employee engagement as the employees emotional and cognitive motivation, self-efficacy to

perform the job, perceived clarity of the organizations vision and his or her specific role in that
vision, and belief that he or she has the resources to get the job done.
drives (also called primary needs or innate motives ) as hardwired characteristics of the brain
that correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium by producing emotions to energize
individuals. Drives are the prime movers of behavior because they generate emotions, which
put people in a state of readiness to act on their environment
We define needs as goal-directed forces that people experience. Needs are the motivational
forces of emotions channeled toward particular goals to correct deficiencies or imbalances. So
drives produce emotions, and needs are essentially the emotional experience channeled
toward goals believed to address the source of emotion.
Maslow : a hierarchy of five basic categories (from lowest to highest):
Physiological. The need for food, air, water, shelter, and the like.
Safety. The need for a secure and stable environment and the absence of pain,
threat, or illness.
Belongingness/love. The need for love, affection, and interaction with other
people.
Esteem. The need for self-esteem through personal achievement as well as social
esteem through recognition and respect from others.
Self-actualization. The need for self-fulfillment, realization of ones potential.
Empirical studies have concluded that people do not progress through the hierarchy as the
theory predicts. For example, some people strive more for self-esteem before their
belongingness needs have been satisfied. The theory also assumes that needs priorities shift
over a long time, whereas in reality needs priorities rise and fall far more frequently with the
situation.
ERG theory , reorganizes Maslows five groups into threeexistence, relatedness, and growth.
Unlike Maslows theory, which only explained how people progress up the hierarchy, ERG
theory also describes how people regress down the hierarchy when they fail to fulfill higher
needs.
This connection between values and needs suggests that a needs hierarchy is unique to
each person and can possibly change over time, just as values change over a lifetime.
McClelland examined three learned needs: achievement, power, and affiliation.
Need for Achievement People with a strong need for achievement (nAch) want to accomplish
reasonably challenging goals through their own effort. They prefer working alone rather than in
teams, and they choose tasks with a moderate degree of risk (i.e., neither too easy nor
impossible to complete).
Need for Affiliation Need for affiliation (nAff) refers to a desire to seek approval from others,
conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation.
Need for Power People with a high need for power (nPow) want to exercise control over others
and are concerned about maintaining their leadership position.
Learning Needs McClellands research supported his theory that needs can be learned (more
accurately, strengthened or weakened), so he developed training programs for this purpose.

Developed by Harvard Business School professors Paul Lawrence and Nitin Nohria, four-drive
theory states that everyone has the drive to acquire, bond, learn, and defend:
Drive to acquire . This is the drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects and personal
experiences. The drive to acquire extends beyond basic food and water; it includes enhancing
ones self-concept through relative status and recognition in society.
Drive to bond . This is the drive to form social relationships and develop mutual caring
commitments with others. It explains why people form social identities by aligning their selfconcept with various social groups
Drive to learn . This is the drive to satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand ourselves and
the environment around us.
Drive to defend . This is the drive to protect ourselves physically and socially.
How Drives Influence Employee Motivation
the emotions generated by the four drives motivate us to act, and our mental skill set chooses
courses of action that are acceptable to society and our own moral compass. This is the
process described at the beginning of this chapter, namely, that drives produce emotions; our
self-concept, social norms, and past experience translate these emotions into goal-directed
needs, and these individual characteristics also translate needs into decisions and behavior.
Practical Implications of Four-Drive Theory
The main recommendation from fourdrive theory is to ensure that individual jobs and
workplaces provide a balanced opportunity to fulfill the drives to acquire, bond, learn, and
defend. The second recommendation is that fulfillment of the four drives must be kept in
balance; that is, organizations should avoid too much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive.
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
an individuals effort level depends on three factors: effort-to-performance (E-to-P) expectancy,
performance-to-outcome (P-to-O) expectancy, and outcome valences. Employee motivation is
influenced by all three components of the expectancy theory model. If any component weakens,
motivation weakens.
E-to-P expectancy. This is the individuals perception that his or her effort will result in a
particular level of performance.
Some companies increase this can-do attitude by assuring employees that they have the
necessary competencies, clear role perceptions, and necessary resources to reach the desired
levels of performance. Matching employees to jobs on the basis of their abilities and clearly
communicating the tasks required for the job are important parts of this process.
P-to-O expectancy. This is the perceived probability that a specific behavior or performance
level will lead to a particular outcome.
The most obvious ways to improve P-to-O expectancies are to measure employee performance
accurately and distribute more valued rewards to those with higher job performance. P-to-O
expectancies are perceptions, so employees need to know that higher performance will result in
higher rewards, and they need to know how that connection occurs.
Outcome valences. A valence is the anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual
feels toward an outcome.
Everyone has unique values and experiences, which translate into different needs at different
times. Consequently, individualizing rather than standardizing rewards and other performance
outcomes is an important ingredient in employee motivation.

Goal setting (KPI) is the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions
by establishing performance objectives. It potentially improves employee performance in two
ways: (1) by amplifying the intensity and persistence of effort and (2) by giving employees
clearer role perceptions so that their effort is channeled toward behaviors that will improve work
performance.
A popular form of organizational-level goal setting is the balanced scorecard (BSC) . The
balanced scorecard translates the organizations vision and mission into specific, measurable
performance goals related to financial, customer, internal, and learning/growth (i.e., human
capital) processes. The objective of BSC is to ensure that the full range of organizational
performance is captured in the goalsetting process.
Characteristics of Effective Feedback
feedback should be specific and relevant . In other words, the feedback should refer to specific
metrics (e.g., sales increased by 5 percent last month) and to the individuals behavior or
outcomes within his or her control. Feedback should also be timely; the information should be
available soon after the behavior or results occur so that employees see a clear association
between their actions and the consequences. Effective feedback is also sufficiently frequent .
How frequent is sufficiently? The answer depends on at least two things. One consideration is
the employees knowledge and experience with the task.
the essence of strength-based coaching (also known as appreciative coaching )maximizing
the persons potential by focusing on her or his strengths rather than weaknesses.
multisource (360-degree) feedback to provide him with meaningful feedback. As the name
implies, multisource feedback is information about an employees performance collected from a
full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers.
Organizational Justice
Most organizational leaders know that treating employees fairly is both morally correct and good
for employee motivation, loyalty, and well-being.
Distributive justice refers to perceived fairness in the outcomes we receive compared to our
contributions and the outcomes and contributions of others. Procedural justice, on the other
hand, refers to fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources.
Equity Theory (distributive justice)
Employees determine feelings of equity by comparing their own outcome/input ratio to the
outcome/input ratio of some other person. The outcome/input ratio is the value of the outcomes
you receive divided by the value of the inputs you provide in the exchange relationship.
Feelings of inequity generate negative emotions, emotions are the engines of motivation. In the
case of inequity, people are motivated to reduce the emotional tension.
Procedural Justice
procedural justice refers to fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of
resources. How do companies improve procedural justice? A good way to start is by giving
employees voice in the process; encourage them to present their facts and perspectives on
the issue. Voice also provides a value-expressive function; employees tend to feel better after
having an opportunity to speak their mind.