Paulay Thesis Vol1

THE COUPLING OF SHEAR WALLS
A thesis presented for

the degree of Doctor of Phi 10 sophy
in Civil Engineering
in the University of Canterbury,
Christchurch, New Zealand,
by
T. PAULAY
1969
Volume 1
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I.
I ,
ABSTRACT
In this first project of a research program, initiated
i
to investigate the behaviour of coupled shear walls subjected
V I to seismic type lateral loading, the strength and behaviour
of the coupling beams is examined.
The limitations of the elastic "laminar analysis" are
examined and the technique is extended so as to predict the
elastoplastic behaviour of a cracked shear wall structure
and, in particular, the ductility requirements for coupling
beams.
Twelve approximately t full size relatively deep
reinforced concrete coupling beams, with various aspect
ratios and web steel contents, have been tested under static
one-way and near-ultimate cyclic loading. The experiments,
which attempted to trace every aspect of the behaviour,
revealed numerous features not encountered with normal shallow
reinforced concrete beams. Shear and flexural failure
mechanisms were identified and the nature of deterioration
with cyclic loading was observed
o
A theoretical approach is suggested which satisfactorily
approximates the loss of stiffness of coupling beams after
diagonal cracking. Experiments and theory both indicated a
loss in excess of 80%.
The significant findings of the experimental investi-
gation have been translated into design recommendations for
coupled shear wall
110
. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I make grateful acknowledgment to Professor Eo J o
Hopkins,. Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, without
wpose, s u p ~ r t .this project would not have been possible.
I am ve.ry grateful for the technical assistance given
to me byMr ... H. Te Watson, Technical Officer, Messrs" J" N"
Byers and No W. Prebble, Senior Technicians, and many others
in the Department of Civil Engineeringo My very special
thanks go to Mr" K .. Lo Marrion, Senior Technician, who not
only.made the testing frame but also prepared, with great
care., aLL the test specimenso . The reliability of the experi-
mental re.sul t.s of this project is largely due to his conscien-
tous efforts.
My thanks are extended to Professor F" Leonhardt for the
facilities he provided at the University of Stuttgart:. where
I prepared a large part of this manuscript.
I am indebted to Mrs. D" Eo Ball for her ardUOUS task
of typing the text and to Miss M. Greiner who traced the
numerous diagrams
o
The generosity of Certified COncrete Christchurch Ltd",
in donating the concrete for this project, and the assistance
of the American Iron and Steel Institute in providing photo-
graphs related to the 1964 Alaskan earthquake damage, I
gratefully acknowledge.
For her forbearance and encouragement I am grateful
to my wife.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TABLE .. OF CONTENTS
REFERENCES
NOTATIONS
CHAP.TER INTRODUCT ION
'.' . Shear Wall Structures
'02 The Problems Associated with Coupled Shear
III..
Page
I-
II
III
XIV
XXI
Walls 2
1.3 The Aims of a Re search Program 3
104 The Scope of this Project 3
'.5 The Presentation of the Results 7
CHAPTER 2 A REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK ON COUPLED
SHEAR WALLS 8
CHAPTER 3 THE ELASTIC LAMINAR ANALYSIS 26
3 0 1 Introduction 26
3 0 2 Assumptions 26
3.3 The Model Structure 27
3.4 The Analysis 28
3 0 4. 1 Wall Actions and Deformations 28
3 0 4.2 The Equilibrium and Compatibility
Conditions for the Walls 30
3.43 3 Laminar Actions and Deformations 31
3 0404 The Differential Equation of Laminar
Actions 33
30 4.5 The Boundary Conditions 35
3.4.6 The Externa 1 Load 36
3.4 0 7 Coupled Shear Walls Subject to Lateral
Triangular and Single Point Loads 37
3.4.8 Coupled Shear Walls with a Rigid
Diaphragm at the Top 39
IV.
Page
3.5 The Application of the Laminar Analysis to
the Real Structure 41
3.6 The Critical Examination of the Assumptions
of the Laminar Analysis 42
3
0
6. 1 Uncracked Coupled Shear Walls 42
3
0
6.2 Cracked Coupled Shear Walls 45
3.7 The Approximate Analysis of Cracked Coupled
Shear Wall Structures 47
3.8 Illustrative Example 48
CHAPTER 4 AN ULTIMATE LOAD ANALYSIS OF COuPLED
SHE AR WALLS 50
4. , Introduction 50
402 The Maximum Load Carried by the Elastic
Structure 5'
4.3 The Plastification of the Laminar System 52
4 0 3.' Actions
4
0
3.2 Rotations
4.3
0
3 Deflections
4.4 The Ultimate Load
4.4.' The Ultimate Load on Wall 1
4.4.2 The Ultimate Load on Wall 2
404
0
3 The Total Ultimate Load on the
Structure
4.5 Illustrative Example
4.5.1 Stage'. Elastic Design Load
4.5.2 Stage 20 The Elastic Limit of the
53
53
58
59
59
60
61
62
62
Structure 63
4 0 5.3 Stage 3. The Full Plastification of
the Laminae 63
4.5
0
4 Stage 40 The Ultimate Strength of
Wall 1 is attained. 65
4 0 5 .. 5 Stage 5. The Ultimate Strength of
Wall 2 is attained 66
4.6 A Summary of Postelastic Behaviour 68
v.
Page
CHAPTER 5 TE ST SPEC IMENS, MATERIALS, LOAD ING
FRAME AND TESTING PROCEDURE 69
5" 1 The Test Specimens 69
5.2 The Concrete 70
5
0
2
0
1 Ingredients and Mix Proportions 70
5.2
0
2 Placing, Compaction and Stripping of
Concrete 71
5.2
0
3 Concrete Strength Properties
5.3 TheReinforcement
5,,3 .. 1 Steel Properties
5.3.2 The Assembly of Reinforcement
5.4 The Loading Frame
5.5 Instrumentation
5.5. 1 Steel Strain Measurements
5.5
0
2 Concrete Strain Measurements
5,,5 .. 3 Rotation Measurements
5,,5 .. 4 Measurements of Beam Deflections
5 .. 5.5 Load Application
5.5 0 6 Crack Observations
5.5
0
7 Temperature Control
5.6 The Testing Procedure
CHAPTER 6 MEDIUM COUPLING BEAMS
6 .. ' Beam 311
6.101 Loading and Test Procedure
6.1.2 The Behaviour of the Flexural
Reinforcement
6.1.2.' The distribution of strains
along the flexural reinforce-
72
73
73
74
75
78
78
78
78
80
80
81
81
82
84
84
84
85
ment 85
6.1.202 The tension force distribution 87
6.1.2.3 The position of the internal
forces 88
6. '.3 The Behaviour of Stirrups 90
VI.
Page
6.'.3.1 Load-strain relationship 90
6. 1 .3.2 A compari son with the equa tioTI' .
of the American Concrete
Institute 91
6.1.3.3 The strain distribution along
the stirrups 93
6.1
0
3.4 The ultimate strength of the
web reinforcement 93
6.1.4 Concrete Strains 94
6.1.4.' Compression strains in the
uncracked beam 94
6.1.4.2 Compression strains in the
cracked beam 95
6.1.5 The Failure Mechanism
6.1.6 Deformations
6. '.6. 1 Rotations
6.1.6
0
2 Elongation of the Beam
6.1.6.3 Transverse expansion
6.1.6.4 Deflections
6.1.7 Crack Formation and Crack Width
6.2 Beam 312
6.2.' Loading and Test Procedure
Reinforcement
96
98
98
102
103
104
106
107
107
108
6.202. 1 The distribution of strains 108
6.2.202 The tension force distribu-
tion 108
6.2.2.3 The position of the internal
forces 109
6
0
2.2.4 The effect of cyclic loading
upon the flexural reinforce-
ment '09
6.2.3 The Behaviour of Stirrups 113
6.2.3. 1 The load-stress relationship
in the first load cycle 113
the stirrups in the first load
cycle 114
VII.
Page
6.2.3.3 The strength of the web
reinforcement 114
6.2.3 0 4 The behaviour of the stirrups
during cyclic loading 115
6.2.4 Concrete Strains
6 0 2.5 Deformations
117
1 18
Rotations 118
6
0
2Q 5
0
2 The variation of stiffness 120
6.2
0
5 03 The elongation of the beam 122
6.2
0
5.4 Transverse expansion
6.2.5 0 5 Deflections
6.2
0
6 The Failure Mechanism
6 .. 3 Beam 313
6.3.1 Loading and Testing Procedure
Reinforcement
122
123
124
124
124
125
6
0
3
0
2.1 The distribution of strains 125
6.3.202 The position of the internal
forces 126
6.3.2.3 Load-strain relationship 127
6.3.3 The Behaviour of the Stirrups 128
6.3.3 0 1 The load-stress relationship
in first load cycle 128
6
0
3.3.2 The strength of the web
reinforcement 129
6.3.3.3 The behaviour of stirrups
the stirrups 131
6 0 3.4 Deformations 131
6.3.4.1 Rotations 131
6.3.4.2 The variation of stiffness 132
The elongation of the beam 132
6.3
0
404 Transverse expansion 132
6.3.4.5 Deflections 133
Vlllo
Page
6.3.6 The Repaired Beam (1313)
6.4 Beam 314
134
135
138
138
6 .. 5
6 .. 4. 1 Loading and Testing Procedure
6
0
4 .. 2 The Behaviour of the Flexural
Reinforcement 139
6
9
4.3 The Performance of the Horizontal Web
Reinforcement 140
6.4.4. 1 The load-strain relationship
in the first load cycle 143
6.4.4.2 The strength of the web
reinforcement 144
6.4.4.3 The behaviour of the stirrups
st irrup s 146
6
9
4 .. 5 Deformations 146
6.4.5.3
6.4.5.4
6.4.5.5
The elongation of the beam
Transverse expansion
Deflections
A Comparison of Medium Coupling Beams
6.5.1 The Behaviour of the Flexural Rein-
forcement
6 0 5.'.1 Strain distribution along the
147
147
148
.148
148
beams 148
6 .. 5,,1.2 An analytical study of the
tension force distribution 149
6.5.1.3 Bond stresses 153
6.5.2 The Behaviour of Stirrups 154
6,,5.3 Deformations 156
6 .. 5.3. 1 Rotations 156
6.5.3.2 Beam elongations 157
6.5.3.3 Transverse expansions 158
CHAPTER 7 DEEP COUPLING BEAMS
7 .. 1 Beam 391
70101 Loading and Test Procedure
7" 102 The Behaviour of the Flexural
Reinforcement
IX"
Page
159
159
159
159
70 ',,2 0 1 The distribution of strains 159
70' 02,,2 Th'e tension force distribu don 160
701 0 3 The Performance of the Horizontal Web
Reinforcement 160
7.104 The Behaviour of the Stirrups 161
70104. 1 relationship 161
7
0
1.4.2 The strain distribution along
stirrups 161
7.104 0 3 The ultimate strength of the
web reinforcement 162
Diagonal Concrete Compression Strains
The Failure Mechanism
Deformations
7.1.7.'
7.1.7.2
7,,1..7.3
701.704
Rotations
The elongation of the beam
Transverse expansion
Deflections
7.1.8 Crack Widths
7,,2 Beam 392
70201 Loading and Test Procedure
70202 The Behaviour of the Flexural
Reinforcement
162
163
163
163
163
163
164
164
164
164
165
70 202.' The distribution of strains 165
70202,,2 The tension force
tion 165
7 .. 2.3 The Behaviour of the Stirrups 166
702
0
3
0
1 The strain distribution along
the stirrups 166
7020302 The strain history during
cyclic loading 168
7.2 0 3 0 3 The ultimate strength of the
stirrup s 168
7.2
0
5 Deformations
x.
Page
168
169
7.2.5.2 The variation of stiffness ,170
7Q2.5.3 The elongation of the beam 170
7.2.5.4 Transverse Expansion 171
7.3 Beam 393
7.3.1 Loading and Testing Procedure
Reinforcement
7.3.2.' The distribution of the
'71
171
171
strains 171
7.3.2.2 The tension force distribu-
tion 171
7.3.2.3 Load-strain history 172
7.3 .. 3 The Performance of the Horizontal Web
Reinforcement 173
7,,3 .. 4.1 The load-stress relationship
during the first cycle 173
7.3,,4.2 The strain distribution along
the stirrups 173
7.3.4 .. 3 The ultimate strength of the
stirrup s ] 74
7.3.5 The Failure Mechanism 175
7.3.6 Deformations 175
7.3.6.2 The variations of stiffness 176
7.3.6 .. 3 The elongation of the beam 176
7.3 .. 6.4 Transverse expansion 176
7.4 Beam 394
7 .. 4.1 Loading and Testing Procedure
Reinforcement
7.4.3 The Performance of the Horizontal Web
176
177
177
Reinforcement 178
XL
page
7.484.1 The load-strain relationship 178
stirrups 179
7.404.3 The ultimate strength of the
stirrup s '79
7.4.5 Diagonal Concrete Compression 179
7.4.6 The Failure Mechanism 180
7.4 .. 7 Deformations 180
7.4.7.3 The elongation of the beam 181
7 .. 4.7 0 4 Transverse expansion 181
7.5 A Comparison of Deep Coupling Beams
7 .. 5.1 The Behaviour of the Flexural
Reinforcement
7 7.5.'01 Strain distribution along
the beams
7.5.1.2 An analytical study of the
181
182
182
tension force distribution 182
7.5.2 The Behaviour of Stirrups
7.5
0
3 Deformations
7.5.3.1 Rotations
70 5.3.2 Beam elongations
7.5.3.3 Transverse expansions
'84
185
185
186
186
CHAPTER 8 . SHALLOW COUPLING BEAMS 187
8.1 Loading and Testing Procedure 188
8.2 Crack Patterns and Failure Mechanisms 188
8.3 The Behaviour of the Flexural Reinforcement 190
8.3. 1 The Distribution of Strains along the
Flexural Reinforcement 190
8.3.2 Theoretical Considerations of the
Tension Force Distribution 191
8.3 .. 3 Load-Stress Relationship 192
XII.
Page
8 0 3.4 Load-Strain History During Cyclic
Loading 192
8.4 The Behaviour of Stirrups 193
8.4.1 The Load-Stirrup Stress Relationship 193
8.4.2 The Behaviour of Stirrups During
Cyclic Loading 194
8.5 Concrete Strains
8,,6 Deformations
194
196
196
197
197
8.6. 1 Load-Rotation Relationship
8.6
0
2 The Variation of Stiffnesses
8.6.3 BeamElongations
CHAPTER 9 AN ANALYTICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE DEFORMATIONS
OF COUPLING BEAMS
9.1 The Distribution of Strains Along the Flexural
Reinforcement of Coupling Beams 198
9.2 The Elongation of the Beams 198
9.3 The Estimation of the Stiffness of Coupling
Beams after Cracking 199
9 .. 3" 1
Shear Deformations Owing to Truss
Action 200
9.3.2 Shear Deformations Owing to Arch
Action 204
9 .. 3.3 Flexural Rotations 204
9 .. 3 .. 4 Rotation OWing to Beam E longa t ion 206
9 .. 3,,5 Total Rotation and the Proportions of
Component Rotations 206
9 .. A Comparison With Experimental Results 208
CHAPTER
10 - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 211
10 .. 1 The Behaviour of Coupled Shear Walls 211
10.2 The Elasto-Plastic Analysis of Coupled Shear
Walls 211
10 .. 3 Experimental Evidence on the Behaviour of
Coup ling Beams 212
10.3 .. 1 Flexure
10 .. 30 2 Shear
10.3.3 Concrete Stresses and Strains
10 .. 3.4 Horizontal Web Reinforcement
10.,3.5 Confining Reinforcement
10.3.6 Deformations
10.3.7 Stiffness
10.4 Analytical Studies of Coupling Beams
10.4. 1 Tension Force Distribution and
Elongation
10.4.2 The Determination of Stiffness
10.5 Suggestions for Future Research
10
0
6 Design Recommendations
10.6. 1 The Design of Coupling Beams
10
0
6.2 Coupled Shear ~ l l Structures
Beam
XIII.
Page
212
213
214
215
215
216
217
217
217
218
218
219
219
221
XIV.
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o
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w
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c
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e
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ll
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0
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0
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0
52 .. PAULAY, T. 11 Discussion of Ref G 51 Q Proceedings ACI Journal
Vol o 65, March 1968, ppo 237-239
0
53.. COULL, A., PURl, R.D., IIAnalysis of coupled shear walls
of variable thickness!!o Building Science,
Vol .. 2, Pergamon Press 1967, pp. 181-188 ..
54.. GURFINKEL) G", "Simp le method of analysis of Vierendee 1
structures" .. Proceedings, Structural Division
ASCE, Vol o 93, No. June 1967, pp" 273-
285 ..
55. COULL, A., STAFFORD B., "Analysis of shear wall
structures".. Symposium on tall buildings
with particular reference to shear wall
structures, University of Southampton,
April 1966, Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1967"
pp .. 139-155"
56 a BERG, V. B", STRATTA, J. L., II Anchorage and the Alaska
earthquake of March 27, 1964"" American
Iron and Steel Institute, New York" 1964.
57 Ii KANI, K.,. "How strong are our large beams 7" Proceedings
ACI Journal, Vol
o
64, March 1967, pp .. 128-
141.. -
58.. HAUGLI, R.F., "Stahlbetonbalken bei gleichzeitiger
Einwirkung von Querkraft und Moment".
Deutscher Ausschuss fur Stahlbetolh. Heft
145, 1962"
5g e ACI Standard Building Code Requirements for Reinforced'
Concrete .. (ACI 318-63)"
60
0
FENWICK, R.C., "The shear strength of reinforced concrete
beams". Ph"D .. Thesis, University of Canter-
bury, Christchurch, New Zealand, 1966 0
61 .. PAULAY, T., FENWICK, R.C., "The nature of shear resistance
in reinforced concrete beams"" Civil
Engineering Transactions of the Institution
of Engineers, Australia, Vol" CE9, Bo .. 2,
Oct .. 1967, pp .. 295-306 6
xx ..
62.. AGRAWAL, G .L., TULIN, L.G., GERSTLE, K.Ho , "Response of'
doubly reinforced concrete beams to cyclic
. loading" .. Proceedings ACI Journal, VoL 62,
July 1965, pp. 823-835.
63. LEONHARDT,
64"
MAYER, H.,
F., WALTHER, R., "Schubversuche an einfeld-
rigen Stahlbetonbalken mit und ohne
Schubbewehrung". Deutscher Ausschuss fuer'
Stahlbeton, Heft 151, 1962
0
"5 Versuche zum Studium der Verformungen im
Querkraftbereich eines Stahlbetonbalkens" ..
Materialpruefungsamt fuer das Bauwesen der
Technischen Hochschule Muenchen, Bericht
No. 58, 2 Vol .. 1964
0
65" RAUSCH, E., 'IDrillung (Torsion), Schub und Scheren im
Stahlbetonbau" .. 3rd Ed .. Deutscher Ingenieur-
Verlag GmbH, Duesseldorf,' 953 9
66. LEONHARDT, F., WALTHER, R., "Beitraege zur Behandlung
der Schubprobleme im Stahlbetonbau". Beton..;
und 'Stahlbetonbau, Vol. 58, Sept" 1963,
pp.216-224
s
-
67. LITLE, W.A., PAPARONI, M., nSize effects in small-scare
models of reinforced concrete beams".
Proceedings ACI Journal, Vol. 63, Nove 1966,
pp. 1191-1204 and Vol. 6 ~ June 1967, P a ~ t 2,
pp. 1571-1582.. '
68.. BAUMANN, T., "Versuche zum Studium der Verbuegelungs= '
wirkung der Biegezugbewehrung eines Stahl-
betonbalken"0 Bericht Nr.,77. Materialprufung-
samt fUer das Bauwesen der Technischen
Hochschule Munchen
o
1968.
Linear
Dimensions
b
d
d'
h
1
1
1
, 12
1
s
l'
s
x
Xl '
x2
Xl
z
D
NOTATIONS
width of a rectangular beam
effective depth of a beam
XXL
distance from the centroid of flexural rein-
forcement to adjacent edge of beam
floor height
dist.ance between centroida1 axes of coup led
shear walls .Q clear span of test beam proper
distance from axis of coupled shear wall
structure to centroida1 axis of Wall 1 and
Wall 2 respectively .2.!: lengths of the diagonal
members of an analogous truss
length of a stirrup
length of a strut in an analogous linear arch
distance between inner faces of coupled walls
.2.!: stirrup spacing
distance from the top of .a wall ..2.1;: along a
test beam
location of a stirrup from one or the other
end of a beam
ordinate along a wall referring to a point
situated half way between coupling beams
internal lever arm
overall depth of a beam
Areas and their Properties
a
v
A
A
s

I
11 '
I
0
12
area of one stirrup
area
area of flexural steel in one face of a beam
area of horizontal web reinforcement
moment of inertia
moment of inertia of Wall 1 or Wall 2
=11 + 12
I'
x
Forces
p(x), p ~ )
Px
Pc
Po
Ps
q(x), q ~ )
qu
A
C
D 1 '
D2
S
T
T(x), T ~
Tt'
Tb
Tm
T
c
T'
V
V
1
" V
2
V 'v
1,0, 2,0
V d'. V do
V
c
XXII.
reduced moment of inertia of coupling beam
allowing also for shear deformation
equivalent reduced moment of inertia of a
cracked beam
laminar separation force per unit length
equivalent stirrup force per unit length at. x
the maximum value of Px
the minimum value of Px
the mean value of p
x
laminar shear force per unit length
ultimate laminar shear force per unit length
shearing force carried by interlocking
aggregates
compression force in a beam
dowel forces across the flexural reinforcement
stirrup force
tension force
axial forces generated in coupled shear walls
tension in the top and bottom flexural
reinforcement respectively
maximum tension generated in the flexural
reinforcement'of a test beam
tension in flexural reinforcement at midspan
of a coupling beam
tensile force in the horizontal web reinforce-
ment
total external shear force
final shear forces on Wall 1 and Wall 2
shear force induced by external load only in
Wall 1 and Wall 2
dowel force acting across the flexural steel
in the tension and compression zone respect-
ively
shear force resisted by beam without web
reinforcement
,.,.r.
-
v
s
Va
V
p
V
u
W
W 1 '
W
2
W
e
W
U
W
y'.
Wi
Y
A W r
Il Wit
P, P.
1
P
u
p*
u
p
0
Apr
A pI!
Pb
Bending Moments
M.
1
M
o
M M
1 ,0, 2,0
M
P
XXIII.
shear force resisted in a beam by stirrups
only .
component of shear force resisted by arch
action
shearing force generated in walls by separation
forces
ultimate shear force across a coupling beam
external lateral load, usually of triangular
shape, on coupled shear wall structure
proportion of external load acting on Wall 1
and Wall 2 respectively
external load at elastic Limit of structural
behaviour '
total external triangu:lar ultimate load on
coup led shear wall structure
external triangular load which causes all
laminae to yield
triangular load increment to cause Wall to
attain its ultimate capacity
triangular load increment to cause Wall 2 to
attain its ultimate capacity
lo.ad on a test beam at increment i
ultimate load carried by a beam .QI: a point
load corresponding with W
u
theoretical ultimate load on a beam
singular separation force acting at the top
of coupled shear walls
a point load increment corresponding with AW I
a pOint load increment corresponding with AWl!
axial force in coupling beam resulting from
accumulated separation forces
moment on a test beam at increment i
total external cantilever moment
moments induced by external load only in Wall
1 and Wall 2
moments generated in walls by separation
forces
MM
q, 1; q,2
Stresses
fc
f '
c
f
cu
f
s
f
y
f
u
v
v
dc
Di sp lacemen t s
db
d
f
d
m
d
s
Yl '
Y2
Yo
y'
0
yll
0
XXIV.
moments generated by laminar forces in Wall.
1 and Wall 2
final bending moments on Wall 1 and Wall 2
ultimate moment capacity at the base of Wall
1 and Wall 2
concrete compression stress
cylinder crushing strength of concrete
cube strength of concrete
steel stress
yield strength of steel
ultimate strength of steel
nominal shear stress = V /bd
nominal shear stress at onset of diagonal
cracking
Young's modulus
modulus of elasticity for concrete
modulus of elasticity for steel
modulus of rigidity
differential ilisp lacement of coup led shear
walls owing to axial forces
laminar deflection caused by flexure and shear
laminar deflection owing to laminar flexure
laminar displacement caused by the flexural
rotation of coupled walls
laminar displacement cause by shear
lateral deflection of Wall 1 and Wall 2
lateral deflection at the top of the shear
wall structure
lateral deflection at top of structure caused
by
A WI
lateral deflection at the top of structure
caused by
A Wit
Yoe
/j.' A
II
s' S
Rotations
"1
"m
tJ
p
" ' P
"ph
"pr
" . w
() I
W
,,"
w
xxv.
lateral deflection of shear walls at the
elastic limit
lateral deflection of the top of the structure
When the elastic limit is attained
lateral deflection of walls at full plasti-
fication of laminae
lateral deflection at the top o.f the structure
at full plastification of laminae
shear displacement owing to arch action
components of the shear displacement A
v
shear displacement associated with an
ana logous truss
elongation of the top and bottom flexural
reinforcement respectively over half the span
of a c'oup ling beam
elongation of test beam
theoretical elongation of test beam proper
beam rotation owing to arch action
total laminar rotation
I
rotation in plastic wall hinges after the
attainment of the ultimate load
beam rotation. owing to the elongation O:f the
flexural reinforcement
flexural rotation of coupling beams
plastic laminar rotation
plastic laminar rotation increment caused
by /j, WI
plastic laminar rotation caused by
"h
plastic laminar rotations generated by rigid
body rotations of coup led walls
elastic wall rotations
elastic wall rotation increments caused by
AW'
elastic wall rotation increment caused by
/j. Wit
(j wr
(Jy

XXVI.
rigid body rotation of shear walls
maximum elastic laminar rotation at the onset
of yielding
rotations of the left and right hand support
sections respectively in a test beam
Parameters .. Factors and Coefficients
a
a.
v
a factor containing the ratio
a form factor associated with shear distortions
modular ratio, Es/Ec
flexural steel content
web steel content
a geometric factor for coupled shear walls
a dimensionless factor related to beam
elongation
a stiffness ratio
a geometric parameter (dimension = l/Length)
a geometric parameter (dimensionless)
a geometric parameter (dimension = 1/Length
3
)
a load ratio" P /W
the ratio of the steel force carried by the
web reinforcement to the load on the coupling
beam i
Poisson's ratio 2!: ratio of the beamis span
to the length'of the stirrups
ratio of the beam's length to the internal
lever arm
specific distance x/H or x/l
location of the first yielding lamina
capacity reduction factor
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCT ION
101 Shear Wall Structures
Structural 'engineers have long recognised the usefulness
. ~ , ' ,t
of cert,a.in walls .in the overall planning of a multistorey
building,,,. When external or internal walls are p laced in
advanta,geouspositions they can be extremely efficient in
resist,ing,lateral loads originating from wind or earthquakeso
Prov.ided ,that they are suitably connected to the floors of
the building, that they possess sufficient strength, and as
cant.ilev:ers they ,are effectively restrained at their
foundations,they can accept a major part of, if not all, the
lateral load on a buildingo By doing so they can considerably
relieve those structural units which primarily carry gravity
loads. Because they often receive a significant proportion
of the accumulated lateral forc'es (Leo shear) ,particularly
at the lower floors of a multistorey building, they are
collectively termed as "shear walls" in the English speaking
world.
Functional and often structural requirements make the
use of shear walls mandatory in many buildings. Windowless
boundary walls, exterior walls with small openings, permanent
interior partition or fire walls, and cores encasing lift
shafts and stair wells are only a few of the uses of shear
walls. More often than not, such walls are pierced by
numerous openings for windows, doors, service holes and other
purposes. The structural engineer is fortunate enough if
these openings are arranged in a systematic p t t e r ~ o
2.
It is difficult to clearly define the divisiarLhatweerL ...
a shear.w.aILwith openings (pierced shear walLs) and J'j.,.,
rectiLinear, frame .. with deep members.. A few years ago regular
shear .waLL in which two or more walls are ... sep,ara.t,ad
by vert.ical rows of openings, began to be referred to as
"coupled shear walls". The "coupling" consists of a numbeJ:of
blocks, panels or beams formed between vertically arranged
openings. Their contribution determines the nature and degree
of interaction amongst the coupled walls.
Though coupled shear walls have been accepted for quite
some time as essential structural units of multistorey
buildings, our understanding of their behaviour is not even
approaching that of beam-column frames. Only in the last
decade does an increased interest in them, and a
research activity, emerge from the technical literature. The
initiative of the University of Southampton, in organising
the first interna.tionalsymposium ort tall buildings and shear
wall structures in 1966, was a highlight in the sporadic
efforts to promote knowledge in this field.*
1.2 The Problems Associated With Coupled Shear Walls
The problems of shear wall structures arise in several
ways. Multistorey buildings have become taller and more
slender.. With this trend the analysis of shear walls often
emerges as a critical design item. New construction techniques,
such as lift slab construction, often rely entirely on the
lateral stability and strength of shear walls. It became
evident that the well developed methods of structural analysis,
used in the design of rigid jointed frames, are inadequate.
* See references numbered 45, 46, 48 and 55.
De,fo.rmati.ons.owing, ,toaxi.a.L and,.shear stresses, which
were ,thought, ,oias ,being insignificant in comparison with
flexural defonnations"had, ,to be accounted foro This
necessi.tated the search for new techniques of analysis with
a manageable demand on computational efforts in a design office.
A particular difficulty arose from the interaction of
shear walls and rigid jointed frames
e
It is not easy to
satisfy the requirements of compatibility for two structures,
so very different in their behaviour, without the use of an
electronic computer, unless one is satisfied with rather crude
approximations.
Deep structural members, such as coupling beams, no
longer obey the laws of classical flexural theory. To avoid
cumbersome stress functions in the assessment of the nonlinear
stress pattern in deep members, more attention was directed
towards photoelastic and structural model studies. Unfortunately
the validity of the results of these are often restricted to a
specific structure"
Theoretical or experimental results, however successfulthe
projects are from which they originated, still need to be
related to the structural material to be used, which, with a
few exceptions, is reinforced concrete. This in turn opens
another source of problems associated with the relationship
of the classical elastic analysis and the behaviour of cracked
reinforced concrete members.
There is little known about the evaluation of the
ultimate strength of deep reinforced concrete members subjected
to alternating Loading. The forces on shear walls may also
give rise to unusual combinations of bending moment, axial
force and shear force. The laws of such interactions,
particularly at the ultimate state, are not known as yet"
The stiffness characteristics, necessary for the
determination othe deformations and dynamic properties of
4 ..
a cracked.Bhear.w:all structure, can only be crudely estimated.
The nature of the postelastic behaviour, in particular the .
demand and availability of ductility in coupled shear walls,
is, to the writer1s knowledge, wholly unexplored. A lack of
understanding in this field may have serious consequences ..
The damage that can result from a violent earthquake disturbance
in a shear wall structure is illustrated by the view of a 14
storey building which survived the 1964 Alaska earthquake in
Anchorage. See Fig. 1.1, Fig. 1.2, Fig. '.3 and Fig. 1.4.
'.3 The Aims of a Research Program
It is hoped that in a long term research program,
initiated by the writer in the Department of Civil Engineering
of the University of Canterbury, it will be possible to advance
our understanding of the behaviour of shear wall structures.
It is intended to restrict the work to multistorey reinforced
concrete structures and to theirperform.imce in situations likely
to be encountered in severe'seiBmic disturbances. It is also
hoped that with a speedy evaluation of the program it will be
possible to make the results available, in the form of design
recommendations, to the engineering profession for use and
comment. This thesis, dealing with the coupling of shear
walls, is the outcome of the first project of the proposed
research program.
1.4 The Scope of the Project
In a review of the relevant literature the origin and
the development of the analyses of coupled shear walls are
traced ..
In particular the postulates of the so called
"laminar analysis" are examined. As far as possible the
essence of the more significant contributions are presented
in a chronological order.
In chapter the elastic laminar analysis is
deve.lo..ped in c.onside.t:.ahl.e detail.. Certain aspects, .overl.o.oked ...
or not .. emphasi.s.en .. by researchers, are brought t.o the fore ...... In
order to be able.to place this new analytical technique in
its pr.oper .. p..iace., ... the assumptions uP.on which it is based,
are critically examined. The analysis i's then extended S.o
as to estimate the elastic behaviDUr of cracked cDupled shear
walls. An illustrative example dem.onstrates qualitatively
the influence of cracking and the cDnsequent lDSS .of stiffness
uP.on the static quantities.
As an extension of the laminar analysis a step by step
procedure is suggested by which alsD the P.ostelastic behaviour
of two coupled shear walls can be approximated. It is shown
how the ultimate strength of the structure is attained thrDugh
a specified sequence .of plastification. The equatiDns,
giving the intensity of the significant structural actiDns,
the elastic and plastic defDrmati.ons" are presented for each
stage .of the elasto-plastic behaviour. A brief numerical
example demonstrates the applicatiDn .of the pr.oPosed analysis
and highlights the extremely large demand fDr ductility in
the cDupling system, when .only a ;relatively modest .overall
ductility is required.
These tW.o chapters also serve tD establish, in terms .of
the classical theory of elasto-plastic structures, the rDle
of coupling beams in ensuring efficient interactiDn between
the coupled walls
o
The next task was thus to examine als.o
experimentally how reinforced CDncrete c.oupling beams would
behave and how they could meet the demand for strength and
ductility. The fulfilment of this task forms the majDr part
.of this projecta
Three gr.oups of four coupling beams have been tested.
The span to depth rati.o of the beams, the am.ount .of web
reinforcement, and the type .ofl.oading Were the majDr variables
6.
in these experiments. Only for the purpose of distinguishing
easily the three series of specimens from each other, they
are referred to as shallow, medium and deep beams c
Chapter 6 presents, in some considerable detail, the
results of the tests on four medium beams. The experiments
a ttemp.ted to disclose every aspect of the behaviour of
coupling beams. Correspondingly the behaviour of the flexural
reinforcement over the entire span, and that of the web
reinforcement over a major portion of the depth, has been
assessed. From these the magnitudes and the positions of
the internal resisting forces were evaluated. A comparison
is made with the current recommendations of the code of the
American Concrete Institute. The compression strains in
the uncracked and cracked concrete were also followed in
some specimens. As components of the the
rotations, transverse expansions and the
deflections of the beams were determined during one way and
alternating cyclic loading. The crack formation is discussed
and the nature of the failure mechanisms is presentedQ The
change of stiffness with cyclic loading, the postelastic
deformations and the features of deterioration are also
assessed. Wherever possible an explanation is offered for
the unusual features of behaviour and at the end of the
chapter proposals are in the form of an analytical study,
for the prediction of the distribution of tension forces along
the coupling beams.
In the following two chapters similar findings are
presented for the groups of deep and shallow coupling beams.
For the latter only a summary of the more important features
is given. In the deep beams, with a span to depth ratio
of approximately one, horizontal web reinforcement was also
provided. In one case confining reinforcement was used to
strengthen the critical compression zones of a deep beam.
Chapter 9 presents the analytical assessment of the
deformations in coupling beams. It is shown that with a
suitable analogy, based on the most probable mechanism of the
cracked test beams, the four major sources of the rotations
can be determined. From this analogy the stiffness of the
cracked coupling beams is evaluated and the results of the
analysis are compared with the experimental evidence.
A summary of the theoretical and experimental investigation
takes the form of conclusions and recommendations in the last
chapter. Suggestions are made for future research on coupled
shear walls. The most important conclusions are then
translated into design recommendations for coupled shear walls
in general and for coupling beams in particular.
1.5 The Presentation of the Results
With few exceptions the experimental evidence i$
presented in graph form rather than in tables. Wherever
possible a comparison is made with existing theories or new
propositions. In order to conserve space, only the essential
and typical experimental results were reproduced hereo However,
it is believed that the evidence is sufficient to be entirely
convincing within the scope of this project.
To enable the reader to examine easily the results and
their quantitative interpretations while reading the text,
the numerous figures and photographs have been collected in a
- separate volume. Also at the beginning of the second volume
all tables are assembled.
CHAPTER TWO
A REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK ON COUPLED SHEAR WALLS
The unusual dimensions, often encountered in shear wall
structures, seriously limit the efficient application of the
conventio,nal techniques of structural analysiso It is for
this reason that numerous attempts were made to develop
analytical methods which fit better the behaviour of this type
of structure. The review is restricted to the brief examination
of such theories put forward to assess the strength and
behaviour of coupled shear walls. Works related to other
interesting topics on shear walls, in particular the inter-
action of a set of shear walls or the interaction of shear
walls and rigid jointed frames, are beyond the scope of this
review.
An approach, by which the statically indeterminate
problem of coupled shear walls can be reduced to a relatively
simple analysis, seems to originate from Chitty16 She
studied the behaviour of a number of parallel cantilevers which
are rigidly interconnected by cross-bars. These bars are
replaced by an equivalent continuous elastic medium which is
capable of transmitting the same actions as the cross-bars.
The device enables the various actions to be expressed by
continuous functions along the cantileverbeams
o
Chitty
correctly assessed the equilibrium and compatibility require-
ments but she neglected the effects of shear. She proposed
a differential equation in terms of a continuously varying
moment applied by the connecting medium to the cantilever
beams. The solution of the problem is completed by satisfying
9"
the boundary conditions for the cantilever structure"
The approximation in Chitty's approach consists of the
replacement of discrete connecting bars by a set of infinitesimal
ones spaced at infinitesimal distances from each other along the
cantilevers
o
Each such bar or"lamina" acts independently" The
continuous elastic connecting medium may therefore be thought
of as a continuous laminar system between two adjacent canti-
levers 0
The larger the number of discrete bars to be replaced by
the latninarsystem the more satisfactory results the approx-
imation is likely to furnish.. In coupled shear walls of
storey building generally one connecting beam is made at each
floor .. (See Fig" 3.1 and Fig" 3 0 2)0 it may be said
that the larger the number of storeys the more useful the
,
t
laminar analysis becomeso
Chitty and Wen-Yuh-Wan directly applied their studies
to multi-storey They comparedthe results obtained
from slope-deflection equations and the laminar analysis and
found a satisfactory agreement" The axial deformations in the
columns of the single bay multi-storey frames were neglected"
For this reason the proposed technique has serious limitations
when applied to shear wall structures, in which axial deforma-
fion may significantly affect the behaviour.
A very clear review of the approach used by Chitty and
Wen-Yuh-Wan, as app lied to open web structures, was given: by
P
' d
3
" i\..ppar
In 1952 Green
4
introduced an approximate analysis,
applicable to frames with deep beams. His approach was
similar to thellpo'rtal method
ll
which was extensively used to
determine the approximate actions in building frames subjected
to lateral static loading" He too neglected axial deformations
in columns but he emphasised the significance of shear
deformations in deep members"
A most penetrating work on the elastic behaviour of
coupled shear walls originates from Becke His first
publicationS deals with wall panels containing one or more
10 ..
rOws of openings. The Vierendeel girder, with deep horizontal
and relatively slender vertical members, is one of the examples
on which he introduced his method of analysis. The individual.
columns were replaced by an equivalent laminar system, similar
in nature to that used by Chitty some ten years earlier. Beck
was unaware of Chitty's work.
In his work on simply supported Vierendeel girders, Beck
ignored the effect of axial stresses in the horizontal members
and the shear distortions in the elastic connecting laminae.
Only for the particular structures of his choice was this a
justifiable assumption. His differential equation was set
up in terms of the laminar shear force.. In a number of
examples he compared the results of:
(a) A conventional "exact" elastic analysis, which
considered the uniform properties of all members
as being concentrated at the centre lines between
node points.
(b) An "exact" elastic analysis based on the assumption
that the columns of the Vierendeel girders deform
only over their clear spano
(c) The proposed "laminar" analysis.
This study showed an excellent agreement between the
results of (b) and (c) type analyses, even for cases when
only five columns connected the top and bottom chords of the.
Vierendeel girders.. It w ~ also revealed that the conventional
frame analysis, (a), when not taking into account "deep member
effects" could furnish excessively erroneous results" The,
computational effort is considerably reduced in the laminar
analy sis"
110
In an extract of a Beck presented in 1958
his.cHm.:t:'.oach in a more general form" The aim of his study was
a very large number of statically indeterminate
quantities by a few "mathematically sensible" functions. Instead
of setting up a large number of simultaneous linear equations
he dealt with a few simultaneous differential equations.. In
many cases, and the problem of two coupled shear walls is one
of these, the solution is obtained from a single second order
differential equation. The larger is the degree of static
indeterminancy the larger is the appeal of the laminar analysis ..
In, the same year Zbirohowski-Koscia introduced an
approximate lateral load analysis
7
in which the assumptions
of the laminar system were used. The .. advantage of reducing.
the amount of computational work was lost however when discrete
laminar forces were used. The effect of foundation rotations
upon the behaviour of coupled shear walls was also considered
by making use of the Winklerian concept of elastic foundation
response"
In 1959 Beck extended his laminar analysis of Vierendeel
girders so as to allow for the significant axial deformations
in coupled shear walls and the shear deformations in the
coupling beams
8
In a series of diagrams he clearly demonstrated
the limitations of the conventional frame analysis when applied
to shear wall structures and also the limitations of the
techniques usually applied to castellated beams. At that time
9
he examined symmetrical structures only"
Chapuis and Latil attacked the problem in a more
. 1 lOb tt' . lt t'
manner y se up aneous equa
equal in number to the number of storeys. This was only
12.
possible because the axial deformations were neglected and
because only symmetrical shear wall structures were considered
o
They also proposed an approximate analysis for shear walls
containing more than one row of openings.
A similar approach was presented by Albiges and Goulet
in 1960 for the analysis of a set of a set of solid shear walls1'
In the second part of their work they presented an approximate
analysis for two coupled shear walls. According to the
magnitude of parameter, which expressed the efficiency of shear
transfer from one wall to the other, they classified these
structures into three groups, as follows:
a.) Walls with small openings (iee. large coupling
beams) in which the deformations owing to shear
transfer can be neglected. The analysis is thus
based on the Bernoulli-Navier strain hypothesis and
linear elastic behaviour.
b.) The wall openings are so large that the contribution
of the coupling beam can be neglected. The load is
thus resisted by cantilever walls only.
c.) A special analysis is warranted for walls with
intermediate openings in which the coupling beams
are capable of transferring considerable shear,
while being subjected to appreciable
It is this latter group of shear walls for which Albiges
and Goulet developed essentially the same technique as that of
8 9
Beck '. They appear to have been unaware of Beck's and
Chitty's work. They paid due attention to flexural and axial
def orma tions but they ignored the shear distortions of the ..
coupling beams. The function for the statically indeterminate
quantity is given in terms of the laminar shear. In Cahpter 3
it will be shown that this solution is insufficient for
13.
nonsymmetrical shear wall structures. "Separation forces" in
the coupling beams are also generated and these affect the
distribution of the external shear between the two coupled
walls.
It may be said that further work on the laminar concept
of shear wall analysis was largely influences by the publications
of Chitty, Beck, Albiges and Goulet in the English, German and
French speaking countries respectively.
12
In 1960 appeared the first publication of Rosman ~ who
is the most prolific theoretical worker on the topic of coupled
shear walls. Making use of the laminar system and by strain
energy considerations, he established the fundamental Eulerian
differential equation of the problem. He chose the solution
in terms of the axial force on the walls and expressed this by
trignometric series. By applying this approach to a shear wall
with two vertical rows of openings, he showed that siml,llt.aneous,
nonhomogeneous, second order differential equations with,
constant coefficients, yield the required static quantitieso
In this rather original mathematical approach, Rosman neither
allowed for shear deformations nor considered the separation
forces which are exerted by the coupling beams.
In a discussion of Rosman's paper, Beck
13
pointed out
the similarity to his mathematical model and showed the
complete solution by giving expressions for the laminar
separation forces and the singular separation force at the
topmost lamina.
Neumann and Walter reported on an experimental comparison
with Beck's and Rosman's analysis in the following year.
14
A
photoelastic model study of a ten storey symmetrical coupled
shear wall structure showed excellent agreement with the
theoretical approach. It also indicated that at the location
of the coupling beams, where discrete moments are introduced
into the shear walls, the stresses do not change abruptly
in the outer fibres of the walls. The fringe pattern showed
the usual stress concentrations at the reentrant corners.
In the process of establishing the principles to be
used in the analysis of any number of coupled shear walls,
Erikson and presented in 1961 the most complete
14.
15
summary of Beck's and Rosman's work They gave the complete
solution for two uniform coupled shear walls subjected to
continuously varying lateral loading.
16
Schulz attacked the problem also by using a continuous
connecting medium between the walls, and expressed his
fundamental differential equation in terms of the accumulated
laminar shear. He neglected the shear distortions and overlooked
the existence of separation forces.
The governing differential equation was formulated in
17
terms of the slope of the shear walls by Cardan who, in his
analysis, ignored the axial deformations in the walls. This
normally leads to excessive errors. He considered the load
patterns commonly used to replace seismic forces and also
investigated the effects of founlation rotations.
Inspired by Beck's work Mann also proposed an analysis
of Vierendeel girders and coupled shear walls
18
Instead of
obtaining an explicit solution in terms of a single function,
he employed a finite difference This is better
suited to cope with discontinuities, but for shear wall
structures it involves lengthy computations. To keep this
analysis relatively simple, Mann neglected significant deforma-
tions. This limits the applicability of his technique.
The shear wall studies of Tomii bear no relation to any
work previously reported. In numerous experimental projects,
which extended over a period of more than ten years, Tomii
determined the load-deformation characteristics of various
shear wall panels at Kyushu University. In some of his
investigations, he considered the behaviour of a whole wall
containing one or more openings, rather than the behaviour of
wall components
o
As would be expected, he encountered consider-
able scatter in his test results g Tomii formulated a relatively
simp le empirical relationship between parameters representing
the load and the relative size of the openings
19
The type of
shear wall, rather popular in Japan, is contained in a boundary
frame. So the properties of the frame, the wall and the size
of the openings affect the behaviour of the structure. Surpris-
ingly he observed that the position of the openings did not
greatly affect the performance. He expressed the relative
sizes with the following parameter:
where h
o
and
:: if h 1 /h'l'
o 0
1
o
:: the height and length of the opening
hi and l' :: the height and length of the boundary
frame measured at its inside.
The effect of the load was incorporated in another
parameter:
where Q
::
total app lied shear force
Q
F
::
shear force app lied to the frame only
Q
o
::
shear force applied to the shear wall only
when each of the three structures was subjected to the same
shear displacement o The Q terms in the above expressions
may be considered as the appropriate shear stifnesses.
Tomii found that the value o.f ~
"R
did not c h n g ~
appreciably while the lpad" Q, was increased to ultimate
and that the effect of could be predicted by the
following expression:
This fitted best his experimental results.
From another series of small scale models of two-storey
shear walls, containing symmetrically placed rectangular and
round openings, Tomii found
20
that the shearing deformation of
walls with small openings was essentially the same as that of
the walls without openings, when was less than .5" With
increasing size of the holes the models behaved more and more
like reinforced concrete frames.
The crack pattern observed by Tomii on semi full ,size
twe storey shear wall structures, with two rews ef majpr
openings and some duct heles, illuminated their behavi,0,ur
21
..
The wall elements were also subject to additional vert,ical
load so that the structure could represent the bottom two
storeys of a five storey building"
Stiller
22
carried out a theoretical study of the stresses
induced in shear wall structures consisting of closed and open
sections" He introduced functions which enable the maximum
stresses at the edges of a panel, containing an opening,to be
expressed in terms of the stresses generated in homogeneous
elastic shear wall elementswithout openings. In particular,
he investigated the effects of torsion in cere shear walls ..
He also examined experimenta1ly the weakening effect of holes
in shear wallso A row of rectangular openings was replaced by
circular heles of an equivalent area. This enabled Stiller te
reduce the stress concentrations at the corners and to obtain
a more uniform stress pattern in his photoelastic medals" A
comparison of a number of five sterey shear wall models with
and without circular openings, enabled the stress in the
extreme fibres only to be compared o He found that openings
affect the shear stresses particularly at the corners of box
section shear wall cores o
1 7
In 1962 Rosman extended the laminar analysis by considering
two coupled shear walls supported on separate foundations. 12
When the settlement and the tilting of the footings is being
examined the problem becomes siply a matter of satisfying the
appropriate boundary conditions for the fundamental d ferential
equation. In the third part of his theoretical investigation
12
,
Rosman dealt with coupled shear walls with variable flexural
rigidityo To retain the advantages of the laminar analysis
it became necessary to assume that the wall properties vary
continuously with the height along the structure 0 Even
assuming a linear variation of wall thickness and Young's
Modulus with the elevation of a particular section, the volume
of manual computation becomes prohibitive.
Deschapelles showed that finite difference equations may
also be Used in the laminar analysise23 He restricted his study
to symmetrical structures
o
In the same year Beck presented, in a very clear manner,
his theory in English
24
and used symmetrical coupled shear
walls for his examplese Unfortunately several used
this paper as a basis for the study of nonsymmetrical structures
also
o
Candy and Armstrong were the first ones to point out in
tli
. . d . . 2
5
h t k . . ...1 1
e sUl.ng l.SCUSSl.on t a crac l.ng, even l.n a mO<.,lera te y
loaded reinforced concrete structure, must account for a loss
of symmetry 0
Cardan rightly suggested
26
that a general matrix
analYSis, which allows for all the significant deformations
in a coupled shear wall structure can now be easily programmed
for a computero
In a report on Gamage, which resulted from the
1960 Chilean earthquake, Steitlbrugge and Flores described
27
the
presumed behaViour of a number of shear wall buildings situated
in Valdavia .. They observed that failure often occurred at
vertical or horizontal lines along which openings were situated.
Either a row ,of columns or wall panels failed at the same floor
owing. to horizontal interstorey shear, or a vertical row of
spandrel beams was destroyed owing to high vertical shear
jndl.lc,ed,between adjacent wall-columns
o
These units often
exhibited two major diagonal cracks crossing each other - the
familiar features of diagonal tension. The report draws
attention to the careful assessment of the behaviour and
detailing of these potentially weak links, such as coupling
beams, in seismic shear walls o
To verify the degree of approximation involved in the
laminar analysis Rosman also undertook a photoelastic examina-
tion
28
of a uniformly loaded ten storey symmetrical shear wall
with a single row of openings and found that:
a.) there was very good agreement with stresses derived
from the laminar analysis;
bo) the discrete effects of the coupling beams caused
stress concentrations 'only over a small area, so
that these have no significance in a reinforced concrete
structureij
c.) the stresses in the outer fibres of the shear walls
vary continuously along the height of the structure
and do not appear to be affected by the discontinuities (i.e.
openings) within the body of the walls. It is to be noted,
however, that Rosman used rather shallow beams in his epoxy
resin models
o
Two methods of frame analysis, one suitable for manual
calculation, the other for processing by a computer, have
been compared by Frisenmann, Prabhu and Toppler
29
The first
19.
method consists of replacing all vertical members of a frame
by a single equivalent column. This represents the combined
stiffness of all columns. The restraints offered by the beams
are applied at each floor to the equivalent column. If the
numbex of storeys is large the analysis can be carried out by
means of a single function G The other method uses influence
coefficients and obtains all quantities by matrix inversion ..
The authors claimed the usefulness of both these techniques
with respect to shear wall studies without having recognised
the need to include the distortions which were previously shown
to be significant.
In 1964 Arcan reported on a theoretical and experimental
investigation of coupled shear walls, carried out in Bucharest
3
?
He used the analogy of an inhomogeneous beam containing a
central strip, with a low modulus of rigidity, along its length"
The actions were expressed in terms of stresses. The strain
compatibilities were satisfied at the boundaries of the central
strip, which represents the row of openings in a shear wall.
The familiar differential equation was established in terms of
shear stresses generated in the central strip. Arcan recognised
the need for correcting the wall deflections, resulting from
external load and the laminar shear forces, in unsymmetrical
shear walls, but he assumed that a single force applied at the
top of the structure is sufficient to do this. In fact a
continuously varying system of laminar separation forces is also
required
o
Arcanexpressed the shear stresses induced in the
connecting medium, by a similarity to Jouraw ski I s classical
equation, in this form
where q (x)
Q
q(x) =v x ) ~
= shear force per unit height of wall
= the first moment of area above the fibre consid-
ered taken about the centroidal axis of the
section
20.
I
=
second_moment. of area of the whole section
1jT (x) = a fUnction which incorporates the external shear .
pattern and the efficiency of the connecting
medium in transferring shear.
On photoelastic models Arcan too verified the close
agreement with the laminar analysis. In one test specimen he
x:eplaced the connecting beams of the shear walls with a contin-
uous, presumably rubber, medium. From the fringe pattern he
obtained essentially the same extreme fibre stresses as in
models containing discrete coupling beams.
Arcan pointed out that in reinforced concrete shear walls
one should expect a lower modulus of rigidity because of cracking
at the corners of the openings. From preliminary tests on
reinforced concrete models he obtained a 75% reduction of the
modulus of rigidity.
Decaushy31 continued the theoretical work initiated by
Albiges and' Goulet'
1
in France. He examined the significance
of axial deformations in the coupled walls and suggested that
in certain cases they may be neglected, whereby the computatipn
is simplified. He devoted a considerable part of his study to
the problem of foundation tilting and presented a family of
curves as design aids. In 1963 Rosman published three further
papers, all of which dealt with the extension of the laminar
analysis o In considering the interaction of shear walls and
flexible frames
32
he recognised that owing to rotations of the
foundations, shear walls do not always participate with full
efficiency in the lateral load resistance. To allow for this
he postulated a mathematical model which lent itself to the
same treatment employed in the laminar system.
For architectural reasons coupled shear walls are
sometimes supported on vertical or sloping columns which do
not provide full base fixity for the cantilever structure.
210
After introducing the English readers to his technique, Rosman
presented an extension of the laminar analysis for these types
of shear wall In his third paper he summarised
the highlights of his preVious work (in German) aqd placed
more emphasis on structural .
With one exception all p'revious publicq,tions deal with
shear walls with uniform cross sections over their full heights o
In 1965 Burns introduced a rather practical approach to the
analysis of coupled shear walls with variable cross
He assumed that the of area, instead of changing
in step s, varies in a pa'rabolic fashion. Following Beck IS
technique he arrived at a equa'):ion for which no
explicit solution was aV.'iilable. This he overcame by a
. programmed approximation. He summarised his result.s
into design gaVe the significant parameters.
corresponding load hOrtnally employed .tor
seismic design purposes. In a discussioh of Burns I work it
, I :1 .', ;:
was pointed out thcit the basic assumptions with respec;tt6 the
behaviour of the and in particular to the deformation
" ,
characteristics of . the couplirtg beams; need reconsidered
I, "
in the light of crq,cking:, 'which must be expected under seismic
load
Without refrence to any previous work,' Magnus propOsed
in 1965 a .with the laminar
His differential equation was
caused by wall' elongations.
were neglected.
in te'rms o;f the beam displq,cements
J
Import<:j.nt coml?atibility requirements
and Szabo used Beck's approach they demohstra-
ted that for n of laminar coupling of(n+ 1) shear walls
n simultaneous second order differential equations need be
They also made a photoelBrstic evaluation of the
stresses, in short and relatively deep couplin$ beams.
22.
Coupled shear walls supported on columns is the subject
of yet another paper by Rosman
39
, in which he processes the
laminar analysis by minimising the total complementary energy.
He observed that the variation of wall properties with the
height had only small effect upon laminar shear. It is
thus likely that the analyses developed could be used with good
approximation in most design situations.
The laminar analysis can deal with any type of load
pattern as long as this is expressed by a continuous function
of the distance from one end of the structure. Rosman also
gave .the solution for variable wind pressure intensity, i.e.
trapezoidal He examined two coupled shear walls whiGh
were interconnected by an infinitely rigid diaphragm at the topa
This situation is frequently encountered in shear cores Where
the penthouse forms a very rigid connection between the walls ..
Rosman showed by an example that serious disturbance occurs
over the top one third of the structure where stresses, as a
general rule, are never critical. The complete solution for
this type of framing is also given in Chapter 3.
In 1965 Rosman summed up in a small book most of his
previously published work on the laminar analysis of coupled.
shear walls
4
! This contains a number of design charts. It
has become a valuable reference work in Europe where the elastic
analysis for lateral load is usually justified.
Small improvements on the existing theories, rather than
fundamenta lly new concepts, were published in 1966 in different.
parts of the world. Thadqni
42
suggested the extension of
conventional frame analysis using slope deflection equations
applicable to a substitute frame. Dhillon
43
reformulated
Chitty's original concept but he has not included the distortions
so significant in coupled shear wall structures.
23.
Shear walls interconnected by slabs only were studied
by KaZimi
44
He assessed the stiffness of the participating
slab so that it could be replaced by an equivalent coupling
beam. He used matrix analysis to determine the static
quantities and found good agreement with photoelastic modelso
MacLeod examined the stiffness characteristics of a
shear wall with a single row of openings and made a comparison
with solid shear He used finite element techniques
for the theoretical work and aluminium models for his experi-
mental studies.
One storey walls with one or two openings Were photoelast-
ically studied by Kokinopoulos
46
, who also derived a set of
design curves. These were based on the requirement that the
tensile strength of the concrete governs the choice of the
wall thicknesso
A photoelastic experiment of a coupled shear wall resting
on two columns was reported by Walch
4
? He obtained good
33
agreement with the theoretical results of Rosman.
An experimental project was carried out by Barnard and
Schwaighofer
48
to determine the effective width of a slab which
acts as a connecting medium between two shear walls. Surpringly
they found that the entire width of the slab, which was varied
in the experiment, participated in the load transfer
o
The
maximum difference between the experimental results and the
results supplied by the laminar analysis was only 5%. They
also suggested a method by which the continuously varying
laminar shear, as given by hyperbolic functions, can be
speedily approximated for design purposes.
Khan highlighted some of the problems encountered by
design engineers in the United States
4
? He stated that,
from the view of economy, the use of walls has become
imperative for buildings 30 to .60 storeys high. Khan drew
attent,ion ,to gravity loads which may not be received by the
walls"p.rop,ortionally, so that the coupling beams may have to
equalise the stresses. An iterative method, of analysis with
forceclconvergence was suggested. In fact there is no
culty in incorporating gravity load effects into the laminar
analysis ..
Most recently, Coull published a series of studies in
which the familiar laminar concept was used. With Choudhury50
he presented a number of design curves for critical stresses
and for the deflection at the top of the structure owing to
uniformly distributed load.. As a continuatian of this they
provided the same information for triangular load and a single
51
force. Unfortunately the information is given in a form which
is of little use when high intensity (Le. seismic) loading
need be cansidered. This was pointed out in a subsequent
discussion
52
where it was also shown quantitatively that
cracking and the consequent loss of stiffness may account
for large changes in the static quantities.
A new technique for the analysis of shear walls with
stepped sectional properties was introduced by Coull and
The discontinuities which occur in the derivatives
of the deflection functians were overcome by the introduction
of corrective series. These are claimed to converge rapidlYQ
The results were checked against experiments on araldite models"
The agreement for deflections was particularly good When
allowance was made for the semirigid connections of the
coupling beams. The relaxation of the beam supports, caused
by local wall deformations, was compensated for in the analysis
by making the effective length of the coupling beam equal to
its clear span and its ..
Gurfinkel extended the cantilever moment distribution
method of Grinter and Tsao to Vierendeel frames
54
in such a
way that the final moments could be obtained in only two cycles
25.
of distributions. When axial shortening need also be consider..,
ered, as in the case of coupled shear walls, an additional set
of moments need be distributed. The application of the method
is restricted to single bay symmetrical multistorey frames.
A number of other publications, also dealing with the
analysis, behaviour and strength of shear wall structures, have
been reviewed by Coull and Stafford Smith
5
?
26.
CHAPTER THREE
THE ELASTIC LAMINAR ANALYSIS
3.1 Introduction
The derivation of the elastic laminar analysis, accounting
for all the significant actions and deformations in two coupled
shear walls, is presented in some detail. It is largely based
on the Beck-Rosman approach. Some details, which are part of
the complete solution and which have not been considered or
emphasised by previous researchers, are also presented.
In the evaluation of the boundary conditions only two
situations, which occur frequently in practice, are considered.
The upon which this analysis is based, are
summarised and later critically examined. In particular, the
likely effect of cracking upon the behaviour of coupled shear
walls is discussed. An approximate elastic analysis, which
takes the effects of cracking into account, is proposed and
its application is illustrated in 3.5.
3.2 The Assumptions
a.) Each element of the structure behaves as a perfectly
elastic, homogeneous and isotropic body. The elastic
properties of the material are the same throughout the
structure.
bo) The Bernoulli-Navier hypothesis holds for the
distribution of flexural strains.
c.) The floor heights are uniform so that the coupling
beams are equally spaced.
do) All openings are of the same size.
eo) The sectional properties of the walls do not vary
with the height of the structure.
fo) The sectional properties of all coupling beams, but
the topmost one, are the same.
g.) The stiffness of the topmost beam is one half of that
of the other coupling
h.) The axial deformations in the coupling beams are
neglected.
io) The shear deformations in the walls are neglected.
j.) The stiffnesses of the walls are so much larger than
those of the coupling beams, that their slopes are
locally not affected by the discrete beams. Consequently
the slopes and deflections of the two walls are identical
at every point over the height of the structure.
fore each of the coupling beams will have a point of
contraflexure at its midspan.
k.) The external lateral load can be expressed as a
continuous function of the distance x, which is
measured from the top of the structure.. See Fig. 3 .. 1 ..
3.3 The Model Structure
The structure shown in Fig. 3. 1 may be replaced by an
equivalent model. In this the discrete coupling beams are
substituted by elastic laminae, placed at an infinitesimal
distance apart, as shown in Fig. 3.2"a. This substitution
is valid if the laminae possess the following properties:
A
=
-dx
h
Area of lamina
Second moment of area of lamina
I
=
-dx
h
28
0
~ h r A and I are the area and moment of inertia respect-
ively, of the discrete coupling beams Q
For the purpose of analysis, the coupled shear wall
structure is cut through the axis which passes through the
points of contraflexure of the coupling beams, as shown in
Fig. 3 0 2 G b. The internal, statically indeterminate, actions
along this cut are as follows:
a.) A continuously varying shearing force, q(x), to be
referred to as "laminar shear".
bo) A continuously varying horizontal axial force,
p(x). This will be termed a "separation force".
Because of assumption j in 3 0 2, no moments act along
this cut. The laminar shear and separation forces are taken
as positive when acting in the directions shown in Fig. 3.2.b.
The two statically determinate cantilever walls must be
subject to such a system of laminar forces that the compatibil-
ity of deformations along the cut through the coupling system
is satisfied.
It may be noted that the separation forces, p(x), have
b
. h . 6,15 . h' d 1 k d
een, W1t two except10ns ,eLt er 19nore or over 00 e
by all researchers reviewed in Chapter 2.
3 a 4 The Analysis
3&40 1 Wall Actions and Deformations
3.4.1.1 The external load can be easily distribu-
ted between the two cantilevers, so that the compatibility
requirements are also satisfiedo The pattern of the loading
is defined in 3.4.6. As the deflections of the cantilevers
are to be the same at every level the load is allotted to
each in proportion of its flexural rigidity.
If W = the total external lateral load
the total external shear at any level
the total external cantilever moment at any
level. (This must be a continuous function of
x e)
I" 12 = the moment of inertia of wall 1 and wall 2
10 = I, + 12
then the external actions (Fig. 3.3.a) are distributed between
the two walls in the familiar manner, i.e.
W
1
I,
= -W
I
0
and W
2
12
= -W
10
V
I,
= -V
1,0 I
0
and
V
2
0
12
= -V
I ,
0
M
I,
=
-M
, ,0
10 0
and
M2 . =
12
-M
,0 I 0
0
(3. , )
3.4.1,,2 The internal laminar shear, q(x), is
responsible for an axial force, T(x), and bending moments,
M , in the walls
o
With reference to Fig. 3.3.b, these can
q
be defined as follows:
T 1 (x) = T 2 (x) = J OX q (x)' dx = T (x) ( 3 2)
=
=
As a consequence of the axial load, T(x), a section
across wall 1 will move upwards by
, H
,EA, J x T(x) dx
The differential displacement between the two walls as
illustrated by Fig. 3.3.co is therefore
\ H
d ::: 1 (-' + -' ) Ii f (X) dx
a E A, A2
X
due to axial forces only.
(3.4)
As a general rule the deflections of the two cantilever
walls, owing to the moments induced by the laminar shear, are
not the same. It follows from the equality of the curvatures.
::: :::
2
d Y2
~
that only in the exceptional case when
:::
would deflections in both walls be the same.
To satisfy the compatibility requirements corresponding
with the assumption made previously in 3.2.j, it is necessary
to introduce correcting moments. These generally overlooked
moments can be generated by the application of separation
forces, p(x)o
3 0 4. '.3 It is apparent from Fig. 3.3.d that the
separation forces form a self-equilibrated system. The actions
on each of the two walls are equal and opposite, i.e.
v ::
p , ,
-v 2::: V
p, p
and M ,::: -M. 2 ::: M
p, p, p
3 0 4.2 The Equilibrium and Compatibility Conditions
for the Walls
The equilibrium equations for the cantilever
walls may be established so that the compatibility r q u i r ~
ments are also satisfied. With reference to Fig. 3.3 the
total moments generated in each of the two walls are
M, ::: M, 0 - M ,
, q,
M
p , ,
(3.5.a)
31.
(3.5 0 b)
The induced .shear forces are
v, == V, 0 - V
, P
and (3.6)
The compatibility requirement is that
Hen.ce by substitution from Eqso (3.5 o a) and (3 0 5. b)
is obtained. It is recalled that the external moments have
already been distributed according to the compatibility require-
ment, Eq. (3.1)6 Therefore
By introducing, for the sake of simplification, the term
= C
the moments generated by the separation forces can be
determined thus
M == CT(x)
p
(3.7)
(3.8)
They can be eliminated from Eqs. (3.5.a) and (3.5.b),
which yield the final moments in the following s m p l ~ form:
(3.9.a:)
- 1 T(x)]
3.4.3 Laminar Actions and Deformations
As a result of the wall deformation discontinuities
32.
occur., ,the., laminae where, .'
th i s. ,analy.s.i.sL", thay" .. have, beencu t. ,Gonseq uent ly.thelaminar.. .
)
shearmu.at. produce. deformations which eliminate these discon-
tinuities, . The displacements resulting from the different
actions at the cut ends of the laminae are as follows:
3.4.3.1 From Fig. 3.4.a. It is evident that the
displacement due to flexurcil deformations of the walls is
but
hence
d
m
= 1 .9.Y. + 1 .9.Y. = 1.9.Y.
ldx 2dx dx
.' H M
- J Ei dx
x 1
H
1! I,
= E 11 I [Mo
x 0
- 1 T(x)] dx
H
= Er M dx
1 J
o x 0
L
E1
o
H
J T(x)dx
x
(3. 10)
3.4.3.2 The laminar displacement owing to
sional deformations of the walls is, from Fig. 3 0 4.b or Fig.
3. given by Eq. (3.4).
3.4.3.3 By taking twice the free end deflection
of the cantilever, the displacernentof the laminae owing to
flexural deformations only is found from Fig. 3.4.c to be
d hs
3
g(x) (3.11)
f= 12E1 .
As the coupling beams are often relatively
short, it is necessary to consider also shear deformations.
From Fig. 3.4.d and from elementary principles this is found
to be
(3.12)
where f = is a form factor which allows for the pattern of
shear stress distribution. For rectangular
sections this is 1.2.
33.
G :::: E/2(1 + v) is the modulus of rigidity. For design
purposes this may be taken as 40% of the modulus of
e lastici ty.
y = Poisson Ratio
In order to abbreviate further computations it is conven-
ient to combine the latter two deformations into a single term
thus,
:::: h s
3
( , 1 2E If) (.)
, 2E I + 2 q x
GAs
It is also convenientm introduce an equivalent
moment of inertia for the coupling beams
I ::::
X
1
(1 + 12E If)
GAs
2
or reduced
which allows for the shear distortions. Using these simplifi-
cations the laminar deflection becomes
. 3
d:::: ,hs (x)
b , 12E Ix q
(3.14)
3,,4 0 4 The pifferential EqUation of Laminar Actions
From the four diagrams shown in Fig. 3
0
4 it is
evident that laminar compatibility is satisfied when
d
m
d - d - d
a f s
::::
d
m
d
a
d :::: 0
b
Hence by substituting the appropriate terms from Eqs ..
and (3
0
4) add (3.14)
--L r 11 dx _E\2 tT(X) dx - d + 1 ) r T(x)dx
E 10 x 0 0 x 1 2 x
'\
and by combining the common terms and by differentiating these
,"
34.
with respect to x ~ the following expression is obtained
3
hs dq (x) :::
12E I d:x
o
x
As the axial force is the accumulation of laminar shear, it
follows from Eq. (3.2) that
d
2
T(x)
dx
2
-
dx -
(3. 15)
When the properties of the structure are combined into
the following two parameters
y :::
I h 3
o $
(3.16)
and use is made of Eq.,(3. 15) the differential equation of
laminar action is finally obtained
I !I
(3.18)
The solution of this equation yields the axial force
induced in the walls
T(x) ::: Asinho.x + B cosha.x
where
is the particular integral o
+ T(x)
p
I
To complete the solution for a given situation, the
30
integration constants need'be found from the bounda:cy
(3.19)
(3.20)
conditions and the moment function, Mo ' need be determined
from the external load.
35.",
3,,4.5 The Boundary Conditions
3.4.5.1 When the coupled walls are fully restraine.d
at their base,as shown in Fig. 3.1, ,and the assumption stated ..
in 3.2.g is also met, the integration constants are found from
the following two conditions:
a.) The axial force at the top of the wall must be zero.
Hence
T(x) = 0 when x = 0
b
o
) At the base of the walls no rotations occur, hence
the lowest lamina does not deform and no actions are
induced in it. Hence
( )
- dT(x) - 0
q x - - .
dx
when x = H
From these
1
A = Tp (0) tanh - a.cosh !3
B = - T (0)
P
\
dT (*)
P
dx
(3.21.a)
where T (0) = the value of particular integral, Eq.(3.20),
p
When x is zero
and
!3 = a.H
3.4.5.2 Another cQmmonsituation arises when two
shear walls are interconnected by an "infinitely" rigid diaphragm
at the top of the structure. To this reference was made in
Chapter 2" In that case the boundary conditions may be defined
as follows:
a.) Because of the presence of an infinitely rigid
diaphragm at the top of the structure, the topmost
lamina cannot deform. Thus no load is induced in the
same and
q(x) when x = 0
b.) The boundary conditions at the base are the same as
in the previous case, 3.4.5.1.b. From these
A
:::
dT
12
(O)
(3.22.a)
'o.dx
dT (0)
1
dT
E
(H)
B
::: E
(3.22.b)
a.dx tanh !3 sinh!3 a.dx
3.48 6 The External Load
Two load patterns only, commonly representing
seismic conditions, considered here.
3.4.6. 1 A distributed triangular lateral load is
acting with a maximum intensity at the top of the structure.
The moment intensity is
3
M 0 ::: WH ( l;
2
- ! )
(3.23)
where W = the total triangular lateral load, also referred
to as base shear in seismic load analysis.
x
H ; hence o
For this load, only the first two terms of the particular
integral are non=zero. Therefore
YWH
3
2 j:.'3 2 2YWH
3
,.IT ::: - .:a- + ] and T (0) :::
1" p !3
L
3 fJ* P . (3',4
2
2 iY"WH d
4 an
13
dT (H)
E
dx
3.4.6.2 A single point load, P , applied
laterally at the top of the structure gives the following
quantities
M ::: PH
o
3
T ::: ..:cl:1:t i; and
P 13
2
dT(O)
dx
::: dT(H)
dx
30 4" 7 Cougleti 'ShearWsl:t-s- 'Samct'-:1!oLateral Triangular
and Single Point Loads
After substituting the appropriate values for the.
particular integral, its derivatives, and the integration-
cons,tan:ts ,into Eqs" (3021.a) and (3 021" b) the unknown actions
can be obtained from the fundamental differential equation (3,,19)
as follows:
T(t;)
Where p ::: is the load This is assumed to remain
constant throughout the load history of the
structure.

dT!';:) ::: XWH
2
[.1... coshSg: (2 . 1
::: Hd t; a a2 tanh(3coshat;+ cosha- ?- '"
-2z sin hat; + 1 (2 t; - t;2) _ L + e. ]
a e a
3
a
'.
(3
0
26)
The shearing forces generated by the separation forces
are obtained from Eq. thus
dM
Vp ;: --E, ::: CdT(x)::: Cq(x) (3,,27)
dx dx
Hence forces are in general
P
(x) ::: dVp ;: C dg(x)
.' dx dx
(3,,28)
or for the particular shear wall structure under consideration
( ) (
2 . sin hec: ( 2- ,- .Q.)
p t; ::: THeW s1nhat; + cosh a - '13 - a -
2 2
- -:zcosh{3t;+z (l-t;)J (3 9 29)
a a
where C was given by Eq" (3,,7)0

38.
If these ,separation forces are defined by a continuously
distribute,d lo,ad pattern then the shear force induced by these
at the top of the structure should be Zero. However, it is
seen from Eq. (3.27) that
V (0) = Cq(O) f 0 unless C = 0
p
which is generally the case of structural symmetry. For this
reason at the topmost lamina a singular separation force, P ,
o
- to the writer's not shown in any of the previous
studies, - must alsG exist. This is given by
Po = ,Cq(O) =1YH
2
CW[ 1 hl3 ( 22 - P - 1) + p - 2
2
] (3.30)
cos 13 13
To be able to estimate the fundamental period of the
structures its deflecti'on under a prescribed load must be known"
For the previously defined triangular and point load the lateral
deflection of the shear wall is easily found from the familiar
relationship
,
El
o
(M - lT (x) ]
o
By integrating twice and by observing the boundary requirements,
the deflection of the structure at any level is obtained from
WH
3
i 1 'Vi 1 [5 ?!. " ..3
Y =E I (60(2" - 1) I; - 5 I; + 1 5 l; - 11 - 10 p( t;,- - 3l; + 2)] -
a a.
- 2 : 1 ' [( sin - f3l; co s,h 13 - sinh,13 + 13 coshl3)( 2 sinhl3+ -13- I3P )
a. 13 cosh 13
- 2 coshl3( - cos t 13 si,',n h 13
2 j', flli'
(l;3 _ 2 + 3 l; _ 1) f?l c; s h 13 ] I '
) -
The deflection at the
3
=!L!:L, (1- Y1)(11 + il)
Yo E I" ( a. 2 60 3
of tHe structure is
- )14 [(13 - tan hl3)(2 sin + -13 - pW) -
a. 13 2 ' '
- 2 (1 ..; co s hj3 + 13 sin h 13) + Iii] 1 ( 3 " 32)
39.
I t may be easi ly shown tha t, if the coup 1 ing beams are_ ..
very stiff (Le. Ix is verylarge)_, the equation for the
laminar shear, Eq. (3.26) reduces to
[ W t; (2 - t;) + p ]
This is identical with Jourawski's shear equation, applicable
to a beam in which the Bernoulli-Navier strain distribution
holds Q
The typical distributions of the laminar quantities are
shown in Fig. 3.5.
3.4.8 Coupled Shear Wall With a Rigid Diaphragm at
the Top
In 3.4.5.2 the requirements satisfying the boundary
conditions for two coupled shear walls, which are interconnected
by an infinitely rigid diaphragm at roof level, have been
established. Hence by substituting the appropriate values of
the integration constants, Eqs. (3.22.a) and (3.22.b) into the
general solution Eq. (3. 19), .the laminar quantities are
obtained thus:
cos h @.. cos hl3 t;)
sinhl3 - tanhl3 -
2
_ YWH [( 23 _ E. )(cos h f3 t; + sin hl3i; sin h@i;)
""!3 f3 13 s in h f3 - ta n h 13 -
sinh@ t; 1 (2 2) 2 P ]
13 sin h f3 + 13 t; - l;. - - 13
3
+ (:3
(3.34)
40.
( )
[
' (2 p)( + _ coshf3\l;) _
p l; = 'CHeW (33 - sinh(3l;sinh tanh(3
cosh(3l; +.L (1
- (3 (32 - <,.
With reference to Eqo(3 030) it may be observed that the
normaLly, generated singular separation force at the topmost
lamina becomes zero because the laminar shear intensity at this
level is also zero. (See 3.4.5.2.a). However in the rigid
diaphragm itself considerable shear may; be induced" This
shearing force is transmitted as axial tension or compression
directly to the top of the walls. Therefore
the shear force in the diaphragm = T(O)
where
T (0) == i\WH
3
[ 1 - coS h(3 (.L _ e.) _ i 1 + l. ]
(3 2 sin h j3 f3 (3 sin h (3 (3
This may be seen to increase with the decrease of (3 == a. H
i.e. the stiffness of the coupling beams. (Eqo 3.16).
The lateral deflection of this structure may be derived
in a similar way to that shown for the other boundary conditions
by Eqs. (3 0 31) and (3.32)0 It is found that
- [(t +pf3\) (sin
i
h(3l; :-:: sinh(3 + (3 - (3l;; ) +
0.(3 "," J'
. "
+( 2'+ p(3)( coshaF;;- cos@ )(1 _ cosh (3) +
(3 sinh(3
and that the deflection at the top of the walls is
4L
+ cos h @ - 1
f3
sinh
f3
5
- '3 ] 1
The typical distribution of the laminar shear and the bending
moment for wall 2 are shown also for this case in Fig. 3 0 5 by
dotted_. lines" From these it may be seen that the lower parts
of the walls, which usually become critical in design, are not
affe.cted by the type of connection which may exist at the top
of the structure"
3
0
5 lication of the Laminar Anal sis to the Real
Once the laminar analysis has been completed it becomes
necess.ary to transform the laminar quantities into discrete
quantities so that the coupling beams and the walls can be
designed" From most published studies one may get the
impression that the laminar analysis is directly transferable
to the structure. The errors, which would result from such a
procedure, may be quite considerable particularly for buildings
of moderate heights.
One coupling beam was replaced by a number of laminae,
which were spread out over the height of one storey, h 0 The
accumulation of actions in these laminae must be resisted by
a ~ i s r e t e coupling beam" Thus the shear force across one
h
beam situated at x = Xl + 2 is
Xl + h
V == J q(x)dx
Xl
where Xl == the ordinate of any point situated half-way between
the centre lines of coupling beams
. "
42.
The maximum moment at the support of the beam is
Vs
==
""2
and the_.accumulated axial forcei result.ing from the separation
forc.es. is
/
X
1
+h
P
b
== P (x)dx
xl
The shear, axial force and bending moment induced in the
walls can be determined directly from the laminar analysis, but
only at points defined by the xl ordinates... The summation of
the laminar quantities above these points yields the same
as .the .summation of the discrete quantities. However
between .. these pOints,i. e . at .thecentre lines of the coupling
beams,.discontinuities o.ccur which must normally be determined"
The previously obtained continuous curves, such as shown in
Fig. 3.5, must be adjusted accordingly52.
3" 6 A Critical Examina tion of the Assumptions of the Laminar
Analysis
It is appropriate to be reminded that the subjects of
.1
this study are reinforced concrete coupled shear wall structures"
The prime purpose of such a structure is to resist relatively
large lateral forces generated by wind pressure or seismic
accelerations" In the process of disposing of such forces,
through its foundations, several or cHi major components of
the structure may crack. This perfectly, natural phenomenon
may considerably alter the behaviour of the structure. There-
fore the likely performance of shear walls in the uncracked
and cracked state are examined a little closer.
3,,6. 1 Uncracked Coupled Shear Walls
The eleven previously (in 3.2) made assumptions
are generally satisfied in the uncracked concrete structure to
such Jan .exten-t.thatvery satisfactory results can be expected
for .de,sign p.urposes. Photoelastic studies have verified th.is.
However a few exceptions may warrant a brief examination.
3 .. 6. '.' Assumption "b"
Coupling beams, particularly in office buildings,
are frequently deep in comparison to their span. The flexural
strains and stresses are no longer distributed in a linear
fashion
e
With a suitable Airy stresfunction, finite difference
or finite element analysis or by means of photoelastic models,
the actual stress distribution can be determined. To the
writer's knowledge only two photoelastic studies were carried
out for the load pattern which is typical for coup ling
The smaller the aspect ratio ('siD) of a beam the larger is
the deviation of the flexural stresses from the linear pattern
at the support. However towards the midspan a near linear
stress distribution is rapidly developed.
38
From these observations it may be concluded that the
assessment of beam stiffness may be carried out with sufficient
accuracy using the conventional flexural theory only.
3.6. '.2 Assumption "e"
Sectional properties of walls often vary with the
height because the wall thickness can be conveniently decreased
toward the top of the structure. It is also common to change
the thickness of the coupling beams so as to match the thickness
of the walls. The sectional properties of walls and beams are,
usually with good approximation, linearly proportional to the
thickness. The ratio of their properties, as expressed by the
parameters r and a. (Eqs. (3.'6) and (3.'7 does not
significantly change. For this reason it is not expected that
changes in the load distribution between walls and coupling
beams are worth considering, when the thickness of the
components is reduced the height of the building.
3
0
6
0
1,,3 Assumption'II
g
"
This assumption is made to enable the laminar
rep lacement of the coup ling beams at the top of the structure.,
to be, satisfied" It was already shown in 3.4,,8 that the
critica.l parts of the structure do not react to major changes._
which occur at the top of the structure. The most serious
violation of this assumption has little effect upon the critical
design quantities.
3,,6.104 Assumption "hI!
In most structures this assumption is quite
acceptable because the axial forces, such as may occur from
the accumulation of separation forces are very small. More
often a floor slab, which frames into the coupling beam,
provides further restraint against extensional deformations.
3
0
6& 1.5 Assumption "i"
The common type of coupled shear wall
in which critical conditions can arise, usually possess a large
height to depth ratio
o
For this reason the shear deformations
represent a minor fraction of the total deformations, and thus
the effect of shear upon the stiffness of the walls is usually
ins].gnificantQ
3.6
0
1
0
6 The limitations of model studies
Reinforced concrete coupled shear wall structures
can remain only if the lateral load is very small
o
Any analysis, which aims to predict the critical tensile
stresses in the concrete components, has limited application
in countries prone to earthquakes" Similarly photoelastic
studies, which reveal stress concentrations, are of little
use in predicting the behaviour and strength of shear wall
structures. Stress concentrations, such as occur at the
corners of openings, vanish after the formation of a few minor
cracks and do not affect the behaviour of the real structure.
This will also be evident from experiments reported in later
chapters"
45.
3.6.2 Cracked Coupled Shear Walls
Cracking of the concrete, which manifests that the
reinforcement has commenced to contribute more effectively to
the strength of the structure, may significantly alter the
behaviour of coupled shear walls
o
This becomes more evident
when the effect of cracking upon the components of the structure
is examined in greater detail.
3 0 6.2.' The cracking of walls
The cracking of a cantilever wall is likely to
commence at its baseo Consequently there is a loss of flexural
rigidity over the affected height, and this leads to increased
flexural rotations. These affect the rotations of every other
part of the upper stories of the structure, including the
coup ling beams 0
The onset of cracking in the walls is also affected by
the axial forces presento By adding the moment equations for
each of the two walls Eqs. (3 0 9.a) and (3
0
9
o
b), the overall
equilibrium statement can be formulated thus;
This states that the external moment is resisted by an.
internal moment in each of the two walls, M, and M
2
, and by
a force couple T(x) operating on a lever arm 1 0 Hence axial
forces must always be present unless the coupling beams are
rendered ineffective. In one of the walls axial tension is
induced and this will promote the development of cracks" In
the other wall the formation of cracks may be considerably
delayed or supressed by axial compression.
In a well balanced design considerable gravity stresses
are imposed by the dead and live load. These compression
stresses delay the formation of flexural cracks.
It is thus evident that the formation and development of
cracks in the walls, and the consequent loss of s t i f f n s s ~ is
greatly affected by the intensity of axiaL load presento After
cracking a geometrically symmetrical reinforced concrete shear
wall structure becomes structurally non .. symmetricaL In general
it may be expected that, because of their greater absolute
strength and the beneficial effect of g,ravity loads, cracking
in the walls occurs after the majority of the beams
. have cracked
Q
3
0
6
0
202 The cracking of coupling ,beams
The coupling beams, a7'e subject to ,flexure , in the
presence of large shearing forcesa Because of stress concentra-
tions, cracking in such beams may be expected to occur at a
load less than what a conventional flexural stress analysis,
based on the tensile strength of the cencrate, would predict q
Because the shear stresses are frequently large) flexural cracks
rapidly incline or new diagonal cracks form.. It will be shown
later that the relative proportions. of shear deformations in
diagonally cracked beams can be considerably greater than the
corresponding proportions in cracked beams. Shear deformations
may well exceed the simultaneously occurring flexural deforma-
. .
tions.
There is some evidence which suggests that the coupling
beams may be the weakest elements ina coupled shear wall
structure. In two similar 14 storey buildings most of the
coupling beams failed completely in the 1964 Alaska
See Fig. 1 .. 1, Figo 1 .. 2, Fig. 1 0 3 and Fig.L4c One of the walls
failed due to axial tension near its base, but the remainder
of the walls appear to have remained undamaged.
The relatively early onset of cracking in the coupling
must result in a loss of laminar shear transfer and a
"
loss of axial force induced in the walls. Hence,
to Eq. (3.39), the wall moments must increaseo
Clearly in a cracked structure many of the previously made
assumptions are violated. The effect of cracking in a coupled
shear wall structure is likely to be more significant because
its components, the walls and the coupling beams, are affected
to very different extents by the loss of stiffness
o
3
4
7 The Approximate Analysis of Cracked Coupled Shear Wall
Structures
From the foregoing discussion on the effects of cracking,.,
it is evident that the laminar analysis, carried out in terms of
stresses
50
,51, has limited application" The structural designer
is more interested in static quantities which enable him to
proportion and detail the components so that they can efficiently
resist these actions"
To enable the static quantities to be derived from a
laminar analysis which takes into account, at least in an
approximate way, the effect of cracking,it is necessary to
assume uniform properties separately for each .of the three main
components of the coup led shear wall structure.o A preliminary
analysis, based on uncracked sections, will indicate the likely
intensity of actions, from which the extent of cracking may be
estimated"
For a second analysis it may be assumed that the stiffness
of all coupling beams is reduced by cracking" ,A reduction of
laminar shear and an increase of wall moments will be indicated
by the analysis.. A considerable amount of experimental evidence
is offered in subsequent chapters to clarify ~ h e elastic
behaviour of cracked coupling beams o
In a third analysis the loss of stiffness of the wall may
be considered. The extent of cracking owing to flexure and
axial tension is likely to be restricted to the lower portions
of the walla The assumption that the stiffness reduces uniform-
ly over the full height of the wall may be a crude oneo However
it will yield conservative static quantities for the other wall
and for the coupling beams
o
48 ..
For the final design the most critical situation may be
considar:ed"",at.any, section. In the absence of more accurate ,data
the stiffnesses may be varied between limits, according to the
judgement aLthe designer. Clearly this will lead to conserv ..... ,
ativeenvelopes,within which a number of statically admissible
situations of the elastic behaviour are contained.
A numerical example showing the application of the
proposed approximate procedure is given in the next section
o
3.8 Illustrative
To illustrate the effect of stiffness loss subsequent to
cracking, an 18 storey shear wall core will be considered
o
Openings at each floor pierce the opposite walls of a uniform
box sec.tiono Reference may be made to Fig. 3. 1 with respect
to notation.. The properties of the structure and the loading
are ,summarised in Table 3,,1 below ..
TABLE 3. I PROPERTIES OF 18 STOREY COUPLED SHEAR WALLS
WALL PROPERT IE S
' .
LOADING
A1 A2 11 12
CASE
103. 2 103. 2 106. 4 106. 4
x 1n"
x ' 1no x ' 1n. x 1n.
Case A 5 .. 55 5
0
65 I 6.60 9 0 00
Case B 5
0
55 5,,65 9 0 00
Case C 3 0 90 5
0
65 3 0 30 9
0
00
i
'*
For two beams
Constant
Floor height'h = 105 Total height
Spans: 1680 7 in", 11 = 82,,2 in.,
ltAM*
AR:!:A NOTES
2
ino
:" '.,. c'
"
672 Uncracked.
202 Beam cracked
202 Beam and W,,:tlL
1 cracked'
H = 1890 in"
12 = 86 .. 5
in"
Beam depth 24 in", width b = 14 in .. , span s = 38 ino
E = 5 x 10
6
pos"i.. ,
Triangular 10,ad W = 500 Kips, Point loadP= 65 Kips"
In order to' study the effect of cracking three cases are
considered as follows:
49.
Case A: It is assumed that the entire structure remains
crack free during the loading.
Case B: It is assumed that all coupling beams crack and
that, as a consequence of this, the stiffness of the beams is
reduc.ed by 70.% . The. beam area is reduced in the analysis
accordingly ..
Ga.se C: Wall 1, situated at the tension side of the
structure has also cracked so that its equivalent area is
reduced by 30%. The corresponding reduction of the second
moment of area is 50%0
The results of the analysis are presented in Fig. 3 .. 50
The diagrams show that
a,,) cracking had little effect on the axial forces, T,
generated in the walls,
b&) the maximum shear force across one coupling beam
at about the 4th floor is approximately
v == 05 x 105 x == 134 Kips
which corresponds to a nominal shear stress of
. 1 - 134000 450 i
y v - 14 x 21 == p. s. "
The same shear force would induce a maximum beam
moment at the supports of'
MB == 0 .. 5 x 38 x 134 == 2550 Kip in.
Clearly no reinforced concrete beam of the given
dimensions would be capable of carrying such shear
anq moment simultaneously without cracking.
c.) The maximum bending moment in Wall 2, which is
subject to axial compression, increased by 50%
as a result of cracking in the remainder of the
structure ..
CHAP TER FOUR
AN ULTIMATE LOAD ANALYSIS
OF COUPLED SHEAR WALLS
40 1 Introduction
50 ..
The ultimate strength of two coupled shear walls; subject
to seismic type of lateral is obtained when a statically
admissible mechanism is formed in which each of the required
plastic hinges possesses the required rotational capacityo Two
hinges in each coupling beam are required to terminate its
ability to accept further shearo In addition one plastic
hinge need be developed in each of the cantilever walls,
normally at their base, to complete the collapse mechanism.
The sequence of hinge formation for a given loading will depend
upon the relative strength and stiffness of the components.
. 27 56
The of some shear walls ' ,which were
exposed to severe earthquakes, indicated that all or most
coupling beams failed before the ultimate strength of the
coupled walls was attainedo However it is possible that in
some structures the ultimate strength of the walls need be
exhausted before plastic hinges can form in the coupling beams.
Coupled shear wall structures frequently consists of
members which have unusual relative dimensions o Therefore it
can be expected that the techniques of current ultimate load
analyses, which consider relatively slender members only, may
not be fully applicable
o
Before a satisfactory ultimate load
approach can be established for the design of coupled shear
wall structure,s" it is essential to investigate the behaviour
of its componentso
In order to establish the principles of overall behaviour
a brief analytical study is presented, in Which the important
51.,
stages of the formation of the collapse mechanism are e:x:amineJl\,
To do this a sequence of hinge-formation need be assumed.
After establishing the equilibrium requirements the
bility conditions are studied so as to reveal the rotational
requirements at the plastic hinges.
The type of structure which is examined consist of two
cOll.pcled shear walls and a coupling system, the strength of
whichi.s relatively smalL Therefore it is expected that
plastic hinges form first in each of the confining beams
before plastic deformations of any kind would occur in the
walls.
In the absence of experimental information on the
interaction of flexure, shear and axial tension, it is consid-
ered unwise to proceed further, and to consider failure
mechanisms in which plastic hinges also form at the base of
27 56
the walls. From reports on structural damage ' caused by
earthquakes, the writer was unable to identify this type of
failure mechanism, except in structures where the wall dimens-
ions were drastically reduced at foundation level or where
columns were used to support coupled shear walls.
402 The Maximum Load Carried by the Elastic Structure
According to the assumptions previously stated the
ultimate strength of the coupling beams is attained first,
as the lateral load is gradually increased. The elastic
limit of the structure is that load, W ,at which the most
e
highly loaded coupling beam or lamina is about to yield.
For the purpose of this study it is assumed that beams and
walls behave according to a bilinear elasto-plastic moment-
rotation relationship.
In order to determine the above defined elastic limit,
W ,it is necessary to locate the most highly loaded elastic
e
lamina. Differentiation of Eq.(3.26) leading to Eq.(3.28)
52"
will yield this condition, ioeo
~ ) -
dx -
=
o
from which the position xe = l;;eH , at which the laminar shear
attains its maximum value
can be determinedo This can be most conveniently obtained
from a plot of the q ~ ) or p (I;;) functions, Le .. Eqo (3 4 26)
and Eq .. (3.29) or from a trial and error solution of the latter
equation in this form:
5
. h ~ ~ S cos h S
Sl.n t-V'O = 5
S sin h S -
(4.3)
Having obtained the value of the maximum laminar shear,
qmax ' the load" at which the ultimate shear capacity of this
particular lamina is reached, is found by proportion from
where
W
e
=
qu
w
W = is the maximum lateral load carried by the
e
=
fully elastic structure
the maximum laminar shear which is to be
determined from the ultimate load capacity, V
u
'
of the coupling beams
. Similarly the deflections due to the maximum elastic
load may be found by proportion
r y
e
=
W
W
ey
and
4.3 The Plastification of the Laminar System
(4" 5)
In the next stage of this study the situation is examined
in which the coupling system has attained its ultimate
strength while the coupled walls still operate in the linear __ .
elast.ic.range. Because the characteristics of all laminae
are the same after yielding occurred in the last one, it is
possible to obtain an approximation - good enough for-design
purposes - by slightly modifying the previously presented
laminar analysis.
4.3" 1 Actions
Because the laminar shear, qu ' is constant at
this stage of the loading, the induced axial force, Eqo(3.2)
becomes
T(x) ::: IX'fludX
o
:::
Consequently the moment equations, Eq.(3.9), simplify to
I,
lq x)
M1
:::
-(M -
I 0 u
0
M2 ==
+2 '
lq x) -(M
-
I 0 u
0
and
fromEq" (3.8) M
:::
Cq x
P
u
(4.7.a)
(4
0
7.b)
(4.8)
The shearing force induced by the separation forCeS is
dM
V ::: -I! ::: Cq
p dx u
(4.9)
constant, indicating that only a single separation force
p ::: V
o p
is required to act at the top so as to ensure equal deformation
of the walls.
4.3 0 2 Rotations
It is also necessary to examine the rotations
which occur in the laminae in the process of developing the
ultimate laminar she4r q. It was shown in 3.4.4 that the
I' U
compatibility of wall and laminar deform4tions is satisfied
when
::
(4" 10)
where d and d were
m a
defined by Eq. (3. 10) and Eq .. (3.ft.).,
Tp.ese, were also indicated in Fig. 3,.40 The laminar displacement
resulting from., flexural and shear distortions was determined
from Eq .. (3.14). However, because of the plastic behaviour of
the laminae, it is more convenient to express this in terms of
beam rotations thus,
db :: s6 b :: s (J + (J )
y p
where (J b == the total laminar rotation consisting of two parts.
(J :: the maximum elastic rotation of the laminae at
y
the onset of yielding.. This is the same for all
laminae.
(J :: the plastic laminar rotation required to occur
p
after the onset of yielding. This varies along
the height of the structure.
The elastic wall rotations, (J ,may, be expressed in terms of
:w
d
(J ::..1!1
w 1
The wall and laminar rotations are compatible, Eq. (4. 10) and
Eq. (4.11) when
If} :: s(J + (J ) + d
w y p a
dY1
:: 1-- ==
dx
dY2
1- ==
dx
1SY.
dx
Hence the plastic laminar rotations, which need be
developed when the ultimate laminar shear is attained in all
laminae, are found from
(4" 12)
55.
Clearly it is not possible to develop yield rotation
in the first laminae adjacent to the base because the elastic
cantilever walls are fully restrained against rotations at
,this. leveL Thus it is not possible to develop the ultimate
qu' over the entire height of the structure.
However, if the yield rotation, , in the laminae can
. y
occur close enough to the base a satisfactory approximation
may be made. One may stipulate that the laminar rotations
should equal or exceed the yield rota,tion over at least 90%
of the height of the coupling system. In such a case the
maximum axial force generated in the walls is
Tv> ,,95q H
ma"" u
The error involved" in assessing the contribution of
the laminar forces towards the ultimate strength of the
is less than 5%.
By combining Eq" (3.10) and Eq .. (4.6) for (J w
using Eqo (3
0
4) for d it is found that
H a H
== "S';1 II (,Mo lq x) dx - lE (A'
1
+ A' )J' (ig xdx-
iJ.:. 0 X us. 1 1. U
and also
fJ
y
(4.13)
When the appropriate moment from Eqs. (3.23) and
(3.24) are used for the specified load pattern the plastic
laminar rotations become
lH21r;2
t;;2)]
lq
- t;;2)1
fJ
p
==rr f W[ 4 +. -3 + (1 T(l
-
so,
2
qu
H
1
_1 ) ( 1 _ t;;2 )
- fJ
(4. 14)
- 2sE (Ai
+
A2
y
It may now be specified that the yield rotation be just
attained in a specific lamina, i'.e ...
(Jb :::: fJ
y
thus from Eq .. (4" 11) (Jp :::: 0 :::: .9
This will occur under the action of one specific load,
which is found from Eq. (4. 14) thus
(0.19,Z + 1 )
W
= fJ
Y
(0
0
0616+ Oq095P) y
H2
2
where Z
qu
(_, + l+.1...)
=
2 sE fJ
y
Al A2 10
56"
w ,
y
(4.15)
(4.16)
Having obtained the load at which 90%.of the laminae attained
or exceeded the yield rotation the distribution of postelastic
rotations can be determined from Eqo (4.14) and (4015)
conv.ehiently in this form,
1 + O. 1 92 [ 1 + + p ( 1 2) -] Z (l r:
2
) 1
fJ Y = 4 1 2 - 3 2' - E;;. - - '0 -
(4. (7)
The. ,particular features of this expression are that:
fJ
a.) .:.. = 0 When t;; = 09 showing that no plast'ic
fJ
y
rotations occur at the specified level and
be) = -1 whent;; = 100 indicating that a negative
fJ
y
plastic rotation is reqpired in the bottom lamina to ensure
that the total rotation there is zero. This absurd situation
results from the incompatibility of the boundary conditions
at the base and the assumption that a uniform laminar shear,
qu ' is induced over the entire height. The consequent small
error was discussed previously.
It was stated that the maximum laminar shear, qu ' is
attained over 90% of the height of the structure only if
plastic laminar rotations occur. The satisfying of this
requirement must be examined.
The laminar rotations generally reduce towards the tdp
57.
of the. structure because the-moments, generated by the laminar
forces, tend to deflect the walls in the direction opposite.
to the external load. Negative plastic rotations, which
Eq. (4
e
17) may yield, would indicate that the yield rotation
in a particular lamina has not been attained. Plastification
of the laminae over 90% of the height occurs only if
~ > 0
(J y =
a lso when
1; ::::: 0
. Hence from Eq. (4.17)
from which
Z I v -1 == ,'2
~ 1 - O. 19v 'critical
(4.18)
where
(1 ... .25.+..0" SOP
v ::::: "
Oe0616 + O. v95p
Thus when' Z , a stiffness ratio, is large the yield
rotations in the upper laminae are not attained. Consequently
the assumptions of the above approach are not met. From
Eq. (4.16) it is evident that this may be the case when
relatively flexible walls are coupled by stif laminar
beams.
When Z Z 't' 1 it is necessary to stipulate that
c r ~ ~ c
the yield rotation be attained at the topmost lamina instead
of the one situated near the base, i.e. when 1;:::::.9 I> By
specifying that
(J ::::: ()
b y
thus
(J ::::: o when
p
l; :::::
o
and by expanding Eq. (4.14) the specific value of the load,
W' , responsible for this situation can be derived in a
y . .
sUnilar way to that shown inEq. (4.15). It is found that
4 E I (Z + 1)
WI = so"
y lH2 (1 + 2 P) Y
58.,
The postelastic rotations are found from Eqs., (40 14) and
(4.15.a) in a form which is similar to Eq. (4.17), thus
~ = !L(Z + 1) [ 1 + fo
4
i. + P (1 _ ~ 2 ]
ry 1+2p 412-32 '0
2
-Z(1-fo)-1
The features of this equation are:
~
=
0 when
fo
= 0
a
o
~
y
~
=
(4" 17,.a)
)
>
b ) :J2.
0 when
~
,,9 because Z Z
" (J ~
=
critical
y
This shows that the plastification extends in excess of
90% of the structure's height"
c , , ~ = -1 when
y
fo = 1,,0 because of the incompatibil-
ity of rotations at the base"
Eqs. (4,. 17) and 4.17"a) are important ones, for they
enable the rotational requirements for each of the laminae
to be compared with the available rotational capacity"
The example given in 4,,6 illustrates cases on both
sides of the critical value of the stiffness ratio Z"
4.3.3 Deflections
It was stipulated that the walls remain elastic
during the previously described process of laminar plastifi-
cation
o
Consequently the wall deformations can be readily
obtained when the structure is subject to the load Wy or Wy
whicl;1. induced the plastification of the laminae over at least
90% of the height. This wall deflection is given by
H3 11. 1;5 tft I; P.i 2 lqu 2
ypy =ET' {W [60-60+T2'-4+Z( 3 -1;+3)]-yE
3
-1;+"3)J (4
0
20)
o y . .
The maximum deflection at the top of the structureS is
p
H
3
, '1 & lqu
Y
opy
:::; EI [Wy (60 + 3) - "'""3] (40
2
1)
o
The lateral deflections from y at the maiXimum
etas,tic load, Eq. (4
0
5) to y when under the action of
py
Wy (Eq" (4015 or W; (Eqo (4"
404 The Ultimate Load
According to the assumed sequence of plastification it
is possible to further increase the load on the structure
provided that the plastified laminae are capable of maintaining
the ultimate shear during subsequent rotations" Any additional
load need be carried entirely by cantilever action of the
coup led walls"
4,,4
0
1 The Ultimate Load on Wall 1
If the additional load, required to cause the
moment at the base of Wall 1 to reach its ultimate value, is.
A WI, then the moments induced in both walls are
the critic,:..l moments at the base of the walls becOme
where M
1 ,u
a. nd M
. 2 u
,
(4023)
(4,,24)
:::; the ultimate moment capaci1J1es "of:',t'he
walls at the base"
60.
The elastic wall rotations due to the additional load aWl
f0
1
llo':1 .f-rom the elastic cantilever actions only and are
These impose additional plastic rotations, fJ', upon the
'Ii?
laminae. From the geometry of the strUcture (Fig. 3.4.a)
it follows that these are
the
. 1
AI ="""'l"
vp s w (4
0
26)
The additional elastic la.teral deflection at the top of
structure is
aW'H
3
y' =
o EI
o
(
11 + E)
60 3
4.4.2 The Ultimate Load on Wall 2
c
In a similar way to the procedure followed above,
WIt is defined as the additional load required to enable the
critical moment in Wall 2 to attain its ultimate value, i.eo
M2 When this load is being applied Wall 1 is assumed to
,u
accept nO further load. From the compatibility of deformations
over the height of the two walls, which, with the exception of
the base, are still in the elastic range, it is ~ v i e n t that
this is not possible. Wall 1, when subject to additional
curvature at the upper floors, would have to resist additional
load. The er:ror involved in assuming that Wall 1 does not
accept additional load, leads to a small underestimation of
.. the ultimate load, and it affects only the equations predicting
deformations. As these are a small fraction of the total
deformations, the
to the pred'iction
at ultimate load.
error is'considered negligible with respect
of theperformance of the whole structure
Accordingly the moments in Wall 1 do not
change, and in Wall 2 they become
+ - lq
. u
The maximum moment at the base of Wall 2 is
The elastic rotations in Wall 2 are given.by
H2A W" ... 1 e:
4
e:/) p ...2-
tJ; = E 12 [4 + 12 - 3' + '2" (1 - f..) ]
The resulting plastic rotations in the laminae are
similarly from
A" = 1 (J1t
II P s w
(4,,28)
(4,,30)
(4,,31)
The additiqnal deflection at the top of the structure
may be conserrvatively estimated by
II =!::. Wit H3 (11 + p)
Yo E 12 60 3
.
By superimposing the previously. derived load
incremen'ts the total ultimate load on the coupled shear wall
structur.es is obtained thus
W :::: W+ AW' + A W"
u y
(4.33.a)
In terms of the strength of the components of the structure
this load is
Wu > 1 (M + M +" 9 5 lHq )
_ H( + p ) 1 ,u 2 ,u u
It is to be noted that any further rotation, "h' which
may occur in the plastic hinges, that have formed at the base
of the induce proportional rotations in each of
the laminae. This is "ph:::: l"h/s (4,,34)
With this information the ductility requirement for
any laminae can be found for any desired overall ductility
of the C'tmpled shear wall structure@
4.5 Illustrative Example
62"
To illustrate the load-deformation characteristics of a
coupled shear wall structure, the previously presented 18 storey
shear core building (3
0
8) is examined a little further. Addit-
ional load increments will be applied to this structure.. Each
of these will correspond with a distinct stage of the behaviour 0
The properties required for the elastic analysis were summarised
in Table 3
0
1 of Chapter 3. Additional information related to
the ultimate strength of the coupling beams is given as follows:
i) The ultimate moment capacity of a coupling beam is
Mu :::: 3350 Koin ..
ii) The ultimate shear strength is thus v :::: 2M / s:::: 1 76K "
u u
iii) Correspondingly, the ultimate laminar shear is
qu :::: 2 x 176/105 :::: 3
0
35 KJin.
iv) The equivalent moment of inertia of a cracked coupling
beam is I 8 :::: 3 x '5200 :::: 4560 in.
4

x
The significant results of the analysis are presented
in Figs 4 .. 1" The curves refer to five distinct stages of the
loading till the attainment of the ultimate load on the whole
structure ..
4.5.1 Stage 1 .. Elastic Design Load
The final stage (Case C) of the elastic analysis
presented in 3
0
8 is reproduced in Fig. 4.' by the curves and
locations labelled 10 (Also see Fig" 3.5). The maximum
elastic laminar shear, qmax:::: 2 .. 55K/in., occurs at about
the 4th floor (Le .. 1;=70) ..
63.
4.5.2 Stage 2. The Elastic Limit of the Structure,
The maximum load to be carried by the fully ,
elastic structure is to be determined. The elastic limit is
attained when the critical lamina reaches its
capacity of qu = 3.35 Hence from Eq. (4.4) the maximum
elastic load is found to be
W
e
3,,35 500
= 2
6
55 x =
657 K and P
e
= 85K
The corresponding maximum laminar rotation is, according
toEq .. (3. 14) and Eq. (4.11)
hs
2
q 2
105 x 38 .x 3 .. 35 = 1.85 x 10-
3
rad.
() y =F 12E I' = 12 x 5000 x 4560
x
All have been expressed in terms of this yield
(J y , in Fig. 4. 1. b.
4.5.3 Stage 3. The Full Plastification of the Laminae
The load which will cause at least the upper 90% .
. of the laminae to yield need be determined. To do this, the
governing criterion need be known for the location of the
lamina in which yield is just attained. (See 4 .. 3;02)
First the critical stiffness ratio is found from Eq.
(4
0
1Q;)and Eq .. (4. 18) thus
65 13" __ 0,,25 + 0.50 x 0.13 ""
p = W = 500 =. ,v 0 061 6 + 0 .. 095 x 0 .. 13 -
4.26
and Z -
critical -
4.26 - 1 17 2
, - o. 19 x 4.26 =
This value must be compared with the actual stiffness
ratio of the structure, as given by Eq. (4.16)
64.
Thus the uppermost laminae must just attain the yield
rotation. According to Eq. (4.15"a) the responsible load
is:
W' =
y
and
pI :=
y
4 x 38 x
6
. 1.,.;8;.....,+......;,.1 ) 1. 85 x 1 0-
3
== 1 086 K
68
0
7 x
13 x 1086
=
141 K
The plastic laminar rotations, in terms of the yield rotation,
are obtained from Eq .. (4,. 17 oa) ioe.
= 12. 7 _ + 2.90)

Curve 3 of Fig. 4. 1 .. b indicates that., p 5 ., y at the 7th
floor and that the laminar yield rotation extends approxi-
mately over 96% of the height of the structure.
The other, more quantities at this stage
of the loading are as follows:
a.) The maximum lateral deflection at the top of the'
structure is from Eq. (4,,21).
y = 1890
3
[1086 (11+ .. 13)_ 168.7x 3.35]= 6.45 in.
copy 5000 x 12" 3 x 10
6
. 60 3 3
b.) The bending moment a'long Wall 1 is from Eq" (4.7 .a)
52
M1 = 5,,52 x '0 - ,,333 - .390)
with a maximum value at the base of
M,(l) = 152200 K.in.
I
M2 = M1 is p lotted in Fig. 4. 1. a.
1 -
c.) The maximum axial force in the coupled walls is
approximately
In order to demonstrate the influence of the stiffness
ratio, Z , defined by Eq. (4.16), stiffer walls for this
example will also be briefly considered. It will be assumed
that instead of 18 storeys the structure consists of only
10 storeys. Thus the total height is H:: lOx 105 :: 1050 in.
Therefore fromEq. (4.16)
Z ::: 14.5 < '7 1::: 17.2.
1crl.tl.ca
Therefore Eq. (4.15) and Eq. (4.17) are now applicable and the
load
W
Y
and
and
on the becomes
::: 38x 5D)Ox 12.3x 10
6
CO.19x 14.5+ 1)
168
0
7x 1050
2
(0.0616+ 0.095x 0.13)
P
y
::: 0.13 x 1178
:::
153 K
xl. 85 x 10- 3:: 1"178 K
The plastic laminar rotations are given by
4
:::
4.2 -
fJ
y
16
0
9 +
2
+ 0.5
these are shown by the dotted curve in Fig. 4. 1. b. It
is evident that the plastic rotations extend over 95% of the
height. They are larger at the top and smaller at midheight
of tbe structure When compared with the rotations of the 18
storey building.
4.5.4 Stage 4. The Ultimate Strength of Wall 1 is
Attained
Wall 1 is reinforced in such a way that it can
develop an ultimate moment of M1 :: 200000 K.in. in the
,u .
presence of 6150K. tension. The additional overturning moment
on the structure has to be resisted by cantilever actions of
the walls only the laminar strength was assumed to be
exhausted at the end of load stage 3. Using Eq. (4.22) the
additional triangular load, Ii WI, to be carried by the
structure, when the ultimate strength of Wall 1 is attained,
is found to be 1125"K. . Similarly Ii pi::: O. 13 x 118 ::: 15 K Q
These loads impose additional plastic rotations upon
the laminae, which, in terms of the yield rotations are,
according to Eq. (4.25) and Eq. (4026)
(J t
:..12.=
fJ
y
66.
When these are added to the rotations obtained in Stage
3, curve 4 of Fig. 4.1.b results" The diagram shows that a
relatively small load increment (133K) resulted in very large
plastic laminar rotations, particularly at the upper storeys
of the structure.
The increase of deflection at the top of the structure
is fromEqo (4.27f'
As both walls are still assumed to behave elastically,
the maximum moment base of Wall 2 is by proportion
545000 Koino
The moments over the remainder of Wall 2 are plotted in Fig.
4. loa.
4 0 5
0
5 50 The Ultlmate Strength of Wall 2 is-
Attained.
The reinforcement in Wall 2 is such that in the
presence of 6150K. axial compression an ultimate bending
moment of 650000 K.in. can be developed. Therefore the
additional load, which is solely to be carried by Wall 2,
is from Eqo (4.28) or otherwise
A\ WII .::: 70K and Il P" ::: gK
The total ultimate load by the structure is thus
W .::: 1086 + 118 + 70 :::; 1274K (triangular load)
u
P
u
.::: 141 + 15 + 9 .::: 165:K (point load)
67.
These correspond with a load factor
FromEqo (4.30) and Eq. (4.31) the additional plastic
laminar rotations are estimated as follows:
It ,
:: 1,,121;4_ 40461;3- 0.871;2+ 4.22:: 0.81312.

The total laminar rotations are Shown by curve 5 in
Fig. 4. lob. The graph reveals that in order to develop the
full strength in this coupled shear wall structure the
coupling beams at the midheight of the building need to have
a ductility factor of at least 12.
The additional deflection at the top of the walls is,
from Eq" (4.32)
The load-deflection relationship with respect to the
top of the structure is shown in terms of the ultimate load,
in Fig. 4. loco When this continuous relationship is replaced
by a.bilinear'one (shown dotted) it is seen that at the
attainment of the ultimate load a ductility factor of 2 would
give an acceptable measure of the overall plastic behaviour.
A doubling of the lateral displacement of the structure,
corresponding with a ductility factor of 4, would involve
rigid body rotations of the walls, ioe. numerically
A 11.7 - 6 20 .10-
3
d
wr :: H :: 1890 - x . ra.
which would plastic laminar rotations.
By similarity toEq. (4.31) these can be determined as .follows

(J y
:: 168.7 x 6.20 x 10-
3
::
38 )Ii 1,,85 x 10-:3
14.9
The example demonstrated that for the particular shear
structure the requirement of an overall ductility factor
of 4 - commonly used in earthquake resistant design - would
necessitate that the critical coupling beams possess a
ductility factor of over 270
4 0 6 .A Summary of Postelastic Behaviour
It was shown in this chapter that by means of a step
by step procedure it is possible to trace the postelastic
performance of a coupled shear wall structure. The analysis
demonstrated that very large plastic deformations are imposed
upon the coupling beams even if only moderate overall
ductility is to be attained.
In connection with.the ultimate strength of coupled
shear wall structures, three points deserve attentionjl\
ao) Very little is known about the interaction of
moment, shear and axial tension o This load
combination always occurs in one of the coupledwalls o
The performance of such a wall may be considerably
affected by the gravityload intensity, which in turn
may influence the sequence of plastic hinge
b.) In the subsequent chapters a considerable amoun,t
of experimental evidence is offered with respect
to the behaviour of relatively deep coupling beams o
The means by which the ductility of such beams may be
increased have not been explored as yet. It is
questionable whether plastic deformations of the
magnitude indicated in the example can be developed.
co) The ultimate load derived analytically need be
compared with the strength of the foundations.
It may well be possible that ultimate strength
of the structure corresponds to forces which would
violate the requirements of overall stability.
* Research work is continuing at the University of
Canterbury to explore theoretically and experimentally
this load combination of reinforced concrete beams o
CHAP TER FIVE
TEST SPECIMENS, MATERIALS,
,LOADING FRAME AND TESTING PROCEDURE
5. 1 The Test Specimens
Te be able to reproduce the leading and boundary
conditions which are likely to eccur in coupling beams of
69.
real shear wall structures, test specimens of the form shown
inF,is" 5. 1 were chosen. The thickness of the central portion
of the, specimen, Which was the test beam proper, was 6 in.
The. be'an'l,p,roper . connected tW0 .8 in. thick square shaped end-
blocks" These simulated portions of the coupled shear walls.
The load was applied through these end-blocks.
The load points on the end-blocks were considered to be
located far enough from the beam proper so as not to cause
a stress pattern at its boundaries, significantly different
from that occurring in a real shear wall structure.
The dimensions of the specimens Were made large enough
so that no scale had to be considered in
the interpretation of the test results. The relatively large
specimens also enabled numerous strain measurements to be
made with relative ease on both sides of the beam proper.
,All beams were cast from one side. Therefore the bond
conditions for both the top and bottom reinforcement were
the same"
The depth to width ratio of the deeper beams was larger
than what would commonly occur in real structures. ,With
exception this did not seem to have had an effect upon the
performance of the test beams. In Beam 394 an attempt was
made to confine the concrete by means of special reinforcement.
70 ..
In a. wide!:. beant .. "this. con.finement would have been more effect.-
ive.. At no stage of the test were signs of lateral instabil-
ity observed ..
The 8 in. thick end-blocks were reinforced in such a
manner that the estimated steel stresses were of the order
of 20000pos.i .. when the ultimate strength of the beam proper.
was attained.. In the vicinity of the load points, where
beariPtLpressures of up to 3200 p.s.L intensity were produced,
cross ties were provided to prevent possible splitting of the
concrete 0
The reinforcement in the end-blocks was not subject to
test examination. The general arrangement of this steel is
shown for typical beams in Fig. 6.1 and Fig. 7 .. 43.
The end-blocks performed satisfactorily during the
tests .... Only at high load intensities did a few narrow
diagonal cracks appear. After load removal they closed and
could not be detected by the naked eye ..
With the chosen loading arrangement equal moments at
both ends of the beam proper and a known constant shearing
force could be applied.. Details of the moment pattern and
the type of loading are record.ed in Fig .. 5 .. 1, where the effect
of reversed loading is indicated by the dotted lines.
5.2 The Concrete
5 0 2" 1 Ingredients and Mix Proportions
Because of the limited laboratory facilities
to produce larger quantities of concrete, the same was
obtained from a local "ready mix" plant. The concrete used
in the test series represents a typical mix which is being
used for general building construction in the Christchurch,
New Zealand" area.
710
OWing to variations in the supply of aggregates and
cement over a period of 14 months, the inevitable delay in
the testing of individual specimens and the variable curing
conditions in the laboratory, there was considerable scatter
in the values of concrete strength at the time of t s t i n g ~
Apart from one preliminary test (Beam 241) a 28 days cylinder.
crushing strength of 5000 posoi. was aimed at. With the
excellent quality of aggregates available in the Canterbury
district, it is in fact difficult to obtain a concrete
strength less than 5000 p.sGi. t when not less than SOD lbs o .
of cement per cu.yard of concrete is used and when the worka-
bility corresponds with approximately 3 in. of slump 0 When
specifying a crushing cylinder strength of 5000 po s. i. the
following aspects were considered:
a.) The specified minimum 28 days strength for concrete
currently used in New Zealand formultistorey
buildings is 3000 to 3500 Posoio It is reasonable to
expect that the actual mean strength at the age of
one year or later is in the vicinity of 5000 p.s.i.
b.) To speed the early removal of formwork it is
becoming a common practice to use a concrete with
a higher strength than that required by strength
computations.
The unit weight of the concrete was 147"!2 lbs" per"
cu. ft. No additives were in the mix. "Guardian" type
ordinary portland cement was used for all specimens.
The proportions of ingredients and other relevant data
for 9 mixes used during the tests are assembled in Table 5" 1.
5.2.2 Placing, Compaction and Stripping of the Concrete
The concrete was placed into the formwork
immediately after its delivery. The first and last barrows
of fresh concrete were not used in the beam proper but were
72"
placed in the end-blocks o
A cormnon immersion type vibrator was used for compaction.
The placing of the fresh concrete was completed within one
hour
o
When the excess water from the surface evaporated a
smooth finish was given with a steel trowel.
Together with the test specimen six standard 12" x 6"
cyU,.nders, six 6" x 6" X 6" cubes, six 12" x 3" x 3" blocks
for modulus of rupture tests and two or three 18" x 6" x 6"
prisms for temperature control blocks and Young's Modulus
test were also cast.. These were compacted on a vibrating
table ..
All concrete was cured for seven days under soaked
sacks and polythene sheeting.. The small blocks were taken
out of the steel moulds approximately 48 hours after casting ..
The beam specimen was lifted from the formwork on the 8th
day and was kept in a vertical position in the laboratory
until it was placed in the test rig. The small test pieces
were always stored adjacent to the beams to ensure similar
curing conditions ..
5
0
2.3 Concrete Strength Properties
The standard te st specimens were cru shed during
or at the end of the main testa The latter lasted up to
four days" The strength properties, given in Table 5011,
were generally derived from six specimens" For the 31 and
39 in. deep beams only four cylinders were used whenever a
Young's Modulus Test was carried out, as this required two
cylinders. For the 24 in. deep beams 18" x 6" x 6" prisms
were used to determine the value of Ec. The strains were
measured by Demec mechanical strain gauges over four inch
lengths at midheight on four sides of the prisms or standard
cylinders.. Typical stress-strain curves, corresponding with
short term loading of the concrete used, are shown in Fig"
50 2.
A good agreement was obtained between.the measured
values of '(oung's Modulus and the value predicted by the
equation'
of the current A.C.l. Building Code, using w == 147 for
the unit weight' of the concrete" (See Table 5 .. II)"
5 .. 3 .The Reinforcement
". 3" 1 Steel Properties
73.
All reinforcement, except the # 2 bars used far
stirrups in Beam 241, consisted of deformed bars" These
conformed with the requirements of ASTM A 305.. The' #3'
reinfarcement was manufactured in Japan. All other deformed
bars were supplied by the Pacific Steel Coo of New Zealand ..
This reinforcement is marketed with a guaranteed minDnum
yield strength of 33 Ksi
o
, the actual yield strength being
approximately 45 Ksi. The Japanese #3 bars had a yield
strength of 56 Ksi ..
The strength in each batch of delivered
reinforcement Were determined on 3 to 6 specimens" The
large diameter bat;"s were machined to approximately t or ..
ina diameter, to enable a Baty type extensiometer, capable
of receiving bars of up to in ... diameter, to be On
companion undisturbed samples, the yield pOint was determined
from the plot of the testing machine. The effective cross
sectional area of each deformed bar was based on approxim-
ately 12 measurements taken along its 15 to 18 ina length.
Typical stress-strain curves for the bars used in the
test series are assembled in Fig. 5.3. With slow applica-
tion of the load at yield the beginning of the strain
hardening could also be determined"
74"
The value of Young1s Modulus varied slightly for bars
taken from the same batch.. The mean value was 29
t
500 Ksi
and this was used in all subsequent computations
o
The /5 stirrup reinforcement was heated cherry red so
as to enable neat bends to be made around the #7 and 1/8 main
bars. A number of test specimens were prepared and subjected
to the same heat treatment" It was found that the limit of
proportionality was lowered to 33-37 Ksi, the yield strength
to 38-40 Ksi and the ultimate strength to 62 KsL
It is not likely that the heat treatment, applied only
locally, affected the performance of the stirrups in any wayo
Yielding Qf the stirrups was generally observed to occur
away from their corners"
The strength properties of the reinforcement and other
relevant data are collected in Table 5.111.
5.3.2 The Assembly of Reinforcement
The reinforcing cages for the beam proper were
carefully assembled so that the main bars and stirrups were
always within 1/16 in. of their specified positions. In
order to maintain the relative positions of the bars during
concreting, the stirrups were tack welded to the outer
layers of main bars.. The intermediate or secondary horizontal
bars were tack welded to the inside of those stirrups along
which no strain measurements were made.
After the completion of the cage for a beam proper
and the cages for the two end-blocks, they were correctly
positioned in the formwork and the anchored ends of the
main reinforcement were tack welded, through cross ties,
to the reinforcement of the end-blocks a
Before the assembly started 3z; in. diameter steel studs,
holding future gauge points, were welded to one longitudinal
rib of all those deformed bars along which strain measure-
ments were to be made.
75
0
. A plast.ic . tube. was .. p.l.a..c,ed. oV,e.r .eB..ch ... s.tud and .. :t:he...-hase
of this .was se.al.e.d w.ith .;l bituminous comp.ound against the entr.y
of fluids" OVer the pla.stic tube an '1/16 ino diameter steel.
tube was placed and sealed in a similar manner" The small
spaces at the inside and at the outside of the plastic tube
Were filled with hot wax after the reinforcing cage was fully
assembled"
A Jew days after the test specimen was lifted from its
formwork, .the wax was broken and the plastic tube was removed
so that an approximately '/8 in .. gap was left between the
insideof:l:he steel tube and the central steel stud" Fig" 5 0 4
shows'a close up of the stud-tube assembly before concreting"
On Fig" 5
0
5 the position of the studs within the steel tubes
may be seen ..
This arrangement ensured that the surrounding concrete
did not interfere with the steel strain measurement even when
the strain hardening range was entered" The lengths of the
studs varied according to the position of the instrumented
reinforcement so that the ends of the studs extended to within
1/32ino of the finished concrete surface ..
5 0 4 The Loading Frame
The welded steel loading frame, with all its attachments,
was made in the workshop of the Department of Civil Engineering"
When the frame was designed the following requirements received
consideration:
ao) A self-equilibrated and statically determinate loading
system was desirable as this avoided having to transmit
large forces to the floor of the laboratory"
b
o
) Only two 100 Ton capacity hydraulic jacks were likely
to be availableo
co) It should be p o s s i ~ e to reverse the direction of
load speedily"
do) The sides of the beam proper should be free from
obstructions to enable measurements to be made
comfortably from both sideso
eo) Specimens of different heights should be easy to
accommodateo
fo) Assembly and disassembly should not be time
consumingo
76"
A diagrammatic representation of the essentials of the
frame assembly is shown in Figo 5
0
6. Details may be seen on
the photographs reproduced in Figo 6 0 3 and Figo 6.810
With reference to Figo 5 0 6, the working of the testing
frame may be briefly summarised as follows:
(A) The load was applied by means of a 100 Tons capacity
hydraulic jack, which was placed between the two
halves of the welded steel frame. The line of action of the
applied force passed through the centre line of the beam propero
(B) For reversed loading the jack was placed upon the
top of one half of the frame and by means of cross=
heads it was tied, with high strength steel bars, to the under=
side of the other half of the loading frameo When two jacks
were available only the inner jack had to be removed at certain
load cycles
o
(See Figo 6 081)0
(c) The frame was attached to the test specimen by pairs
of rolled steel channel stirrups. A rigid steel
bearing show was welded between each pair of channels at the
underside of the test specimen. At the top of the steel frame
5/ 8 inc thick slotted bearing plates were connected to the
channelso Here ~ ino diameter High Strength Friction Grip
Bolts were used
o
Numerous holes through these channels
enabled different s s of test pieces to be accommodated
under the frameo
77.
(D) The load to the test beams was transmitted either
through the rigid shoes between the stirrups or
through the stiffened bearing plates at the underside of the
loading frame. With the exception of the shallow beams (241 to
244), the. approxo Ja ino wide gap between concrete and steel
bea:l;ing .. J?_1B.:t:es was filled with plaster of Paris. For the
shallQw in .. thick three layered Neoprene bearing
pads were used. These were found to cause excessive rotations
of each half of the testing frame. Consequently the line of
action of the load moved, especially at high load intensities,
away from the desired centre line. In the later tests the
fill enabled the eccentricity to be maintained within
+k .
- 8
(E) The whole assembly was supported by small cross=
channels which were attached to the inner (double)
stirrups. They transmitted the whole weight of the assembly
to the floor. The connections at two feet from both sides of
the vertical plane of the assembly provided lateral stability
during testing.
(F) Four levelling bolts at each support point enabled
the assembly to be erected in a truly vertical
position. During testing these bolts did not engage.
(G) To enable rotations during the testing to occur
freely the left hand support of the assembly was
seated upon an adjustable knife edgeo
(H) A similar roller support at the right hand ensured
that no horizontal restraint existed. Up to \ in.
lateral movement of the roller occurred during tests.
(J) Lubrucated tongues, sliding in corresponding slots,
ensured that the two halves of the loading frame
remained in the same vertical plane during the test.
78"
505 Instrumentation
5.5. 1 Steel Strain Measurements
Demec mechanical strain gauges were used to measure
the elongation of the reinforcing bars over a 4 inch base length.
Drilled stainless steel plates, which received the points of
the strain gauges, were attached to in. diameter steel studs o
The latter were welded to the reinforcement as described in
5 0 3 0 2. Prior to testing the small holes in the stainless steel
plates were thoroughly cleaned with a drill and air jet and
each was examined under a microscope.
5.5.2 Concrete Strain Measurements
Generally 4 in., and occasionally 2 in. base
lengths were used for Demec strain gauges on both sides of the
beams. The concrete surface was cleaned with a wire brush and
the dust was removed with an air jeto The gauge points were,
attached to the concrete surface with sealing wax either before
the test or after the formation of the cracks.
5.5.3 Rotation Measurements
The horizontal displacements along three points
of vertical reference line, passing through the centre of
the end blocks, were measured by dial gauges" Small steel
plates, attached to the concrete surface through a short arm,
received the points of the dial indicators. The general
arrangement may be seen in Fig. 6
0
3 and Fig. 6
0
81.
The readings near the top and bottom edge of the end
blocks were used to determine the absolute rotations. The
centre reading provided a check to see if the three chosen
points remained indeed on a straight line during the test.
Only at high load intensities, when one or two diagonal
crossed the vertical reference line, could a small deviat
of the centre points from the line connecting the other two
points be observed. The effect of this deviation was neglec
79.
At hign load intensities the rapid creep rotations overshadowed
the above deviation.
Readings taken at the centre points of the endblocks
9
which were situated on the horizontal axis of the beam proper&
enabled the displacement of one end-block relative to the
other to be determined.
From the measurements on both sides of the test specimen
any twisting, which may have occurred, could be detectedo For
the purpose of computation the average of the measurements,
taken on both sides, was considered.
To enable the relationship for the beam
proper to be established, it was necessary to determine the
"rigid body rotation" of the whole test piece. This rotation
resulted from:
a.) The rotation of the end blocks about their re tive
supportso These were not situated under the centre
reference line of the blocks o (See Fig. 6.81)
b
o
) The elongation of the channel stirrups of the
loading frame. These were stressed to 22 Ksi
at high load intensities.
c.) The deformations of the loading frame.
d.) The compression of the plaster of Paris or Neoprene
packing between the steel bearing plates and the
concrete surface.
eo) The vertical strains in the concrete of the end b
This "rigid body rotation" was appreciable, and it was
necessary to determine it accurately as it affected all
dial gauge readings of the test. For this reason a dial
indicator was placed under the bottom surface, at the centre
line of the end blocks, one inch away from each of the two
edges. An additional gauge was placed half way between the
80.
previDus two. dial indicatDrs. So. under the centre line
each end block the deflectiDn was measured Dn three dial
gauges placed 3 in. apart from each Dther. The average of
the Duter readings was cDmpared with the value shDwn on the
cen:t:raJ, dial gauges and in this way any errDneous measurement
cDuld be quickly detected and cDrrected.
This seemingly DvercautiDus arrangement was necessitated
by the disappointing results Dbtained in the first t e s t s ~
where this vital infDrmatiDn was lost at SDme lDad increments 0
The two. outer dial gauges also. enabled the undesirable tilt
Df the end blDCks to. be Dbserved.
The accuracy Df the readings Dn these dial g u g e s ~ was
apprDX. .0003 in.
5.5.4 Measurements Df Beam DeflectiDns
In Drder to' get the general picture Df the
defDrmatiDns Df the beam prDper, usually 9 dial gauges were
placed under the centre Df its sDffit. This may be seen
Fig. 7.37. The accuracy Df the readings Dn these ~ in. travel
dial gauges was apprDx. 0.00003 in. In the interpretation
the results due allowance was made fDr the rigid bDdy rotations
Df the specimens.
5.50 5 LDad Application
The nominal 100 TDns capacity hydraulic j
Were fed by a 10,000 p.s.i. capacity Riehle testing ma
which maintained constant Dil pressure o.ver the 21.2 sq.ino
o.f ram area. This arrangement Df the loading was compared
with ano.ther testing machine. The accuracy o.f the load was
within 1 %,. except when the o.il pressure was less than 500 po So L
i.e. at lDads less than 10 Kips. The duration Df the constant
loading varied between 2 and 40 minutes.
By means o.f a stretched string the line of action of
the lo.ad was frequently co.mpared with the line pass through
8L
the theoretical point of contraflexure of the beam propero
Any deviation, which may have occurred, was recorded.
The difficulty in following strains and displacements
near the failure load was a disadvantage of this "constant
load" device.. Often the test specimen "ran away" and it was
destroyed before the yield displacements could be arrested
by reducing the load slightly. In spite of applying
small load increments, when approaching the estimated ilure
load, only limited information could be obtained with respect
to the ductility of coupling beams . Unfortunately a 100 Tons
capacity load cell, which would have enabled a "constant
displacement" form of load application to be used, was not
yet available at the time of the experiments.
5
0
5
0
6 Crack Obsverations
The cracks were located and their development I
was followed after each significant load increment with
aid of magnifying glasses. The propagation of cracks was
marked.. When a significant change occurred in the crack
pattern a photograph was also taken from each side of the
beam. A few of these are reproduced in this report ..
On the surface ot. a few beams the width of some .typical
cracks was followed with a microscope ..
These coupling beams were considered as parts of an
"earthquake resistant" structure. Their performance, lud=
ing crack development, could not be related to a
load. For this reason in most beams no attempt was made to
accurately observe the widths of the cracks.
As constant temperature could not be rna ined
in this laboratory, it was considered advisable to assess
the effects of a variable temperature upon the strains in
the test piece. For this reason one 6" x 6" X 18" concrete
control block was provided with two 4 in. and two 2 ine
lengths.
Measurements on these temperature control blocks
inned previous experience in the laboratory, that lly
these blocks responded ster to temperature ions than
large test ecimens Q Therefore an undisturbed area of a
previously tested beam was also
controL
strumented temperature
Figo 5.7 shows the typical evaluation of temperature
fects for a beam (312). This specimen was subject to
alternating loading over four days. The mean of the
taken on the control block and on the companion beam was
replaced by a simple curve or straight lineso The actual
correction to be applied to the steel or concrete strain
readings was that which corresponded with the mean time
ings
the particular load level. This is shown by the vert a1
lines and arrows in Fig. 5.7 for the 3rd and 4th day of the
test.
It is to be noted that the scatter of strain readings
for both concrete and steel, at high load was
generally much greater than the possible strain ion
due to temperature changes. Thus the tempera correct
Were considered to have affected significantly the strain
readings at very low load inten
beams were still uncracked o
5,,6
ies only, i.eo When the
At the commencement of each test 2 to 3 and occas tly
more readings Were made at each strain or dial gauge so as to
establish the mean value of the "no load" condit " After
the load was app lied to the test specimen the measurements
were generally taken in the following sequence:
1.) Checking the line of action of the load.
2.) Temperature and
3.) Demec gauge readings on the standard bar and
temperature control blocks$
4.) Oil pressure on
5.) Dial indicators
hydraulic jack.
rotational measurements.
6.) Strains along the flexural reinforcement and
"iJ,i'-'rni'dJatkl. 1 bar'
.... e.q e ,I., ,0;;:;
7.) Stirrup strains.
8.) Concrete strains.
9.) Dial indicators at the soffit of the beams.
83"
10.) Repeated readings for rotational measurements as
in 5 ..
11
0
) Locating and marking of cracks on both sides of
the beam. Crack width measurements when necessaryo
12.) Reduction of the load when its sity was high ..
13.) Photographs taken when necessary.
For each pair of gauge points the readings were taken
simultaneously on both sides of the specimen.. All readings
were manually recorded on standard data sheets and from
these the strains, with all necessary were
processed by an electronic computer.

qHAPTER
MEDIUM COUPLWG BEAMS
This test series consisted designated 311
to 314. Their properties are given in Chapter 59 The overall
dimensions of the beamswerethe same. The an to depth ratio
was
The wei:? reinforcement and the load sequence have
varied.
6 .. 1 Beam 311
6. '1. 1 LoadintLand Test
The beam was loaded in several increments till
destruction. The aim of this test was to determine the form=
ation of a failure mechanism in a coupling beam, deliberately
underreinfqrced against shear. Numerous measurements of strains
and displacements were made during the test. Certain tures
and also difficulties encountered are discussed in i10
Some of these features also occurred other test
reference will be made to them in the descript
of the behaviour of other beams ..
The load sequence and other data related to loading is
presented in Table
The overall view of the reinforcement the who
test specimen is shown in Fig. 6.1 and a detail of beam
proper with the welded studs for strain measurements in their
sealed protective tubing may be seen in Fig.
85"
The beam, set up in the test frame for one way loading.
is shown in Fig. 6 .. 3. The photograph was taken after the
comp letion of the te st when some of the dial gauge s used were.,
already removed. Figs 6.4 shows the crack pattern of the
beam after failure.. The gauge points along the flexural and
web reinforcement and some of the gauge points on the concre.te.
can also be seen on this photograph.. As a rule all photographs
presented here view the beams from the East (note the letter E)
and references, such as "left hand support" apply to this side
of the beams"
6.1.2 The Behaviour of the Flexural Reinforcement
6 .. 1.2.1 The distribution of strains along the
flexural
The generous provision of gauge points enabled
the strains to be assessed over the entire clear span of the
beam proper. These strains are plotted in Fig. 6.5 for various
load levels, which have been expressed as a fraction of the
',ultimate load. At each load the strain distribution is shown
s.eparately for the outer layer (#8) and for the inner layer
(#7) of bars. The points on the graph represent the average
strain in the two bars of the same layer.
Because of the random formation of cracks frequently
considerable differences were observed between the strains
measured at one and the other side of the beam at the same
section. A crack extending across the 6 inch width of the
beam did not necessarily cross corresponding gauge lengths.
A point omitted from a graph indicates that the gauge point
. hasmalfunct'ionea or has fallen off.
From an examination of the strain distribution curves
for the top and bottom reinforcement, Fig" 6.5, the following
observations may be made"
86"
a.) The strains in the two layers of rel.fiforcement at
the top or at the bottom of the beam are generally
very similar. They do not appear to have a set relation
to each other. Mostly the strains in the outer bars
(# 8) are somewhat larger, as one would expect from a
linear distribution of strains across a section.
b.) Up to about 35% of the ultimate load the strain
distribution corresponds with the bending moment
pattern. (See Fig. 5.1). The strains are very small at
the centre line of the beam, i.e. at the point of Zero,.
moment. As expected the compression steel strains are
'considerably smaller than the corresponding tensile
strains.
c.) At higher loads, which are associated with the
development of diagonal cracks, the tensile strains
become rather large also at the point of zero moment.
Already at 58% of the ultimate load tensile strains were
observed over the entire. length of the ',beam in the top
and in the bottom bars. Surprisingly, at higher loads,
the flexural reinforcement was found to be in tension
also in the "compression zone!" of the beam.
d.) Near ultimate load the tensile strains in the two
layers of reinforcement passing through the
"compression zone" of the beam differed greatly. This
unexpected phenomenon is associated with the failure
mechanism of the beam. It is discussed more fully in
6.1.5.
e.) The strain distribution along the top and bottom
reinforcement was, at all load levels, reasonably
anti symmetrical. The deviations which occurred are
due to the irregular crack formation rather than due
to a change in the bending moment pattern. The latter
may have resulted from a small change in the alignment
of the load line.
87.
The line of action of the applied force was frequently
checked against the vertical e n t ~ e line of the beam. Occasion-
ally, at high loads when considerable rotations of the end
blocks occurred, a small deviation could be observed. An
eccentricity of 3/16 inG, a typical quantity, represents
approximately 2% difference between the static moments generated
at the supports of the beam.. During the elastic performance of
the beam such discrepancies Were of no significance. However
at high loads they could have been responsible for unsymmet'i-ical
plastic deformations at the supports
o
Such eccentricies, when
observed, were recorded and in subsequent tests they were largely
eliminated at Zero loads by adjusting the position of the jack.
6.1.2 .. 2 The tension force distribution ..
The behaviour of the beam and the mode of load
resistauce can be better visualised if the previously recorded
elastic .strains are translated into internal forces.. By taking
the mean strain for the four bars in each face of the beam and
by using 29,500 Ksi for the modulus of elasticity of the steel,
the tension force distribution curves for five load increments
have been obtained asshown in Fig .. 6 .. 6
0
The deviation of this tension force distribution along.
the beam from the pattern that would result from a conventional
analysis can be better appreciated if the latter is also
determined. By considering a singly reinforced concrete
section and taking the modular ratio n = 7 , the internal
lever arm is found to be 24 .. 7 inches.. The lever arm of the
steel couple is 25.2 in. For the purpose of this comparison
an internal lever arm of z = 25 in .. was used in all beams
of the series.
The theoretical steel force distributions, which result
from this analysis in the tension zone of the beam are shown
by the dotted lines in Figq 6.6.. The discrepancy between
88.
the theoretical and measured tensile forces, particularly at
higher loads, is apparent. The causes for this are examined
at the end of this chapter. (6 0 5.1.)
6.1.2.3 The position of the internal forces.
The performance of the flexural reinforcement was
fully assessed in the experiment. Therefore it was possible to
locate the internal stress resultants. A study of the position.
of the internal forces highlights the difference between the
behaviour of a normal, slender beam, and that of a deep coupling
beam.
With reference to Fig. 6 0 7 the following quantities may
be identified:
T
t
and Tb are the tensile forces induced in the top
and bottom reinforcement respectively as given in i g ~ 6.6.
From T:: T + T = C the position of the total tensile
t b
force, T , is found thus:
T
:: -E. d"
T
The total tensile force, T , generated along the test
beam at various load levels is also presented in Fig. 6 0 8.
Thus at about half the ultimate. load uniform tension (hence.
compression) existed along the beam and at higher loads,
this tension increased further at the centre of the beam
Where, according to conventional theory, it should have been
zero.
i"e"
centre
The
M ::
of
bending moment
PiX
, where x
the beam ..
is known from the app lied load, Pi'
is the distance measured from the
The compression resultant may therefore be located from
P.
z ::.....!.x and
T
89.
The results of the above simple computations, as applied
to Beam 311, are presented in Fig. 6.9. The diagram shows the
position of tensile resultant, T , and the position of the
compression stress resultant, C , along the beam for a number
of load levels. The following points may be noted with respect
to the. cracked beam:
a.) The internal ~ v r arm, Z , is not constant over the
length of the beam. It reduces from a maximum at
the supports to zero at midspan.
b.) The internal lever arm reduces at all sections as
the load increases.
co) The line of thrust, i.e. the line passing through
the positions of the compression stress resultants,
does not appreciably change with the load.
do) It is the change in the position of the tension
resultant which is responsible for the reduction.
of the internal lever arm.. This is brought about by
the gradually increasing tension in the "compression
reinforcement" ..
e.) At a load less than approximately one half of
ultimate, the cracks in the beam have not yet fully
developed. In parts the concrete still carried a small
amount of tension. This was ignored in the computation
but it has influenced the results for the computed
internal lever arm. (See the dotted line for Pi = .. 46 P u)
The variation of the actual internal lever arm at
sections of the maximum moments is expressed in terms of the
theoretical value in Fig. 6. 10. There is a considerable
scatter, but the general trend indicates that at ultimate
load the internal lever arm is only about 65% of the value
predicted by conventional elastic analysis or by ultimate
flexural load theories .. (z at ultimate "Whitney" load is ..
25
0
8 in .. ) It is to be noted that the lever arm, whichhas
been examined above, refers to the total tensile force, T ..
There is also a discrepancy between the stresses in
the .tensile reinforcement (f s = Ttl As or Tbl As ) when
conventional theory and experimental results are compared.
Fig .. 6.11 indicates that the more fully the diagonal craclq;.
develop, iDeo at over 60% of the ultimate load, the more do
the tensile stresses rise above the value predicted by conven-
tional theory at the sections of maximum moments.. The
maximum deviation for Beam 311 was 13% at the premature onset
of yielding ..
6. 1 .. 3 The Behaviour of Stirrup s (# 3)
6.1 .. 3.1 Load-strain relationship.
In previous tests it was found that, because of
the unpredictable formation of cracks, strain measurements
made at midheight of stirrups, do not necessarily supply the
most important information, the value of the largest strain ..
For that reason, in this series of tests, 70 to 85% of the
height of every second stirrup was covered by strain measure-
ments at both sides of the beams. In Beam 311 the main
diagonal crack has nevertheless bypassed the instrumented
length of the first and last stirrup. See Fig. 6
0
4
. Some results of these strain measurements are shown
in Fig .. 6,,12
0
The key diagram indicates the five gauge
positions (numbered 1 to 5) for the five instrumented stirrups
(numbered 5 to 9). The heavy lines indicate the length of
each stirrup over Which the stresses are reproduced in the
other four diagrams of this figure ..
It is to be noted that strains at cracks, particularly
after the onset of yielding, may be considerably larger than
the recorded strains o The latter were obtained by measuring
the elongation over four inch length of a bar.
The load-stress relationship shown in Figo 6 0 12 for
stirrups 5, 6, 7 and 8 clearly show that stresses vary
considerably along each stirrup" . After the development of
diagonal cracks the most highly stres'sed region of each
91.
stirrup occurred where it was crossed by the main diagonal
crack
o
This crack crossed the beam from the lower left hand
to the upper right hand cornero (See Fig. 6.4). Its position
is also sketched on the key diagramo It is most probable that
stresses below gauge point 5 of stirrup 5 were considerably
higher than those indicated by cirve 55.
All load-stress curves confirm the well established
fact that stirrups commence to contribute towards shear
resistance only after they have been crossed by diagonal
cracks. Before the formation of cracks negligible stresses,
often crompression, was detected in the stirrups. From the
sudden change of direction of the curves the diagonal cracking
load could be estimated at 66
K
(v
dc
= 395 p.soL)
6.1
0
3.2& A comparison with the equation of the
American Concrete Institute"
h ~ contribution of stirrups towards shear
resistance in coup ling beams can be better appreciated 1f
this is related to some existing theory or design procedure ..
. 59
For this reason the current AC 1., recommendations will be
considered. These have been derived from a very large volume
of experimental evidence. However, to the writer I s knowledge,
no beams similar to the ones reported here have previously
been examined. It is therefore interesting to study the
applicability of the A.G 1 design procedure with respect
to the shear strength of coupling beams.
The ultimate nominal shear stress which the shear
resisting mechanisms of a reinforced concrete beam, excluding
the contribution of web reinforcement, are assumed to supply
is given by Eq.(17-2) of the AC.I Code;
= (1 9" f 8 + 2500 p V d) ""
.. c . w M 1!1(
92 ..
By substituting the appropriate values for Beam 311
by taking Vd!M conservatively as unity, it is found that
v = 79 po so L When, for the of comparison with actual
c
load, the capacity reduction factor, <r? , is taken as unity,
the shear force resisted by the beam without web
reinforcement is found to be V = 30 0 0 Kips"
c
The contribution of the stirrups at yield is
so that the total ultimate shear force predicted by the code
is
V + V
c s
077 p
u
G 72 pk
u
It was therefore hoped that shear rather than flexure
would govern the ultimate load on the beam ..
V
. c
Generally the view is held that
assesses the diagonal cracking load, which
proportions are capable of sustaining till
conservatively
beams of normal
the ultimate
strength of the web reinforcement is attained.. It is interest-,
ing to observe that, though the actual cracking load was about
twice as much as V the ultimate capacity of the inner
c
stirrups was attained as predicted by the code equation.
The components of the shear resisting mechanism in
beams of normal proportions and without web reinforcement
have been identified and studied by Fenwick ..
60
It was also
postulated
61
that in beams with small shear-span to depth
considerable shear may be supported by arch action,
but only after extensive diagonal cracking
o
One might be
inclined to think that this is mOde of
resistance in these short coupling beams" It will be shown
93"
later that, because of the nature of load application, the ..
cont.ribution of arch action diminishes in these beams as the
load approaches its ultimate value"
It is to be noted that the AC .. I, stirrup equation is
based on the classical truss analogy of Moersch, who assumed
diagonal cracks at 45
0
0
In beq.ms of this series such a crack
would cross 7 stirrups.. In fact the critical crack, leading
to a failure mechanism has formed at angle of approximately
38
0
and has thus encountered 9 stirrups.. On the basis of this
the shear capacity of the web reinforcement is
9
'7 x 83 .. 4
This is 74% of the failure load.. It is of the same order as
the shear force. predicted by the AC"I., equation"
6 .. 1.3,,3 The strain distribution along the
stirrup s.
Contrary to the assumptions of the conventional
truss analogy, the stresses are not uniformly distributed along
the length of a stirrup. By means of bond considerable forces
are absorbed by the surrounding concrete so that generally
the ~ ~ ~ r r u stresses are smallest at the anchorages near the
flexUJ;al reinforcement.. When d.iagonal cracks open the stirrup
strains increase rapidly at these cracks" Fig" 6. 13 shows
the strain distribution for three typical stirrups at various
levels of the loading 0 The position of the major crack,
relative to the stirrup, is also indicated
e
It may be observed
that when yield has occurred at a particular point (see
stirrups 6 and 7) the stresses in the remainder of the stirrup
dortot increase appreciably with the load"
6.1 .. 3.4 The ultimate strength of the web
reinforcement ..
The distribution of strains along stirrups
indicates how the beam approaches the failure condition" The
94.
maximum strains for each stirrup, which occur along the main
diagonal, are shown in Fig. 6 .. 14. These indicate that the
central stirrups are strained at a greater rate than those near
the supports. The strains for the latter stirrups had to be
extrapolated from the graphs of Fig .. 6. 13 .. ,Failure occurred
when these end stirrups too had yielded.
The forces sustained by the instrumented stirrups at the
main diagonal crack at different levels of the loading have
been plotted in Fig .. 6.15. By assuming that the, contribution
of the intermediate stirrups (shown dotted) can be approximated
by linear interpolation, the total strength of the web reinf-
orcement was computed. The area under each graph i,s proport-
ional to the resisting force. ,This total shear force carried
by all the stirrups was then plotted against the applied load
in Fig .. 6.16. The shaded area indicates the fraction of the
load resisted by the web reinforcement. The ,remainder was
resisted by other mechanisms.. The numbers on the small
horizontal lines indicate the percentage of the shear carr,ied
by the nine stirrups at a particular level of the load intens-
ity ..
Strains
6 .. 1 .. 4 .. 1 Compression strains in the uncracked beam.
Horizontal concrete strains were"measured at a
number of points situated along sections passing through the
supports, at quarter points and at midspan of the beam" Two
anq four inchDemecg4uges were used.
The strain distribution at a section passing through
the uncracked compression zone at the support of the beam is
shown in Fig. 6.17.a. The expected non-linear distribution
of the horizontal compression strains and the stress concentr-
ation at the re-entrant corner are clearly recognisable .. , In
this range of the loading the stresses are approximately
proportional to the concrete strains. (See the stress-strain
95.
curve for concrete used in Beam 311 in Fig .. 5.2)" Thus it can
be seen that the maximum fibre stress is about two and a half
times as much as the value predicted by the classical beam
theory. The strains corresponding with the latter have also
been plotted for the sake of comparison.
Much better agreement with the ordinary beam theory is
obtained at the quarter span sections. This is shown in Fig.
6.17 .. b. It is to be noted that the strains in the uncracked
beam are rather small and thus the results are more affected
by inaccuracies of the strain measuring process and the esti-
mation temperature effects. To illuminate this point the
temperature corrections have also been plotted to scale in this
diagram for a number of load levels.
6.1.4 .. 2. Compression strains in the cracked beam.
Considerably more 'difficulty was encountered with
concrete strain measurements after diagonal cracks developed
and crossed a large number of gauge lengths. Many strain
readings became useless.
The results for strain measurements in one half of the
antisymmetricalbeam are shown in Fig. 6.18 f0rload levels
higher than 35% ,of ultimate. The major cracks, which pass
through the particular section, are also sketched. These
measurements have a qualitative value, for they indicate that:
a6) The compression strain distribution is,markedly
different from that predicted by the conventional
theories associated with cracked reinforced concrete
sections ..
b.,) At the support section a kink occurs, in the, strain
pattern. This is probably caused by the "compression
reinforcement" which at this section is in tension.
c.) At quarter span the effect of the reinforcement
is prominent at the "compression edge".. Here the
concrete is in tension or has cracked. Considerable
compression stresses occur at the level of the axis
of the beam"
do) At midspan (point of zero moment) near .... uniform
compression stresses developed after diagonal
cracking had occurred. Near the failure of the beam
96.
these compression stresses exceeded 2000 p" s. 1. Accord-
ing to the theory of homogeneous, isotropic elastic beams,
this section should have been in the state of pure shear.
At the top and bottom of the beam the tension in the
flexural reinforcement dominated the strain,S, so the
concrete has cracked.
For the sake of comparison the line of thrust, as
obtained in Fig" 6 .. 9 by consideration of the steel forces only,
,has been transposed over Fig" 6.18. This is shown by the heavy
line" It indicates that compression stresses at the supports
extended over a considerable depth. This must have necessita-
ted some of the cracks, which penetrated the compression zone
at low loads, to close again after the of,
cracks. There was some evidence for this.
The estimation of the compression force" from the elastic
compressive strains at midspan, gave a satisfactory agreement
with the total steel force, T , (Fig. 6.8) across this section.
(See note in Fig. 6" 18)"
It is to be noted that the principal, inclined compression
strains are larger than those presented in this diagram"
601.5 The Failure Mechanism
From the photograph of the beam, taken at failure,
Fig" 6.4, and from measurements made on the web it is apparent
that the beam was separated into two triangular halves along
the main diagonaL When, for the purpose of study, one half
of this mechanism is separated, as shown in Fig" 6" 19.a .. , the
97 ;
interplay of forces may be examined, by considering the
equilibrium conditions for this free body. The whole external
load, .p ,must be transmitted across the main diagonal crack
u
when failure occurs" This maybe achieved by the following
component forces:
a.) Each stirrup, crossed by the crack, supplies a force
S at yielding" There are nine stirrups involved
in this beam representing the major component of the
10ad,Le . S =: 10S
K
= .74P
u
b.) OWing to the vertical displacement ,of the,twG halves
of the beam dowel forces Dl and D2 may be genera-
ted across the flexural The quamtitative
assessment of these was not attempted in the experiments.
co) It was found that the flexural reinforcement is
subject to moderate tension near ultimate load,
where it projects from the triangular half of the beam.
(See Figo 6,,6L As there is no horizontal load applied
to the beam, a shearing force A must be induced along
the diagonal so as to balance the tensile forces, T*
The three components of the internal resistance are also
shown in a vector diagram along Fig. 6
0
19.a.
Before failure the main diagonal crack was small in: the
vicinity of the flexural reinforcement. This was evident from
stirrup strain and crack width measurements. Therefore
shearing forces (A) could be transmitted across the cracks
in this area by the interlocking of aggregates. In the centre
of the beam the crack becomes so wide that no shearing force
could be expected to be transmitted there by aggregate inter-
locking.
When the last stirrups, near the supports of the
began to yield, the aggregate interlock forca, A , must have
also diminished o The flexural reinforcement was sUbjected to
yield under the action of the dowel forces. Fig" 6.20 shows
98.
a c.lose. .up of one corner of this beam. after failure, viewed
from ... the West" Note the disp lacement of -til studs ..
Under the combined action of the above described components
the triangular cantilever deforms into a shape indicated by the
dotted line in Fig" 6 9 19.a.. A comparison of the shapes of the
two halves of the beam, in .Fig" 6.19.b,offers an explanation
for the distribution of the strains along the stirrups, where
they cross the main diagonal. (See Fig. 6.14). The shape also
suggests that a serious condition of discontinuity is created
for the flexural reinforcement, where this crosses the main
diagonal at the corners of the beam" At these,points, as
detailed separately in Fig. 6. 19"c., the two layers of flexural
bars must follow a I1hinge
ll
rotation. As a consequence of this
the top bars are subject to compre ssion and the bottom bars
to appreciable tension.. These stresses are superimposed upon
the stresses which already exist in the bars. This local
disturbance becomes very marked near failure. The phenomenon
could be clearly observed (in Fig. 6 .. 5) at both affected
corners of the beam.. It was repeatedly confirmed in subsequent
tests"
6" 1.6" 1 Rotations;.
An important piece of informati,on, which these
experiments were expected to supply,was the load-defonnation
characteristic of the coupling beams. From this it was hoped
that an appropriate value of the stiffness could be established
and used in the theoretical predictions such as presented in
Chapter 9.
It was decided that the rotation of the vertical
sections Of the beam proper,at its boundary, should be
related to the lQad. It is to be noted that this rotation
of the boundary section is not equivalent to the rotation
of the tangent to the beam's axis at the boundary. Because
of the shear deformations within the body of the beam proper,
the angle between the tangent to its axis and a plain section
across it, both considered at the boundary, will not be ninety
degrees ..
The desired relationships are:
where
= M/20"
1.
. It was hoped to account for all deformations within the
beam proper and to exclude deformations which occur in the
end-blocks
o
Therefore in the first test specimen a vertical
line adjacent to the boundary of the beam, at Land R ,
was instrumented 0 This procedure failed to give useful
information 0 The boundary section did not remain plain and
the gauge points were excessively affected by cracks, which
propagated past the boundary of the beam into the end blocks.
(Beam 241) 0
It was decided to move the vertical reference line ~ the
horizontal displacement of which was to be measured at three
points - further away from the boundary into a region which'
would not be affected to .;1 g r e ~ t extent by deformations of
the concrete during the test.. A vertical plane passing through
the centre of the end-blocks, at points A and B on Fig" 6 .. 2Lb,
gave a convenient line" There was also access to these points ..
Details of the instrumentation along thisllne were described
in Chapter 50
'.1;0 obtain the. de sired beam rotations, ~ L and ~ R ' ih a
simple way, it was necessary to assume that the end-blocks
behaved as infinitely rigid bodies" The error involved led
to an oVerestimation of the rotational capacity of the beams ..
The overestimation is quite significant in the uncracked state
of the specimen but it diminishes as the stiffness of the beam
10(L
proper, relative to the end-block, is reduced with pro8ressive
cracking.. A quantitative assessment of these assumptions and
the necessary corrections are discussed at the end of this
section.. It must be noted that the error involved is of the
same order for all beams and thus it does not affect the
comparison of the different, load-rotation relationshipsQ
With the aid of Figo 6021 o b the following simple
relationships can be established:
The rigid body rotation of the test specimen, which
was supported at two points from the floor of the laboratory,
was defined as
wbere A A ,and A B were the measured displacements at A and
B
The rotations of the end-blocks, o,A and o,B' were
determined from dial gauge readings.. Thus the rotations of
the end-blocks with reference to the base line A-B could be
obtained;
<P ==
A
and <p =
p,
The disp lacements of the, supports of the beam proper
"
at Land R from the base line are given by
A L == 284? A and A R = 284? B
The desired rotation 'at L is therefore the angle
between the lines AL and LR,
ioe"
4?
== A L + AR
+ 4?
= l"Ai?A+ .. ~ B
L 40 A
Similarly 4?R == 1 0 74? B + 7 4? A
Because the structure is symmetrical the end-block
rotations should have been identical.. However, because of
101.
uneven crack formation and distribution of material properties,
there.was usually a 'small difference between the two rotations.
This has become very large when yielding at one end of the beam
has set in earlier than at the other The phenomenon is
known from the tests of symmetrical continuous steel or
concrete beams"
The load-rotation relationship for Beam based upon
measurements and the above is presented in Fig.
6.22. The load was removed at the end of each day of the
These stages are shown by dotted which also
indicate the permanent deformations. The significant stages
of crack development and the commencement of yielding are also
recorded. These can be related to the shape of the curve.
The rotations of the two ends of Beam 311 were practically
identical.
In order to estimate the effect of end-block deformations
upon the above derived beam rotations, particularly in the
uncracked the deflections of the whole test specimen
were studied
Q
This theoretical examination was based on the
following assumptions:
a.) The principles of the elastic beam
theory app ly 0
be) The applicable bending moments are those defined
along the horizontal axis of the This
allows for a considerable spreading of the externally
applied load and for a corresponding rounding off in
the peak value of the moment. (See Fig. 5 1).
co) At the junction of the beam proper and the
block a 4 inch long (6 in. wide) transition area
exists to which the average moments of inertia of the
beam and the block is
d.) The flexural deformations of 'the end-block, and
the flexural and shear deformations of the beam
proper are significant
102.
This study indicated that the computation based on an
infinitely rigid end-block would overestimate the rotations
of the beam p.roper by 57% when both part s are in the uncracked
state" ,At high load intensities, when the beam proper is
the contribution of the end-block deformations is less
significant
e
The overestimation in this latter case is
The 1,,57 times magnified theoretical beam rotations, which are
comparable with the experimental values, are shown by the
dotted lines in 6&22. In the light of the assumptions
made ( a.) to d.) above) the agreement may be considered as
being
6. The elongation of the beam"
If the length of a rectangular reinforced concrete
beam is measured along its axis at middepth, then it may be
said that all such beams increase their length under load
after The reason for this is the movement of the
neutral axis away from the geometrical The latter is
generally situated at a level where tensile strains prevail.
For slender beams the lengthening isinsignificant.
mode of the load resistance in coupling beams was
sbown (in 6. to be such that after diagonal cracking the
top and the bottom reinforcement was in the state of tension
over the entire span of the beamQ It is thus evident that
the beam must become
The phenomenon becomes more Obvious when the po ion
of the coupling beam is examined in relation to the adjoining
shear walls, as sketched in Fig. 6.23
0
If the coupling beam
is incompre,ssible the two shear walls would have to move
apart by a distance D a. However, to preserve
the beam shortens along the diagonal, shown and
extends in the horizontal direction.
As part of the rotational measurements the elongation
of the specimen between points A and B (see Fig. could
also be determined. The elongation measured this way is
larger than the extension of the beam proper, because it also
includes the extensional deformations in one half of each
end-block
G
It also includes possible slips at the anchorages
of the flexural reinforcement0 An assessment of the contrib-
ution of slip, anchorage deformation and elongation of the
beam proper towards the total measured end-block displacement
is discussed in 6 G 5.3.2.
The (p i -ll H) curve is shown, together
with the load-rotation relationship in Fig. 6.22. The curve
changes its direction at each significant change in the
behaviour of the reinforcement& The curve indicates
more clearly than the load-rotation graph when flexural
cracking commenced.
The P i- LlH relationship was found to give useful
information with respect to the plastic deformations of the
flexural reinforcement.
6h lG6.3 Transverse
The deformed shape of the coupling as
shown in Fig. suggests that after diagonal cracking
considerable deformations would occur also in the transverse
direction
o
This was also confirmed by the fact that the
stirrup strains became large as the failure load was
The elastic stirrup strains extend over a large enough a
height of the beam to suggest that the transverse expansion
of the beam may assume, relative to other type of
signif ic'ant proportions.
To assess the order of magnitUde of this type of
the total elongation of the stirrups between

the outermost gauge points was determined" In Beam 311 the
distance between these points was 20 in", iue. 70% of the
total stirrup length
o
The transverse expansion of the beam
between its edges would be more than what is indicated by
these measurements. This is particularly so near the
supports where the regions of the largest stirrup strains
could not be measured.
The transverse expansion along the beam is shown in
Fig" 6,,24 for a number of load levels" The dotted line
indicates the permanent deformations after 87% of the ulti=
mate load was removed" The regular pattern confirms the
symmetrical behaviour" The total expansion over the full
depth of the beam at stirrups 5 and 9 may well be twice as
much as what is indicated on the diagram. The picture, Fig"
6.24, confirms the positions of the top and bottom edges
relative to each other, as indicated in Fig. 6.23 0 The
transverse expansion at shortly before failure,
could have been approximately 0.10 in"
The load-transverse expansion relationship at mid-span,
Fig" 6
0
25, indicates that very large transverse deformations
occurred during the last stages of the loading. This diagram
very distinctly shows the diag'onal cracking load. It appears
that this is a more reliable way of defining diagonal cracking
than the customary practice of visual inspection" At p, =

,,46P u no cracks could be observed to cross the centre line
of the beam, but three cracks appeared while the load was
being increased to ,,58P a
u
Deflections.
The results of deflection measurements, taken
at 6 centres along the soffit of the beam proper and at
the inner corners of the end-blocks, are shown in Fig" 6,,26 9
From the rotation measurements made on the end-blocks the
vertical movement of any point on these "infinitely rigid"
105.
blocks could be computed. On the right hand support of the
beam a good .agreement was found between these independently
determined quantities of deflections at all load levels. On
the left hand support considerable discrepancy was observed
between the block and beam deflections. (See dotted lines.)
The vertical movements of the lower left hand corner of the
beam are, however, affected by the extensive diagonal cracks
(Fig. 6.4) in this area.
In earlier experiments the complete lack of symmetry
in the deflection curves for the beam proper was responsible
for much concern. It was only that it was realised
that the transverse expansion of the beam could have been
significant and of similar order of magnitude as were the
def lections 0
Measurements taken along the bottom edge of a deep beam
do not represent its deformed shape. If a deflected shape 9
in the terminology of slender flexural can be defined
at all for coupling then it must be related to the
horizontal axis of the beam. It would then be possible to
make a qualitative comparison with deformed shapes of other,
i.ee normal, beams.
To be able to estimate the deformed shapes of the coupling
beamis axis it was necessary to assume conforming with
antisymmetry, the top edge of the beam deformed the same way as
did the bottom edge. This was drawn and the axis was fitted in
between the two edges of the beam. The shape of the axis in
each half of the beam was assumed to be predominated by the
deformation of the triangle (See Fig. 6.19) in which it was
The results of this study are shown for three load
levels in Fig. 6.27, in which the dotted lines indicate the
displacements of the beam's edges and the heavy lines show the
estimated positions of the axis. At the vertical centre line
of the beam the displacements of the edges relative to each

other are somewhat larger than the corresponding transverse
expansions presented in Fig. 6.24. This was to be expected
because transverse expansion measurements covered only 65% of
the beam!s depth.
The "kinks" in the axis of the beam at the supports of
the beam proper indicate that shear deformations predominate
over flexural deformations
e
6 1.7 Crack Formation and Crack Width
As expected, the first cracks formed at the tension
corners of the beam and propagated later in a near vertical
direction. The diagonal cracks developed gradually from flexural
cracks. Only at p, = .70P was the main diagonal crack formed.
u
The holes around the studs for gauge points on the reinforcement
and the stirrups acted as crack initiators. This can be seen in
Fig. 6.4. The horizontal which propagated into the
end-block at the tension corners of the beam at the level of
the # 8 suggest the presence of high bond stresses. These
cracks were only a few inches long. It appears that the 3 feet
anchorage for the flexural reinforcement was ampleq
To complete the study of this beam the width of some
cracks were also measured. The -results can be seen in Fig"
6.28. It may be noted
an) The widest crack is the one along the main diagonal.
This is to be expected from previous observations.
The width of this crack accounts for nearly 70% of the
measured transverse expansion at midspan immediately
before failure.
b.) The minor diagonal cracks do not increase proportion-
ally with the load but maintain a nearly constant
width over a large range of loading. This is consistent
with the strain measurements on the stirrups, as shown
in Fig. 6. 13.
107 "
Co) The width of the steep diagonal crack at the upper
right hand corner of the beam decreased when the load
was approaching its ultimate valueo This is consistent
with the previously (6 0'04.2) recognised enlargement of
the compression area with increased load
o
See 6
0
18 0
6
0
2 Beam 312
This beam was similar to the previously described
Beam 311 except
a
o
) The content of the web reinforcement was increased.
# 4 stirrup s were used.
be) Alternating near=ultimate loading was applied to the
beam in six cycles o
In connection with these tests a "loading cycle" is
defined as a load sequence in which the load is increased by
increments from zero to its maximum and then reduced to zero.
A new cycle commences when the same sequence is fOllowed, usually
with the load being reversed.
The first load cycle was applied the same way as in the
previous test. This load applies anticlockwise moments to both
ends of the beam, when the latter is viewed from the For
the sake of identifying the sense of the loading this cycle is
termed "positive" 0 Thus the crack pattern previously discussed
(Beam 311) corresponds with positive loading. The reversed load
is considered "negative"
. IINear-ultimate" load defines a load intensity which
caused the flexural reinforcement to yield. At this increment
the oil pressure was applied carefully, while the steel strains
were observed with mechanical strain gauges. After yielding
was clearly observed on both sides of the the load was
108
0
not increased any furthero Readings of the instruments
commenced. only after yield or creep deformations have visibly
ceased.
Four days were required to complete the test. Therelevant
data on the loading sequence are summarised in Table 6.11.
The procedure of testing was essentially the same as for
Beam 311 and for this reason only new features are discussed
here.
6.2.201 The distribution of strains.
The distribution of the strains along both layers
of the top and bottom reinforcement are presented for the first
cycle of the loading in Fig. 6.29. At the last increment the
bars in both layers have extensively yielded near the supportso
The strains in the # 8 and # 7, situated in the
"compression zone" of the beam also differ in this beam very
considerably. The cause of this phenomenon was discussed in
601.:5 and was illustrated in Fig. 6.19. The larger stirrups
to some extent, the opening of the main diagonal
crack and thus the strain difference between the two layers
of bars was small<;;'fJ: than in Beam 3110
6.2.2.2 The tension force distribution.
From the mean strains of the four bars of the
top and bottom reinforcement the tensile force was computed
and then plotted in Fig& 6.30. The pattern is similar to
that found for the previous beam, except for the extent of
yielding. It was not restricted to the support section only,
but extended over a length of 8 to 10 inches.
The characteristic shape of these curves, which so
markedly differ from that predicted by conventional beam
theory, (shown dotted in Fig. 6.30) is more fully discussed
in the summary at the end of this chapter.
109"
6 0202,,3 The position of the internal forces"
From the tension force diagrams the total internal
tension was computed at several sections for the_ f.our incre_",_
ments of the first load cycle" This is presented in Fig .. 6
0
3(
The lowest curv.e reflects the true beam where thR
magnitude of the internal forces varies proportionally with
the external moment
o
At high loads, however, the tension
force again in a rather symmetrical fashion, its
maximum. value at midspan, as in Beam 3110 (Compare this with
Fig <> 6" 8)
Using this information the internal forces Were located.
For the three high load levels they are shown in Fig" 6.32"
The lines of thrusts and the lines indicating the position
of the tension resultant lie close to each except
in the .. immediate vicinity of the supports" This suggests
again that the major change in the mode of the internal load
resistance occurs when diagonal cracks developo
At the sections of maximum moments the gradual decrease
of the internal lever arm, Z \I is evident. Figo 6 0 33 shows
this reduction in terms of the theoretical internal lever arm.
The high computed values of z for low loads result from the
tensile resistance of the concrete\l which could not be assessed
in the experiments
o
The crack pattern associated with the steel strains
generated in the first cycle of loading may be seen in Fig"
6 0 34 and Fig" 6 0 35 0
6,,20204 The effect of cyclic loading upon the
flexural reinforcement"
After the first excursion into the postelastic
range it was difficult to assess the magnitude of the steel
stresses, and consequent internal forces, with a satisfactory
degree of accuracy" There are a number of reasons for this.
a
o
) The steel, which yielded at the end of a loading
cyc.1e\ll.was sUbjec.tedto relatively large compression.
immediately after the commencement of the reversed
loading of the new cycle. This occurred because the
concrete was extensively cracked and was thus incapable
of resisting compression forces until these cracks have
closed. Therefore most of the compression, required
for internal moment resistance at the support sections,
had to be supplied at early stages of the reversed load,
by the reinforcement
o
Because of the Bauschinger Effect
the stress-strain relationship for the steel becomes
non=linear already under moderate-loading ..
b
o
) The source of another difficulty, in assessing the mag=
nitude of the steel forces at the critical
arises from excessive cracking in these regionso This
is likely to affect the bond performance of the bars o
It is not so much the slip of a bar, but rather its
movement together with a small lump of concrete
9
bounded
by a number of cracks, which is likely to render the bar
ineffective in transmitting substantial forces to the
Burr oun.ding mass of concrete o Often, after yielding,
a strain difference of up to 2000 microstrains was
observed between two identical bars of the same layer
at the same gauge location.
co) Residual particularly at the critical
sections of the beam were difficult to relate to
a residual stress level because the yield strains could
increase between the time when the strain measurement
was made and the time of the removal of the load
o

creep was often observed in all deformations at near-
ultimate load levelso
These aspects of the behaviour of the reinforcement
diSCOUraged any attempt to determine the tensile forces in the
111 "
elasto-plastic range after a reversal of near ultimate load
intensity.
The steel strains in the centre portion of the beam,
in the vicinity of the "point of contraflexure" remained
largely elastic. Therefore the steel forces could be
determined. They are presented in Fig. 6 0 36. In the left
hanq side of the diagrams the steel force distributions for
the odd numbered, load cycles are shown for three
load levels. On the right hand side of the figure the effect
of the negative, even numbered, cycles is recorded. In all
case.s the mean strain of four bars was considered.
It is evident from these curves that there was a large
increase in the tensile force intensity after the load has
been reapplied the first time in the same direction. This
is particularly so for the lowest load increment, ioeo when
Pi = 22 P tl'" Q Thus there was a large increase in steel
stresses from the 1st to the 3rd and from the 2nd to the
4th cycles o For subsequent repetitions of the loadings
the stresses generally increase by only a small amount. Had
the load not been taken up to intensity at the
end of each it is probable that for a given load the
stresses in this region would have remained sensibly constant
for a large number of load repetitions. The gradual increase
of strains in this test indicated the degree of
which resulted from the reversals of high intensity loading.
The complete load-strain relationships, for all bars
at the centre of the beam, are reproduced in Fig. 6 0 37. They
show a near perfect linear elastic behaviour for all but the
first two cycleso In the first load cycle the sharp kink
indicates the transition from the uncracked into the cracked
state"
On load removal, surprisingly, large residual strains
112.
remained in all bars. The likely reason 'for this is the
inability of the diagonal and the flexural cracks to close.
Along the diagonal cracks, particularly the major one, shear,
displacement occurs. Consequently, when the load is removed,
the rugged faces of the cracks do not fully fit into each
other. Protruding parts of the interlocking small aggregate
particles and later debris, which collects in the large
cracks, may keep the two faces of a crack apart.
At the commencement of the second load cycle the width
of the diagonal cracks is reduced because they cross the line
of diagonal compression. Consequently the residual steel
strains are also reduced until a new crack forms owing to the
negative loading. This second cracking load was always less
than that observed in the first load cycle. After the second
set of diagonal and flexural cracks were fully formed a near
symmetrical elastic behaviour could be observed. (See Fig.
6.37). With two exceptions only little deterioration is
noticeable. The inner layer of, # 7, bars show a greater
degree of stress increase for negative cycles at the bottom
and for positive cycles at the top of the beam. At the last
cycle of loading these inner, # 7, bars yielded at gauge
points 12 and 33 0 Presumably prior to failure yielding in
these bars has spread from the support to the centre of the
beam.
Fig. 6
0
38 shows the strain history of the two layers
of bottom reinforcement at the right hand support of Beam 3120
The yield strain was attained at the end of each positive
c y c l e ~ The first one imposed rather large permanent deforma-
tions. The negative cycles probably impose small compression
on the outer, # 8, bars and tension upon the inner, # ~ bars.
This agrees with the previously observed discontinuity in this
locality" (See Fig. 6.19.cL In the last cycle of the loading,
immediately before failure, both layers in the "compression
zonel! of the beam have suddenly been subject to large tensile
strains. The behaviour of the corresponding reinforcement at
the top of the same section is illustrated by its load-strain
history in Fig. 6.39. The first, positive load cycle imposes
compress.ion, which, after the formation of the main diagonal
crack,changes into tension.. During the negative cycles the.
behaviour of both layers is similar, apart from the different
extents of yielding and consequent residual strains. The
difference in the strain history owing to the "hinge effect"
at the "compression corner" (Fig. 6.19.c), is also evident.
6.2.3 The Behaviour of Stirrups (# 4)
6
0
2.3.' The load-stress relationship in the first
load cycle"
As in the previous beam, the strains along the
central 20 in. lengths of five out of nine stirrups have been
measured. The load-stress relationships for four stirrups
are reproduced in Fig" 6.40 0 The heavy lines indicate the
gauge.localities at which the main diagonal crack crossed
~ h stirrups. In the upper left hand corner of this figure
a key diagram shows the position of the instrumented stirrups,
the gauge pOints and also the main diagonal crack which has
formed during the first (positive) cycle of loading. This
crack just passes beyond the instrumented portion of the
outer stirrups."
The first stirrup began to yield at bout 70% of the
theoretical ultimate load" With increased load this was
followed by yielding of the other stirrup in the middle two
third of the beam. Up till the end of the first loading
cycle, when 92% of the theoretical load was applied, no
yielding was observed in the stirrups adjacent to the
supports. However these stirrups too may have been near
yielding outside the instrumented lengths.
As only four load increments were used in the first cycle
it was not possible to determine clearly the diagonal cracking
114.
load.
The straight line, for each of the four stirrups
described, by Fig .. &,,40, indica.tes an inte:rpretation bfthe
A C I Code. It is to be noted that for each of the three
inner instrumented stirrups yield occurred at a lower load
than that indica ted by the A C I equation. (See 6" 1 3" 2) 0 The,
mean strain for the whole stirrup agrees well with the AC I
requirements. This finding indicates the importance of using
small gauge lengths over the maximum possible extent of the
instrumented stirrups.
6.2.3.2 The strain distribution along stirrups
in the first load cycle"
The strain distributions along four stirrups are
shown in Fig. 6.41 "for three increments of the first load
cycle. They confirm the previously observed pattern. The
yield is first attained at a point where the major diagonal
crack crosses the stirrup. The approximate position of these
cracks is also sketched in the diagram.
6&2.3.3 The strength of the web reinforcement.
The largest forces, which were developed across
the main diagonal crack in eac1;1 pair of stirrup legs at
different increments of the first load cycle, are plotted in
Fig. 6.42. By assuming that stresses in the intermediate
s t r r u p s ~ which have not been instrumented, can be estimated
from linear interpolation in this diagram, the total shear
force resisted by the web reinforcement across the main
diagonal crack can be assessed" The total steel force is
plotted against the applied load in Fig. 6.43 Q The shaded
area represents the resistance of the stirrups and the
remainder of the triangular area represents the contribution
of the concrete mechanisms. At approximately 70% of the
theoretical ultimate load the web reinforcement appears to
have carried all the shear forces. The curve may be compared
with that derived from Beam 311 and shown in Fig" 6.16
0
6,,2.3
0
4 The behaviour of stirrups during
cycle loading"
As was the case with the flexural reinforcement,
the behaviour of the stirrups during a reversal of the load-.
ing was more difficult to observe" Particularly at the
major diagonal crack, where yielding occurred, it was not
possible to assess with sufficient accuracy the stirrup
force sustained during subsequent cycles e For this reason
the load-strain (not stress) history is presented for three
typical stirrups at two or three significant gauge points.
(For the location of these refer to the key diagram of
Fig. 6 0 40L
To enable the behaviour of the stirrups during cyclic
loading to be better appreciated the crack pattern of the
beam should be examined first. Fig. 6.44 shows the beam
after the first increment of the second load cycle. The
new cracks began to cross the others at the lower left and
upper right hand corners. During the subsequent increment
numerous other diagonal cracks crossed the beam. Very few
new cracks developed, however, in the following cycles
because additional load reversals caused existing cracks
to close or open, according to their orientation. Fig.
6.45 shows the beam at the last increment of the 5th cycle.
Apart from a number of secondary cracks this was how
the beam appeared already at the end of the 2nd cycle.
Fig. 6,,46 illustrates the behaviour of the central
stirrup (No
e
7) Gauge point 73 is crossed by the main
diagonal crack extending from the upper left to the lower
right hand corner. Accordingly the stirrup at this gauge
point is mainly affected by negative loading. (Full lineso)
The opposite holds for the other (74) gauge point (Dotted
lines.) The difference is particularly demonstrated in
116"
the first two cycles. Yield occurred in the stirrup at the end
of each cycle at least at one but sometimes at both of tha.
central gauge points. The accumulated residual strains after
five load cycles are quite considerable, i.e. 5,000 to 10,000
microstrains o
The strain history for stirrup No.8, situated approximat-
ely C),t quarter span, is presented in Figo 6 0 47. The major
diagonal crack formed by positive loading crossed the stirrup
at point 82., The critical point for negative loading is at
gauge 85
0
However already during the second cycle yield has,
also set in at the centre of the stirrup, at gauge point 84 .
At the beginning of some cycles the stirrup was subject to
compression but with increased load tension again predominated
at each of the gauge points.
Because of the absence of Bauschinger Effects, these
load-strain curves can be better related to stresses than
similar curves for the flexural reinforcement
o
The behaviour of stirrup No.9, situated at the boundary ;
of the beam, is presented in Fig., 6 0 48 0 Strains at the top
and the bottom of the stirrup (92 and 96) may be compared with
those induced at its centre (94). It is interesting to note.
that after two cycles of near ultimate loading this stirrup
has also yielded at midheight of the beam where it was crossed
by a {3teep secondary diagonal crack. (See Fig. 6 0 45)0 This
suggests that considerable movement in the vertical direction
must have occurred at this steep crack.
To enable the gradual increase of the strains along the
stirrup s to be observed as the loading progressed, the strain
distribution for four stirrups is plotted in Fig. 6.49 and
Fig. 6 0 50. These strains occurred at the end of each cycle
when the load intensity was of the order of .of its
theoretical ultimate valUe. The location of the major diagonal
which are primarily responsible for the yielding of
117.
the stirrups, are also sketched across the base line of ea.ch_
diagram. It is interesting to note that, because of the
absence of a crack, at gauge location 64, strains remained
elastic throughout the test o The same phenomenon occurred
at gauge point 95. These small crack free areas are cl,early
visible ob Fig. 6 0 45.
6.2.4 Concrete Strains
In the previous test a very large number of gauge
points became useless because cracks interfered. For this
reason no gauges were provided for concrete strain measurements
during the first cycle of the loading. However, after the cracks
had fully developed at the end of the first cycle, gauge points
were attached to the concrete between the cracks at inclinations
which were approximately parallel to the axis of the compression
struts formed between two cracks. The gauge points can be
seen when Figo 6 ~ 5 and Fig. 6.44 are compared. The four load
increments of the first cycle were then reapplied and the
resulting concrete compression strains were recorded.
The mean strain obtained from readings on both sides of
the beam are presented for five sections across the beam in
Fig" 6.51. Because of the random nature of the crack f-ormation,
the strain pattern does not conform well with the antisymmetri-
cal load pattern. At the upper right hand corner, where the
diagonal compression strut is narrower than at the diagonally
opposite corner, the strains are approximately 50% higher.
The stresses which correspond to these strains are also recorded.
at significant points" At the most highly stressed diagonal-
gauge the compression stress was approximately 87% of the
cylinder strength when 92% of the theoretical ultimate load
was app lied"
At both sides of the vertical centre line of the beam
near uniform diagonal compression strains were generated.' At
the highest load level the corresponding stresses were in
excess of 2,000 pos
o
i .. in this region.. The line of
as computed from steel forces, Fig. 6
0
32, is also shown in
Fig .. 6 .. 51 for one load incremento
Because the load was applied to a beam, which was already
cracked, the load-strain relationship is nearly linear. For a
number of gauge points the "load-diagonal compression strain"
relationship is shown in Fig .. 6 0 520
It may be shown from first principles that the diagonal
compression stresses in a cracked beam are twice as large as
the average shear stresses, v, if the computation is based
on the truss analogy of vertical stirrups and 45
0
compression
struts. This theoretical relationship is also shown, by the
,;., dotted line, in Fig .. 6,,52.. Leonhardt and Walther
63
have
closely examined the intensity of diagonal compression in the
web of normal beams.. They found that these stresses were
invariably in excess of 2v.. It is believed that in the
statically highly indeterminate lattice the concrete struts,
being considerably stiffer than the stirrups, attract more
load. Mayer
64
found the corollary to this by observing in
his test beams that heavier stirrups accepted proportionally
higher forces in otherwise identical beams when subjected to
the same load.. This observation could not be confirmed with
certainty in this test series.
A reasonable agreement exists with this theory
only at the midspan section of Beam 312. In Chapter 9 an
explanation is offered by showing that the analogous truss
of coupling beams radically differs from Morsch's model.
6.2 .. 5 Deformations
6 e 2 .. 5 .. 1 Rotations.
From measurements of the end-block displacements
the rotations of plane sections passing through the boundaries
of the coupling beams were computed as described previously ..
From the load-rotation relationship obtained rat:' the three
loading cycles in each direction, as shown in FiS. 6.53, the
following observations may be made:
a.) The curves indicate a reasonably symmetrical
behaviour, i.e. the ratations at the wL ,
and right hand, , of the beam are very simi lar.. The
differences originate mainly from the somewhat larger
yield of the flexural reinforcement at the right hand
support, near ultimate load.. It was pointed out earlier
that these plastic deformations are extremely sensitive
to small variations of materia 1 properties, beam geometry
or eccentricity of the loado
b.) With subsequent load cycles the right hand support
shows a more pronounced deterioration. This is
indicated by a larger lass of stiffness at that end and
by larger yield rotations.
c G ) During the first cycle of loading, the onset of
cracking and the yielding af the reinforcement can
clearly be observed
o
do) A marked reduction of the stiffness may be observed
immediately after the commencement of the loading
in the second cycle, Le. reversed loading. This is
due to the fact that flexural and diagonal cracks, which
developed during the previous load cycle
t
need first be
closed .before flexural or diagonal compression stresses
can be generated in the beam.
eo) The elastic recovery upon load removal, as indicated
by the near parallel straight shows that
considerable permanent deformations occurred already
after the first and second cycles of loading. It was
impossible to separate the permanent distortions caused
by flexure (yielding of the main reinforcement and plastic
;20.
concrete deformations in the compression zone), or by
shear (yielding of the stirrups and distortions of the
diagonal concrete struts), and by bond (slips in the
body of the beam and possibly at the anchorages)o
f.) An unusual feature of the load-rotation curves for
all subsequent load cycles is the very gently
sloping portion between Zero load and approximately
40 Kips" This indicates that very large deformations
occur immediately after the commencement of the loading.
The flexural and diagonal cracks are being closed only,'
gradually and a subsequent "hardening" of the beam
be obserVed .. Between approximately 30% and 75% of the'
theoretical ultimate load a linear elastic behaviour
becomes apparent. In this range the loading and
unloading curves (3rd to 5th cycles) are approximately.
parallel. In the last (6th) cycle of the loading very
large rotations occurred before the beam could signif
cantly engage in load resistance. The large diagonal
cracks, i.e .. stirrup strains, were primarily responsible
for this behaviour.
Unfortunately, the large yield rotations in the final
cycle, prior to failure, could not be followed because
of the hydraulic loading system.
6.2 .. 5
0
2 The variation of stiffness.
From the changing slope of the load-rotation
shown in Fig. 6.53, the gradual loss of the
beam
1
s stiffness is evident. This changing of the stiffness
with the progress of loading is quantitatively expressed more
clearly in Fige 6.54"
The curve, indicating the variation of stiffness during
the first load cycle (marked 1), shows that after cracking
the stiffness is abruptly reduced to about one fifth of its
original valueo It is to be noted that the experimental
12L
determination of the stiffness of the uncracked section is
uncertain in this particular testo In the first increment
the load was brought to a level where a few flexural >
have already appeared. (Fig. 6.34). Several increments would
have been required at lower loads to determine the stiffness
in this range more accurately.
It was mentioned in 6. 1.6Q 1 that a good agreement exists
between the measured values of the stiffness of the uncracked
beam and the theoretical ones. This theoretical load-rotation
relationship, shown also by a straight line in Fig. 6.53, was
used to define the of the uncracked beam in Fig. 6.54.
The reduced stiffness of the cracked beam was maintained
during the first load cycle until the load reached approximately
75% of the theoretical ultimate intensity. After this, with
the onset of yielding, the stiffness rapidly diminished
o
The.
stiffness indicated by the unloading at the end of the cycle.
is shown dotted.
Curve 2 shows an immediate reduction of stiffness upon
load reversal until a steady value is attained.
During the subsequent cycles Fig. 6
0
54 indicates three
distinct load ranges in which the stiffness varies in different
a o ) A'hardening" range When the stiffness increases. This
is associated with the closure of cracks.
b,,) A II s teady" range where the stiffness is approximately
constant. This represents linear elastic behaviour.
ct A "softening" range where the stiffness is observed
to decrease. Plastic concrete deformations and
yielding of the reinforcement is responsible for this.
Generally the stiffness was found to gradually decrease
with each repetition of loading. The same observation applies
to the stiffness associated with unloading, as shown by the
122.
dotted lines in Fig. 6.54.
The stiffness of the beam durin? positive loading (odd
numbered curves) is somewhat larger than during the negative
cycles of loading (even numbered curves). This is likely to
be due. to the formation of the cracks during the second cyi'cle
of the which was influenced by the existing set of
cracks formed during the first load cyclee
Fig. 6 .. 54, which is based on the average rotation of the,
two ends of the beam, gives a good picture of the effect of
high intensity cycLic loading upon the rate of deterioration in
coup ling beams.
6,,2.5
8
3 The elongation of the beam.
During the loading in both directions the end-
blocks of the test specimen gradually moved further apart.G It
will be shown later the major part of this movement is
<:
due to the elastic and plastic elongation of the beam proper ..
The elongation increases with the extension of the top and.
bottom reinforcement, which was generally found to be subjected
to tension over the whole length of the beame
The behaviour and properties of Beams 311, 312 and 313
are very similar. For this reason the load-beam elongation
relationships for all three beams are presented together in
Fig .. 6.55. The curves for Beam 312 (full line) show clearly
that at the end of each cycle a permanent elongation was
imposed upon the beam. With the exception of the first load
cycle this permanent deformation was approximately equal to
the yield that occurred at the end of a part,icular cycle" The
I
stages of cracking and onset of yielding identically appear
in all 1st cycle curves. Immediately before failure the
elongation in Beam 312 was approximately inch"
6.2,,5.4 Transverse expansion.
In Beam 311 the transvers(3 expan'sion was assessed
from the elongation of the stirrups over 20 in length only ..
In this beam two additional gauge points were provided from
steel to concrete, at each instrumented stirrup. This enabled
the transver.se expansion to be determined over 28 in length,.
i.e. more than 90% of the overall height of the beam. Practic-
ally all the transverse strains occur within this depth.
Measurements have been made at all load increments, but
I they are reproduced in Fig. 6.56 for the 1st, 2nd and the 6th
cycles of the loading only.
The symmetrical distortions during the first cycle of
loading are apparent. They are very similar to those obtained
for the previous beam (311). However, they are., smaller because
of the presence of heavier web reinforcement.
In the second cycle of loading it is noticeable that
the beam deteriorated more in the right hand half of the span.
This is also evident from the observed strain distribution
along stirrups 8 and 9, shown in Fig. 6.50. The very large
transverse expansion (over ~ in.) near the support was
measured in the last (6th) cycle of the loading. Fig. 6.57
shows this half of the beam after failure.
The progress of transverse expansions at stirrups Nos
o
~ 7 and 9 are shown for the whole loading sequence in Fig.
6.58
0
6.2.5
0
5 Deflections.
The displacement of the bottom edge of the beam
was measured with dial gauges, as described previously. The
results are shown in Fig. 6.59 for four increments of the
first two load cycles. The rotations of the end blocks were
determined independently.
The problems associated with the determination of the
deformed axis of the beam were discussed in connection with
Beam 311. In this beam no assumption was made with respect
2 4 ~
to the. position of the top edge. The transverse expansions,
obtaine.d over 90% of the depth of the beam, were simp.Ly added
to the line representing the deformed soffit of the beam. Thus
the outline of the top and bottom edges were obtained as shown
in Fig . 6,,60. Only the highest load increments for .the first:
two cycles are shown in this diagram. The commencement of the
deterioration of the right hand half of the beam at the end
of the .. second cycle is noticeable. The e"Stimated shape of the
deformed axis is shown by the full lineo Considerations which
were dis.cussedin connection with Beam 311 formed also the basis
of the construction.
The pronounced shear deformations of the coupling beam
are evident from this diagram (Fig. 6.60).
The behaviour of Beams 312 and 313, both subjected
to cyclic loading, is very similar. The details of the failure
mechanism, which are distinctly different from those observed
in Beam 311, are discussed later in 6.3.5.
6.3. 1 Loading and Testing Procedure
The third beam of this series differed from the
previous ones in two respects;
a
o
) the stirrup size was increased to # 5
b.) the concrete strength was unintentionally higher4
It was intended to repeat the load program as applied
to Beam 312 with the exception that after the third cycle the
load would have had to be slightly increased so as to impose
upon the beam large flexural plastic rotations. It was
intended to observe the effect of large flexural yielding
upon shear strength in the presence of heavy web reinforcement.
125 ..
The lop.d, which did produce large yield strains in the flexur.aL
reinforcement, was maintained for some 20 minutes at the eOO_. __
of which all dial gauges and spot readings of Demec gauges
became nearly stable. Then suddenly yielding commenced again
and accelerated. Before the oil pressure could be reduced
the beam failed. The three cycles of loading however did
furnish some useful information ..
The relevant data for this beam and its loading sequence
are summarised in Table 6 01110
6. 0 3.2 The Behaviour of the Flexural Reinforcement
6.3
0
2.1 The distribution of strains.
The distribution of strains for both layers
of the top and bottom reinforcement are shown for all three
cycles of the loading in Fig .. 6 0 61, Fig. 6
0
62, and Fig" 6 0 63.
The first of these, showing the strain distribution in the
first cycle of the loading, enables a comparison to be made
with the previously described beams. The strain patterns for
all beams of this series are also compared in the summary, at
the end of this chapter, (6.5).
It is noticeable that at higher load levels and after
the reversal of the loading the inner layer of bars (#7) show
a more unsteady pattern than the bars of the outer layer (# 8).
The points of low strain readings for the inner (# 7) bars
happen to coincide with those gauge lengths at the centre of
which a welded stirrup stud is located.
In the second, but particularly in the third cycle of
loading, the strains at the inner layer of (# 7) reinforcement
became considerably higher at each load increment.. At the
maximum load of each ~ l e the flexural tension reinforcement
yielded at the supports. The resulting permanent strains were
considerable. This is also apparent in Fig" 6.63 where the
permanent tensile strains in the compression zones of the
126"
beam are indicated"
The large permanent tensile strains observed in the
compression zones of the beam, after load reversal, would
suggest that the cracks, previously formed, could not fully
close in the vicinity of these yielded bars. Therefore one
would expect that the flexural reinforcement would have to
carry considerable compression forces.
The strain history of the flexural reinforcement at the
right hand support of the coupling beam indicates that at
gauge .points 23 and 24 small compression forces were indeed
presen.t during the second load cycle.. This may be seen in
Fig. 6
0
640 Because of Bauschinger Effects it is difficult
to assess the magnitude of these compression forces. Observa-
tion of the beam showed however that even the widest cracks,
which. formed during the first cycle of the loading, have
clos.edduring the second cycle. Indeed they must have closed
the large (diagonal) compression forces could not
have been transmitted.
6.3
0
2.2 The position of the internal forcesQ
It is probable that, because of the large tensile
strains imposed upon the reinforcement during the last load
increment of the first cycle (P. = .93P*), the concrete
u
surrounding these yielded bars could not effectively resist
compression in the second load cycle. After the closure of
the cracks the concrete in the immediate vicinity of the
yielded bars was probably subject to small compression strains
only. Thus the compression strain distribution across a
support section during the second load cycle is likely to be:
different from the pattern observed on the previous beams.
(See Fig. 6.18 and Fig. 6.51).
The centre of the compression at the supports is likely
to move towards the centre of the beam where yielded rein-
forcement does not interfere with the development of concrete
127"
compression strains,. The probable situation is expressed
qualitatively in Fig. 6
9
65. The consequence of the movement
of the compression resultant, C' , is a smaller internal
lever arm, z2 0
The top diagram of Fig .. 6.62 may be considered as
for this phenomenon" The tensile (top) reinforcement
near the right hand support was subject, in the second load
cyc1.e, to considerably higher strains than to what it would
have been during a first cycle loading of the same sense.
The reinforcement, at gauges 21 and 22, began to yield when
the load was only 74% of the theoretical ultimate.. At this
load intensity stresses at the equivalent locality during the
first cycle were of the order of 36,000 p .. s.i. only.
6 .. 3
0
2 .. 3 Load-strain relationship ..
. Fig" 6.66 compares the load-strain relationship
of the tensile reinforcement at the supports during the first
and second cycles of the loading. In all cases the mean
strain for the four bars was considered. The load-strain
curve for gauge points 1 and 2 runs close to the theoretical
line (shown dotted), which was based on a constant internal
lever arm of 25 inches. After the first load cycle this
steel showed a mean permanent set of 3400 microstrains upon
load removal. This affected the surrounding concrete in
the second cycle and contributed towards a reduction of the
internal lever arm. Therefore the steel, which operated on
this reduced internal lever arm at .gauges 43 and 44, was
subject to higher strains, as indicated by the heavy dotted
line in 6
0
66.
Similarly yielding of the reinforcement in the first
cycle, at gauge locations 23 and 24, has affected the perform-
ance of the steel at gauges 21 and 22 during the second
cycle of the loading.. The effect in this case was much larger
because the permanent mean set at the end of the first load
128"
cycle was 8800 microstrains at gauge points 23 and 24. (Also
see Fig" 6 0 64).
The cracks, to which reference was made previously, may
be examined. on the photographs which show this beam at various
stage.s. of .the loading. See Fig. 6.67, Fig. 6.68, Fig., 6,,69
and Fig" 6" 70 g
6,,3 .. 3 The Behaviour of the Stirrups (:# 5)
6
0
3.3
0
1 The load-stress relationship in the first
load cycle ..
In order to enable stirrup strains to be measured
also in the immediate vicinity of the flexural reinforcement,
the gauge points in this beam were slightly rearranged" Six
four inch gauge lengths were provided, instead of five, at
both sides of the beam for every second stirrup. This is
shown in a key diagram at the upper left hand corner of Fig.
6 0 71.
From the load-stress relationship for four stirrups
shown in this figure it is evident that during the first
cycle of loading all stirrups performed in a similar manner,
and that the stresses remained well within the elastic limit.
The four graphs, shown for each stirrup, represent the gauge
lengths which were stressed most highly. They also include
the gauge at which the major diagonal crack crossed the
stirrup" The stresses at these latter gauges are shown by
the heavy lineso Contrary to the observations made on the
previous beams, stresses at these distinguished points do not
exhibit particular features., This suggests that, with the
generous provision of web reinforcement, the failure mechanism
changes"
It is also apparent that the stresses vary considerably
along the stirrups" Surprisingly, however, the mean stress
lies close to the line which represents the AC I relationship.,
Some gauge lengths were crossed by diagonal cracks at the
129"
second load increment, some others were crossed only after the
third incremento The increments were too far apart to allow
the diagonal cracking load to be determined more accurately"
From the point of view of this investigation, however, the
diagonal cracking load has nO particular significance.
60 3 .. 3 .. 2 The strength of the web reinforcement o
For the sake of a comparison the performance of
the stirrup,s, at points where these crossed the major diagonal
crack",nas a,lso been studied.. The forces resisted by each
pair of instrumented stirrup legs are plotted in Fig" 6 .. 72 ..
A rather regular pattern ensues, which is consistent with the
previously described behaviour of the two triangular halves
of the beamo (Fig .. 6
0
19). The contribution of a'll stirrup s
crossing the main diagonal is plotted against the load in
Fig. 6.73
0
From this it may be seen that over about 125 K.
applied load these stirrups resist an equal or larger force.
Because the strength of all stirrups is larger than
the possible maximum external load, the failure mechanism,
associated with the separation of the beam along the major
diagonal, can not develop.
The curve suggests a diagonal cracking load of approx-
imate ly 80 K (v dc = 476 p .. s" L )
6,,3,,3,,3 The behaviour of stirrups during cyclic
loading"
The full strain history of each of the instru-
mented stirrups during the three cycles of loading is shown
in Fig. 6.74 and Fig" 6.75. For the sake of brevity, only
the most highly stressed gauge lengths for each of the
stirrups is reproduced.
A comparison of the behaviour of the five stirrups
shown in these two figures shows clearly that the beam
deteriorated more rapidly towards the right hand support"
130"
In the ... left. hand. half of the beam the stirrups. in
the.elastic range during all three load cycles.
Residual stirrup stresses, after the removal of the
loading,remained at the level of 7500 p .. s.L The corres-
pondinK c,ompression forces in the concrete must have been
tranmitted across the cracks by interlocking aggregate parti-
cles.. It was frequently observed, particularly at high load
intenSities, that a shear displacement occurred. This is a
movement of one face of a crack relative to the other in the
direction.of the crack.. Upon load removal the two rugged
forces of a crack could not fully fit into each other because
of permanent shear displacements. The protruding aggregate
particles are likely to prevent the full closure of the crack
and are thus responsible for the relatively high stirrup
stresses at no load. Fenwick
60
measured such shear displace-
ment along diagonal cracks formed in normal beams. After
repeated alternating loading sometimes debris could also be
observed in the cracks.
The considerably larger plastic deformations of the
flexural reinforcement at the right hand end of the beam
(Fig. 6.64) had a marked effect upon the performance of the
stirrups in this region. At the end of the second (negative)
load cycle, large yielding occurred at the upper right hand
corner of the beam. Also shear displacements developed along
this wide vertical crack, which joined up with its counter-
part formed during the previous load cycle .. (See Fig. 6 .. 68).
When the third (positive) load cycle was applied, this wide
crack across the top of the beam closed again but considerable
local crushing and pulverization occurred after the two
rugged faces of the crack have met o This area was still
capable of transmitting compression forced during the subse-
quent loading, but it could not transmit the high shearing
forces without Thus the remainder of the beam,
131.
situated above and to the left of the two steep diagonal cracks,
which run towards this compression corner (see Fig. 6.69 and
Fig. 6.70) was permitted to move upwards. This movement
immediately engaged a few and clearly insufficient number of
stirrup,s. Consequently they yielded across the steep cracks.
The clo.seinterplay of the flexural and shear reinforcement is
further discussed in connection with the failure mechanism of
the beam.
6.3.3.4 The strain distribution along the
stirrups ..
The strain distributions over the full instrumen-
ted length 04 in.) of the stirrups are shown for the last
increment of each of the three load cycles in Fig. 6.76. In
the left hand half of the beam near uniform stresses were
observed along the stirrups. With the use of heavier stirrups
(# 5) this was to be expected.
The extent of yielding at the right hand support, at
stirrup No
o
9, indicates that considerable shear displacements
must have occurred across the compression zone of the beam"
6.3.4.1 Rotations.
The load-rotation relationship shown for all three
load cycles in i g ~ 6.77 confirms the previous observation
that the right hand end of the beam was sUbjected to larger
plastic deformations. Apart from these different yield
deformations, the behaviour of the two ends of the beam was
very similar. As a result of the larger yielding of the
flexural reinforcement at the right hand support, there was a
correspondingly larger loss of stiffness at that end of the
beam. The graphs will be further discussed when they are
compared with curves of other specimens of this series.
6.3
a
4
0
2 The variation of stiffness.
The variation of the mean stiffness of the beam
with alternating loading is shown in Fig. 6.78. The dramatic
loss of stiffness immediately after the formation of flexural
and diagonal cracks is again apparent. With one exception,
the features of these curves are similar to those presented'
for Beam 312 in Fig. 6.540 In this beam there was a continual
loss, of stiffness right through the second loading cycle. The
number of repetitions of the loading were unfortunately insuff-
icient to supply adequate information with respect to the loss
of stiffness owing to high intensity alternating loading. It
is certain that the stiffness in the steady range during the
third cycle was no mote than one-sixth of the stiffness of
the beam proper in the uncracked state.
6 0 3
0
4.3 The elongation of the beam.
The movements of the end-blocks relative to each
other, which were defined as the beam's elongation, were very
similar to those measured in the previous tests. They are
shown in Fig. 6.55. It is evident that the increased amount
of web' reinforcement had no appreciable effect upon the
elongation of the flexural reinforcement.
6.304.4 Transverse expansion.
It was observed previously that the overall
performance of the web reinforcement can be conveniently
studied by measuring its total elongation, i.e. the transverse
expansion of the beam. In this beam this was carried out
over 24 in. length, which corresponds to 77.5% of the depth
of the beam or 86% of the stirrups I length. Fig. 6.79 shows
the results for Beam 313. The dotted lines marked .00
indicate the permanent deformations produced after the removal
of the last increment of the previous load cycle.
The elastic behaviour during the first two load cycles
133 ..
and the deterioration over the right hand half of the beam
during the third one is evident from the three diagrams ..
When comparing this figure with other transverse expan-
sion diagrams, it should be noted that a different scale was
used"
6.3,,4 .. 5 Deflections ..
The information on deflections, previously presen-
ted in two figures, has been combined into one for this beam.
Fig. 6 .. 80 shows the deformations for three stages of the load-
ing during the first cycle, and for two stages of the second
load cycle.. The lower lines for the beam proper were obtained
from dial gauge measurements along the soffit of the beam"
The sloping top lines were found by adding the previously
determined transverse expansions of the beam to the bottom
lines.. These two lines give thus the general deformed shape
of the beam at various stages of the loading. Between these
the estimated position of the deformed axis of the beam is
drawn with a heavy line"
A particular feature of this diagram is the discrepancy
between the positions of the right hand end of the beam, as
determined from measurements on the beam proper, and the
positions found from the of the end-block" It was
mentioned previously that considerable shear displacements
can occur in the compression zone of a beam. This zone was
seriously disturbed by a wide crack during the previous load
cycle" The phenomenon may also be termed a "shear slip" as
indicated on Fig" 6 .. 80.. Measurements showed that at the end of
the third load cycle this "shear slip" at the right hand
support was of the order of '/10 in ..
It is also interesting to note that the estimated axis
of the beam proper is only slightly deformed relative to the
overall deformations of the structure. At high load increments
ioe .. at P. = 088 to ,,92p* , the yielding of the flexural
u
134"
steel undoubtedly accounts for a considerable portion of the_
abrupt angular change at the beam - end-block junction.. How . ..,
ever at the lower increments, i .. e. P. = .53 to Q 7 4 P ~ ~ all
1 u
reinforcement performed elastically and therefore the flexural
behaviour of the beam can not account for the angular discon-
tinuities at the supports, which resemble the features of
"plastic hinges". It is the predominance of shear deformations
in the beam proper which is responsible for this behaviour ..
The distortions caused by shear and the effect of shear
force.s upon the stiffness of coup ling beams is discussed in
Chapter 9"
6,,3.5 The Failure Mechanism
The failures of Beams 312 and 313 clearly differed
from that of Beam 311. The latter was separated along the main
diagonal into two equal halves because of the failure of the
web reinforcement. In this beam, however, the strength of the
stirrups, crossing the main diagonal, was well in excess of
the flexural capacity of the main reinforcement. It is doubt-
ful whether the load on the beam could have been increased
much further at the end of the first cycle. At 93% of the
theoretical ultimate the tension steel at both supports had
already yielded. The decreasea internal lever arm would not
have permitted much increase over that (93%) load level ..
The effect of load reversal upon the condition of the
concrete in the compression zone was pointed out previously.
It is believed that the permanent shear displacements produced
in one cycle are largely responsible for the destruction of
the concrete during a subsequent load cycle, When the cracks
passing across the compression zone are being forcibly closed.
This destruction of the concrete along near vertical cracks
must reduce the shear transfer capacity of an area where high
intensity diagonal compression prevails. A few stirrups
passing through the compression zone and the dowelling action

of the main reinforcement will counteract, to a certain extent,
a Itshe.ar displacement" or "shear slip". Fig. 6 0 57 and Figo 60 70
both indicate that the beam tends to separate along a near
vertical crack.. Consequently very few, if any, stirrups can
assist in shear transfer. The excessive yielding of the
instrumented stirrup, adjacent to the support section, was
invariably observed in all beams which failed in this manner.,
The beam (313) possesses the features of a flexural
failure., However, dowel displacements, the yielding of outer
stirrups and the visible shear displacements along cracks
indicate._ .. that the high shear force is primarily responsible
for the .de.struction of the compression zone ..
In some beams crushing of the concrete due to sliding,
in some others a diagonal compression failure and consequent
lateral bursting of the compression zone was more prominent.
6., 3.5 The Repl!ired Beam (1313)
Visual inspection of Beam 313, after its failure,
revealed that the area near the left hand support showed no
signs of serious distress.. Strain measurements made on the
reinforcement in this area, and eva luated much la'ter, confirmed
this.. The stirrup s had not yie lded and the maximum strain,
which occurred prior to failure in the flexural reinforcement,
Was of the order of 5000 microstrainsa
The failure, which occurred at the right hand support,
can be seen in Fig .. 6 0 81 to have been to a relat-
ively narrow vertical band of the beam proper .. *
It was decided to repair this and to it to
failure.. For reference purposes the specimen weJ,s labelled
BEAM 1313.
This picture shows the comp lete te st frame with both 100
Tons capacity jacks in position. Note that the view is
from the West.

The beam was left in the test frame and in this position
the heavily cracked and crushed concrete was removed until the
clean reinforcement was exposed.
this stage is shown in Fig .. 6.82.
The close up of the beam at
A slight kink in the
flexural reinforcement is noticeable. This resulted from the
uehear slip" which occurred along the near vertical failure
crack"
The formwork was attached to both faces of the beam by
means of clamps and the new concrete was placed through very
small gaps left between the top bars, and between the bars
and the formwork. Similar difficulties of construction would
be encountered if the repair of the coupling beams in a real
shear wall structure would have to be attempted.
Necessarily a concrete with a suitable workability was
required 0 The size of the coarse aggregate was 3/8 to 3/16 ina
The ratio was 0 0 375, so that, with the use of
2% Calcium Chloride, a cylinder strength at the time of the
test - four days after placing this concrete - of 6180 posai o
could be attained. This was a little less than the strength
of the concrete in the remainder of the beamo
the rotations of the were measured
during the testa The load was brought up in small increments
till failure occurred
o
Surprisingly the failure load (176
0
0 K)
was 10% higher than the theoretical ultimate and 22% higher
than the previous failure load
o
The failure occurred at the
other, damaged end of the beam" The form of the failure crack
was very similar to that observed in the first failure ..
Lateral bursting of the concrete indicated that high compre-
ssion stresses existed at the lower left hand corner of the
beamo The view of the repaired beam after failure is shown
in Fig o 6.83 0 A close up of the failure section, Fig. 6.84
shows the crushed concrete owing to diagonal compression, and
it also shows the "shear slip" that has taken place
o
It is nece ssary to point out that the load was app lied
in the same positive direction as in the 1st and 3rd cycles
of the loading, i"e$ in the direction in which the beam first
failed. The left hand (cracked) end of the beam was subjected
to only one load reversal during which it suffered little
damage. The maximum tensile strains in the flexural steel of
that end of the compression zone (at gauge points 43 and 44)
were only of the order of 2500 microstrains. Moreover the
beam has also gained some strength during the 39 days which
elapsed between the two tests o
At the right hand side of the repaired beam the flexural
reinforcement entered the strain hardening range immediately
upon straining to yield strength level. This is evident from
the records shown in Figo 6.64 for gauges 23 and 240 It is
almost certain that at failure the reinforcement at the
failure side of the beam was also well into the strain
ing range" These increased stresses account for the increased
ultimate strength of the beamo
Surprisingly the beam rotations at both ends were almost
identical o This may be seen from the load-rotation relation-
ship shown in Fig. 6 0 85" A small change of stiffness can be
observed at the right hand and. whenthe diagonal crackspene-
trated the newly placed concrete" The "soft range' which is
usually observed at low repeated loads (see Fig. 6,,53) is
absent 0
It need be remembered that the sense of the load on
this repaired beam was the same as that of the last load on
the unrepaired one. Thus no cracks had to be closed" Few
new cracks could form across the repaired end of the
This explains the near linear behaviour between zero load
and 90% of theoretical ultimate load.
The strain hardening of the reinforcement enabled the
load through the jack to be maintained in the plastic range o

Very small increments were used near the failure load. This
enabled the large plastic rotations to be determined" It was
pointed out earlier that, with the adopted testing arrange-
ment:!l the beams always "run away" before failure and that this
prevented the recording of the full plastic deformations. It
is most probable that the plastic rotations, which occurred
in Beam 313 before the load dropped off, were in excess of
those recorded for the repaired beam 1313 and presented in
Fig. 6.85. It may be said that, at least for one way loading,
there was appreciable ductility available in Beam 313 0 Almost
all of this originated from flexural deformationse
The e longa t ion of Beam 1'31:3 wa s recorded, f or the sake
of comparison, in Figo 6.55.. It shows that the total elonga-
tion of the beam after repair was of the same order as the
elongation imposed by the previous three cycles of near
ultimate load. The beam elongation shows somewhat larger
ductility than the load-rotation relationship.
The stiffness of Beam 1313 may also be compared with
the original values of the stiffness shown in Fig. 6 Q 78
0
6.4 Beam 314
1 Loading and Testing Procedure
The last beam of this series was in all but one
respect identical with the previous one (313). To examine
the effect of nominal, horizontal which under
usual conditions would be provided by a designer in such a
relatively deep beam, two pairs of # 5 bars were provided
8 in .. apart and placed symmetrically about the horizontal
axis of the beame It is common practice to make the size of
the secondary reinforcement in beams the same as that of the
stirrups. The assembled cage, complete with welded studs
and protective tubes, can be seen in Fig. 6 .. 86 0
\-
Three positive and two negative load cycles were applied"
Details of the loading are set out in Table 6.IV" At, the last
increment of the 5th cycle, when strain readings were about
to be taken, yielding set in again, and before the load,
which was maintained for 8 minutes, could be removed, the
beam failed"
In the computation of the ultimate load, the contribu=
tion of the four :# 5 bars was included.. They increased the
theoretical ultimate load computed for the identical previous
beam (313) by 18%.. It must be realised, however, that even
under the usual assumptions of linear strain distribution,
extremely large yield strains would be required in the main
bars if all the secondary :# 5 bars were also to yield.. The
theoretical ultimate moment is only used as a reference
quantity"
Fig. 6
0
87, Fig. 6,,88 show the crack pattern of the
beam at two stages of the loading.
6.402 The Behaviour of the Flexural Reinforcement
There were no new features revealed in the
distribution of the strains in. the top and the bottom steel..
The pattern was very similar to that observed in Beam 313"
The differences between strains in the two layers at the top
"
and the bottom steel were rather small except near the
supports. Detailed results of these measuremenrs are not
reproduced here, but the mean strains for the four top and
four bottom bars are compared with the mean strains obtained
in a similar manner for the other beams of this series. These
(Fig" 103 and Fig. 104) are discussed in
detail in the summary at the end of this chapter.
Because of the contribution of the secondary, :# 5,
reinforcement to moment resistance the stresses in the main
flexural reinforcement are correspondingly lower over the
full length of the beam ..
The strain history of the flexural reinforcement at the
right hand support, where the failure occurred, indicates
considerably smaller yielding at the end of the first four
cycles.than in the previous beams. This is quite apparent
when F.ig. 6",89 and Fige 6,,64 are compared.. The yielding at
the left hand support was even smaller" The maximum steel
strain there was of the order of 3000 microstrains.
It is considered that the secondary reinforcement,
which did not yield till the last increments of the test,
prevented the main reinforcement from yielding more exten-
sively. It had a restraining or stabilising effect" The
last load increment at the end of a cycle was generally
determined by observing the onset of yielding at the critical
gauges of the flexural reinforcement" Usually up to 10
minutes were required till the load and displacements were
stabilised, ioe. when the dial gauges stopped moving. In
this beam this process was much quicker.
The loads applied to this beam at the 4th increment
of each cycle were already considerably higher than at any
load previously used
o
Because of the uncertainty about
the contribution of the secondary reinforcement, it was
considered unwise to increase the load any further for the
sake of obtaining larger plastic deformations.
At the end of the 5th cycle readings at gauge points
23 and 24 indicated 16000 and 18000 microstrains respectively ..
The premature failure of the beam prevented other readings
being taken ..
6,,4.3 The Performance of the Horizontal Web
Reinforcement
A few years ago the contribution of horizontal
141.0
web reinforcement in beams was a much debated issue in
Europeo. Rausch in his work on shear and torsion
65
presented_
the view that diagonal principal tension in the web can be
resisted only by diagonal bars or by an orthogonal mesh" The
latter was thought to be capable of resisting both the
horizontal and the vertical components of the diagonal tension.
Followers of this school - in which the principles applying
to homogeneous, isotropic, elastic solids were transplanted
onto reinforced concrete - failed to appreciate that in a
diagonally cracked web the diagonal tensile stresses disapp-
e a r e d ~ After diagonal cracking an entirely new mechanism (so
early recognised by Morsch) is formed, in which vertical
stirrups alone can form part of an adequate shear resisting
system ..
Leonhardt and Walther have found from experimental
studies
66
that the horizontal web reinforcement in normal
beams was not appreciably stressed.. Horizontal bars in the
web did not appear to have affected the behaviour of stirrups
at alL They held the view that such bars in fact interfere
with the free development of the diagonal compression struts
of the analogous truss system and thus they reduce the
ultimate shear strength of the. beam ..
It is now a common practice to retain such horizontal
web reinforcement in deep beams, largely for the sake of
crack controL
The above discussion applies to beams of normal
proportions" To the writer's knowledge no beams of such
relative dimensions and load pattern as those reported here
have previously been studied
o
It was pointed out, in 6.' .. 6 ~ that, as a consequence
of the load, the length of coupling beams must increase.. The
strain distribution along both the top and bottom reinforce-
ment, as well as the measurements of the end-block displace=
142 ...
men t shave ... cle.arly. confirmed_ thi.a ...... Ther.eore. .i.t . .was. to be
expected ... t.hatany other reinforcement, placed betwe.en and
paraLleL .t.o.the main flexural bars, would a Ls.o . have.. t.obecome
longer and.thus be subjected to. tensile stresse.s., . To confirm
this all four # 5 intermediate bars were instrumented over
the en.tire length of the beam proper. (See Fig., 6.86) .. Strain
readings were taken at each load increment
. The .re.sults are presented in Fig. 6.90. The top two
sets .of curves show the. strain distribution along both layer.s,.
of secondary '# 5 reinforcement for all four increments of
the positive (1st and 3rd) cycles of loadingc The strains
are approximately uniform and show a slight increase only
where the particular layer is situated nearer to the tension
Zone of the beam at the supports . Strains for the same load
intensity in the 3rd cycle are invariably higher than in the
1st cycle, a phenomenon repeatedly observed on the main
flexural reinforcement. The bars near the tension zone at
the supports attained the yield stress in the 3rd cycle"
The lower two sets of graphs indicate the strain
distribution during the negative (2nd and 4th) cycles of
the loading, again for both layers of '# 5 bars
o
Only two
load levels are shown in this half'of the figure" Though
ss uniform the pattern is essentially the same as the one
obtained for the positive cycles.
The measurements thus verify once more the elongation
of the coupling beams. Because these '# 5 secondary bars are
subject to high stresses they do contribute towards the
strength of the beamo
The horizontal secondary reinforcement appears to
have influenced the crack pattern of the beam in two ways.
a.) In all previous beams the diagonal cracks
originated from flexural cracks and propagated
gradually into the web o The major diagonal crack was
the last one to form. This visual observation was also
confirmed by the behaviour of the stirrups. In Beam 313
the high stresses in the stirrup s developed last at tho.se
points at which the major diagonal crack crossed the
stirrup s. (See the heavy line s in Fig. 6. 71) 0 In this
beam, however, the crack along the major diagonal
developed earlier, before flexural cracks penetrated
into the central portion of the beam. The stress-strain
relationship for the stirrups, to be shown later in Fige
6091, also confirms this observationo
b.) When the photographs of the two, otherwise identical
are compared (Fig. 6.67 and Fig. 6.87) it is
seen that at the completion of the first loading cycle
'.
a considerably finer crack pattern has evolved in Beam
,314. This difference also applies to the reversed load
cycle. It will be seen that, as a consequence of this,
finer crack pattern, a more uniform distribution of
stresses developed along the stirrups.
6.4.4.1 The relationship in the
first load cycle.
With respect to the principal reinforcement this.
beam was identical to beam 313, hence no significant difference
in the behaviour of the stirrups was expected" Indeed the
differences were smalL Apart from the more uniform distri-
bution of the strains along the stirrups the secondary rein-
forcement did not appear to have influenced the behaviour of
the stirrup s"
load-stress relationships shown in Figo 6.91 for
four stirrups indicate' a rather good agreement 'with the
current A C I recommendations. In each diagram the four
of the measured stresses are recorded. The scatter '
betw.e.en .the.se is small with one exception. The last stirrup,
near the support, behaved differently. An inspection of the
crack pattern of the beam at the end of the first load cyc.le.,
as shown in Fig. 6.87, reveals that the stirrup crosses the.
critical diagonal cracks near the top of the beam. The
tensile forces in this stirrup are then disposed of gradually,
by means of bond, into the adjacent end-block, hence the
stresses gradually decrease towards the bottom of the beam.
6,,4.402 The strength of the web reinforcement ..
Once more the possible failure mechanism along
the major diagonal crack was examined o The stirrup forces
at the points where the stirrups cross this major diagonal
have been computed and plotted in Fig. 6.920 The symmetrical.
behaviour during the first cycle is again evident. From
these the total shear force resisted by nine stirrups could

be derived and compared with the external load. The results
are presented in Fig
c
6.93.
The only noticeable difference in the behaviour of the
two beams (313 and 314) is, (when Fig. 6
0
73 and Fig. 6.93 are
compared) that a larger portion of the shear force is being
resisted in Beam 314 at the early stages of the loading. This
is due to the early development of the main diagonal crack.
At higher load the contribution of the :# 5 stirrups is prac=
tically identical in the two beams" The contribution of the
stirrups exceeded the external load hence no failure mechanism
associated with the major diagonal could develop.
The behaviour of stirrups during cyclic
loading.
The load-strain history at the most highly
stressed gauge point of each instrumented stirrup is shown
in Fig. 6 0 94 for all five load cycles. It is evident that
all stirrups performed in the elastic range.
145.
The formation of the first diagonal cracks in the 1st
and 2nd cycles of the loading is evidenced by the kink in the
corresponding .During the 3rd and 4th cycle, when
very few and only insignificant cracks developed, all stirrJ.lPS
showed a nearly linear elastic behaviour. The residual
strains changed very little from cycle to cycle and were abput
the same as in Beam 313. (f s 7500 p. s" i). Only a small .
degree of deterioration is noticeable. The approaching
distress of the beam in the 5th cycle at the right hand
support (Stirrup No.9.) is apparent already at the first two
load increments. This is an indication that the compression
zone is incapable of transmitting these shear forces without
undergoing excessive shear (slip) deformations. This is
the only instrumented stirrup which restricts the relative
movements of the two parts of the compression zone Q
The central stirrups performed approximately the same
way during the positive and negative load cycles" The
stirrup snear the support!) on the other hand, reacted
differently. The gauge points selected and represented in
Fig. are those which are significant only during positive
loading.. When the load is reversed the other ends of the
outer stirrups become more highly stressed. This is also
shown in the next paragraph.
It is to be noted that after the second cycle of the
loading the load-strain relationship lies well away from the
line which represents the AC I relationship. Admittedly the
AC I recommendation is an ultimate load equation. No claim
was made that it also predicts the behaviour of the stirrups
over the whole range of the loading. The general tendency
of the curves strongly suggests, however, that no relief
can be expected from the contribution of the concrete
mechanism towards shear resistance after one or two near
ultimate load cycles in each direction.
146 ..
6.4.4,,4 The strain distribution along stirrups"
Reference was made previously to the effect of
the finer mesh of cracks and to the difference in the b e h v ~
iour"of the inner and outer stirrups" The comments made are
supplemented with Fig" 6,,95 in which the strain distribution
along each of the instrumented stirrups is shown at the
maximum load level of the first four load cycles.. The differ-
ent strain patterns for the positive and negative load cycles
in the outer stirrups are particularly evident" The curves
may also be compared with those obtained by Beam 313 in Fig.
6,,76
0
6,,4,,5 Deformations
6,,4
0
5
0
1 Rotations.
The load-rotation relationship for each end of
Beam 314, as shown in Fig. 6,,96 confirms that only small
plastic rotations have occurred at the end of the loading
cycles. For this reason the "soft range" at low loads is
also considerably smaller than in the previous tests of this
series"
The beam behaved quite symmetrically. In the first
load cycle no difference between the two end-block rotations
could be detected" Only at the end of the 4th cycle could
slightly larger plastic rotations be observed at the right
hand support.
6.4.5.2 The variation of stiffness.
The interpretation of the load-rotation curves.
in terms of stiffness is presented in Fig. 6" 970 The great
loss of stiffness at the beginning of the first cycle is of
the same order as that observed for Beam 313. The first
load increment produced already flexural cracks, so there
was no clear evidence how close the actual stiffness of the
uncracked beam was to the theoretical value.
147 ..
A slight increase of the maximum stiffness can be
observed ... in the 3rd and 4th cycles, Le. when cracks in bO.th.
directions have already fully developed. It is difficult .. to
assess whether this was due to the presence of the # 5
secondary reinforcement ar due to the smaller plastic deform;..
ations which the beam was subjected to in the previous cycles
o
6,,405 .. 3 The elongation of the beam"
The curves obtained from the displacements of
the end blocks, and reproduced in Figo 6 0 98, are identical
in form to similar curves obtained for the other beams of
this series
o
The loading branches of the curves are somewhat steeper
indicating a larger stiffness with respect to elongation. The
# 5 secondary bars,which restrain elongation, are responsible
for this.
The only notable difference'is the absence of large
plastic elongations. This was to be expected as no large
yielding of the flexural reinforcement was observed
o
6.4.5 0 4 Transverse expansion.
The transverse (vertical) expansion was measured.
in exactly the same way as in. the previous beam. Thec'l,lrves,
presented in Fig. 6.99 indicate near perfect symmetry in
behaviour. In the last (5th) load cycle the approaching
distress near the supparts is evident. In the first four
cycles the maximum deformations have increased by a small
amount only indicating a small degree of deterioration.
However, the sudden increase of transverse expansion across
the beam adjacent to the supports indicates that after two
cycles of loading in each direction a "shear slip" occurred
across the compression zones of the beam 0 It was pointed out
earlier that this phenomenon engages only the stirrups in the
immediate vicinity of the supports.
148 ..
The failure, as revealed by Fig. 6" 100 and Fig" 6 .. 102,
is consistent with a "shear slip" mechanism.
6.4
0
5,,5 Deflections.
The deflections,which were measured in the usual
manner, have revealed no significant new features. For this
reason the results are not reproduced here"
Very large shear displacements occurred at failure
across the failure section" .They are clearly visible on
Fig" 6.101 which shows the affected area after the loosened
cover over the reinforcement has been removed.
6.5 A Comparison of Medium Coupling Beams
Only those features of the behaviour of Beams 311, 312,
313 and 314 form the basis of this comparison which were
likely to be influenced by the major variable in the test,
the web steel content" An analytical approach is also presen-
ted to predict the distribution of tensile forces along the
flexural reinforcement"
6.5 0 1.1 Strain distribution along the beams.
Fig" 60 103 and Fig. 6" 104 show the mean strain
distribution along the top and the bottom reinforcement for
all four beams of this series at two load levels. The effect
of different stirrup contents is not very pronounced. However
it is noticeable that steel strains are generally smaller,
particularly at the higher load, when the amount of web
reinforcement is increased. Beam 312 is an exception. For
unknown reasons this beam exhibited the largest strains at
low loads and also at higher loads over the "tension zone"
of the beam. The intermediate horizontal bars in the web
of Beam 314 account for the particularly low strains"
149.
The increased stirrup content considerably reduced
the strain difference between the two layers of the flexural
reinforcement in the "compression zone" of the beam"A
comparison of Fig. 6.5, Fig .. 6,,29 and Fig" 6.61 reveals this
clearlyo The phenomenon is associated with a diagonal tension
failure mechanism, which occurred in Beam 311 only.
6.5.1.2 An analytical study of the tension force
distribution.
An evaluation for the observed distribution of
tension forces along a coupling beam may be obtained by cons-
idering the internal equilibrium conditions after cracking"
Certain idealisations, particularly in the formulation of a
mathematical model, are inevitable in such a study.
Numerous photographs have shown a similar cr;ack pattern
for all beams of this series. A simplified diagram, .Fig.6. 105.a
shows these idealised cracks radiating from the
corners of the beam. A section taken along line s-s
isolates a part of the beam, which may be further examined.
The internal forces along this cut, as shown in Fig. 6
0
105.b,
may then be identified as
a.) The tensile force in the top reinforcement is T,
the intensity of which this study aims to approximate"
b.) The compression force, C, is the sum of the horizon-
tal concrete and steel forces in this area.
co) Aggregate interlock forces along the crack and the
appropriate component of the diagonal concrete
compression zone of the beam, g
d.) The dowel force, V
dO
' induced across the bottom
reinforcement at the left hand support.
eo) The dowel force, V
d
, induced across the top rein-
forcement at distance x from the left hand
support.
150.
f.) A vertical distributed load, p ,along the diagonal,
s
represents the closely spaced stirrup forcesg The
intensity of ps is assumed to be uniform over the
length of the beam in spite of the fact that this
violates the requirements of strain compatibility
within the cracked beamo The problem is examined more
closely in Chapter 9 0 These forces may be conveniently
expressed in terms of the total shear force, Vs,which
is resisted by all the stirrups crossing the main
diagonal crack, thus
V
ps = is
This force as assessed from measurements for each test
beam during the first cycle of the loading.
go) The tension force T' represents the resultant of
the forces generated in the secondary horizontal
web reinforcement. The effect of this force is examined
in Chapter 7, where the behaviour of the horizontal web
reinforcement is presented in greater detail. For the
first three beams of this series Ti = 00
h
o
) The external load is P and the moment generated
at the support is M = pl/2.
By considering the moments about the lower left hand
corner of the beam (Fig. 6.105
G
b) it is found that: .
2
P
M = zT + xV d + x (6.1)
The dowel force,V
d
, is relatively smalL In studies
of shear problems it is usually neglected. An estimation
of its maximum contribution can be made however if it is
assumed that the reinforcement has to carry the dowel shear
on a two inch (half stirrup spacing) lever arm. In such a
case 2 # 7 and 2 # 8 bars could carry approximately 7.6 Kips
151 ..
shear when flexural yielding sets ina In fact a considerably
smaller load would be transfered across the bars because they
are already stressed in axial tension and thus could not
receive appreciable additional flexural stresses. It will be
assumed that the intensity of the dowel force in the top
reinforcement varies from zero at the left hand support,
where the flexural steel is subject to maximum tension, to
the maximum value, V
do
' at the right hand supporte The
maximum dowel capacity, is approximately 5% of the ultimate
load carried by these beams and, therefore, it could be
approximated in this form
When psis expressed in terms of f d) and x/1 = t;;
is used, the tension force intensity along the beam is found
from Eq. (6.1)
T = T [1 - (. 1 0 + 11 ) r;.2]
m
where Tm = is the maximum tension generated at the
vertical section of the left hand support 0
The term "" 10" represents the maximum contribution of
the dowel force in these test beams. The effectiveness of
the web reinforcement is measured by the 11 = V Ip ratio.
s
The meaning of Eqa (6 0 3) is illustrated by Fig. 6" 106,
where the tension force intensity along a coupling beam is
expressed in terms of the maximum tension, Tm ' as a function
of the web reinforcement1s contribution. The contribution of
dowel forces has been neglected in these curves.
To illustrate the relevance of these curves one may
consider a beam w ~ t an aspect ratio of liD = 1.5, in which
the stirrups, designed in a conventional manner, are expected
152"
to accept 80% of the shear force p" Across the critical main
diagonal these stirrups would resist, at their given capacity,
a force V = 1" 5 x 0 0 8 P = 1 0 2 p , so tha t 'l1 = 1 0 2 " . The
s
appropriate curve in Fig" 6" 106 indicates that the flexural
reinforcement would be in tension over approximately 90% .of
the spano
When the same stirrups are used in a square beam (l/D= 1),
so that V Ip :::: ,,8 , then the tension force at the "compression
s i
end
ll
of the beam should be approximately 20% of the value
attained simultaneously at the tension end"
After diagonal cracking theoretically the tension should
be uniform over the whole length of the beam if no web rein-
forcement is providedo .This implies that the shear force
must be resisted by a linear archo
The theoretica 1 upper limit is represented by the case
when the whole shear force is resisted by stirrupso In a
beam with an aspect ratio of 2 the tension would extend
over 70% of the span and in a square beam over the entire spano
This study shows that no matter how much stirrup rein-
forcement is provided, the flexural steel will always be
subjected to tension in the "compression zone" of a diagonally
. ,
cracked coupling beamo
When Beam 311 carried a load of 118 Kip s the stirrup s,
according to Figo 6 0 16 received 74% of this load" Hence with
this information and the usual approximation for the internal
lever arm (z 25 in.,) the tension force is obtained from
E q " ( 6 0 3) thu s :
T =: 94" 5 (1 ,,84 tl-)
The experimental values for the top and bottom rein-
forcement agree well with this expression as may be seen in
the top diagram of Fig" 6 0 107 0 The shaded area between the
two theoretical curves indicates the insignificant influence
of the dowel action. Similar comparisons are made in the
other two diagrams of Fig. 6.107 for Beam 312 and .. 313" Consid-
ering the approximations, which were made, particularly with
regard to the uniformity of stirrup forces and the magnitude
of the internal lever arm, the agreement in all cases is
satisfactory. If allowance would have been made for the
reduced internal lever arm, as shown in Fig. 6.9 and Fig"
6 0 32 an even better agreement would have been obtained.
6.5.1.3 Bond stresses.
An examination of the tension force distribution
indicates certain neW features with respect to the mean
flexural bond stresses.
By differentiating Eq. 6.3 the bond force per unit
length of beam is determined thus
dT
dx
(6.4)
This may be compared with the (conventional) bond
force that would occur if the rate of change of the internal
forces would correspond with that of the bending moments. It
is found that
Bond Force in Coup ling Beam = (. 1 + 11, )
Conventional Bond Force
From this equation and the re-examination of the
diagrams shown in Fig. 6.1,07, it may be concluded that the
bond force; ';1)).ff
ao) varies along the beam in spite of the constant
shearing force;
b,,) is zero (within the approximations of the idealised
model) at the section of maximum tension;
c.) is proportional to the maximum fraction of the
shear (11) resisted by the stirrups;
d.) is smaller than the value indicated by the
conventional analysis, everywhere along the span,
except perhaps at the "compression end" of tne beam;
e.) may theoretically attain, in the critical compression
zone, the value predicted by the customary bond
equation, when the stirrups resist approximately the
whole of the external load. However, the zone of
these high bond stresses is seriously disturbed;
particularly at high loads, by local discontinuities
(Fig. 6.19.c) in the cracked beam. This disturbance
is likely to be responsible for the radical loss of
bond in the critical compression zohe. The tension
curves for Beam 312 and 313, shown in Fig. 6.107,
demonstrate the phenomenon clearly.
The intensities of the theoretical (conventional) bond
stresses in these beams remain within the limits
recommended by the A C I Code.
Measurements indicated that stirrups which are
situated at the centre portion of the beams are always more
highly stressed during the fi,rst load cycle. A comparison
of the load-stress relationships with the AC I recommendations
reveals that
a.) The diagonal cracking load, which is rather incon-
sistent, is satisfactorily predicted by the code
equation.
b.) The mean stress in the stirrups agrees well with
the value obtained from the customary truss
analogy. This is demonstrated in Fig. 6.108, which
presents the mean stresses, based on the four largest
adjacent strain readings, for the most highly stressed
central (No.7) stirrup of each beam.
Co) Generally the most highly stressed point along a
stirrup lies where the major diagonal crack is
being crossed .. The stresses at these points'usually
exceed the theoretical values.. The load-stress
relationship at the critical pOint of the central
stirrups is presented in Figo 6. 109.
It was shown that the strength of the web reinforcement
could be conveniently assessed by evaluating the strength of
the stirrups across the main diagonal. This information gave
,
a good indication as to the type of failure to be expected.
Fig. 6.73 and Fig .. 6.93 show that the strength of the web
reinforcement across this critical crack exceeded the
applied load. Beam 312 (see Fig. 6.43) represents a border
line case. If the load would have been increased to failure
during the first load cycle, most probably a diagonal tension
failure would have occurred. The strength of the web rein-
forcement in Beam 311 (Fig. 6.16) was clearly inadequate ..
The distribution of strains along stirrups is not
uniform" A definite strain pattern, consistent with the
shear failure mechanisms of the beams is apparent.. The
variation of stirrup stresses indicate that the surrounding
concrete of the web absorbs bond forces. These became
relatively small when the size of the stirrups is increased.
Consequently the strain distribution along larger diameter
stirrups was found to be more uniform ..
Under high intensity alternating loading the contri-
bution of the concrete towards shear strength diminishes,
even if the stirrups perform entirely in the elastic range.
(F ig .. 6 .. 94) ..
Beam 312, which contained insufficient web reinforce-
ment displayed considerable ductility in shear. (Fig Q 6.46,
Fig. 6 0 47, and Fig. 6
0
48) ..
156.
The rqle of outermost stirrups became evident during
alternating.near-ultimate loading" Because of the deteriora-
tion of the compression zone, during load reversals, shear
slips occu.rred .. , A few stirrups in the immediate vicinity of
the supports attempt to counteract the separation of the
beam along the steep diagonal cracks" For the beam to fail
these stirrups must always yield" (See Fig. 6.75).
A comparison of the stirrup forces, generated at
different stages of the loading revealed no special features.
Contrary the finding of Mayer
64
there was no clear evidence
that heavier stirrups have taken a larger share of the load.
The mean stirrup forces generated in the three instrumented
central stirrups during the first load cycle are compared
for all four beams of this series in Fig. 6.110.
6 .. 5.3
6 .. 5.3.1 Rotations"
To assess the influence of the web reinforcement ...
upon the stiffness, the load-rotation curves for all four
beams of this test series are assembled in Fig" 6 .. 111 o a.
The first diagram shows the comparison during the first
loading cycle.. Unfortunately the concrete strength of the
specimens differed more than it was desired. This probably
had little effect in the uncracked state, as indicated by
the straight dotted lines" However, the elasti\c properties
of the concrete may have influenced rotations more signifi-
cantly in the cracked state.. An iarbitrary parameter,
, which allows for the principal 'variables in these
beams, is also recorded in the
There is a considerable difference between Beams 311
and 3120 The former failed in diagonal tension and the
latter in diagonal compression and sliding.. The sm411er
stiffness of Be4m 311 is due to the small web steel content
1 S7.:
and the early'yi13lding of the stirrups. The stiffening'
effect of the interrpediate bars used in the web of Beam 314
is apparent.
A comparison during the 2nd and 3rd load cycles, shown
also in Fig. 6. 111.a, reveals a similar pattern for all
beams. The influence of the web reinforcement can not be
identified easily because of the effect of different plastic
rotations imposed at the end of a previous load cycle. The
secondary reinforcement used only in Beam 314 restrained the
yield deformations during cyclic loading, and was responsible
for the greater stiffness of that beam at all stages ..
Beams 312 and 314 are compared during the 4th to 6th
cycles in Fig. 6.111.b.
9 a theoretical approach is presented for
the approximate determination of the stiffness of coupling
beams in the cracked state. The theory is then compared
with the experimental results for all beams.
6.5
0
3
0
2 Beam elongations.
A comparison of the beams, which contain
identical horizontal reinforcement, was made in Fig .. 6.55.
Very little difference is noticeable in the elongation
characteristics. It is to be noted that the measured
elongation also includes extensional deformations and slips
in the anchorage zones.
The elongation of the beam proper can be estimated
with sufficient accuracy by the summation of the steel
strains in the top or bottom reinforcement.
A ' =
H
1 J.l
A E T(x) dx
s s 0
(6.6)
where T(x) was defined by Eq. (6 0 3). By completing the
integration it is found that
158 ..
(6 .. 7)
when dowel action is considered" The extreme limits of the
elongation of the beam proper are as follows
\
C
H
\
.633
when 0
\ 1'1' \ 1
and 0
(VdO
=p
u
(,,05
An approximate a1:1alysis indicated that at the end of
thef:ir.st cycle only {ibout 25'10 of the total (..09 in.)
elongation was caused by elastic extension of the beam
proper" (See Fig. 6 .. 55).. The remainder resulted, in approx-
imately equal proportions, from elastic deformations in the
anchorages. slip, and concentrated yield at the criltical
sections" With cyclic loading the relative proportions of
the component elongations change because with alternating
load the elastic and plastic strains increase in the beam
proper"
The stiffening effect of intermediate bars, used. in.
Beam 314, are demonstrated in Fig. 6 0 98.. The curve showing
the elongations in the first load cycle indicates the magni-
tude of the slip in Beam 314. This is the major part of the
permanent elongation after removal of the elastic load. It
appears that no further slip occurred after the 2nd load
cycleG
6
0
5,,3.3 Transverse expansions.
The maximum transverse expansions, measured at
midspan, are compared for the 1st and 2nd load cycles in
Fig. 6" 112" The effect of increased stirrup reinforcement
is very marked.. The additional horizontal web reinforcement,
used in Beam 314, had no apparent influence upon the perform-
ance of the stirrups"
159
. CHAPTER SEVEN
DEEP COUP.L INC BE AMS
The test series consisted of four beams numbered 391 to
394. The properties of .,the.se' beams were summarised in Chapter
5. The overall the four beams were the same.
The span to depth ratio was
1
D
=
The web reinforcement and the load sequence have been
varied.
7.1 Beam 391
Loading and Test Procedure
The beam was loaded in one way only in 13 incre-
ments tfll failure occurred. The aim of the test was the
same as that for Beam 311 described in Chapter 6.
The load sequence and relevant data are presented
in Table 7.10
A view of the reinforcement in the beam proper, also
showing the gauge points for strain measurements, may be seen
in Fig. 7.1e The crack pattern of the beam after failure
along the diagonal is shown in Fig. 7.2. The gauges,
which enabled the diagonal concrete compression strains to be
determined after the cracks were well developed, can also be
located on this photograph.
7.1.2.1 The distribution of strains.
Steel strain measurements followed the same
160 ..
. procedure as that used for the previous test series described
in Chapter 6" The mean strains for two # 7 bars are plotted
separately for the outer layer (solid points) and inner layer
(small circles) of reinforcement in Fig" 7.3 for four load
increment So
The general pattern is similar to that observed in the
previous beams. The deviation from the moment pattern is
already pronounced when the load was 50% of the theoretic,al
ultimate" At this stage of the loading already near uniform
tensile strains were generated over half the length of, the -
beam proper. At 84% of the theoretical ultimate load yielding
extended.over approximately 12 in .. length of the reinforcement"
The deviation of the strains between the two layers of
# 7 bars in the "compression zonel! is very pronounced as the
load increases.. The phenomenon was examined in 6" 1,5 and
illustrated in Fig" 6.19"c.
70 '.2,,2 The tension force distribution.
From the mean strains the tension force, represen-
ted by the four # 7 bars in each face of the beam, was deter-
mined and plotted in Fig. 7040 The theoretical load-tension
force relationship, shown by the straight dotted lines, was
based on the conventional elastic approach taking into account
the intermediate # 3 bars. The position of the horizontal
bars and the load pattern are also indicated at the top of
Fig" 704"
7" 1.3 The Performance of the Horizontal Web Reinforcement
Intermediate horizontal bars were first u$ed in
this project in Beam 314. A discussion related to thelr
expected and observed behaviour was presented in 6.4.3, Ftnd.
the test results were shown in Fig" 6 .. 90" The strain distrib-
ution along each of the three layers (see upper diagram of
Fig. 704) of #3 bars of Beam 391, is shown in Fig .. 7,,5.
161 ..
The theoretica 1 strains, ba sed upon conventiona 1 ana are
indicated by the dotted lines.
After the full development of the cracks a more or less
uniform strain distribution was observed along the beam with
one exceptions At high load intensities the strains increased
considerably where the intermediate horizontal bars crossed
by main diagonal crack. This is understandable for this
crack is associated with the failure mechanism of the beam.
The web was deliberately made insufficient so as
to ensure failure of the beam by separation into two halves
along the main diagonal. At low loads the performance of
these, relatively small size, bars was greatly affected by the.
formation of cracks. The intermediate bars seemed to have
encouraged the early formation of the main diagonal crack ..
70 '.4 The Behaviour of the Stirrups (# 3)
70104.1 Load-stress relationship.
The load-stress curves at the four most highly
stressed locations of four stirrups are reproduced in Fig.
7 .. 6 0 The locations of the strain measurements are indicated
in a key diagram at the top of the page. It is evident that
the largest strains along the stirrups occurred where the
same were crossed by the main diagonal crack. This was to
be expected because the web reinforcement was assessed as
being able to resist only 55% of the theoretical ultimate
flexural loadoThe load-strain curves at the points of inter-
section of the stirrups and the main diagonal line are shown
by heavy lines in Figa 7.6. The behaviour of these stirrups
was very similar to those provided in Beam 311. (See Fig. 6012).
The diagonal cracking load is estimated from these
curves to be 77
K
(v
de
= 355 p.s.i.)
7. The strain distribution along stirrup So
The previously found pattern of strain distribu-
tion was confirmed also in this beam. The strain curves shown
162.
forf(:)Ur load incremen.ts in Fig" 7,,7 clearly indicate. the
critical nature of the main diagonal crack. It is interesting
to no.te that when the load was increased from 50% to 75% of
the theore.t:.ical ultimate, only small strain increases occurred.
in the regions of stirrups which were situated sufficiently
far fr.omthe major diagonal crack"
7" 1
0
4,,3 The ultimate strength of the web rein-
forcement"
Because of the aspect ratio of the beam the main
diagonal crack happens to be at 45
0
0
This enables the conven-
tional truss analogy (AC I) to be directly compared with the
experimental re sui t so
The contribution of the stirrups, which crossed the.
main diagonal, was assessed from the measurements at each
load level" The procedure used was the same by which the
contribution of the stirrl!ps was determined in the previous
series of test beams .. (See Fig" 6 0 15)" The shear resisted
by the stirrups across the failure crack is shown against
the load in Fig" 7
0
8, from which it is evident that the
concrete mechanism carried a considerable portion of the
shear at all stages" For the sake of comparison the AC I
recommendation is also indicated in this diagram"
70 '05 Diagonal Concrete Compression Strains
At the end of the first day of testing, when
50% of the theoretical ultimate load was applied to the beam,
the diagonal cracks were well d ~ e l o p e d At this stage
gauge points, for 2 inoDemec Gauges, were attached to the
concrete between cracks near the supports and at the centre
of the beam" They were oriented so as to be approximately
parallel with the axes of the diagonal concrete struts
formed between cracks" The previous load increments were
repeated so that the strains could be determined in the
cracked beam.
163.
The. load strain relationship and the. locations of the_
gauges are shown in Fig" 7 .. .9. Up till 60%. of the ... ultimate
load a satisfactory agreement was found with the theoretical
stress-strain relationship at the centre of the beam. Near
the supports the diagonal strains in the flexural compression
zone .increased rapidly as the ultimate load was being approa-
ched.
The curves may be compared with those drawn for Beam 312
in Fig. 6.52"
7,,1.6 The Failure Mechanism
The development of the failure mechanism in this
beam was essentially the same as for Beam 311 described in
601.5.
70 1.,7 Deformations
The deformation characteristics of coupling beams
and the means by which these were evaluated were discussed in
Chapter 6. For this reason only special features, if any, are
reported here.
7.1.7.1 Rotations.
The rotation measurements carried out at the
end-blocks indicated a near perfect antisymmetrical behaviour
up till 80% of the theoretical ultimate load. The load-
rotation relationship, with distinct stages of the behaviour,
is shown in Fig. 7.10"
7.1.7.2 The elongation of the Beam.
The relative movements of the end blocks, fiH
were very similar in this beam to those observed in Beam 311
(see Fig. 6.22). The load-AH relationship is also shown
in Fig. 7.10 ..
70 1.7.3 Transverse expansion"
The symmetrical behaviour of the beam, at least
164 ..
up tLlll5% of the. theoretical ultimate load, is revealeQ by
its transV'erse .. .exp-aQsion, as seerL.in Figo 7." 11" Owing.t.o.
larger shear forces and longer stirrup length the transverse.
expans.ion,s are. larger than those observed in Beam 311, the
counte:qlart. of this beam. (See Fig. 6 .. 24L The non-lin,ectrity
o'f the loa.d,.,.,ina}(:imum transverse relationship immediately after
is also evident in this beam. (see
Fig" 6.25L
7" 1,,704 Deflections.
Figo 7.12 shows the deflected shape of the beam
at threelo,ad levels" The significance of the transverse
expansion in determining the distorted axis af the beam is
apparent 0 The predominance of shear distortions is evident.
A fuller explanation of the phenomenon is given in Chapter 9
where distortions are examined analytically.
The development of the failure mechanism could
further be verified by measuring the width of the cracks"
The results of these measurements are presented in Fig. 7.13.
The widening of the cracks along the main diagonal was
considerably greater than in other areas of the beamo The
width of the main diagonal crack is largest at midspan as
can also be expected from the transverse expansion measure-
ments shown in Figo 7" 11"
The beam proper was in every respect identical
to Beam 391 except for the slightly higher strength of the
concrete. The aim of this test was to study the beam's
behaviour under cyc lic loading ... '
165
9
. Time.c onsuming .. st.r.ain,. measurementB. .. ou the .reinforceme.nt.
were ma.de. ou,ly. during.five ... l.oad .cycle.s. but the.rotat.ionoi
the end.""blocks was .observed throughout the 13 cycles of l.oad-
ing so as to be able t.o assess the changes in beam stiffness.
The behavi.our of the intermediate horiz.ontal # 3 bars was not
. examined in this test. Four days were required for the test.
Re.levant data on the load sequence are summarised in
Table 70 110
7.2.2 The Behaviour .of the Flexural Reinf.orcement
70202 .. 1 The distribution of strains.
For both layers of # 7 bars in the top and bottom
of the beam the strain distributi.ons are presented, for the
1st load cycle only, in Fig. 7" 14. These curves are very
similar to those .obtained fer Beam 391. (See Fig. 7.3) .. The
maximum lead was deliberately kept low so that n.o excessive
yield should occur in the stirrups during the first cycles.
C.onsequently the stiflins for the flexural reinforcement are
well within the elastic limit. The width .of the main diagonal
c r c k ~ which was .one of the first to develop, was still small
during the first load cycle and s.o the strain differences in
the steel layers of the compression zone (at gauge locations
19, 20 and 41, 42) were n.ot excessive ..
7.2.2.2 The tension f.orce distributi.on;
Because the behaviour of the reinforcement in the
top and the bottom of the beam was very Similar, the tensi.on
force distribution is shewn in Fig. 7" 15 fer the 4 top bars
only. The full lines indicate the situation in the first
two load cycles and the dotted lines refer to the 9th and
10th cycles respectively.
It is evident that steel stresses are higher thr.oughout
the beam after cyclic loading. The increase is particularly
large at low load increments.
166 ..
At.the. fJ_rstgauge points, adjacent to. the suppDrts.,. a ....
kink ap.pears .. in the curves after the first load reversaL This
is due. to .. the. serious local disturbance. caused by the main
diagonal crack, where this enters the compression zone of the
beam" Because of the large strain differences between the
two layers of the reinforcement in this area, the mean strain
can. not .be eva lua ted accurate ly
The curves demonstrate again that after the first load
cycle .. the .. reinforcement carries tensile forces over the entire
span of the beam ..
,The maximum tensile force near the support is pr-edicted
by the conventional analysis with reasonable accuracy in the
first .cycle of loading only. (Up to .65 p t)" In subsequent
load cycles the critical tensile force generated is invariably
larger than the theoretical value"
It is to be noted that up till the application of the
9th cycle no yield was caused in any part of the flexural
reinforcement.
7
0
2.3 The Behaviour of the Stirrups (# 3)
702
0
3
0
1 The strain distribution along the
stirrup so
As expected the performance of the stirrups in
Beams 391 and 392 was very similar during the first load
cycle.. This is particularly evident when the strain distri-
bution curves for this beam, given in the top half of Fig"
7.16, are compared with the corresponding curves of Beam 391,
shown in Fig. 7,,7. The sharp rise of strain at the points
where the main diagonal crack crosses the stirrup is also
apparent" The diagonal cracking load was unusually low at
K ( . )
approximately 47 vdc 217 pos.L
The redistribution of strains during the second loading
cycle, shown in the bottom half of Fig" 70 16, corresponds with
167 ..
the,ne:w." at:ttisymme,trical load pattern.. Tneeffect of the, main
diagonal c.racki,s particularly noticeable at the firs,t (No .. 5)
andla,..s,t(No" 9) instrumented stirrups, adjacent to the supports
of the beam.. These curves show that little load is carried by
these two stirrups in the tension zone of the beam.. This
behaviour is consistent with the pattern of tension force
of the flexural reinforcement, shown in Fig. 7.14
and Fig .. ,7 .. 15, which indicate the absence of significant bond
forces in this ,region ..
It is to be noted that in the second load cycle already
residual strains, particularly in stirrups 7 and 8, are present
at the critical gauge locations.
The strains generated during the 9th cycle, and presented
in Fig. 7.17, can be directly compared with the first cycl.e
strains. (Fig. 7.16). The load was applied in both cases in
a positive sense. This diagram very clearly shows the critical
regions for each stirrup. (The position of the gauges relative
to the main diagonal crack can be seen in Fig. 7.6.) Because,
of the higher load applied at the end of this cycle the yield
strains have increased very considerably ..
The effect of alternating loading is evident when the
strain distribution curves for Beams 391 and 392 are compared
for the same, relatively high intensity,
7 .. 7 and Fig" 7.17 at P./p*= .75 to .76.
u
are considerably larger in Beam 392.
loading, i.e .. Fig.
The yield strains
The strains observed during the 10th load cycle, recorded
in Fig. 7.18, are markedly affected by the permanent strains
induced in the stirrups during the previous cycle of high
load intensity. The new large yield strains along the main
diagonal crack, which corresponds with the negative loading,
can be recognised. It is to be expected that these are
associated with large transverse expansions of the beam ..
168 ..
7.2.3 0 2 The strain history during cyclic loading ..
No new features of the strain history of stirrups
in this beam were observed.
are presented in Fig Q 7 Q 19.
Therefore only two typical cases"
Gauge point 82 is primarily
affected by positive and gauge point 85 by negative
(See ,tha,c:racK_pa:tternof :the. beam in Fig" 7 ... 20.c.).. The
yield deformations are imposed upon the stirrups accordingly ....
During the 10th cycle the closure of the main diagonal
crack first imposed compression strains upon that position of
the stirrup which had extensively yielded during the previous
cycleo (Gauge points 82 and 75 in Fig. 7.19).
The central stirrups (Nos. 7 and 8) yielded at the
critical gauges, during the first cycle, at a load less than
tha t predicted by the AC I Code.
7 .. 2.3.3 The ultimate strength of the stirrups.
The share of the stirrups in carrying the external
shear across the main diagonal crack was assessed in the same
manner as described for previous beams.. To enable a comparison
to be made the results are presented together with those for
,,;'Beam 391 in Fig. 7 .. 8
0
The contribution of the stirrups is very
similar in both beams except at low loads" Diagonal cracking
set in considerably earlier in Beam 392.
The diagonal cracking lOad is estimated at 47K
(v
dc
= 217 p.s.i o).
7,,2.4 The Failure Mechanism.
Beams 311, 391 and 392 were all deliberately
under-reinforced in shear. Hence the failure mechanism is
associated with the main diagonal crack.
Fig" 7.20 0 a" shows the beam when it carried 30% of the
theoretical ultimate load and when the main diagonal crack
was formed. The same crack appeared soon after the reversal
169 ..
of the load at P. ::: - .. 30 P'\' , as can be seen in Fig. 7 .. 20. b.
1. u
The photograph also shows the regular crack pattern which
deve.Loped at the end of the first cycle .. Failure occurred
by separation along the main diagonal at the end of the 13th
cycle at 80% of the theoretical ultimate load. The beam at
this stage is shown in Fig. 7,,22 .. c o After the removal of the
load the .. failure crack was approximately in .. wide. The
beam carried 95% of the failure load of its companion, Beam 391.
Without taking any measurements the load was once more
reversed. This resulted in the closure of the previous large
diagonal failure crack. Surprisingly the beam failed at a
high load of 74% theoretical ultimate or 93% of the previous
failure load by disintegrating. The specimen, as it
appeared in Figo 7.20.d. was very similar to coupling beams
that were destroyed by earthquakes .. (Also see Fig. 1.4).
7 .. 2 .. 5 Deformations
7 .. 2.5.1 Rotations ..
For the sake of clarity the load-rotation curves
are presented in three groups, for the 13 cycles of loading,
in Fig. 7"21,,
The curves representing the behaviour of Beam 392.in
the 1st and 2nd load cycles show the familiar pattern associa-
ted with cracking. Up till the 9th load cycle the elastic'
behaviour of the beam is evident.. Once the cracks have fully
developed there is no significant difference between the load
rotation curves, Le" 3rd to 9th cycles.. The behaviour of
the beam was antisymmetrical to such a degree that differences
of end-rotations could not be suitably shown to the scale
used in Fig. 7 .. 21 .. The curves thus represent the rotation
of both ends ..
The yield deformations imposed at the end of the 9th,
.10th and 13th cycles are rather small. Their effect upon the
softening of the beam at very small loads however is more
significant.
170 ..
To enable an improved examination of the beam to be
carried out at the onset of the loading, i .. e .. in the "soft
range'I.,. a number of small increments were used at the beginning
of each cycle ..
7 .. 2
0
5.2 The variation of stiffness.
The variation of beam stiffness with cyclic
loading is represented by Fig. 7.22. The characteristics of
these curves have been discussed in Chapter 6. The "hardening",
"steady" and "softening" ranges after cyclic loading are also
evident in this beam.
During the elastic cycles, after the full development
of cracks, the measured stiffness of the beam was approximately
26% of the value obtained for the uncracked beam.
After some plastic excursions the II s teady range
ll
of the
measured beam stiffness reduced further to approximately 1,8%
of that of the uncracked beam ..
7.2.5.3 The elongation of the beam ..
The beam elongation determined during the testis
presented in Figo 7.23. It is evident from these curves that
a permanent elongation of about .015 in. occurred after the
first load cycle, in spite of the fact that no yielding was
induced in the flexural reinforcement. This set was most
probably due to slip at the anchorages and residual tensile
strains in the reinforcement at no load, i.e. inability of
the cracks to close after load removal ..
The elastic behaviour of the beam is well demonstrated
by the closely spaced curves representing the subsequent
cycles. The permanent set owing to yielding of the flexural
reinforcement in the 9th and 10th cycles, can be recognised ..
tt
,\\:-
171..
It appears that slip at the anchorages did not increase during
cyclic
Transverse expansion"
The gradual increase of plastic deformation with
cyclic loading had .. a marked effect upon the transverse
exp.an.s,ion of,.,the beam ... ' These are shown for five significant
cycles. of the lo,ading in Fig .. 7 .. 24.
The deterioration of the beam is demonstrated by the
transverse expansion - load relationship at midspan, as shown
by Fig .. 7,,25
0
For the sake of comparison the results of the
companion beam (391) are also superimposed.
7.3 Beam 393 ..
7.3 .. 1 Loading and Test Procedure
In order to avoid a diagonal tension failure,
"the size of the stirrup s was increased" For the ver1:!ical and
horizontal web reinforcement # 4 bars were used.
Strain measurements on all reinforcement Were made
during the 1st, 2nd, 8th and 11th cycles of loading.
The rotations of the beam were recorded throughout the test ..
The load sequence for the' beam is given in Table 7 .. 1110
70 3,,2 The Behaviour of the Flexural Reinforcement
7
0
3.2,,1 The distribution of strains"
Ii
The strains ''induced in all layers of the flexural
steel during the first load cycle are shown in Fig" 7.26
9
for
three load increments. The curves confirm the previously
:"identified behaviour.. Yield has not occurred.
7.3,,2 .. 2 The tension force distribution"
Only for the top reinforcement are the tension
forces'presented in Fig. 7.27. The behaviour of the bottom
steel was similar. Because of the large permanent strains
172.,:
produced during the 7th cycle the steel forces near the left
hand support could not be determined with a satisfactory
degree, of accuracy during the 8th load cycle. The gradual
increase of stresses with repeated loading is again evident"
Thacritical strains at the supports have been examined
and, tha, mean values, derived from both ends of the beam, are
plotteilagainst ,the. ,load -for three load cycles in Fig" 7.28.
The curves give qualitatively the increase of stresses with
cyclic loading ..
7
0
3
0
2
0
3 Load - Strain history.
The effects of cyclic loading and the effect of
maximum load intensity within one cycle are demonstrated by
the load-strain curves of the top reinforcement as shown in
Fig" 7029 ..
At the left hand end of the beam the top reinforcement,
at gauge points 1 and 2, was situated in the tension zone
during positive (odd numbered) load cycles" The behaviour
here was elastic throughout the first seven cycles" After
the 7th load cycle a permanent strain of approximately 15500
microstrains, occurred.. This large strain necessitated
compression yielding at least in one layer during the
subsequent reversed load cycle .. '
Extensive yielding occurred at the right hand end of ,the
beam at the end of the 8th cycle" This steel is situated in,
the tension zone, at gauge paints 21 and 22, during the
negative (even numbered) load cycles ..
7.3
0
3 The Performance of the Horizontal Web Reinforcement
The strains along the #4 intermediate bars are
.presented in Fig,,. 7.30 for the top layer, in Fig. 7 .. 31 for
the central layer and in Fig. 70 32 for the bottom layer. (The
position of the layers is shown in a key diagram of Fig" 7.4),.
In each figure the top diagram records the performance during
the positive (1st and 7th) and the bottom diagram during the
(2nd and 8th) load cycles"
The measured strains bear little relation to the
theore.tical values.. An approximately uniform strain is
generated .. over the full length of these bars" The average
strain i.s approximately the same a sindllced in the flJ:JxiiJral
reinforcement. at midspan ..
Iti.s .. interesting to note that at the last increments
of the 7th and 8th load cycles yielding occurred in all
intermediate bars.. For example, the layer at middepth of the
beam has extensively yielded at the centre of the beam. (Fig.
7.31). This was brought about by the excessive elongation of
the beam caused by the large yielding of the flexural rein-
forcement at the supports ..
7
0
3.4 The Behaviour of the Stirrups (#4)
7.3.4" 1 The load-stress relation in the first
cycle"
A satisfactory agreement with the ACI recommend-
ation is demonstrated by the load-strain curves for stirrups
shown in Fig. 7 .. 33. The position of the stirrup, where it is
crossed by the major diagonal crack in the first cycle does
not show special features.. (Tne stresses at these gauge
locations are shown by heavy lines).. This was also observed
in Beam 313 where adequate web reinforcement prevented a
diagonal tension failure along the main diagonal.
7.3
0
4.2 The strain distribution along the
stirrups.
During the first two cycles of loading all
stirrups performed elastically, Fig. 7.34 shows that the
strain distribution during these cycles is rather uniform
with the exception of the outer stirrups. Their
ness in the tension zone of the beam is again demonstrated.
After six cycles of alternating elastic loading the
concrete surrounding the stirrups does not appear to have
acce);lted app.re.ciable load by. means of bond.. Consequently
near-uniform .strains prevailed over the entire height of the.
s.tir.rups.,. .The curves drawn for the 7th load cycle in Fig.
7,,34 illustrate this well.. The outer stirrups are exceptions ..
At the last load increment of the 7th cycle all stirrups
yielded at points which lie on the main diagonal.. If the
load would have been further increased at this stage of
thel,oadi.tlg,. ,the beam probably would have failed in diagonal
ten.s.ion"
The st.rainsinduc.edduring the 8th and 11 th load cycles .'
are presented in Fig" 7 "35,, The large permanent strains
imposed upon the stirrups at the end of the 7th cycle and new
yield s.trains at the highest load level, characterise the
strain curves of the 8th cycle.. It is particularly interesting
to note that heavy yielding occurred in the outer stirrups
where the same entered the compression zone of the beam. This
suggested that considerable shear displacements must have
occurred in the damaged compression zones ..
During the 11th cycle relatively low intensity of loading
was applied so that all stirrups behaved elastically.. The
large variation of strains along each stirrup is entirely due
to the elastic deformations imposed upon the web reinforcement
during the 7th and 8th cyclese
78 3
0
4,,3 The ultimate strength of the stirrups"
The contribution of the stirrups in carrying the
externaL load across the main diagonal is shown for the 1st
and 7th load cycles in Fig., 7 .. 36" At high loads about 76%
of the shear was carried by the web reinforcement and this
agrees well with the AC I recommendations"
The diagonal cracking load is approximately 70K
(v
dc
322 p"seio)o
175 ..
703,,5 The Failure Mechanism
The beam was under-reinforced for shear and it
would have failed along the main diagonal if the load in the
first cycle had been increased sufficiently.. The repeated
alternat,ing 10ac1ing, particularly the 7th and 8th load cycle'S,
damaged "the .. compr.assion zones sufficiently so that the cause
of failure appe.ars .. to be diagonal crushing and sliding shear
across, the right hand support" The crack pattern and strain
measurement.s indicated that very large yield strains occurred
in the.st,irrups, such as No,,9, entering the critical compress-
ion zone" The cause of the failure is primarily the excessive
yielding of the stirrups at the supports" Fig" 70 37 shows
the beam .at a stage when the loading was half way through the
2nd cycle.. New cracks were formed at right angles through
the fully developed cracks of the 1st load cycle" (Exceptionally
the beam is viewed from the West)" The beam after failure may
be s.een in Fig" 7" 38"
7
6
3,,6 Deformations
Rotations"
For the first 8 cycles of loading the rotation
curves are presented in Fig" 70 39 .. a,, After the full
ment of cracks in both directio'ns during the first two cycles
the beam showed a near-perfect elastic behaviour" The
hysterisis loops are rather small from the 3rd to 7th load
cycle" The full plastic rotation was unfortunately not
measured at the end of the 7th cycle" The maximum load was
maintained forsorne 30 minutes and during this time additional
creep deformations occurred"
Large plastic rotations and the consequent loss of
stiffness could be observed during the subsequent cycles ..
The load-rotation relationship for the 9th to 11th cycles are
shown in Figs 7
0
39 G b o The maximum rotation observed just prior
to failure was approximately 18 times the corresponding
176"
'rotation estimated by the theory based on uncracked section
and times the rotation of the cracked beam ..
7.3 .. 6 .. 2 The variation of stiffness.
The levels of the stiffness attained after crack-
ing and after large plastic deformations are distinctly recog-
nisable .in. Fig .. 7,,40 which shows characteristics very similar
to tho se of Beam 312 ..
7,,3 .. 6.3 The elongation of the beam.
The curves presented in Fig. 7.41 once more verify
the essentially elastic behaviour of the flexural reinforce-
ment during the 3rd to 7th load cycles" The very large yield
defo.rmations imposed at the end of the 7th cycle necessitated
the. de,f.ormation history to be presented in two parts.. The
small permanent elongation after the failure of the beam in
the 11th cycle indicates that the failure was due to the
dest,ruction of the damaged concrete rather than due to further
yielding of. the flexural reinforcement ..
7.3,,6,,4 Transverse expansion.
The familiar curves, shown in Fig .. 7 .. 42 describe
\ the ,progress of deterioration" The dotted, lines in the bottom
diagram indicate that failure was imminent near the right
hand support of the beam in the 11th cycle of loading"
7.4 Beam 394
With the prOVision of heavy web reinforcement it was
intended to prevent a diagonal tension failure. Tests of the
previous series, described in Chapter 6, showed that the
of such beams is terminated by failure of the
compt;'ession zone" An attempt was made to strengthen these
areas of the beam, which were subject to large diagonal
compression, by placing transverse reinforcement near the
four corners.. It was also hoped that this confining reinforce-
ment would increase the ductility of the beam.
l77"
An overall view of the reinforcing cage for the test
beam a:nd . its ... end-..blo.cks is shown in Fig. 7,,43. The confining
reinf.orc.erne.nt.w.as .. pr.ovided in forms of. #- 2 ties which were
continu.ous.ly bent in.a wavy pat.tern around the stirrups. Extra
#- 3vert.ic.al bars were provided to improve the anchorage of
these .. ties.. A close up of this arrangement is shown in Fig"
70440 The form of the #- 2 ties can be seen in Fig
9
7045 which
shows . the .l:einforcement viewed from the top of the beam.. The
ties correspond to ,,098 sq .. in. steel p laced at 2 in"
centres horizontally and vertically.
79401 Loading and Testing Procedure
The load sequence for the last beam of this test
serie.s was similar to that used for Beam 393 0 The first four
cycles imposed loads within the elastic range" Large loads
caused considerable plastic distortions in the 5th and 6th
cycles, which were followed by two high intensity but essent-
ialty elastic load cycles. At the end of the 9th cycle it was
intended to increase the load till failure but the capacity
of the testing machine, at 212 Kips, was inadequate. The
hydraulic jack was connected to a larger oil pump and after
onerrore inte:tmediate positive cycle the beam was destroyed ..
The load sequence is recorded in Table 7orv ..
704,,2 The Behaviour of. the Flexural Reinforcement
The strain distribution along the flexural rein-
forcement during the first load cycle and the tension force
distribution for the top reinforcement show the same features
that were observed in previous beams of this series" The
respective curves for Beam 394 are shown in Fig .. 7,,46 and
Fig" 7947. The effect of particularly chosen cyclic loading
upon the flexural steel is demonstrated by the strain history
of two critical points along the top reinforcement in Fig" 7,,48.
178"
This diagram is comparable with Fig .. 7 .. 29 prepared from Beam
393" The maximum steel strain, recorded in the bottom rein.,.
forcement at the critical section shortly before failure, was
approximately 22000 microstrains when the load reached 91%
of the. theoretical ultimate intensity ..
7
4
4 .. 3 The Performance of the Horizontal Web Reinforcement
The strain distribution for one pair of the hori-
zontal _intermediate bars is reproduced only in Fig .. 7 .. 49" The
typical curves, drawn for a number of load cycles confirm the
previous findings, that steel strains are approximately uniform
over the whole length of thesebars
o
7.404 The Behaviour of the Stirrups (# 5)
7 .. 4,,4.1 The load-strain relationship"
The performance of the stirrups during the 9
cycles of loading is shown in Fig" 7.500 The curves indicate
elastic behaviour throughout the instrumented lengthfur the'
central stirrups" In each of these (No
o
6, 7 and 8) the point
of maximum strain was choseno There was no sign of serious
deterioration
o
For this reason the load-strain rela,tionship
at several pOints on these three central stirrups is reprod.
uced in Fig" 7 .. 52 for the whole range of loading, disregarding
I the fact that they occurred in different cycleso The mean
strain for each stirrup agrees well with the ACIrelationship"
The behaviour of the outer stirrups was different.. This
was found also in previous tests" The relation-
ship at the most highly stressed locality of the two end-
stirrups is presented in Fig. 7.51. At this point the
positive loading was critical. During negative loads the
gaugELPoints were situated in the tension zone of the beam"
The signs of distress, visually not observed during the test,
are evident at the upper right hand corner of the beam (Gauge
location 91) during the 9th cycle. This was the only area
where yielding of a stirrup was observed.
7.4.4.2 The strain distribution along stirrups"
Because of the larger diameter bars used, as
the strains were more uniform along the stirrups.
This is evident frqm Fig" 7,,53 where strain curves for all
instrumented stirrups are reproduced for five cycles of the
loading. The different behaviour of the outer stirrups is
a 1 so apparent"
7.4.4.3 The ultimate strengt;:hQf .the stirrups"
The contribution of the stirrups with respect to
the shear failure mechanism, associated with separation t/J'f
the beam into two halves along the main diagonal, is summarised
in Fig. 7.54. It is seen that a very good agreement
with the ACI recommendation in the first 5 cycles of the
However, towards the end (9th cycle) of the test practically
the whole load was carried by the web reinforcement ..
The diagonal cracking load was approximately 73
K
(v
dc
= 330 p.s.i.).c
7.4.5 Diagonal Concrete Compression
Prior to the application of the intended laSt
(9th) load cycle, preparations Were made for a feW concrete
strain measurements at the critical corners of the beam. Spots
were selected on the surface of the concrete which were surr-
ounded by cracks previously formed in both directions. The
gauge locations are shown together with the resulting load-
strain curves in Fig. 7.55. The gauges were lined up with
the estimated direction of the principal compression. Because
the crack formation on both sides of the beam. was not ident-
ical it was only possible to have corresponding gauges attached
approximately in the same position. Strains obtained on the
East and West face of the beam are reproduced separately.
Because of toe inadequacy of the available oil pressure
a new cycle (the 10th) was applied in the positive direction ..
The concrete strains could thus again be followed. The curves
in Fig .. 7 0 55 show that at some gauges considerable differences
existed between the readings on either side of the beam. Some
of the last readings indicated compression strains of the order
of 4000 microstrains on the surface. It is to be noted that
the plastic compression accummulated during the
previous 8 load cycles, are not incorporated in", these measure-
ments. It is evident that after the spalling of the cover
the diagonal compression strains within the confined concrete
must have been very considerable ..
7 .. 4.6 The Failure Mechanism
As expected, a shear failure, by,diagonal separa-
tion, did not occur.. The beam failed near the right hand
support by diagonal crushing and through sliding shear. The
area of the failure is shown in Fig. 7.56. ,Shortly before
failure the cover spalled off and thus the crushe,d,and partly
pulverized concrete was exposed, as can be seen in the photo-
graph, Fig" 7 0 57. Very considerable shear displa,cements
occurred at this stage. It caused the flexural reinforcement,
which, passed through the compression zone of the beam" to
yield because of dowelling action. Some more of the cover
was removed after the test so as to expose the main #7 bars
in this area. Fig. 7.58 shows a close up of these bars and
the large dowel displacements, which resulted from the sliding
movements across the compression zone.
7.4.7 .. 1 Rotations.
The load rotation relationships, are shown in
Fig. 7 .. 59 in three groups. The first 4 elastic cycles are
positioned in the middle of the figure.. The following 4
cycles of intensity loadings were responsible for some
181..
plastic deformations as shown by the right hand diagram" The
last positive load cycles are plotted on the left hand end of
Figo 7.59. They show very large yield rotations .. The last
measurement, taken immediately before failure indicated a
total rotation equal to 22 times the theoretical value based
on the conventional plastic behaviour of the .test specimen.
The ductility factor with respect to the cracked test beam
was approximately 70 This could have been increased further
if a constant strain loading device would have been used ..
The beam demonstrated the beneficial effect of the
confining reinforcement with respect to ductility"
7.4.7.2 The variation of stiffness.
No large plastic deformations were imposed upon
the beam during the second four load cycles.; Gonsequently
the loss of stiffness was relatively small as spown by Fig.
7.60, where the variation of the stiffness with cycles loading
is recorded.
70 407.3 The elongation of the beam.
The performance of the flexural reinforcement is
effectively reflected by the load-elongation curves, shown
for all eleven cycles of the loading in 7.610 These
graphs show more clearly when large yielding of the
reinforcement occurred. The beneficial effect of the heavy
web reinforc.ement and confining steel is demonstrated by the
very large elongation of .43 in. before failure.
7.4,,7.4 Transverse expansion.
The fully elastic. performance of stirrups
preserved the web throughout the test" The small transverse
expansions, presented in Fig. 7.62, verify thiso
7.5 .A Comparison of Deep Coupling Beams
It is necessary to point out that not only the stirrup
182 ..
content was varied in these otherwise identical.beams but
that the size of the intermediate horizontal bars'was also
proportionately increased"
7" 5" 1 The Behaviour of the Flexural Reinforcement
7,,5 0 1.1 Strain distribution along the beams"
A comparison of Fig" 7" 14, Fig.,)" 26, and.Figo
. . . I .
7046 shows that the strain curves became gradually steeper as
the web steel was increased. ,This indicates:that larger bond
force were transmitted to the flexural bars with heavier
stirrup s 0
The strain difference between the two steel layers at
the compression zone of the beam was also reduced as the web
steel content increased" The phenomenon was also observed
in the previous test series" (See 6" 5 .. 1. 1 )"
During the first cycle of loading the'outer layers were
invariably more highly stressed than the inner bars.. The
areas of discontinuity at the compression corners are an
exception to this.
7 <> 5" 1" 2 An'sna'lytiaalsuucly Hof the tension
force distribution.
Using the idealised mechanism shown in F,ig" 6" 105,
an explanation was offered in 6.5 0 102 for the unusual pattern
of tension force distribution which was observed in these
experiments" The same approach may also be applied to the
. ',', .
deep coupling beams, but a small modification is required.,
In all beams of this series intermediate horizontal bars
were also used in the web. Strain measurements indicated that
these bars are approximately uniformly stressed over the
entire length of the beam proper.. It is thus necessary to
allow for the contribution of this horizontal web reinforce-
ment when the equilibrium condition is established"
The position of the resultant force, T' , which
183.
represents the intermediate bars, is also indicated in
6.105" Corresp.opdingly Eq. (6" 1) needs to be amended by this
force .thus
2 ps
M ::: zT + T I + X V d + x "2'
Itwa.s pointed out in 6 .. 5. 1" 2 that the contribution of
the dow.e.l force V d is no.t significant" The 4 - =# 7 bars
could susta.in a maximum dowel force of approximately 6 Kips
before,.the onset of. yielding. This is about 3% of the ultimate
load cp.rrLedby these beams. Consequently the dowel force can
be e.stimated as
in a similar way to that adopted for the medium beams.
of anti symmetry the tension in the top and
bottom .. flexural reinforcement is the same at midspan Tc ..
It will be assumed that the strain in all intermediate bars
is the same as that of the flexural reinforcement at midspan ..
This assump.tion overestimates slightly the contribution of the
intermediate bars. However, as long as intermediate web steel
content is considerably smaller than the flexural steel, the
error involved is negligible. 'Hence the force generated in
the intermediate bars may be taken as
and by
TI ::: Tc
As
(7.2)
where the total area of the intermediate steel
As ::: the area of the flexural reinforcement in
one face of the beam ... '
It is now necessary to find the value of T
CO
By putting
x ::
1/2, M
:::
Pl/2, P ::: V 11,
V Ip
:::
11'
s s s
combining Eq. (7,,1) and Eq .. (7,,2) it is found that
184 ..
(1 - 0,,015 -
(7 .. 3)
Finally from Eq" (7
0
1) and Eq. (7.3) the tension force
in the main reinforcement is obtained thus
l' ;:: Tm [' - (' - O. 0' 5 - - ( .. 06 + T) t;2 ]
where (2 + 1) and Tm is the maximum tension generated
in .tha ... flexural reinforcement.
Using the internal lever arm, z , derived from conven-
tiollal analysis, (which is known from the experiments to be
too lal:ge), the tension force distribition was compared for a
loadle.vel in three beams, when approximately 70% of the shear
was, resisted by stirrups. The comparison with the measured
values. is made in Fig" 7.63. The discrepancy in the tension
of the beam results from the overestimation of the internal
lever The contribution of dowel action is seen to be
negligible"
7.5 0 2 The Behaviour of Stirrups
A comparison of beams containing different amounts
of shear reinforcement indicated similarity with the medium
coupling beams"
The mean stresses for the most critical central stirrups
agree well with the AC 1 proposition.. This is shown in Fig.
7.64. However, the maximum stresses are generally higher than
the AC I prediction, as indicated by Fig" 7.65. Theyare I
"
influenced by the diagonal cracking load. This is particy1arly
apparen.t when two identical beams (391 and 392) are compared
in which the cracking load differed by 60%.
The excessive stressing of the most critical stirt:up
need not influence greatly the overall behaviour of the beam.
185.
When the contribution of all instrumented stirrups across the
main diagonal was considered, a surprisingly good agreement
with the, .AC.lrelationship was obtained. This was
ted F.ig" 7 ,,8, F.igo 7,,36, and Fig" 7 .. 54, which showed that
a fraction of the shear was always carried by the concrete
mechanisms .and dowel action of the flexural reinforcement ..
Little,de,terioration was noticeable .even after a number of
high. i.ntensity load .cycles. .as.long as the beams were not loaded
elastic limit.. Once the flexural reinforcement
yielded the stirrups received a considerably larger share of
the shear"
Regardless of their size, the stirrups appear to have
received the load in all beams at the same rate.. The load-
stirrup force relationships during the first load cycle assemb-
led for all four beams in Fig" 7.66, confirm this.
70 5.3 Deformations
7.5 .. 3 .. 1 Rotations.
A comparison of the load-rotation relationships
in different cycles, as shown in Fig. 7067, indicate that the
increased strength (modulus of elasticity of'Beam 392) influe ..
nced the stiffness more than did the increased web steel
content
g
(in Beam 393)" The marked increase of stiffness in
Beam 394 results from additive influence of increased web
reinforcement, higher strength and confining reinforcement at
the corners"
A more detailed examination of the possible effects of
various parameters upon stiffness is presented in Chapter 9.
A compa+ison of the effect of yielding at the end of
a cycle upon the rotations during a subsequent cycle is made
in Fig. 7 .. 68 ..
186 ..
7 .. 5.3.2 elongations.
There is litt.ledifference in the load-elongation
characteris.tics of these beams. The behaviour of the flexural
and intermediate horizontal reinforcement, as characterised by
the elongation of a beam, is identical in Beams 311 and 312,
the slight displacement of the curves, assembled in Fig. 7.69,
results from the very different cracking loads in these, other-
wise identical beams. The influence of larger intermediate
steal.content is noticeable in Beam 313 and Beam 314.
Ihe con.siderations which lead to the establishment of
Eq .. (7.4),. defining.the tension force distribution in the
flexur411.reinforcement, may be extended to allow an estimation
of the. beam's. elongation to be made. This was also done for
the medium beams in 6 0 50 3.2.
It may be shown that by integrating the steel strains
along the beam proper, the beam's elongation is
T l
AH I = ArnE [1 _ ! (1 _ 0 .. 0 15 _ _ (0 .. + 11,) ]
(7.5)
s s
Values computed by this equation (7.5) are compared with
experimental values in 7.70. For this comparison typical
curves were chosen, which were' obtained for conditions that
existed after a number of applied load cycles. The figure
indicates the relative proportions of slip, elongation of the
beam proper and the elastic extension of the reinforcement in
the anchorage zones.
7 0 5 .. 3 .. 3 Transverse expansioni.
The stiffening effect of the increased stirrup
content is demonstrated by the load-transverse expansion curves,
referring to the midspan of the beams, and assembled in Fig ..
7.71. The inadequacy of the web reinforcement in Beams 391 and
392 can be seen from the early onset of plastic deformations.
This is particularly evident in Beam 392 after cyclic loading ..
CHAP TER EIGHT
SHALLOW COUPLING BEAMS
_These tests, consisting of four beams designated 241
to 244, were made at the beginning of this research project ..
Several fault.s in the. instrumentation and testing procedure
were identified during this preliminary testing.. They were
subsequently eliminated so that the testing of the important
medium.. anddeep.,::J:>eams could be carried out more successfully
with tbe previbusly.gained experience ..
The properties of the beams were summarised in Chapter
5.. The span to depth ratio was
~ = 2.01
The web reinforcement and the load sequence was varied
I
as follows:
BEAM 241 contained the minimum amount of web reinforcement
consisti.ngof # 2 plain bars, with relatively low
yield strength .. (See Table 5. III).. This preliminary
test was considered to expose weaknesses of the loading
arrangement and instrumentation rather than the behav-
iour of the specimen. The increments used during the
one way loading are recorded in Table 8 .. 1.. Using a
lower strength concrete a diagonal tension failure was
expected ..
BEAM 242 was reinforced with # 3 stirrups.. It was hoped to
attain the theoretical ultimate flexural strength
of tl:\e specimen in one-way loading. Details of the
.)
loading are assembled in Table 8 .. 11 ..
188"
BEAM: 24.3 was intended ... to. have. the. same properties as Beam 242 ...
Six al.t.ernating near ... ultimate loading were
applied. during the test as shown in Table 8
0
IlL
BEAM 244. was .excessively reinforced with # 4 stirrups and it
was subjected to eight cycles of alternating near-
.ultimate loading as set out in Table 8. IV
. Instead of reporting in detail on the behaviour of each
bealU,oPlythe features of the experimental results
are, .g:('oup,ed in the subsequep.tparagraphs for all four specimens"
8 0 1 Loading and Testing Procedure
The first two specimens were subject to one-way loading,
the. other two to cyclic loading.. Because of the greater
flexi.bility of the beams and particularly because of the large
compressibility of the rubber pads (see also 5.4) between the
test specimen and the loading frame, larger eccentricities
resu,lted at high load intensities.. The point of zero moment
moved away from the vertical centre line of the beams, as a
consequence of which, considerably larger yield rotations
occurred at one end of the beams than at the other ..
. During positive loading .the bending moments at the right
hand supports, when the specimens are viewed from the East,
,
could have been 5% higher than at the left hand end" The
occurred at the right hand support, where larger
yield strains of the flexural reinforcement were always
observed ..
8 .. 2 Crack Patterns and Failure Mechanisms
In Beam 241 diagonal cracks developed from the flexural
crack.s and fanned out from the compression corners" Up till
95% of the failure load a diamond shaped crack-free
area existed at the centre of the beam, suggesting the
presence of a massive diagonal strut. It was found that the
# 2 plain stirrups, passing through this crack-free area,
were stressed ... to 20-30 K s L Failure occurred when this area.
was ,split.by one large crack at approximately 3S
o
to the
horizontal, starting from the upper left handcornere The
failure. crack is easily recognised in Fig" 8 .. '. It is to be
noted that this major diagonal crack did not extend from corner
to corner of the beam (at an angle of 26
0
S
o
) as was the case
in the de.eper coup ling
The crack pattern of Beam 242 was similar.. The critical
diagonal cracks extending from the compression corners were
parallel to each other and had an inclination of 3S
o
, as can
be seen .. in. Fig" 8 0 2" The web reinforcement was .sufficient to
prev.ent .. a sep,aration of the beam into two pares along one of
the two major diagonal cracks 0 Fig. 8.3 shows how the beam
failed in diagonal compression at the right hand support.
Beam 243, which was identical to the previous one, showed
a similar pattern of cracks at the end of the first load cycle ..
(See Fig. 8.4)" The cracks during the second cycle of loading
iOrilledapproximately at right angles to the previous ones and
were more widely spaced. This can be seen in Fig. 8"S. After
6 qycles of loading the beam failed by diagonal crushing and
sliding shear at the right hand support" The yielding of the
deteriorated stirrups permitted a shear displacement across'
the compression zone of the beamo Fig" 8.6, which shows the
t::?eam after failure, indicates that few additional cracks
during the last four load cycles"
',' "
Considerably heavier web reinforcement of Beam 244 did
not c,hange the crack pattern. (See Fig" 8,,7)0 The number of
cracks increased at the right hand support as the 8th load
cycle was approached. In spite of large content of web rein-
, forcement, the stirrups in the vicinity of the right hand
support deteriorated" The consequent shear displacement and
diagonal cracking of the concrete is illustrated by Fig" 8.8.
B.3 The Behaviour of the Flexural Reinforcement
B"3,,lTheDistribution of Strains Along the Flexural
Reinforcement
Two # 7 bars in one outer layer were instrumented
only over the full length of the beams proper" Additional
strain readings were obtained at the supports and at midspan.
This .ar,rangement ,did not permit the evaluation of tension
force .. distribution to .be determined with sufficient degree of
Ho:wever
,l
the .. pattern of strain distribution along the
top or bottom pair of bars indicated a strong similarity with
the previous tests"
Fig
o
B.9 shows the behaviour of the top two bars in Beam
241,0 At 26% of the theoretical ultimate load a good agreement
existed with the flexural theory. Above this load, with the
of diagonal cracks, the familiar departure from
the s,traight line distribution becomes evident" Failure of
the be.am occurred before yielding of the flexural reinforce-
ment startedQ
In Beam 242 yielding extended over a considerable distance
from the support when the failure load was approached" This is
evident from Fig" BolO"
Relatively little increase of the strains along the
outer bars was observed during cyclic loading in Beams 243 and
2440 This is demonstrated in Fig" Bo 11 and Fig" Bo12" Only
the elastic strains are shown in these diagrams" Already at
the end of the first load cycle yielding set in at the critical
sections" The subsequent strains in this area, considerably
affected by the plastic deformations, are not recorded by curves o
Considerable strain differences existed between the two
layers of flexural situated in the compression
zones of these shallow beams also. The compression strains
at the support section were small in the second (inner)
and at higher load intensities tensile strains prevailed..
This is. illustrated for the inner top bars at the right hand
support of Beam 242 (gauge points 18 and 20) in 8 0 10.
From this it may be concluded that the "compression reinforce-
little towards carrying compression forces,
at le.ast in the first cycle of loading.
8.3,,2 TheGr-etica{ Considerations of the Tension Force
Distribution
The distribution of the tension force along the
flexural reinforcement can be predicted by an extension of the
study presented for the medium coupling beams in 6 0 5.1.20 Only
the idealised crack pattern, shown in Fig. 6.105.a, need be
modified. so as to conform with the observed inclination of the
cracks of the shallow beams. This inclination
35
0
was found in all usable beams to be about to the horizontal"
Therefore Eq. (6.1), which was based upon the equilibrium of
the actions shown in Fig. 60 106.b, can be considered as being
valid over a , measured from the support of the
shallow beams, which is equal to:
= Dctg
By. allowing for the maximum dowel contribution of the
four # 7 bars (approx. 6.0 K) in terms of the ultimate load
(approx. 85.0 K) the tension force is found to be
T = Tm [1 - ( 0 .. 1 4 + Tl) i- ] ( 8. 1 )
Insufficient instrumentation of the stirrups did not
permit the stresses along the major diagonal crack to be
determined. Consequently the share, Tl' of the seven stirrups,
which crossed the major crack, could not be evaluated with a
satisfac.tory degree of accuracy.
At yield these # 3 and #4 stirrups would have been
capable of carrying 97% and 139% of the external load respect-
ively. When .only 80% of the load is carried across the major
192 ..
diagonal crack by the seven stirrups, i.e. = .BO, Eq. (B.1)
indicate.s that the flexural reinforcement is in tension over
73% to BO% of the spano The latter figure would apply when
thecontr.ibution of the dowels is ignored .. Fig. B.,10, Fig ..
B" 11 ,and Fig. B.12 suggest a good agreement with this predic-
tion. a.fter the full development of the diagonal cracks ..
B .. 3.3 Load ... StressRelationship
The stress induced in the flexural reinforcement
at the critical support sections are compared with the predic-
tions of the conventional flexural theory in Fig .. B .. 13 .. The
curves represent the mean stresses determined from strain
measurements made on four bars in each of the diagonally
opposite tension corners of the beams.. It is seen that at
higher load, after the development of diagonal cracking, the
steel stresses rise more rapidly.
The stresses induced in the 2nd cycle of loading, in
Beams 243 and 244, were fdund to be higher than those in the
first load cycle.
B.3
0
4 Load-Strain History During Cyclic Loading
Fig .. B.'4 illustrates the behaviour of the outer
layers of flexural reinforcement during cyclic loading.. The
yield strains imposed at the end of the different cycles is
evident. At gauge point 1 the # 7 bars in Beam 244 entered
the strain hardening range.. It is to be noted that the bars
in the compression zone are subjected to small compression
strains only during the first load cycle. However, during
subsequent load reversal these bars appear to have carried
considerable compression forces across the previously cracked
cpmpression zone., The compression strains were larger than
those observed in the medium and deep coupling beams.. This
indicates that the flexural behaviour approached that of
normal shallow beams.
, 93 ..
80 4 The Behaviour of Stirrups
For the first three beams of this series two 4 inch gauge
lengths were provided at the centre of every second stirrup. On
Beam 244 three gauges were arranged in a similar 'manner
o
.This
proved to be insufficient, for the critical diagonal cracks
often crossed the stirrups beyond their instrumented length"
The gauge locations for the first three beams are shown
in Fig .. 8 .. 15 and for Beam 244 in Fig. 8.18 .. a.. A quantitative
comparison of these beams with respect to shear strength is
also given in Table 10.10
8
Q
4 .. 1 The Load-Stirrup Stress Relationship
The stirrup stresses in the lightly web reinforced
Beam 241 are shown in Fig .. 8" 15. The crack pattern associated
with these stresses is sketched in the key diagram ~ the top
of the figure.. It is evident that the outer stirrups, along
gauges 11 and 22, yielded first.. In spite of considerable
tensile stresses in the central stirrups no visible crack
"
crossed these.. At the last load increment, where no strain
measurements could be made, a major diagonal crack from the
upper right hand corner crossed also the central stirrups,
which yielded immediately and thus brought about the failure
of the beamo It is to be noted that the development of the
shear failure mechanisms in this beam is different from those
observed in the deeper beams. In the latter the yielding of
the stirrups progressed from the centre of the specimens tow-
ards the supports.. The AC 1 relationship, as shown dotted,
assessed conservatively the shear strength of the beam.. In
.interpreting the ACI:Code, the ratio M/Vd was taken as unity"
Beam 242 and 243 contained a balanced web reinforcement,
i.e. the computed ultimate shear strength and flexural strength
Were approximately equal .. Fig. 8.16 indicates that the web
reinforcement was sufficient to prevent separation of the beam
194"
into two halves along one of the major diagonal cracks.. The
central portion of the outer stirrups was not highly stressed"
In Beam .242 good agreement was attained with the AC I require-
..
8
0
4 .. 2 The Behaviour of Stirrups During CycliC Loading
Fig. 8.17.a and Fig. 8.l7.b illustrate the
behaviour of the companion beam (243) during cyclic loading"
These curve.s demonstrate very clearly that, although the web
reinf.ox.cement. behaved satisfactorily during the first cycle in
a' similar manner to that observed in Beam 242, a drastic deter-
ioration. occurred during subsequent cycles. Some stirrups
began to yield already at the end of the second cycle. The
contribution of the concrete shear resisting mechanisms grad-
ualiy diminished with each new load cycle and nearly all
stirrups yielded by the end of the 6th load cycle.. The large
yields near the right hand end of the beam indicated the local-
ity of the failure area ..
Beam 244, which was over-reinforced against shear, behaved,
as a result of this, more satisfactorily.. Fig. 8.18.a and Fig.
8 .. 18
0
b show that all stirrups behaved elastically, at least
during the first four load The rate of deterioration
was much smaller than in Beam 243. The cracked compression
zone at the right hand support was, however, not capable of
transmitting the large diagonal compression forces without
sliding movement" .As a result of this the whole shear was
thrown O,n to a few stirrup s, which crossed steep, originally
diagonal cracks. The ,gradual overloading of these
stirrups, which led to the collapse of the beam, can be
observed in Fig. 8
0
18o b. The phenomenon is very similar to
that observed in the deeper beams, which were over-reinforced.
Concrete Strains
In the test, the horizontal concrete strains
were also measured at mid and quarter span by means of 4 in.
195 ..
Demec. gauges. Two inch gauge lengths were used in the compress-
ion zone of the right hand supporto The results for this beam
(24L) are.p.re.sented in Fig .. 8.19" When 20% to 26% of the
theoretical load was applied only small flexural cracks were
observed ne4lr the tension corners of the beaqa. The remainder
of the be.am .'W'as crack free
The.curve.s .and shaded areas in Fig.. 8. 19 , indicate 4
marl$.ed deviation from the straight line strain distribution
at the boundary of the beam. However at 12 inches away from
.. t:he boundary, at quarter span, the strains agree well with
. those predicted by the elastic beam theory when applied to the
uncracked beam.
WLth increased load numerous gauges became use less, as
they were being crossed by diagonal cracks. The pattern of
concrete strains in the diagonally cracked beam again confirmed
. the previous finding s ,tha to'Ver the .. entire . ..span of the beam
the Bernoulli Navier hypothesis breaks down. Considerable
compression strains were observed at midspan.. This was to be
expected from the observed distribution of strains along the
flexural steel. At 46% and 72% of the theoretical ultimate
load, the compression strains appear to be near linear at the
right hand support. The linea:r;extension of these strains
would be misleading for it would indicate very considerable
plastic strains (approxQ 3500 microstrains) in the bottom
reinforcement" In fact the beam failed while the flexural
reinforcement remained elastic.
In Beam 242 numerous gauges were provided to assess the
horizontal and diagonal concrete compression strains - these
could be measured up to 97% of the theoretical ultimate load.
The localities, at which the strains were measured, are shown
in a key diagram of Fig. 8.20. The horizontal compression
strains at the right hand support of the beam are also presen-
ted in this figure. It is to be noted that some of these
mea surementB_.'W.era .dLs.turhed_.by ..... diag.onal.. cracks,. which dee:p.,l;y
penet!:'ated into the compressl.on zone. at. high load
The diagona.l compression strains, which .were measured
on Beam 242, at an angle of approximately 27, are assembled
in 8" 21 " The. nonlinearity of the strains and the predom.,..
inance of inclined compression across the diagonally opposite
corners of the beam was confirmed.
8
0
6 Deformations
8"6,, 1 Load-Rotation Relationship
The load-rotation characteristics of the two
identical beams (242 and 243) are presented in Fig. 8 0 220
Significant details of these curves have previously been
discussed" It is to be recalled that the rotations at the
supports of the beam proper are based on the assumption that
the end-blocks are undeformable. In fact rotation occurred
also in the end-blocks, so that the actual beam rotations were
. overestimated by these curves" The latter were evaluated from
the measured rotations of the vertical centre lines ,of the end-
blocks"
In the uncracked state the overestimation of rotations
is 73% according to the conventional linear elastic analysis ..
The dotted straight lines represent the theoretical load-
rotation relationship, derived from the properties of the
uncracked beam proper and adjusted accordingly, so as to allow
for the end-block deformations. Thus in the shallow uncracked
beams too, a satisfactory agreement appears to exist between
the conventional theory and the experiments. In Beam 243
insufficient measurements at low enabled only an esti-
mation to be made of the load-rotation relationship.
Fig" 8,,23 shows the behaviour of Beam 244 during eight
cycles of loading" Owing to different permanent deformations at
the "end,s .ofthebeam; -at' yield .load, the. load:t:ota tion . curve s '
show progressive deviation from symmetrical behaviour, as
the number of load cycles was increased.
B.6.2 The Variation of Stiffnesses
197 "
Because of lesser number of measurements, the
change __ of.the_.slope along the load-rotation curves could not be
followad .. wLth_the same degree of accuracy that was attained
with the.daeperbeams.. For this reason no attempt is made to
present" .tha.-lDss of stiffness in graph form, such as was used
in Figo_6 .. .54 or Fig .. 7022" However, to enable an estimation
of the reduction of stiffness with cracking and cyclic loading
to be made, the values of the maximum stiffness and the elastic
recovery in each cycle were collected for the shallow beams in
Table BoVo These correspond with the horizontal regions of the
fulL lines and the dotted lines respectiVely, in Fig .. 6.54 and
Figo Z,,22.
B.6.3 BeamElongations
The load-beam elongation characteristics of the
shallow beams $ as shown in Fig. 8.24 were found to be similar
to those established for the deeper beams. The progressive
yielding and accummulation of plastic deformations with cyclic.
loading is evident. It appears that the frame on which the
dial gauges for Beam 243 were mounted may have been accidentally
moved by about 0015 in. immediately after the zero readings
were madeoThe displacement of the curves (shown by dotted
lines) during the first two load cycles suggests this.. The
characteristics of the curves for Beam ~ 3 did, not seem to
have been affected by this at all.
CHAP TER NINE
AN ANALYTICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE
DEFORMATIONS OF COUPLING BEAMS
198 ..
9,,1 The Distribution of Strains Along the Flexural Reinforce-
ment of Coupling Beams"
With the presentation of the experimental results. an
attempt was also made to explain the reasons for the very
marked difference between the strain patterns or tension force
distributions obtained from the elastic beam theory and from
these experiments", In 6 .. 5 .. 1 .. 2 and 7 .5 .. 1 .. .2 equations were
proposed ,which predict, with a satisfactory degree of accuracy,
actual forces in the flexural reinforcement after cracking"
These equations take the geometry of the beam, the contribution
of the vertical and horizontal web reinforcementin.to account"
They can be suitably interpreted when the p lacing,.of the rein-
forcement is being detailed or whe n further compu,tations are
required to assess other aspects of structural
9 0 2 The Elongation of the Beams
The quantitative determination of the tension force'
distribution along the coupling beam also to the assess-
ment of the elongation of the beam proper.. The appropriate
expressions were given in 6
0
5,,3,,2 and 7.5.3.2.
The experiments showed that the relative displacement
of the end-blocks is considerably larger than the elongation
of the coupling beam because of the elastic and permanent
deformations within the anchorage zones of the flexural rein-
forcement ..
In Chapter 3 the elastic behaviour of two coupled shear
199"
walls was presented and the effect of cracking was examined.
It is probable that the elongation of the coupling beams is
significant enough to affect this behaviour, at least in the
lower third of the structure. However it should have no effect
upon the ultimate strength that the structure could develop ..
9
0
3 The Estimation of the Stiffness and Coupling Beams
After Cracking
The observed distribution of concrete and steel strains,
the variation of. stirrup forces and the crack pattern indicated
that the load-deformation characteristics of coupling beams can
. not be assessed with the conventional techniques of the elastic
beam theoryq It is evident that the cracked beam forms a
mechanism in which the flexural reinforcement, the stirrups
and the concrete blocks formed between cracks i n t e r ~ t with
each other in a complex manner" So far the characteristics
and the relative importance of the numerous components have
<,,' ,
not beenexp lored satisfactorily"
The significance of the dowel action of the,flexural
68
reinforcement has been studied more closely only recently ..
The attention was focussed upon the behaviour of the. "concrete
struts
ll
which are formed between diagonal cracks of a beam by
Fenwick
60
, who showed that, apart from axial compression,. these
struts or "teeth" are also subject to aggregate interlock
forces, shear forces and bending moments.
In attempting to evaluate at least in an approximate
manner, the deformation characteristics of coupling beams, it
is necessary to neglect a number of actions.. In coupling beams
dowel and aggregate interlock actions may be considered as
having only secondary importance. Neither of these have yet
been fully evaluated quantitatively.. Observations made during
this project suggest that the more important modes of load
transfer and the associated distortions in cracked coupling
beams could be identified as follows:
i
h
) Shear transfer by truss action and
,
distortions"
iio) Arch action and compression across the main diagonal
of the beam ..
iiio) Flexure and associated rotations.
ivo) Tying action of the flexural reinforcement and
consequent elongation of the beam.
With certain simplifications the load-deformation charact-
eristics of each of these modes may be approximated and hence by
sup.erpc;>sition the stiffness of the cracked coupling beams can be
estimated"
9 .. 30 1 Shear Deformations Owing to Truss Action
A considerable portion of the shear force is
transferred from one support of the beam to the other by the
stirrup reinforcement, which, together with the diagonal
"concrete struts", forms a truss" The crack pattern of the
test beams suggests that this truss is different from the one
which has traditionally formed the basis of the conventional
stirrup design.. Instead of being parallel the compression
members radiate from diagonally opposite corners of a beam 0
The struts formed by an idealised crack were illustrated
in Fig .. 60 105"
Members of the analogous model truss are shown in Fig"
9 .. l .. ao The web consists of vertical tension members (stirrups) ...
and radiating compression For the purpose
of this analytical study the repla'ced by
prismatic members, the depths of which. are equal to the depths
of the tapered ones at mid-height of the beam .. (See Fig .. 9 .. 1..b) ..
It is evident that the shear forces, V ,may be trans-
. s
ferred through as many paths of this statically indeterminate
truss (Fig .. 9 .. 1.a) as there are stirrups" The deformations
2010
result.ing from one component, 8 , of the total shear, V ,may
s
be evaluated with of Fig. 9.2. This diagram shows the
principal dimensions, the vertical forces and displacements of
a typical linkage ABCD.. The total shear displacement at D,
relative to A: ; is.lTiliitde up:.:o., the axial strains of the three
Web members thus:
8
V
::::
81
+ 8 s + 0.
2
It follows from first princip les that
281
4
81
A
281
4
A
1
A
s
::::
2
::::
3 ;
::::
1
sbE 1
s
sbEcnpw
2
sbE 1
3
c s c s
Hence by adding the component displacements and expressing
the position of stirrup by the distances' xl and x2 '
the shear displacement of the particular linkage becomes:
2 2
281 xl 2 x
2
2
8 :::: [(1 + + (1 +
v s c 1 1
s s
+ 1 ]
2np
w
It also follows from the requirements of strain compati-
bilfty that the vertical displacements of all linkages at the
right hand support must be the same .. (i .. e .. A.
v
must be the same
for any associated value of xl' andx
2
).Tpis is only
possible if the stirrup force intensity along the spano
It is easy to show that the stirrup forces must be large at
midspan and smaller at the supports. The and
approximations made do not warrant an exact determination
of the stLrrup force intensity .. * For this reason further
studies will be based on a parabolic force Qis,\:ribution, the
maximum stirrup force being at midspan. evidence,
such as shown in Fig .. 6 .. 72, reinforces suchan assumption ..
Consequently stirrup elongations will be at midspan and
. -
* An exact analysis in the form of a mathemetical eXercise is
possible"
202 ..
smaller at the support.. Numerous transverse expansion curves,
such as Fig" 6 .. 56, Fig. 6.79, ,Fig. 7.24 and Fig. 7 .. 62 also
verify this ..
Instead of using discrete stirrup forces it is more
convenient, for the purpose of analysis, to express them as a
force per unit length of the beam, L.e ..
.
s
Thes,e are distributed along the beam in a parabolic form '- as.
shown in Fig .. 9 .. 3,.
The maximum, Pc' minimum, Po' and
average, p s ' value s of
other, so that
""t)
p
o
3p
, + 2
P
....
P
o
Px have a known relation to each
(9.2)
:to satisfy the compatibility requirement one may chose
any two linkages which, according toEq" (9 .. '), should give
the same shear disp lacement, 6. v" This equation may be expressed
in a more general form thus:
A
v
The two linkages of the analogous truss can be conveniently
chosen so that, according to Fig" 90 2, the position of the
vertical member in one is defined by
x,
= 0 and
x2
= 1 when
Px
=
Po
and in the other linkage by
x,
=
x2 = !
when
P
x
=
P
c
Consequently the compatibility requirement may be stated as
follows:
(9" loa)
203 ..
Hence
where v
== f(O,l) ==
1 1
f{Z'Z)
==
1
2 2 2n:p
J+O+v) + ,,3t
2 2 1 .
2(1 + v) + -2 .
4" npw
This enables the degree of non-uniformity of stirrup forces,
as e x p ~ e s s e by the ratio pc/po ' to be determined. It may be
shown that the ratio of tJ;1e,maximum stirrup stress to the
minimum one varies between the following approximate limits:
1
< p <
1075 when
1
1 and
O(npw
<-
Po
D'
1 <
P
< 2.,70
1
o <npw < 00
-.
when
=
1..5 and
Po
D
In fact the ratio is likely to be larger because the wall
elements, adjoining the coupling beams, impose restrictions
upon the boundaries and do not permit the last stirrups at
xl ;::: 0, x
2
== 0 to be appreciably strained.. Curves, showing
the transverse expansions of the beams indicate this trend.
By combining
Eq"
(9. La), Eq .. (9.2) and Eq. (9.3) and
putting
xl
==
1,
x2
0 when
Px = Po'
and
ps
:::o.E.
1
by
the shear rotation of the analogous truss is obtained as follows:
b.
v
= =
T
]
vbl$ (1 + 2
c p
o
(9.,4)
204"
9 0 3,,2 Shear Deformation Owing to Arch Action
According to the assumptions, previously stated,
the external shear force not resisted by truss action, V ,
a
must be transferred across the beam by means of diagonal comp-
ression" The diagonal strut., its equivalent estimated dimensions
and its deformation are illustrated in Fig. 9
0
4.
Accordingly, the mean area of the tapered diagonal strut
is
lb
41
8
(3D - 2z)
and the diagonal compression force is
1 8
-V
z a
l'
= - (1 - 11 )1'
z
The shear rotation caused by diagonal shortening is therefOre
(J
a
1
where v 1 = z 0,
,4 (1 + v 2) 2 (1 _ 11 ) P
The Bernoulli-Navier hypothesis not being applic-
able, a new definition of the rotation of a particular section
need be introduced. A plane section across the beam may be
rep laced by a similar p lane which passes through two points
located at the top and bottom reinforcement ..
Figo 9
0
5.a shows a typical undistorted coupling beam and
a number of equidistant vertical planes at right angles to the
plane of this beam. In the diagram below, Fig .. 9,,5 .. b, a
1:ypical distribution of the tension force in the top reinforce-
ment, T
t
' and the bottom reinforcement, T
b
, is also
reproduced.. As a result of the accummulated strains along the
flexural steel the originally vertical planes become inclined
205 ..
with respect to the centre section, which may be taken as a
reference 0 The inclination or rotation of these planes is
shown qualitatively in Fig .. 9 .. 5 .. c o It is thus possible to
define and evaluate the rotati.on of any section of a coupling
bearn ... The maximum rotation at the supports of the beam is,
with reference to this latter diagram,
f
-
~ ~ Os
t:J ==
d m
-
d'
where fj,'
s
==
s
( '2 Ttdx
0
~
(1
(
,
II
==
T dx == T
t
dx
as
J b
s
1
s
1
'2 '2
so that
"m
( ~ ; ) dt; ]
Wher.e ' ' { ~ ) was defined by Eq.. (6" 3) and Eqo (7 .. 4)..
.
When the dowel forces are neglected and no intermediate
horizontal steel is used the flexural rotation becomes, after
evaluation of the integrals:
_ !]P1
2
~ m - 8A E: ( d - d ' ) z
s s
As expected flexural rotation increases proportionally
with the percentage of the load, ~ , which is being resisted
by stirrups" The larger is the share of the web reinforcement
the larger bond forces can be generated (at the node pOints of
the analogous truss) and thus the differential elongation of
the flexural reinforcement increases e
When intermediate bars are also used the rotation is
arrived at by modifying the above equation so that
(J
m
where Tm is the maximum tension force induced at the supports ..
9,,3
0
4 Rotation OWing to Beam Elongation
The elo'ngation of the flexural reinforcement over
the entire length of the beam proper is associated with diagonal
compressions resulting from truss and arch actions" Both of
these require a tying action of the flexural reinforcement. The
rotations caused by the diagonal concrete compression strains
have already been evaluated.
In Fig" 9,,5
o
b the dotted line indicates the lengthened
top reinforcement.. The length of the compression diagonal is
shown t.o remain constant" Hence the resulting rotation is
"
1
=:
whe re Ii. =: iii. ! + iii. II
Ll. S IJl sus
=: 1
AIr
s s
t T( t;;) d
o
(6 .. 7)
From Eq$ (6 0 3) and which defined and
Eq .. 6.7 the rotation owing to the elongation is obtained thus
(9,,7)
In this expression "a" becomes infinity when no intermediate
horizontal bars are used in the beame (Ref" 7 .. 5,,3,,2)e
g
e
3,,5 Total Rotation and the Proportions of the
Component Rotations
To obtain the stiffness of a coupling beam it is
necessary to evaluate its total rotationo By the superposition
of the previous four cases
(J = fJ
B v
(9,.8)
An examination of these expressions revealed that the
amount of web reinforcement does not substantially affect the
total rotation and hence the stiffness of a coupling beamq
However, the stirrup content drastically affects the mode of
shear resistance and the relative proportions of the consequent
component rotations"
To illustrate this observation the component rotations
are presented for a typical medium (312) and a deep (393) b e a m ~
"
It was assumed that the contribution of the web reinforcement, .
~ in carrying the load across the main diagonal crack,
varied between zero and 100%0 Figo 9 0 6 shows that with decrea-
sed contribution of the web reinforcement the mode of shear
resistance changes from truss into arch actiono The flexural
rotations are insignificant but the elongation of the beam,
particularly for beams with a larger span to depth ratiO, is
a major source of beam rotations
o
A coupling beam in which less than one half of the load
is resisted by stirrups is likely to be impractical and it
should certainly not be used for'earthquake resistant construc-
tiona This range is shown by dotted lines in Fig" 9 0 6
0
The relative proportions of the component rotations, in
terms of the total rotation of a beam, are presented in Table
9.1 for three in each of the two major groups of test beams"
Only the practical limits of ~ (07 to 1.0) are considered in
this table. The combined influence of the stirrup content
and concrete is expressed by the parameter npw" It may be
noted that the shear rotation decreases with increased stirrup
content, (ioe. more effective truss action) and that the
flexural rotations increase because of the larger bond forces
developed in the beam"
9
0
3
0
6 A Comparison with Experimental Results
In Fige 9 8 7 a comparison of the equations of
component. rotations and the experimentally obtained load-
rotation relationships is presented for the medium and deep
coup ling beams"
208 ..
The diagram on the left hand side of this figure (a) shows
the absolute stiffness of the beamso This is defined as the
load, P , required to cause unit rotation of a beam both of
its supports.. The load corresponds with the bending moment
pattern of a typical coupling beam or lamina.. To enable a
comparison to be made it was necessary to apply a correction to
the experimental rotation values, presented in the previous
chap.ters.. It was pOinted out in 6
0
1
0
5
0
1 that the beam rotations
evaluated from dial gauge readings were based on the rigid body
rotations of indeformable end-blocks
o
As these end-blocks are
in fact distorted the computed experimental rotations over-
estimate the rotations of the beam propero As a corollary to
these, the experimental curves previously presented underestimate
the stiffness of the beam propero The discrepancy is large When
both, the end-block and the beam, are uncracked& With cyclic
loading, extensive cracking and yield deformations the stiffness
of the beams reduce rapidly, while the stiffness of the end-
blocks is little af ted/) When applying these corrections it
was assumed that the end-blocks remain crack freeo Consequently
the end-block deformations have relatively little effect (5-12%)
upon the stiffness of the cracked beam., Numerous load=rotation
curves indicate that the so adjusted theoretical
based on the conventional beam theory, agrees satisfactorily
with the measurements when the test were free of crack So
The heavy lines at the top of the diagram (Fig
o
9
0
7o a)
show the stiffness of the coupling beams in the uncracked state"
The importance of shear deformations is apparent" The stiffpesses'
of the,deep beams are approximately 35% larger than those of the
medium beams. The increased depth however should account for
115% increase Qf the flexural stiffnesses,,'
The lower part of the diagram (Fig., 9
0
7.a) shows the,
absolute stiffness of the cracked beams" For each, the theoret-
ical and the experimental stiffnesses, a range of values is
indicated" The band of theoretical values results from the
assumption that the partiCipation of the stirrup s, 1) ,may be
taken to be between 70% and 100%.. The range for the experiment-
ally determined stiffnesses, on the other hand,represeqts the
highest and lowest values observed during cyclic loading.. These
observed values correspond with the ");l,orizontal top s" of the
load-stiffne.ss curves, such as shown in Fig .. 7 "22,, The dotted
lines indicate the maximum stiffnesses observed during unloading ..
~ This occurred normally at the end of the first or second cycle
.. ~
.' of loading"
Considering the approximations, which formed the basis
of the previously presented analytical study, it may be said
that fair agreement exists between theory and observation. The
theory overestimates the stiffness of the medium beams and
slightly underestimates that of the deep beam. The percentual
difference between the stiffnesses of the cracked medium and
deep beams is about the same as in the uncracked state.
The diagram shows, what is important, that all beams
suffered a dramatic loss in stiffness" The loss is more apparent
in Fig" 9
0
7
G
b, where the stiffnesses of each cracked beam is
presented as a percentage of its stiffness in the uncracked
state" It may be said that irrespective of the amount of web
reinforcement and the beams geometry, the stiffnesses of these
coupling beams were reduced at least by 80%.. After high intens-
ity alternating loading the maximum stiffness of the beams is
approximately 15% of the original value.. It is to be noted that
the maximum stiffness in anyone load cycle was considered in
these diagrams" This gives no measure of the overall performance
of the beam after cycles loading, for it ignores the "soft
range
U
through which the previously overloaded beam must pass
at the beginning of a new cycle" (See for example Fig" 7.,21)"
21 L
CHAPTER TEN
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
10
0
1 . The Elastic Behaviour of Coupled Shear Walls
The complete solution of the "laminar" shea:t wall analysis,
based on the Beck-Rosman approach, was presented for two common
fOrms of structures" These were subjected to a seismic type
of late.ral static loading. The assumptions of this elastic
analysis. were critically examined and attention was drawn to
the significance of cracking in the assessment of the approp-
riate stiffnesseso
In the example of an 18 storey building, it was shown
that owing to the cracking of the coupling system the critical
wall moments can increase by 50% or more.
10 .. 2 The Elasto-Plastic Analysis of Coupled Shear Walls
On the assumption that the coupling beams are the first
to attain their ultimate capacity, a step by step approximate
procedure was developed, by which the actions and deformations
of a coupled shear wall structure can be traced till a COllapse
mechanism is formed. A bilinear elasto-plastic behaviour of
all members formed the basis of the analysis.
An advantage of the analysis is that it yields the
requirements for l.;l.minar ductility. In an illustrative example
it was shown that for a particular 18 storey shear core the
critical coupling beams need to possess a ductility factor of
27 if the overall plastic behaviour is to correspond with a
ductility of 4.
The limitations of the analysis lie in the assumptions
made with respect to the ability of the principal structural
members, in particular the coupling beams, to undergo the
necessal;Y plastic deformations without loss of resistanced
10 .. 3 Experimental Evidence on the Behaviour of Coupling Beams.
10.,3. 1 Flexure
10.3
0
1 .. 1 The distribution of the stresses along
the flexural reinforcement of diagonally cracked coupling
beams drastically deviated from the imposed bending moment
pattern. In medium and deep coupling beams tensile stresses
wer::egenerated over the entire span in both, the top and the
bottom reinforcement. As a consequence of this, none of the
steel in these doubly reinforced concrete coupling beams can
be relied upon to carry compression forces.. Similarly.the
beneficial effect of the "compression reinforcement
ll
upon the
ductility of the beam must be discounted ..
10
0
3. '02 After the full development of
the critical steel stresses were higher than those predicted
by the conventional flexural theory.. Because of the inter-
action .of shear and flexure, the internal lever arm reduced
progressively as the ultimate load was being approached. As
opposed to the behaviour of normal reinforced concrete beams,
in coupling beams the internal compression resultant was
found to move away from the compression edge of the beam at
the attainment of the ultimate load.
10 .. 3.1 .. 3 The reduction of the internal lever
arm and the consequent reduction .of the ultimate strength
was accentuated after cyclic loading. Tensile yielding
imposed upon the reinforcement in one cycle was not recovered
after a load reversal of equally high intensity. Plastic
steel deformations in tension, caused by alternating loading,
were largely accumulative in both faces of the beams.
10.3.1 .. 4 The discrepancy between the (conventional)
theoretical ultimate flexural load and the failure. load
sed with decreasing aspect ratio (lin) of the beams. This is
apparent from a quantitative comparison of the test beams, as
presented in Table 10010 In shallow coupling beams the ultimate
flexural capacity was satisfactorily predicted by the customary
(Whitney) theory 0
10.3
0
2.1 Measurements verified the phenomenon,
also observed by others, that stresses in a stirrup vary con-
siderably along its length" Local high stresses, however, do
not necessarily affect the ultimate shear strength. The latter
depends on the combined strength of all stirrups which cross a
potential failure crack.
10.3,,2,,2 The stirrup reinforcement did not behave
according to the laws of the conventional truss analogy. In
medium and deep elastic coupling beams, a statically indeterm-
inate truss carried the major portion of the constant shearing
force.. In such a truss the compression struts radiate from
diagonally opposite corners of the beams propero Each diagonal
strut has a different inclinati(:m and thus, within the elastic
limit, each symmetrically situated stirrup carries a different
share of the load.
10,,3 .. 2.3 In beams, underreinforced for shear,
failure occurred by separation into two equal halves along
the main diagonal. The yielding of the stirrups progressed
from the centre of the coupling beams towards their supports.
10 0 3
0
2.4 The strength of the web reinforcement
Was determined by the number of stirrups encountered by the
potential failure crack along the main diagonaL For beams
with an aspect ratio (lin) of 1.4 to 200 the critical diagonal
crack was formed at an inclination of approximately 35
0
For
214 ..
medium and deep coup ling beams the diagonal tension (separation)
failure occurre.d along the .. diagonal connecting opposite corners.
10 .. 3,,2 .. 5 The shear force sustained by the coupLing
beams, without the assistance of the web was
satisfactorily predicted by the present AC I Code. (See Table
10 .. 1) ... It is to be noted that the beams of this investigation
would be classified as deep beams, for the analysis of which
most.codes make special and only vague recommendations.
When shear governed the strength of a
coupling beam the AC I Code satisfactorily and conservatively
estimated the combined shear strength of the concrete mechanisms.
and the web reinforcement for monotonous static loading. (See
columns 6, 9 and 11 of Table 10,,1.)
10,,3.2 .. 7 The contribution of the shear resisting
mechanisms in coupling the web reinforcement
(ioe. arch action, dowel and aggregate interlock forces),
rapidly diminish after a few reversals of high intensity cyclic
loading, particularly when yielding of the flexural reinforce-
ment has also occurred. The strength of stirrups in beams,
which have not been web reinforced for the full ultimate shear,
deteriorate rapidly during cyclic loading ..
10,,3
0
3 Concrete Stresses and Strains
10
0
3
0
3. 1 As expected, the nonlinear distribution
of the concrete stresses at the encastre boundaries of the
uncracked coupling beams was clearly evident.
10 0 3.3 .. 2 The complete break down of the Bernoulli-
Navier hypothesis in the diagonally cracked coupling beams was
. verified.
10,,3.3 .. 3 The pattern of concrete stresses confor-
med best with that which could be derived from the behaviour
of the analogous truss. critical compression stresses
were always inclined.
215 ..
10.3 .. 3.4 The fle:x;ural reinforcement in the
compression zones of the beams .. interfered .. with rather than
assisted in the carrying of the internal compressian forces ..
10.3 .. 30 5 Once subject ta tensile y i e l ~ the
flexural reinforcement retarded the closure of cracks in the
compression zone after load reversal and thus made the surr-
ounding concrete less effective in transmitting compression
stresses. A reduced internal lever arm of the resisting forces
was one of the consequences of this phenomenon.
10
0
3,,4 Horizontal (Intermediate) Web Reinforcement
10 0 3 .. 49 1 Because the flexural reinforcement was
subject to tension over the entire span, excepting shallow
coupling beams, the loaded beams have become langer . Therefore
all intermediate horizontal bars became engaged in load trartsfer
o
The stresses over the length of these bars were approximately
uniform. They increased the ultimate moment capacity of the
medium and deep coup ling beams ..
10
0
3
0
4.2 The horizontal web reinforcement tended
to produce a finer mesh and a more uniform spacing of cracks ..
100 3.403 The extensive yielding of the principal
flexural reinforcement and the consequent plastic deformations
of the coupling beams Were arrested by the intermediate bars
t
when the latter operated within the elastic limit. Also they
appeared ta have slightly increased the stiffness of the cracked
beams"
10.3 0 5 Confining Reinforcement
Confining reinforcement, cansisting of clasely
spaced transverse ties in the carners of a deep coupling beam,
together with heavy stirrup reinforcement, prevented the rapid
deterioration of the beam after cyclic loading and considerably
increased its ductility.
216 ..
10 .. 3,,6 Deformations
10
0
3
0
6.1 The rotations of uncracked coupling beams
could be approximated with a satisfactory degree of accuracy
using only the classical flexural theory, Leo neglecting the
deep beam effects.
10
0
3
0
6
0
2 The deformations of cracked coupling
beams were significantly influenced by the biaxial state of
strains, horizontal and vertical steel tensile strains
and diagonal concrete compression strains. In contrast to
slend.er. f.lexural members the elongation and transverse expansion
of these beams were considerable.. Consequently the deformed
shape could no longer be defined in terms of the shape of the
beams I axe s "
10,,3.6 .. 3 Transverse expansion measurements indi-
cated best the imminence of distress, particularly after cyclic
loading ..
10 0 3 0 6 0 4 Extensive rotational measurements reveal-
ed three distinct ranges of a beam1s behaviour after it was
subjected to a number of high intensity load reversals ..
a
o
) A "soft range" at very low loads.. This was
','r,-,'
with the closure of the previously formed cracks" Its
extent was proportional to the total previously imposed
plastic deformations"
bo) A "steady range" at medium loads with the character-
istics of linear elastic behaviour.
co) A "p l as ticrange" at near ultimate load resulting from
the yielding of the flexural and/or shear reinforce-
ment ..
The change from one range into another was gradual ..
10 .. 36 6,,5 In terms of support rotations relatively
small ductility could be observed in all beams.. However, it is
217"
ve:r:yprobable that considerably larger rotations
occurred than the measured ones o In supplying inadequate infor..,
mation on. ductility this project, through the use of unsuitable
loading arrangement, failed te fulfil one of its principal aimso
10.3.6.6 Deflection observations indicated that
shear distartions greatly overshadowed flexural ones.
10 0 3.7.Stiffness
10.3,,7.1 The loss of stiffness, after the cracking
of coupling.beams, was considerably more than the loss encount-
ered with normally proportioned reinforced concrete flexural
members. The greatest reduction of stiffness occurred after
the formation of diagonal cracks.
10,,3.7.2 As long as beams behaved within the
elastic range, a number of high intensity load reversals did
not aignificantly alter their stiffnesses.
10.3.7
0
3 A few excursions into the postelastic
range of behaviour resulted in a further loss of stiffness.
At this stage the stiffness measured the beam's resistance
after it moved through considerable displacements ("soft range
ll
)
at low loads.
10.4 Analytical Studies of Coupling Beams
10 .4.1 Tension Force Distribution and Beam Elongation
10.4.1.1 By satisfying the equilibrium require-
ments in an analogous beam, which was modelled on the cracked
real beam, the distribution of the tension along
the flexural reinforcement could be determined. The equations,
in which the contribution of the stirrup reinforcement (11) was
the major parameter, agreed well with the experimental evidence.
10
4
4.1.2 The equations of steel force intensity
allowed the elastic elongation of the beam proper to be computed.
218 ..
A comparison with test measurements revealed that slip and
elastic deformations along the iiilnchorages of the flexural
reinfor.cement in the end-blocks were each of the same order
as the. elongation of the coupling beam proper.
100402 The Determination of Stiffness
100402. 1 Using the model of an analogous truss
the comp.onent rotations owing to truss arch action,
tying action of the flexural reinforcement, and flexure were
anjalytically approximated. F.rom these the stiffness of the
cracked coupling beams was approximated o No attempt was made
to introduce empirical parameters o A fair agreement was found
to exist between theory and experiments.
10
0
40202 The study also indicated that although
the component rotations may be considerably affected by the
sharoe qfthe stirrups in resisting shear (l1J , the total
rotations do not depend upon stirrup performanceo
10
0
4
0
2,,3 The analysis showed that in medium and
deep coupling beams the flexural rotations accounted for 10%
to 15% of the total rotations, the remainder being entirely
due to shear deformations o
10 0 5 Suggestions for Future Research
10 0 5
0
1 To supplement the experimental findings of this
project it would be useful to repeat some tests using a dis-
placement controlled load device, so as to enable the full
plastic range of the coupling beams to be evaluated o
1005
0
2 It is possible that a concentration of stirrup
reinforcement adjacent to the built-in supports might be
useful to or to delay the destructive shear displace-
ments across the cracked compression zones of coupling beams,
1\1
which are subjected to high intensity cyclic loading.. Suitable
tests should reveal whether this can be achieved with only the
varied spacing of the web reinforcement or with the use of
additional stirrup sat the supports 0
10.5.3 The effectivness of a diagonal arrangement of the
principal reinforcement and its influence on post-elastic per-
formance of coupling beams should be investigated within the
limits of constructional possibilities.
10
0
5
0
4 The plastic behaviour of walls under the action
of bending moment, shear and axial tension, and a suitable
arrangement of the reinforcement to improve upon ductility
need ,be fully explored"
10
0
5
0
5 The applicability of an elasto-plastic analysis,
base.d upon a realistic approximation of the true behaviour of
all structural members, would need to be verified on small scale
reinforced concrete coupled shear wall model structures.
10 0 6 De sign Recommena tion's
10
0
6.1 The Design of Coupling Beams
10060101 The ultimate flexural strength of medium*
and de.!p,* coupling beams can be assessed with the use of the
established principles of the ultimate load analysis in rein-
forced concrete, with the foll9wingrestrictions:
*
a
o
) Only 90% of the so computed flexural resistance is
to be taken into account.
b) All reinforcement in the compression zone of the
beam is to be ignored in t ~ strength computationso
co) When high intensity cyclic loading is to be expected,
as in earthquakes, a further 5% reduction of flexural
capacity is to be allowed foro
,:
According to the terminology of this project.
2 2 ~
10.601.2 To ensure the utilisation of the maximum
possible ductility, the shear strength should not be permitted
to govern the design.. At least a "balanced design" must be
aimed at in which the shear strength provided matches, but
preferably exceeds, the ultimate strength in flexure. In
earthquake r.esistant design therefore, the stirrup reinforce-
ment, crossing the potential failure crack, should carry at
least .. the.full shear corresponding to the ultimate moment
capacity.. . The potential failure crack forms across the main
diagonal of the beam or at an angle of not less than 35
0
to
the horizontal. Preferably additional stirrups should be
pravided in the immedia te vicinity of the encastre supports
of the beam to give restraint to the compression zone of the
beam during alternating loading ..
1 6 ~ 1 .. 3 Horizontal intermediate web reinforce-
ment should be used in deep beams for crack control. Any such
reinforcement, situated in the tension zone of the critical
section, should be included in the evaluation of the ultimate
flexural capacity"
10.6. '.4 When an elasto-plastic analysis so
indicates and when it is feasible from the point of view of
construction, confining reinforcement, such as ties extending
between the legs of stirrups, may be used in the four compress-
ion corners of the critically situated coupling beams.
10
0
6
0
1.5 All horizontal reinforcement should
pass through the full span of a coupling beam without cut-offs
or laps, and be generously anchored into the adjoining walls ..
It is to be noted that the concrete in the anchorage zones
may be. subject to transverse tensile strains and may thus
contain cracks parallel to the reinforcement to be anchored.
10.6 .. 1,,6 Flanges from slabs, that may frame into
coupling beams, should be ignored in the strength computations.
All flexural reinforcement should be accommodated within the
221.,
stirrups of the beams so as to enable the most effective develop-
ment of a truss action ..
10
0
6.1.7 Because of the unique distribution of
the t.ension forces, the nominal flexural bond stresseS are not
likely to be critical in the design of coupling beams. However,
if the bond performance needs improving it should be achieved
with the use of smaller diameter bars and not through the
provision of additional flexural reinforcement ..
10 0 6. ~ 8 The displacements imposed upon earth-
quake,s ,are often. large enough to force a member, such as a
coupling beam, into the postelastic range. To be able to
ass.es.s .withreasonable confidence the magnitude of actions so
generated, it is important to be aware of the true properties
of the materials at the time of the design. It may be a fallacy
to believe that a low yield strength adopted in the design
calculations necessarily leads to a safe design.* In a so
designed coupling beam, large earthquake induced displacements
may- generate bending moments, at the true yield strength of the
flexural reinforcement, which induce shear forces, large enough
to destroy the beam in a brittle manner.
10
0
6
0
2 Coupled Shear Wall' Structures
10 06 .. 20 1 The elastic behaviour of two coupled
shear walls may be conveniently assessed by the "laminar
analysis".. For the results, such as displacements, to be.
realistic the loss of stiffness, caused by cracking of the
structural members, must be considered.. In a normal structure
the coupling beams are likely to be the first ones to crack.
* The current standard building by-law in New Zealand specifies
a yield strengt:h of 33000 p. s. i. for mild steeL The rein-
forcement so marketed, and also used in this investigation;
has a yield strength of approximately 45000 p.s.i ..
222"
With. the., . .useof ,the equations;. presented in Chapter 9, the
stiffness of the cracked coupling beams can be satisfactorily
evaluated.. The approximate reduction of stiffness was 80% in
terms of the s.tiffness of the uncracked medium and deep
couplin& beams.. This dramatic loss suggests that the present
practice of shear wall analysis is likely to considerably
overe.stima.te the stiffness of coupled shear wall structures Q
Xhismay lead to adverse dynamic design properties.
10 .. 6 0 2 .. 2 . Even w'-th its the proposed
(Chapter 4) indicate$
,
. a .. ) the individual requirements of structural ductility
of various members when a specified overall ductility
is to be attained in earthquake resistant design;
b.) the likely magnitude of the maximum load upon the
caupled shear wall structure when all its reserves
are exhausted.
10 .. 6,,2,,3 The knowledge of the ultimate load on
the shear wall structure enables a comparison to be made with
the capacity of its foundations.. For cantilever structures;
such as coupled shear walls, stability requirements may be the
ones that: determine the limits of lateral load carrying
ity.. The accummulation of the theoretical ultimate actions
at the baE;e af the coupled walls may praduce moments at founda-
. tion level, well in excess of the minimum moment which would
cause the. structure to overturn" When the lateral load on the
structure is limited by stability requirements at the found-
atians - a frequent situation in the design of multistorey
structures - a major part of the coupled shear wall may
operate in the elastic rangeo In such cases the demand for
la,rge ductility may be considerably reduced"

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THE COUPLING OF SHEAR WALLS

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