where drains permit the condensate to be removed. While some may argue that properly installed and correctly sized dryers make sloping of compressed air pipes superfluous, the cost is minimal and sloping provides additional protection in the event the dryer is out of service. Pipe or tube bends should have generous radii in order to minimize turbulence. Bends are preferred to elbow couplings, because they reduce turbulence and create less pressure drop To prevent condensate from entering the branch pipe, the latter should be branched on top of the subheader. Condensation drain points have to be provided at the lowest points of the ring net. Itis recommended to provide flanges so that sections of the airnet can be isolated by inserting blind flanges. In this way maintenance work can be carried out without complete production stop. Adequate brackets, clamps or other supports will keep lines straight without sagging and prevent machinery vibrations owing to loosening pipe couplings. The following distances between two supporting points of the horizontal compressed air steel piping should preferably not be exceeded: Distance inmCONVERSION TABLESTEMPERATURE CONVERSION CHART Celsius - Fahrenheit —_ Atlas Copco —a NOTE: The contr column of numbersin bolllace rlars tothe lempartuvre in degrees, either Clsus cx Fahrent, which itis esredta covet to he ota sea eo orig am Falvenel io Casi degrees, tne equivalent root vil 'e found inthe left clumn, while # converting rom degraes Cass to dagreas Faron the ans wal bo four 9 ‘ts cokann onthe ight Celsius Fahrenheit | Celsius Fahrenheit 278.17 -459.7 59.4 75 -103.0 -268 -450 56.7 -70 94.0 262 440 “539 65 -85.0 “297 -430 511 -60 -76.0 251 -420 483 55 67.0 246 410 45.6 -50 “58.0 240 -400 428 45 -49.0 234 -390 40.0 40 -40.0 228 -380 “372 35 31.0 223 -370 34.8 -30 22.0 218 -360 “7 25 “13.0 212 -350 28.9 -20 “4.0 -207 -340 264 a5 50 201 -330 23.3 10 140 “196 -320 20.6 5 23.0 -190 -310 17.8 0 32.0 “184 -300 17.2 1 338 179 -290 “16.7 2 35.6 73 -280 “16.1 3 374 “169 273 450.4 | 156 4 302 168 -270 454 “15.0 5 41.0 “162 -260 436 44 6 428 “187 -250 418 “13.9 7 446 151 -240 -400 13.3 8 46.4 146 230 “382 128 9 482 “140 220 364 122 10 50.0 “134 210 346 117 n 518 “129 -200 328 44 12 53.6 “123 “190 -310 10.6 3 55.4 118 “180 292 “10.0 4 572 112 170 274 “34 15 59.0 107 -160 258 89 16 608 “101 “150 238 83 7 e268 96 140 220 7.8 18 644 90 130 -202 72 19 66.2 “84 “120 “184 67 20 68.0 79 110 “186 “61 a1 698 733 100 1480 | 5.6 22 16 678 -90 -190.0 5.0 23 73.4 62.2 -80 “112.0 44 28 752 Continued on next page.— Alitas Copco —a« TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CHART Celsius - Fahrenh NOTE: The canter colurn of numbers in toda relrs ote temoaratran agrees, ther Cols or Fahrenhat, which tis esired io conver nt the omer scala. convring tem Farenheit to Colsissdonrees, the equivalent temperature wil ba found in he et column eH coavaring rom degrees Callus o degree Fahrennat, the anier wi be founda the column onthe ah Celsius Fahrenheit | Celsius Fahrenheit 25 70) 183 65 149.0 26 738) 189 66 150.8 27 sos | 194 67 1526 28 2.4 | 200 68 184.4 29 a42 | 206 69 156.2 30 86.0 | 21.1 70 158.0 31 are) 217 n 159.8 32 aoe | 222 72 1616 33 sia | 228 73 163.4 34 a2 | 233 74 165.2 35 95.0 | 239 5 167.0 36 968 | 24.4 76 168.8 37 gas | 250 7 1706 38 100.4 | 256 78 172.4 39 1022 | 261 79 1742 40 1040 | 26.7 80 176.0 5.0 a 1058 | 27.2 81 178 56 a2 076 | 278 82 179.6 64 43 1094 | 283 83 181.4 a7 44 1112 | 289 a4 183.2 72 45 1130 | 29.4 85 185.0 78 46 1148 | 300 86 188.8 as a7 1166 | 306 387 188.6 89 48 1184] 31.1 88 190.4 a4 49 202} 317 89 1922 10.0 50 3220 | 32.2 90 194.0 10.6 51 1238 | 32.8 1 1958 14 52 1256 | 333 92 1976 7 53 127.4 | 33.9 93 199.4 122 54 1292 | 34g 94 201.2 12.8 55 1310 | 35.0 95 203.0 13.3 56 1928 | 956 96 204.8 13.9 87 1346 | 36.1 97 206.6 14.4 58 1984 | 96.7 98 208.4 15.0 59 1982 | 372 99, 2102 156 60 1400 | 37.8 100 212.0 16.1 6 rig | 406 105 221 167 62 1436 | 43.3 110 230 172 63 145.4 | 46.1 115 230 178 64 1472 | 489 120 248, Continued on next page.— Atlas Copeo = TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CHART NOTE: The conta column of numbers in bolic rlers tot - Fahrenheit wperalur in degrees, citer Clsuso¢ ater which itis desired i conve ia te other scale converting tom Falvenve © Cesius degrees the equivalent erperalure wl bo found ta tat colur, who converting Ham dogrees Cals o degrees Farranhelt, te anewer wi be foundin ‘he column onthe ng Celsius Fahrenheit | Celsius Fahrenheit 517 125 287 129 265 509 54.4 130 266 132 270 518 572 135 275 | 135, 275 527 60.0 140 284 138 280 536 28 145 2a3 | 141 285 545 656 150 302 | 143 290 554 683 155 31 46 295 563, na 160 320 | 149 300 572 738 165 sao | 154 310 590 767 170 338 | 160 320 608, 79.4 175 347 | 168 330 626 22 180 356} 171 340 644 85.0 185 365 | 177 350 662 78 190 s74 | 182 360 680 90.6 195 383 | 188 370 698 93.3 200 302 | 193 380 716 96.1 205 401 199 390 734 98.9 210 ato | 204 400 752 100.0 212 aig | 210 410 770 102 215 aig | 216 420 788 104 220 42a | 221 430 806 107 225 4s7 | 2e7 440 824 110 230 446 | 232 450 842 113 236 455 | 238 460 860 116 240 asa | 243, 470 2878 118 245 473 | 249 480 896 121 250 482 | 254 490 o1g 124 255 491 260 500 932 127 260 500 ‘These formulas may also be used for converting Celsius or Fa Decimal Vernier c - 0.06 ot 0.18 ott a2 0.96 17 03 0.54 0.22 04 72 0.28 0s 0.90 0.33 08 1.08 0.39 o7 1.26 0.44 0.8 1.44 0.50 09 1.62 Degrees Celsius, °C Degrees Kelvin, °K Degress Fahr, °F Degrees Rankine, °R shit degrees ito the other scales. 8 (°F +40)-40 8 = 5 (°F 82) 3 =°C +2732 =9 (0 + 40)-40 5 =9°C +32 5 =°F + 489.7— Milas Copeo —z Saturation pressure Py, and density Py of water vapour High humigity can cause another decrease in mass flow of 1% to 5% and each 100 mmH,0(10 mbar) pressure drop over the inlet fitor wil reduce the mass flow rate by 1%, ' Pus Py 0) Conon wim eo) soa ° 6.100 2 st67 1 6.506 Es sae 2 7055 a 3565 a 7575 2 780 4 e128 2 40.06 5 erie 3 4249 6 on a 4499 e wore 0 5031 ° war Py 53.20 " rare 98 soe 2 vac | ar 6076 12 1497 28 6026 4 1398 aa eng 6 40 7378 16 wai? a 70 7 1997 2 e202 8 20.63 4 as.a2 6 “a 91.08 20 4 95.06 a “6 1009 v2 a 106.2 2 | we ni m4 | w78— Atlas Copco —a Air pressure (absolute) and density at different altitudes according to NASA Altitude Pressure Density (mm) (bar) (kai) “1,000 1.198 1.345 ‘800 1109 1.317 600 1,080 1.288 -400 1,062 1.272 -200 1.038 1.249 1.013 1.225 1.001 1.213 0.989 4.202 0.978 4.190 0.986 1.179 0.985, 1.187 0.943, 1.158 0.921 1134 0.899) 1192 0.87 1.090 0.856 1,069 0.835, 1.048, 0.815 1.027 0.795 1.007 0775 0.986 0.786 0.966 0737 0.947, a719 0.928 0.701 0.909 0.683 0.891 0.686 0.872 O.649) o.884 0.633, 0.837 0.616 0819 0.540 0.736 0.472 0.860 0.411 0.590 0.356 0.525 (Values below sea-level have been extrapolated)000 000 | zZ6h Ob 000 OF 29'00SZ €2698'6 | O0e S62 ESS Pee | EMPLOP| SEO'SP -WU/N 400000°0 | | 20L0000°0 10°0 | 10S200°0 |6600000'0 |ES6Z000"0 |SPEE000'O |SLOFO0'O| SP1O00'O = WN 990860°0 | S°990 86 - 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