Biology Notes 2016

Cell Structure

Cell Theory
Cell theory tells us three important things about cells:
1) All living things are made up of cells.
2) A cell is the smallest unit in a living thing.
3) All cells come from other cells.
also includes
1. Energy flow occurs within cells.
2. Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
3. All cells have the same basic chemical composition.

What are Chromosomes

Each species has a fixed number of chromosomes

e.g Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
Sperm cells have 23 chromosomes and egg cells have 23 chromosomes
Somatic body cells are described as diploid because they have 2 sets of
chromosomes (46)
Gametes (sex cells) are described as haploid because they only have one set (23)
of chromosomes

Karyotypes

Chromosomes can be organised into a karyotype which is a map showing the

chromosomes in matching pairs (homologous pairs) in order of size form

The last pair chromosomes are the sex chromosomes-they determine your gender
XX is female
XY is male

DNA
Stands for Deoxyribonucleic acid

Chromosomes are structures that consist of strands of DNA

DNA coils around the proteins and are compacted into

chromosome structures

DNA is raw chemical which stores genetic information

DNA codes information

Structure and Sequence of DNA

DNA consists of repeating nucleotides

Each nucleotide is made up of three components

A nitrogen base

A five-carbon sugar

A phosphate group

Nucleotides join together to form a sugar phosphate backbone

(like a twisted ladder)

Two chains of nucleotides form a ladder-like structure and are held together by the
bases

A: adenine

T: thymine

G: guanine

C: cytosine

The bases form the rungs of the ladder by pairing with each other:

A is always with T

G is always with C

These are called complementary base pairs

'AT the Gold Coast'

The ladder structure twists to forma double helix

The structure of DNA is common across all organisms

Decoding DNA
How does DNA store genetic information?

The sequence of the nucleotides bases code information that serves as the
blueprints for that organism

A specific sequence of DNA that codes one piece of information is called a gene

Over 3 billion base pairs in the human genome

Chromosomes consist of strands of DNA and a smaller section of DNA, that stores one piece of
information is known as a gene.

Genes
DNA wraps around proteins
1 'letter' is made of 3 different base pairs

Amino acids
Every three base pairs is equal to one amino acid added to a chain that folds up to make a protein

DNA gives a sequence to fold amino acids and create proteins

Proteins are responsible for Hair, Nails, Haemoglobin, Muscle fibres, Cellular messengers, Brains,
Nerves, Enzymes, Cellular construction workers

DNA Replication
MITOSIS
A somatic cell can split to become 2 somatic cells or 4 gametes
Purpose of mitosis in multi-cellular organisms : To grow, repair and replace somatic cells
Purpose of mitosis in single-cellular organisms: To reproduce

Prophase
Chromosomes become visible, spindle fibres form, and nuclear envelope breaks up.
Metaphase:
Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell - no more nucleus
Anaphase:
Chromosomes move away to opposite sides of the cells using spindles
Telephase:
They are at opposite ends and nuclei are being formed on either side
MEISOSIS
Purpose of Meiosis: To produce more gametes
PMAT I and PMAT II
Prophase I
Chromosomes condense and attach to the nuclear envelope of the cell.
Synapsis- The chromosomes line up in their pairs
Chromosomes start to get thicker and break from the nuclear envelope
Metaphase I
The tetrads- pairs of chromosomes align.
Anaphase I
The chromosomes move to opposite cell poles, micro tubes pull the chromosomes and move them
around.
Telophase I
Once the chromosomes have completed their movement, each pole gets a haploid ( complete set
of chromosomes).
At the end of Telophase I, two daughter cells are created, each of the cells has exactly half the
number of chromosomes from the original cell.
Prophase II
The nuclear membrane and nuclei break down and the spindle network appears. Start migrating to
the metaphase plate (midpoint).
Metaphase II
Chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell and then split into two. The chromatids point to
opposite ends of the cell.
Anaphase II
Sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite ends

*Chromosomes don't replicate they are simply broken down and separated.

Reproduction

During fertilisation an egg and sperm fuse to form a zygote

Traits from both parents are passed on to the next generation
Heritable traits are coded by genes on the chromosomes
Offspring inherit a mixture of genes from both parents and this is often reflected in
the appearance

Mendel's Peas

Bred many different pea varieties and studied the phenotypes in the offspring
He deduced that traits were determined by a pair of factors, one from each parent
These factors are now termed genes
Coined the terms 'dominant' and 'recessive' genes for alleles
Individuals showing the dominant trait only need to have one copy of the dominant
allele for it to show in the phenotype
The recessive trait is only expressed if there are no dominant alleles present
E.g. YY or Yy for yellow and only yy for green

Glossary
Alleles: different forms of a gene
E.g. yellow of green seed colour in peas
Same trait is at the same position on both chromosomes
Genotypes: The combination of all traits in an organism
Determines our phenotype
Phenotype: A description of your actual physical characteristics

Homozygous-two of the same alleles

Heterozygous-two different alleles
Genome: The map of all the genes in a species

Mutations
Mutations are changes in the genetic material

Mutations arise spontaneously through errors in DNA replication

OR

Mutations can be caused by mutagens which include:

Chemicals

UV radiation

Ionising radiation

Changes can involve individual genes or whole chromosomes

Change of nucleic acids

Happens when wrong bases match up

Gene Mutations

Genes code for proteins

Different proteins can be produced if wrong bases

Substitution-Wrong base

Insertion - extra base

Deletion - less bases than required

Frame shift - bases are switched

Chromosome Mutations

Duplication - extra copies of genes are generated

Deleted - Genetic material breaks off

Inversion- gene order is changed

Translocation - one fragment breaks off and attaches to another

Vulnerable during DNA replication and meiosis
No-disjunction - too many or too few chromosomes

Sickle cell anaemia

Haemoglobin gene is mutated

If there is too-Hard for haemoglobin to carry oxygen

If there is one-then you are a carrier and offers malaria protection

When genes become amino acids they become RNA therefore instead of T we use U.
All DNA starts with AUG

Effect of gene mutation:

Silent Changes: Sometimes there is no effect from a genetic mutation

Missense: changes the protein produced

Nonsense: produces incomplete protein the stop comes earlier than required.

Frame shift - amino acid is moved changing the whole sequence after the mutation

Adaptation
An adaptation is a trait which helps an organism survive or give it an advantage in a certain
environment.
Adaptations arise due to natural selection.

For natural selection to occur:

1.
Mutation: There is variation between individuals in a population
2.
Selective Pressure: Not all individuals survive
3.
Reproduction: Many differences are inherited - Helpful traits become the dominant
phenotype
4.
Individuals that are 'fitter' will survive and contribute to the next generation by
passing on useful traits

The Theory of Evolution

It is a theory of how the biodiversity on Earth came to be

All species can be traced back to a common ancestor. Theory of evolution explains how the first
life form caused many different life forms that are found on earth now.

Different finches suited to their environment

Provides the best explanation for the available evidence

What is a fossil?
A fossil is evidence of past life preserved for many years in rock or other material
Fossils are a source of evidence to support evolution

Types of fossils:

Original fossils

In the right conditions the whole original fossil can be preserved (ice, amber)

Hard structures such as shells and bone can be preserved

Replacement fossils

Part of the organism is chemically changed into another mineral

Petrification-minerals have fused into the tree trunk and hardened to form petrified
wood (rocky wood)

Indirect fossils
Traces of their presence include tracks, trails, burrows and borings
Carbon film fossils
These fossils form when an organism partially decays and leaves a thin film of
carbon

Fossil Evidence
Palaeontologists can determine the age of fossils which tells them when each species lived

Relative Dating - age relative to other species

Sedimentary rocks therefore: youngest rocks on top and oldest at the bottom

Index fossils - From species that was abundant and widespread - trilobites

Marks particular time period

Lived for short periods of time

Helps comparison of rock layers from different location

Stratigraphy comparing rock layers to determine the relative age of fossils

Absolute Dating
This method gives the actual age of the rocks using radioactive dating and radioactive isotopes.

E.g. carbon dating using carbon-14

By measuring the amount of radioactive isotopes in the rock, we can calculate the
age of the rock

Fossil Record
Transition Fossils
A fossil that shows the transition period between two species, Archaeopteryx has features of a
dinosaur and a bird supporting the evolution of birds from dinosaurs.