Article

Essential oils as Therapeutics

S C Garg
Department of Chemistry
Dr. Harisingh Gour University, Sagar 470 003, Madhya Pradesh, India
E-mail: profscgarg@hotmail.com
Kingdom. British nurses are insured by the
Abstract
Royal College of Nurses to use essential
Essential oils are the volatile secondary plant metabolites which mainly
oils both topically and inhalation for
consist of terpenoids and benzenoids. Research in the later half of 20th century
improved patient care. Lavender oil with
has revealed that many curative properties attributed to various plants in
its mild sedative powers is being tested as
indigenous medicine are also present in their essential oils. These oils exert a
a drug replacement to treat older patients
number of general effects from the pharmacological viewpoint. When applied
suffering insomnia, anxiety and depression
locally, the essential oils mix readily with skin oils, allowing these to attack the
and to make terminal care patients more
infective agents quickly and actively. Therapeutic properties of various essential
comfortable. In New York hospitals vanilla
oils based on folklore, experiences and claims of aromatherapists and scientific
oil is released under patients noses to help
studies have been summarised in this review. In vitro studies conducted by the
them relax before an MRI scan. Italian
author on antimicrobial and anthelmintic properties of some essential oils have
research has shown it to relieve anxiety
also been discussed.
and fear.
Keywords: Essential oils, Therapeutics, Aromatherapy, Antimicrobial,
Modes of essential oil usage
Anthelmintic.
IPC Code; Int. cl.7 C11B 9/00, A61P/00, A61P 31/00, A61P 33/10

Introduction
Herbal medicines are the gift of
Mother Nature to its children, the
mankind. The fragrance of myriad flowers
and herbs enchants man, elevates the
mood and leads to feeling good. Essential
oils, the secondary plant metabolites, and
the most sublime extractive of plants,
found their way from herbal medicine.
Inhaling the aromas for therapeutic
purposes and then use of essential oils in
whatever way they are useful in therapy
became the basis of aromatherapy. The
recorded history of ancient civilizations
indicate the use of aromatic plants like
lavender, cedar and cypress for curing
ailments, offerings to deities and
18

anointments. In 1928, a French chemist

Dr. Rene Gattefosse, while working on
essential oils badly burned his hand in
laboratory and desperately plunged it into
the nearest vat containing lavender oil. He
was astonished to see how quickly the pain
ceased having no blisters and the skin
healed quickly than normal without
forming a scar. Later on he studied the
therapeutic benefits of essential oils and
coined the word Aromatherapie (the
anglicized form is Aromatherapy) and
published first treatise on aromatherapy
in 19371. Thus, Aromatherapy is defined
as the use of essential oils for therapeutic
purposes.
Aromatherapy has been accepted
as a part of nursing care in the United

Inhalation for respiratory tract

infections and physiological effect, topical
application for burns, skin and muscular
problems, compress for swellings and
ingestion for intestinal complaints are
some suitable modes. Taking a bath in
water with few drops of some essential oils
is also very useful. Massage with 1-3% (few
drops) of essential oils in cold pressed
carrier oils (vegetable oils) is another
mode of application of essential oils.
Except lavender and tea tree oils which
are very mild, the essential oil should be
used after dilution in carrier oils or
inhaled directly from a cotton wool or
floating on the top of hot water. As essential
oils have specific effects they are also used
in various combinations working in
harmony having synergistic effect on the
body.

Natural Product Radiance Vol 4(1) January-February 2005

Article
lavender oil obtained from the flowering
tips of the evergreen shrub, has been used
in perfumes and aromatherapy. Lavender
oil is rich in linalyl acetate, geraniol and
Therapeutic
cineole. It is a natural antibiotic, antiseptic,
properties of various
anti-depressant and sedative. It is often
essential oils based on
used to treat scalds, minor burns, cuts,
folklore, experiences
grazes, inflammation, eczema, dermatitis,
and
claims
of
headaches, insomnia, acne, dandruff,
aromatherapists and
boils, rheumatism4, arthritis, leucorrhoea,
scientific studies have
dysmenorrhoea and stretch marks6, 8, 9.
Lavender
(Lavendula
been summarised in this
Lavender reduces anxiety, stress and
officinalis)
2-20
review .
tension and therefore it is used for
Lavender,
Lavandula calming, soothing and relaxation10. It is
angustifolia Mill. syn. L. officinalis used by way of vapours from oil burners,
Chaix (Lamiaceae) oil: For centuries massage, bath water and inhaler. A few

Therapeutics properties of
some essential
oils

drops in a bath of warm water before bed

time will relieve anxiety and alleviate
insomnia while having the bath with cool
water instead, will make one feel refreshed
and energized.
Tea tree, Melaleuca
alternifolia Cheel (Myrtaceae) oil :
It was used as a disinfectant by Australian
soldiers during first world war. It was a
part of the first aid kits of Australian
soldiers for bites and infections during the
second world war. Commercial houses
claim it to be the greatest natural antiseptic
of the world. Aromatherapy claims it to
be effective in clearing colds and sour
throat if its vapours are inhaled through

Rose (Rosa damascena)

Sandal tree (Santallum album)

Basil (Ocimum basilicum)

Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia)

Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus)

Natural Product Radiance Vol 4(1) January-February 2005

Jasmine (Jasminum officinale)

19

Article
steam. Mouth sores and gingivitis can be
checked by the mouth wash made by
putting a few drops of the tea tree oil into
a cup of warm water. It is ascribed with
anti-inflammatory properties. The oil acts
as an antiseptic for treating boils, rashes,
cuts and scrapes as well as insects bites,
stings and carbuncles. It can be applied
directly to the skin. The oil promotes
healing of minor wounds and minimise
any future scarring. It has been shown
effective against Methicillin Resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
bacteria12. Tea tree oil helps in regulating
Sebum production. A gel containing 5%
tea tree oil has been shown as effective in
the treatment of acne as a lotion with 5%
benzoyl peroxide with far less scaling and
itching13. A solution containing 0.5% tea
tree oil could offer protection against
Pityrosporum ovale, a common
dandruff causing fungus and head lice. It
could check fungal infection under toenails and bromhidrosis (smelly foot). The
oil has been shown effective against
Candida albicans and Trichomonas
vaginalis, two of the organisms that
cause vaginal infections 14 . Tampons
moistened with a few drops of the oil or
its douches for a week are recommended
for this purpose. The oil has been found
effective in chronic cystitis. Cytotoxicity
evaluation of the oil using human cell lines
supports the use of tea tree oil in topical
applications but not for ingestion
purposes15. Biological activity of tea tree
oil has been recently reviewed16.
Sandalwood, Santalum
album Linn. (Santalaceae) oil:
Sandalwood oil has been used in Indian
Ayurvedic system for centuries. It is
renowned for its sublime, aphrodisiac,
diuretic and urinary antiseptic properties.
20

The oil is extracted by steam or

hydrodistillation from roots and wood.
India is the biggest exporter of this oil. It
supports the lymphatic system, nervous
and cardiovascular system and relieves the
symptoms of sciatica and lumbago. It has
been found to help remove negative
programming from the cells and increases
oxygen around the pituitary and pineal
glands 9 . Sandalwood oil removes
depression, anxiety, nervousness, stress
and insomnia. It helps to soften dry,
mature or wrinkled skin. It may also
reduce irritation from hives and other
rashes. Topical application helps remove
acne and herpes. - and Santolol and
santenone are main constituents of the
sandalwood oil. Sandalwood oil has been
shown to have antiviral activity against
Herpes simplex 1 and 2. The essential
oil appeared to interfere with the viruss
ability to replicate17.
Eucalyptus, Eucalyptus
globulus Labill. (Myrtaceae) oil: The
essential oil from the leaves is rich in
cineole and affects the respiratory system.
It is antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral,
anticatarrhal, mucolytic, expectorant and
antidepressant. Inhalation of the oil is
effective in asthma, bronchitis, colds, flu,
catarrh and sinus infections8. For this
sprinkle a few drops of the oil on a damp
cloth and hold it close to the nose and
exhale through the mouth for about a
minute. It sooths dry coughs. Topical
application of the dilute oil is effective in
burns, warts, insect bites, lice, herpes and
foot odour9. It combats skin infections
such as boils and pimples. Mixed with
carrier oil it can be used as a liniment to
reduce swellings and muscle aches and
pains. It promotes alertness, clears the
mind. Eucalyptus oil has been used

successfully from as early as 1789.

Jasmine,
Jasminum
officinale Linn. (Oleaceae) oil:
Jasmine was introduced in Europe from
India and Persia. It is best known for
its use in perfumes. Benzyl acetate, linalyl
acetate, geraniol, linalool and jasmone
are its main constituents. It is beneficial
for the skin reducing problems such as
dry, irritated or sensitive skin, muscle
spasms, sprains, laryngitis, dysmenorrhea,
labour pain, frigidity, depression,
and nervous exhaustion. It induces
relaxation9.
Rose, Rosa damascena
Mill. (Rosaceae) oil: Rose oil has a long
history of medicinal and cosmetic use. It
is perhaps the most precious of all
essential oils obtained by steam
distillation, enfleurage or solvent
extraction form petals. Its invigorating
fragrance is almost intoxicating and
aphrodisiac like. It enhances the
frequency of every cell, bringing balance
and harmony to the body. It is antihaemorrhaging, anti-infectious and
prevents scarring. It may help in chronic
bronchitis, conjunctivitis, asthma,
depression, emotional shock, stress18,
tension, aged and dry skin, frigidity,
impotence, wrinkles, thrush and
gingivitis6, 9.
Rose oil passeries are being tried
as a contraceptive. It is stimulating and
elevating to the mind, creating a sense of
well being. It is a muscle relaxant. It tones
the capillaries, improves blood circulation
to the skin surface and revitalises it, thus
refreshing a persons looks and increases
confidence.
Basil, Ocimum basilicum
Linn. (Lamiaceae) oil: Basil is native
of India where it is regarded as a sacred

Natural Product Radiance Vol 4(1) January-February 2005

Article
herb and used traditionally in Indian
system of medicine. Now it is grown in
Mediterranean and European countries
also. The essential oil from the leaves and
inflorescence, extracted by steam
distillation, is rich in methyl chavicol and
linalool. It has been found to be beneficial
for alleviating mental fatigue, spasms,
rhinitis, and as a first aid treatment for
wasp stings and snake bites. It may also
help when there is a loss of smell due to
chronic nasal catarrh9. It can be used as
a mouthwash for relieving toothache. It
has antibacterial and expectorant qualities
apart from being useful in the treatment
of ringworm and some skin diseases.
Coriander, Coriandrum
sativum Linn. (Apiaceae) oil: The
seed oil has anti-inflammatory and
sedative properties9. A communication
from Cairo University indicates that the oil
lowers glucose levels by normalizing
insulin levels and supporting pancreas
function. The main constituents of the oil
are linalyl acetate, carvacrol and linalool
oxide.
Clove,
Syzygium
aromaticum (Linn.) Merrill & Perry
(Myrtaceae) oil: The oil of clove bud is
used as an antiseptic and anesthetic in
mouth infections. It is used in European
hospitals to dental infections. It is also
used in thyroid dysfunction11, 15. Eugenol
is the main constituent of the oil.
Chamomile, Matricaria
recutita Linn. (Asteraceae) oil: Oil
from the flowers has chamazulene which
gives the oil its classical anti-inflammatory
properties which have been shown
comparable to hydrocortisone19. It is
renowned for its calming ability and skin
care. It may help in leg cramps, muscle
tension, insomnia and allergies. It

stimulates appetite and combats

diarrhoea. It helps heal acne and reduces
other types of skin inflammation.
Roman
chamomile,
Chamaemelum nobile (Linn.) All.
syn. Anthemis nobilis Linn.
(Asteraceae) oil: The oil may also be
used as an anti-inflammatory but it is used
more often in aromatherapy as an
antispasmodic and sedative.
Peppermint,
Mentha
piperita Linn. (Lamiaceae) oil: The
mentha oil helps to reduce fevers, nausea,
vomiting and aids in respiratory function.
It helps in headaches, migraines, motion
sickness and sinusitis6, 8. It helps cooling
the body during hot summer days.
Menthol, menthone and cineole are the
main constituents of the oil.
Petitgrain,
Citrus
aurantium Linn. (Rutaceae) oil: The
oil is obtained from the leaves and twigs
of the bitter orange tree. It has a gentle
sedative action on inhalation and is useful
in cases of insomnia and fatigue. It reestablishes nerve equilibrium. Terpene
alcohols and linalyl acetate are the main
constituents of the oil. Lemon, orange and
other citrus oils improve mood and
increase alertness.
Rosemary, Rosmarinus
officinalis Linn. (Lamiaceae) oil:
The oil is extracted by steam distillation
of leaves and flowering tops. The oil can
be used in arthritic pain6, 8, asthma,
bronchitis, catarrh, memory loss, mental
fatigue and muscular pain. It may be
beneficial for skin conditions and dandruff
and may help fight candida and support
immune system. It is a carminative also.
Pinene, camphene, borneol, bornyl
acetate, camphor and cineole are the main
constituents of the oil. Rosemary oil and

its main constituent bicyclic ether 1,

8-cineole act as an activating, refreshing
remedy against exhaustion. The locomotor
activity of the test animals increased
significantly by inhalation of this ether or
this oil2. Pregnant ladies, epileptic and
hypertensive persons should avoid its use.
Juniper berry, Juniperus
communis Linn. (Cupressaceae)
oil: Juniper has long been known for its
antiseptic and diuretic properties. The
essential oil is obtained by steam
distillation from the berries. The oil may
work as a detoxifier, astringent and
cleanser, reducing dermatitis, oozing
eczema and acne. It has also been used to
promote better nerve and kidney
function8. It helps to reduce cellulite.
Pinene, sabinene and juniperene are
its important constituents.
Sweet Marjoram, Origanum
majorana Linn. (Lamiaceae) oil: It
is calming to the respiratory system and
assists in relieving spasms and migraine
headaches. It increases peristaltic
movements of intestine. It is soothing to
nerves and works as diuretic8. Sabinene,
terpineol, terpinene4ol, geraniol and
linalool are the main constituents of the oil.
Thyme, Thymus vulgaris
Linn. (Lamiaceae) oil: It has a
spasmolytic and antiseptic effect and it has
been successfully administered
precutaneously to babies suffering from
pertusis. Thymol, carvacrol and camphene
are its main constituents. Valnet20 found it
to destroy anthrax and bacillus and a
stronger antiseptic than phenol. Camphor,
borneol, thymol and menthol are said to
possess stronger bactericidal properties
than those of phenol. Borneol was used
as a prophylactic to plague in middle ages.
The active bactericidal constituent of the

Natural Product Radiance Vol 4(1) January-February 2005

21

Article
essential oil of garlic, allicin, retains its
effect even in dilution of 1:1,25,00. The
oil of wintergreen mainly containing
methyl salicylate is used topically in the
treatment of rheumatism.
Essential oils of Juniper berries
and dwarf pine needles acted in the same
way against exhaustion. Contingent
negative variation (CNV) (it is a slow
upward shift in brain waves recorded by
the electro encephalogram EEG) studies
have showed that jasmine oil brought
about an effect similar to the
administration of caffeine, i.e. an increase
CNV after inhalation where as lavender oil
caused CNV to decrease, similar to the
administration of tranquillizers, thus
leading to a sedation3.

Antimicrobial and anthelmintic

activities of some essential oil
bearing plants
Anacardium occidentale
Linn. (Anacardiaceae): On
neuropharmacological studies the oil has
been found to be CNS depressant on the
basis of its activity on behaviour, sodium
pentobarbitone induced hypnosis, rota
rod performance, conditioned avoidance
response and pain threshold of albino
rats 21 . The oil has shown strong
antibacterial
activity
against
Pseudomonas mangiferae, P.
aeruginosa, Salmonella sp.,
Bacillus mycorides, Vibrio cholerae
and Xanthomonas campestris 22.
Artemisia pallens Wall. ex
DC. (Asteraceae): The essential oil has
strong antimicrobial activity against
Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae,
Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus
22

aureus,
Salmonella
typhi,
Aspergillus sp., Chrysosporium
indicum,
Trichophyton
23
mentagrophytes . The oil has exhibited
good anthelmitic activity against
Pheritma posthuma (earthworm),
Taenia solium (tape worms) and
Ascaris lumbricoides (round
worms)24.
Capillipedium foetidium
(Poaceae): The oil has shown strong
antibacterial and antifungal efficacy25.
Curcuma longa Linn.
(Zingiberaceae): The essential oil is
effective against the conditions caused by
Aspergillus sp., Bacillus subtilis,
Corynebacterium diphtheriae,
Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella
typhi and Escherichia coli 26.
Elettaria cardamomum
Maton (Zingiberaceae): The essential
oil contains: cineole, 30.7; limonene,
14.3; and terpenyl acetate, 28.1%.
Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium
diphtheriae, Staphylococcus aureus,
Salmonella typhi, Shigella sp.,
Escherichia coli, Aspergillus niger,
A. fumigatus, Rhizopus oryzae,
Fusarium psidi and Curvularia
lunata were found susceptible to the oil27.
Eupatorium triplinerve
Vahl (Asteraceae): The oil from the
flowers is rich in thymohydroquinone
dimethyl ether (50.36%). It has shown
good in vitro efficacy against Bacillus
subtilis, Diplococcus pneumoniae,
Vibrio cholerae and helminths,
Ascaris lumbricoides and Taenia
solium28.
Feronia limonia (Linn.)
Swingle syn. F. elephantum Correa
(Rutaceae): The essential oil is very rich
in methyl chavicol 68.3%, Escherichia

coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,

Shigella shiga, Staphylococcus sp.,
Proteus vulgaris, Trichoderma
viride and Trichophyton rubrum, have
been found susceptible for the oil29.
Myrtus communis Linn.
(Myrtaceae): The oil from the leaves of
Myrtus communis var. microphylla
caused strong inhibition to the growth of
Trichoderma viride, Candida
albicans, C. utilis and Aspergillus
niger which cause dermatitis30.
Pavonia odorata Willd.
(Malvaceae): The oil has shown strong
anthelmintic activity against tapeworms
and roundworms24. Staphylococcus
aureus, Diplococcus pneumoniae,
Trichophyton mentagorophytes,
Chrysosporium indicum and
Botrydiplodia sp. were also reported
susceptible to the oil31.
Piper betle Linn. cv. Sagar
bangla (Piperaceae): Cultivar Sagar
bangla is highly active against the
Keratinophilic fungi and bacterial
organisms, Bacillus subtilis, B.
pumulus, Staphylococcus aureus,
Salmonella typhi and Vibrio
cholerae. The essential oil was also found
to be more effective against tapeworms
(Taenia solium) and hookworms
(Bunostomum trigonocephalum)
than the synthetic anthelmintics,
Piperazine phosphate and Hexyl
resorcinol32.
Zingiber officinale Rosc.
(Zingiberaceae): The oil has strong
insect repellent activity against,
Periplaneta americana and Bruchus
pisorum33.
Essential oils isolates, cumaldehyde
(Cuminum cyminum Linn.),
1,8-cineole [Luvunga scandens

Natural Product Radiance Vol 4(1) January-February 2005

Article
(Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Wight], against many pathogenic fungal
caryophyllene and eugenol (Ocimum organisms34.
A summary of essential oils used
sanctum Linn.) possess strong activity

in various problems and diseases is given

in Table 19.

Table 1 : Summary of essential oils used in various diseases/problems

S.No.

Diseases/other problems

Essential oils

1.
2.
3.

Abcesses
Accumulation of toxins
Acne

4.
5.
6.

Amenorrhoea (missing or scanty period)

Anxiety
Arthritis

7.
8.
9.

Asthma
Boils
Bronchial infections (including colds, flu
and bronchitis)

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

Bruises, Burns
Cold sores
Constipation
Cystitis
Dandruff
Depression
Dermatitis
Eczema
Fevers
Griping pains
Gout
Insect bites and Stings

Lavender, Tea tree.

Birch, Carrot seed, Juniper.
Bergamot, Chamomile, Geranium, Lavender, Palmarosa,
Patchouli, Sandalwood, Tea tree.
Basil, Clary sage, Marjoram.
Lavender, Chamomile, Tea tree, Geranium.
Birch, Black pepper, Chamomile, Eucalyptus, Ginger, Juniper,
Rosemary.
Clary sage, Cypress, Frankincense, Lavender, Marjoram.
Bergamot, Chamomile, Lavender.
Basil, Benzoin, Cajeput, Cedarwood, Eucalyptus,
Frankincense, Ginger, Lavender, Marjoram, Myrtle,
Peppermint, Pine needle, Sandalwood, Tea tree, Thyme.
Fennel, Marjoram.
Bergamot, Eucalyptus, Tea tree.
Rose, Fennel.
Bergamot, Lavender, Sandalwood.
Lavender, Eucalyptus, Tea tree.
Basil, Bergamot, Lavender, Lime, Sandalwood.
Birch, Chamomile, Lavender, Palmarosa, Basil.
Bergamot, Birch, Chamomile, Lavender, Melissa, Patchouli.
Eucalyptus, Lemongrass.
Cardamom seeds, Peppermint.
Benzoin, Carrot seed, Juniper, Lemon, Rosemary.
Basil, Chamomile, Lavender, Tea tree.

22.

Insect repellent

Lemongrass, Citronella, Lavender.

23.

Insomnia

Chamomile, Lavender, Marjoram.

Natural Product Radiance Vol 4(1) January-February 2005

23

Article
S.No.

Disease/other problems

Essential oils

24.

High BP

Lavender, Ylang Ylang.

25.

Leucorrhoea (white vaginal discharge)

Bergamot, Lavender, Myrrh.

26.

Menopause (hot flushes, mood swings)

Cypress, Chamomile, Fennel.

27.

Migraine

Lavender.

28.

Muscular aches and Pains

Basil, Black pepper, Chamomile, Eucalyptus, Ginger,

Grapefruit, Lavender, Marjoram, Rosemary.

29.

Nausea

Cardamom seed, Chamomile.

30.

Pruritis

Bergamot, Myrrh, Tea tree.

31.

Psoriasis

Bergamot, Birch.

32.

Pyorrhoea

Fennel.

33.

Haemorrhoids (Piles)

Cypress, Parsley seed.

34.

Sprains and Strains

Chamomile, Lavender.

35.

Herpes

Tea tree, Sandalwood.

36.

Stretch marks

Mandarin, Lavender.

37.

Rheumatism

Benzoin, Birch, Chamomile, Eucalyptus, Ginger, Juniper,

Lavender, Marjoram, Rosemary.

38.

Scars

Frankincense, Petitgrain, Lavender.

39.

Vaginitis

Tea tree.

40.

Verrucas, Corns and Warts

Lemon, Tea tree.

41.

Vertigo

Lavender, Peppermint.

42.

Worms

Chenopodium.

Practical guidelines to use

essential oils in some common health
problems are:

24

Abdominal pain: Add 2 drops of

bitter orange and 2 drops caraway to
2 cups of hot water and inhale the
fragrant vapours. Alternatively add 2
drops of peppermint oil, 2 drops of
bitter orange, and 2 drops of caraway
oil in one teaspoon of a cold pressed
carrier oil and smooth this gently over

the painful area of abdomen in a

clockwise circulatory motion for few
minutes.

Cough: Mix 3 drops of cedar wood,

2 drops peppermint oil and 1 drop of
cajuput oil with 2 teaspoons of olive
oil and massage on to throat and
chest.

of steaming hot water and inhale the

steam for 10 minutes.

Headache (from cold or allergic

rhinitis): Pour 2 drops each of sweet
marjoram, lavender and peppermint
oils on a tissue and inhale deeply 3 times.

Nose bleeding: Cypress oil helps

stop blood loss. Put a few drops on a
cotton wool ball and hold under the
nose to stop bleeding.

Earache: Add 4 drops of lavender,

cajuput or chamomile oil in half a litre

Natural Product Radiance Vol 4(1) January-February 2005

Article
Buchbauer G and Jirovetz L,
peroxide in the treatment of acne,
Aromatherapy use of fragrances
Med J Aust, 1990, 153, 455-458.
and essential oils as medicaments,
As such there is reasonable
Flavour Fragr J, 1994, 9, 14. Belaiche P, Treatment of skin and
evidence that aromatherapy has scientific
vaginal infections with the essential
217-222.
basis and is gaining acceptance under
oil of Melaleuca alternifolia,
holistic system of healing. European
6. Gwydion OHara, The magic of
Phytotherapie, 1985, 15, 9-17.
physicians and aromatherapists now
aromatherapy,
(Llewellyn
frequently prescribe essential oils for a
Publications, St. Paul, Minnesota), 15. Hayes AJ, Leach David N and
variety of complaints including colds and
Markham LJ, In vitro cytotoxicity
1998.
stuffy nose, sinusitis, insomnia, migraine,
of Australian tea tree oil using
muscle aches and pains and digestive 7. Lawless J, Essential oils, the
human cell lines, J Essent Oil
problems.
complete guide to the use of oils in
Res, 1997, 9(5), 575-582.
aromatherapy and herbalism,
(Element Book Ltd., Dorert, 16. Garg SC, A review on biological
References
activity of the tea tree oil, Indian
Massachusetts), 1999.
Perfum, 2004, 48(2), 195-197.
1. Gattefosse M, Gattefosses
Aromatherapy [Aromatherapie les 8. McDermott Alistair (Ed), Curing 17. Benevicca F and Courreges M,
everyday ailments The natural way,
huiles esentieles hormones
Antiviral activity of sandalwood oil
(Readers Digest, Sydney), 2000,
vegetables]. Tisserand R, Ed. Davies
against Herpes simplex viruses 1
pp. 31, 331.
L translator Saffron Walder (CW
and 2, Phytomedicine, 1999,
Daniel Co. Ltd., UK), 1993.
6(2), 119-123.
9. Singh Babita, Aromatherapy : The
best way to relax using essential oils,
2. Kovar KA, Gropper B, Fries D and
Agric Watch, 2001, 1(4), 50-62. 18. Rimmer L, The chemical use of
Ammon HPT, Blood levels of 1,8
aromatherapy in the reduction of
cineole and locomotor activity of 10. Buckle J, Aromatherapy: What is it,
stress, Home Healthcare Nurse,
mice after inhalation and oral
1998,
16(2), 123-126.
Herbalgram, 2003, 57, 50-56.
administration of rosemary oil,
Planta Med, 1987, 53, 315-318. 11. Ludvigson H and Rottman T, Effects 19. Aerteets P, Albring M and Klascheka
F, Pharmacological investigations
of ambient odours of lavender and
3. Torii S, Fukuda H, Kanemoto H,
with compounds of chamomile:
cloves on cognition, stress and
Miyanchi R, Hamauzu Y and
Investigations on the antiphlogistic
mood, Chem Sense, 1989, 14,
Kawasaki M, Contingent negative
effects of chamazulene and
525-536.
variation (CNV) and the
matricine, Planta Med, 1985, 49,
psychological effects of odour, In: 12. Carson CF, Cookson BD, Farrelly HD
67-73.
and Riley TV, Susceptibility of
Perfumery, The Psychology and
methicillin
resistant 20. Valnet J, The practice of
Biology of Fragrance. St Van Toller
aromatherapy, (Healing Arts Press,
Staphylococcus aureus to the
and GH Dodd, eds. (Chapman &
Rochester), 1990.
essential oil of Melaleuca
Hall, London), 1988, 11, 107-120.
alternifolia, J Antimicrob
4. Jager W, Buchbauer G, Jiroveta L and
Chemother, 1995, 35, 421-424. 21. Garg SC and Kasera HL,
Neuropharmacological studies of
Fritzer M, Percutaneous absorption
essential oil of Anacardium
of lavender oil for a massage oil, 13. Bassett IB, Pannowitz DL and
occidentale, Fitoterapia, 1984,
Barnetson RS, A comparative study
J Soc Cosmet Chem, 1992,
55 (3), 131-136.
of tea tree oil versus benzoyl
43(1), 49-54.

Conclusion

5.

Natural Product Radiance Vol 4(1) January-February 2005

25

Article
Pharmazie, 1984, 39(1), 64; 30. Garg SC and Dengre SL, Antifungal
Antifungal efficacy of some essential
efficacy of the essential oil of
Myrtus communis, Herba
oils, 1988, ibid, 43, 141-142.
Hung, 1988, 27 (23), 123-125.
Garg SC and Jain RK, Antimicrobial
activity of the essential oil of 31. Garg SC and Nakhare S,
Antimicrobial efficacy of essential oil
Curcuma longa, Indian
23. Nakhare S and Garg SC,
of Pavonia odorata Wild.,
Perfum, 2003, 47(2), 199-202.
Antimicrobial activity of the essential
Ancient Sci Life, 1992, 12 (1-2)
oil of Artemisia pallens Wall.,
27.
Garg
SC
and
Jain
RK,
Antimicrobial
227-230.
Indian Perfum, 1996, 40(4),
efficacy of essential oil of Elettaria
116-118.
cardamomum, Indian Perfum, 32. Garg SC and Jain Rajshree,
2001, 45(2), 115-117.
Biological activity of the essential oil
24. Garg SC, Anthelmintic activity of
of Piper betle L. J Essent Oil
some medicinal plant products,
28.
Garg
SC
and
Nakhare
S,
Studies
on
Res, 1992, 4, 600-606.
In: Recent Progress in Medicinal
the essential oil from flowers of
Plants Vol. II - Phytochemistry
Eupatorium triplinerve, Indian 33. Garg SC and Banerjee AK, Insect and
and Pharmacology, Eds. S Singh,
Perfum, 1993, 37(4), 318-323.
pest control activity of essential oils,
VK Singh and JN Govil, (Research
Indian Perfum, 1997, 41(2),
Periodicals and Book Publishing 29. Garg SC, Antimicrobial activity of the
69-80.
House, Houston), 2003, 207217.
essential oil of Feronia
elephantum Correa, Indian J 34. Garg SC and Siddiqui N, Antifungal
25. Garg SC and Dangre SL,
Pharm Sci, 2001, 63(2),
activity of some essential oil isolates,
Antimicrobial activity of the essential
155-157.
Pharmazie, 1992, 47, 467-468.
oil of Capillipedium foetidum,

22. Garg SC and Kasera HL, Antibacterial

activity of the essential oil of
Anacardium occidentale,
Indian Perfum, 1984, 28(2),
26.
95-97.

Antibacterial properties and potential

applications of essential oils in foods
Recently Sara Burt at Department
of Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty
of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Utrecht, The Netherlands has published a
review entitled, Essential oils: their
antibacterial properties and potential
applications in foods which conclude that
in vitro studies have demonstrated
antibacterial activity of essential oils (EOs)
against Listeria monocytogenes,
Salmonella
typhimurium,
Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shigella
dysenteria, Bacillus cereus and
Staphylococcus aureus at levels
between 0.2 and 10 l/ml. Gram negative
26

organisms are slightly less susceptible than

Gram positive bacteria. A number of EO
components have been identified as
effective antibacterials, e.g. carvacrol,
thymol, eugenol, perillaldehyde,
cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acid,
having
minimum
inhibitory
concentrations (MICs) of 0.055 l/ml
in vitro. A higher concentration is needed
to achieve the same effect in foods. Studies
with fresh meat, meat products, fish, milk,
dairy products, vegetables, fruit and
cooked rice have shown that the
concentration needed to achieve a
significant antibacterial effect is around

0.520 l/g in foods and about 0.110

l/ml in solutions for washing fruit and
vegetables. Physical conditions that
improve the action of EOs are low pH, low
temperature and low oxygen levels.
Synergism has been observed between
carvacrol and its precursor p-cymene and
between cinnamaldehyde and eugenol.
Synergy between EO components and mild
preservation methods has also been
observed. Some undesirable organoleptic
effects can be limited by careful selection
of EOs according to the type of food [Sara
Burt, Int J Food Microbiol, 2004,
94(3), 223-253].

Natural Product Radiance Vol 4(1) January-February 2005