UL HEROES WN aN Natalee) reboot© 1992 Richard Reynolds All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission. First published by B. T. Batsford Ltd., London First published in 1994 in the United States of America by the University Press of Mississippi Print-on-Demand Edition The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Reynolds, Richard, Super heroes : a modern mythology / Richard Reynolds. p. om. — (Studies in popular culture) Originally published: London : B.T. Batsford, 1992. (Batsford cultural studies) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-87805-693-9 (cloth). — ISBN 0-87805-694-7 (paper) 1. Comic books, strips, etc —United States—History and criticism. 2. Herocs—United States. I. Title. II. Series: Studies in popular culture (Jackson, Miss.) . (PN6725.R48 1994] 741.5'0973—dc20 93-48411 cIPCONTENTS Acknowledgements 6 1 Masked Heroes _7 2 Costumed Continuity 26 3 Deciphering The Myths 53 Explicity Mythology: Thor 53 ‘Atonement with the Father’: Superman 60 ‘Angry All Your Life’: Batman 66 ‘Living in the New Middle Ages’ 74 4 Three Key Texts 84 X-Men 108-143 84 The Dark Knight Returns, 95 Watchmen 105 Epilogue 119 Further Reading 125 Notes 127 Index __132ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ERS SED ae The Author and Publisher would like to thank DC Comics for their permission to reproduce material featuring their trademarked characters on pages 11, 13, 21, 31, 33, 39, 42, 64, 71, 72, 78, 99, 104, 112 and on the front cover. Acknowledgement is also made to Marvel Comics for the use of material featuring their trademarked characters on pages 28, 35, 36, 55, 56, 59, 76, 87, 90 and 93. The Avengers, Captain America, Iron Man, the She-Hulk, Thor, the X-Men and the distinctive likenesses thereof are trademarks of the Marvel Entertainment Group, Inc. © 1994 and are used with permission. Thanks are also due to the Victoria and Albert Museum and to David Pratt for their help with photography. The author would also like to thank John Izod for his help and encouragement at all stages of this book’s development, as well as Steve Edgell, Lindsay Porter and Ian Rakoff for their criticisms and comments on the final draft.Masked Heroes Batman, Superman, Spider-Man, Wonder Woman; among the most widely-known fictional characters ever conceived. Created as comic-book heroes, they remain more widely known through television, the movies and (in the case of Batman and Superman) through a vigorous presence in American and European popular culture that ensures their recognition by millions who have never read a Batman comic or seen a Superman film. Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman’ have remained continuously in print and involved in an unbroken sequence of new adventures for over 50 years. Yet the medium from which they spring — the 6 9in 4-colour comic book — continues to be (at least in American and British culture) a marginalized channel of communication held by many to be an irredeemably corrupt and corrupting form of dis- course, or else suitable only for children and the semi-literate. In consequence, the adult superhero readership (a sub-section of the adult comic readership as a whole) has come to identify itself as a small and very cohesive subculture. Specialist comic-book retailers, ‘marts’ and full-scale conventions are the outward signs of this cohesion, as is the highly-organized market-place for buying, selling and collecting old comics. If connoisseurship and value to the collector alone gave access to the privileged world of high culture, superhero comics would have been there long ago. For the cultural student, superhero comics present a number of immediate paradoxes: a popular art-form traditionally known for its apparently hegemonic and sometimes overtly authoritarian texts; a publishing genre which began to gain a degree of cultural respecta- bility by ducking ‘underground’ at least partially for its distribution; an art-form which has been handled (if at all) with disdain by the literary establishment, and yet has built up its own lively and heuris- tic critical discourse through what is still rather misleadingly known as the ‘fan’ press;? and, finally, a body of contemporary mythology from which television and Hollywood have plundered material as diverse as the campy 1960s Batman TV show, the apparent artless- ness of the Christopher Reeve Superman cycle, and the overwrought gothic bravura of the 1989 Batman movie. The superhero genre is tightly defined and defended by its committed readership — often to the exasperation of writers and artists, many of whom have proclaimed it to be a worn-out formula from as long ago as the 1970s. But the dinosaur refuses to keel over and die, and dominates the economics of the American comics8 MASKED HEROES industry. The chief superhero characters remain its most widely- understood and recognized creations — to the annoyance of writers and artists who would like to bring the wider possibilities of the comic book (or graphic novel)® to the attention of the general public. An attempt to define the limits of the genre can best be made as part of a broader exploration of the heroes themselves — differing as they do from each other sometimes as much as Gandhi and the Lone Ranger. The costumed superhero burst into seemingly fully-fledged existence in June 1938, with the appearance on American news- stands of Action Comics 1, featuring Superman’s first ever appear- ance in print. The new arrival proved enormously popular, and quickly led to a host of imitations and new ideas along similar lines — from Batman, Wonder Woman, and the Sub Mariner — all with us to this day — to such obscure creations as The Arrow, Shock Gibson and the Masked Marvel.‘ America’s entry into World War Two gave the superheroes a whole new set of enemies, and supplied a complete working ratio- nale and world view for a super-patriotic superhero such as Captain America.’ This so-called Golden Age® of comics and superhero comics in particular lasted up to the late 1940s, when the bulk of the costumed superhero titles folded as a resule of falling reader- ships. Only Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman came through the lean years of the early 1950s without a break in publication. The spotlight had shifted elsewhere — to crime comics, western comics, horror comics. As is well known, it was the excesses of the horror comics which led indirectly to the renaissance of the superhero genre. The bloody guts and gore of Entertaining Comics”? Tales From the Crypt, Vault of Horror® and other titles both from EC and rival publishers led to the censorious publication Seduction of the Innocent® by Dr Frederic’ Wertham and the 1954 Congressional hearings on juvenile delinquency and comics.’® The comic publishers responded to the adverse publicity of the report and the hearings with the self-censor- ing Comics Code — still extant today. The Code involved a volun- tary ban by the publishers themselves on violence, explicit sex, gratuitous gore and the triumph of evil or antisocial behaviour. In a move against the ‘true crime” comics which had peaked in popular- ity in the late 1940s, the Code stipulated that law enforcement officers should never be shown in a disrespectful or unsympathetic light. Clearly, the climate had changed. Detective Comics (DC) decided to expand their small list of superhero comics which had, in the early ‘1950s, shrunk to no more than Superman, Batman andMASKED HEROES 9 Wonder Woman. A re-born and re-costumed Flash (1956)'* paved the way for the return of the Green Lantern (1959),'? a new heroine, Supergirl (1959)'* and then a whole superhero team in the shape of the Justice League of America (1960).'* Under the editorship of Stan Lee, Marvel Comics re-entered the superhero market with new titles such as The Fantastic Four (1961),'* Spider-Man’ (1963) and the X-Men (1964).'7 Norse Gods were added to the genre with The Mighty Thor,** and horror wedded to the superhero format in The Incredible Hulk."* Golden Age characters such as Captain America and the Sub Mariner were brought back out of retirement.”° This is the period usually referred to as the Silver Age, dating from the revival of the Flash in 1956. Marvel dominated the scene in the 1960s and early 1970s, its writers and artists creating a wealth of exciting new titles that mixed protagonists more in tune with the mores of the period, and kept an eye for the visual and verbal ironies inherent in situating super-powered characters against a background that purported to represent the ‘real’ world. It was the Marvel line of this period which first began the expansion of comics into a teenage and college readership. DC, however, remained the leading publisher of superhero comics in terms of sales, benefitting from the enormous appeal of the 1960s’ Batman TV series. Batman and Superman titles made up nine of the ten best-selling comics in the USA by 1969. DC also developed innovative titles of its own, such as the Green Lantern/Green Arrow team-up of the early 1970s, which featured artwork by exciting new talent Neal Adams.”! But by the 1980s, the Marvel phenomenon had gone stale, DC reasserted itself as the leading comic book publisher, by means of a shrewd and imaginative revamping of its classic titles, and the pro- moting of exciting and innovative work both in the superhero genre (such as Watchmen), and in the linked genres of fantasy and horror, with titles such as Hellblazer. By the mid-1980s the Comics Code, once a force powerful enough to bring even EC’s William Gaines to heel, had become a spent force, with both Marvel and DC insou- ciantly advertising many of their comics as ‘Suggested for Mature Readers’. Such confidence in the labelling bespoke the strength of their adult readership. There is currently a feeling amongst some comic publishers that the ‘adult’ trend may have gone too far, and that comics may be running the risk of provoking another Wertham-like backlash against explicit violence and sexuality.”* Superman, the first superhero, was conceived by the teenage Jerry Siegel as early as 1934, lying sleepless one night in bed: Lam lying in bed counting sheep when all of a sudden it hits me. I conceive a character like Samson, Hercules, and all the strong men I have ever heard tell of rolled into one. Only more so. I hop right oftt of10 MASKED HEROES bed and write this down, and then I go back and think some more for about two hours and get up again and write that down. This goes on all night at two hour intervals, until in the morning I have a complete script.** But the concept of a character with superhuman strength and invul- nerability was simply too unfamiliar for the comic book publishers of the early 1930s. Siegel and artist Joe Shuster established them- selves in the comics business with the private eye strip ‘Slam Brad- ley’ (1934). Superman finally made his debut in Action Comics 1 (1938),** using material hastily adapted by Siegel and Shuster from a story which had originally been intended to form part of a news- paper strip. Superman’s arrival created a wholly new genre out of a very diverse set of materials. Today, many aspects of the first Superman story and its narrative approach have the appearance of cliché: it is necessary to keep in mind that the origin of what later became clichés lies right here. Page 1 introduces the reader to the dying planet Krypton (unnamed), and explains that ‘a scientist’ has placed his infant son in a spaceship, launching it towards earth. The ‘sleeping babe’ is discovered and grows up in an orphanage (Clark Kent’s parents in Smallville are a later addition to the mythology). On reaching maturity, the young man discovers that he can leap # mile, hurdle a twenty story building . . . raise tremendous weights . . . run faster than an express train . . .** Moreover ‘nothing less than a bursting shell’ can penetrate his skin. Considerable powers, though modest when compared with the god- like abilities Superman would acquire later in his career. Clark decides to dedicate his strength to the benefit of mankind, and elects to assume the identity of Superman — all this in the first page of the story, which concludes with a ‘scientific’ explanation of Clark’s superhuman abilities, comparing his strength with the proportionate strength of ants and grasshoppers. Pure hokum, but anticipating by 25 years Stan Lee’s Spider-Man, and that character’s ‘proportionate strength of a spider’. Pages 2-4 relate how Superman prevents an innocent woman going to the electric chair. On page 5 reporter Clark gets an assign- ment from the (unnamed) editor of the paper which employs him, the Daily Star (later to be renamed the Daily Planet): Did you ever hear of Superman? What? Reports have been streaming in that a fellow with gigantic strengthsna bet12 MASKED HEROES named Superman actually exists, I’m making it your steady assignment to cover these reports. Think you can handle it, Kent? Listen Chief, if I can’t find out anything about this Superman, no one cant?* : Pages 5—6 sce Superman intervene in a wife-beating (‘You're not fighting a woman now!”). Next, Clark encounters his smart and stylish colleague Lois Lane (‘What do you say toa...er... date tonight, Lois?” ‘I suppose I'll give you a break . . . for a change’). At the roadhouse, however, Clark is hustled away from his date by brawling Butch Matson, who has nothing but contempt for Clark’s pacifist attitudes (‘Fight . . . you weak livered polecat!’ ‘Really, I have no desire to do so!’). - Lois leaves the club in disgust, but finds herself bundled into Matson’s car. But even as they hustle their captive away, Matson and his cronies find the road blocked by the imposing figure of Superman, who tips both Lois and the roughnecks out of the car and then trashes the automobile, in a panel which also provides the subject matter for the comic’s famous car-throwing cover. Super- man carries Lois to safety, and on page 10 we find her telling the Daily Star’s editor of her meeting with the Man of Steel. Clark in the meantime has been given an assignment to visit the South Amer- ican republic of San Monte to stir up news for the Star’s front page. Instead, he travels to Washington DC to investigate a case of cor- ruption in the US Senate (‘The bill will be passed before its full implications are realized. Before any remedial steps can be taken, our country will be embroiled with Europe’). A cliff-hanger has Superman and the captured forcign agent failing to complete a leap between two adjacent skyscrapers. Much that would become central to the superhero genre is estab- lished in these 13 pages. As a first step towards a definition of the superhero, some of the features of the story could be listed as follows: 1. Lost parents A key preoccupation, discussed at greater length in chapter three. Superman is separated from his natural parents, and so his extra- ordinary powers are not represented in a straightforward parent-to- child relationship. Few superheroes enjoy uncomplicated relation- ships with parents who are regularly present in the narrative. 2. The man-god The language of the story’s first page mimics the King James Bible. A ‘passing motorist, discovering the sleeping babe within’ echoes theaes nie14 MASKED HEROES Magi on the road to Bethlehem, or Moses among the bullrushes — both clearly appropriate notes to strike. The sky-spanning spaceship crashes into the Earth, leaving — in later versions of the myth, at least — a deep gash in the soil. So Superman is born from a marriage of Uranus (Heaven) and Gaia (Earth). In due course, Superman will acquire his Father on Earth (Kent senior) to go with Jor-El of Krypton, his Father in Heaven. 3. Justice Superman’s devotion to ‘those in need’ involves coming to the help of those victimized by a blind though well-intentioned state. Super- man’s first ever exploit involves breaking into the State Governor's bedroom in order to save an innocent woman from the electric chair. Superman does, however, leave the real murderer bound and gagged on the Governor’s lawn.*” 4. The normal and the su, The momentary (illusory) power of the individual who threatens the superhero with a gun, knife or speeding car leads with deliberate inevitability to the astonished realization of the superhero’s invul- nerability. This is a note that most superhero stories strike from time to time, lest the contrast between super-powered hero and the average individual becomes lost — and the sense of wonder blunted by showing nothing but superpowered characters slugging it out with each other. Page 3 of Action Comics 1 includes a fine use of this contrast linked to the structure of the panels and the necessity of turning the page to follow the story. The final panel of page 3 shows the Governor's butler firing a revolver at Superman from point blank range. Page 4, panel 1, shows an unharmed Superman reaching out to grab the revolver. 5. The secret identity Why doesn’t Clark let Lois know that he’s Superman? The discourse of the story, the soap-opera continuity which investigates the Clark/ Lois/Superman triangle, would be shattered if Lois were to realize Clark and Superman’s unity. The Clark/Superman duality needs a constant supply of new dramatic situations to reveal new facets of the hero’s split personality. The explicit reasons given within the story — such as ‘They could use my friends to get at me’, reasons which have become common throughout the genre, and do not need to be spelt out when establishing a new character — are only second- ary to the structural need for characters to have secret identities.MASKED HEROES 15 This first-ever Superman story establishes the convention by using it as if it already existed. The reader is called upon to adduce adequate reasons for the disguise. And Lois’s extreme scorn for the ‘morning- after’ Clark establishes the width of the Clark/Superman gulf by way of a one-sided conversation: T'm sorry about last night — please don’t be angry with me.”* But Lois coldly stares in the opposite direction. She has become a different person from the warm and yielding individual Superman held in his arms just two panels before: panels which occupy opposite ends of a three-panel sequence in the centre of the page. The visual distance between Superman and Lois in the left-hand panel is similar to the distance which separates them on the right, but the emotional relationships implied by the figures are wholly different. What has been established is in the nature of a taboo. Refraining from a certain act (in this case, revealing oneself to be Superman) wards off a potential disaster. [logical perhaps, but the situation strengthens the appeal of our hero by establishing certain specific restraints which are peculiar to him and him alone. He pays for his great powers by the observance of this taboo of secrecy — in a manner which is analagous to the process in which warriors in many traditional societies ‘pay’ for their strength in battle by abstaining from sex, eating special foods, and other taboos designed to isolate and protect the ‘masculine’ in their characters.?° Such concern with what amount to the rites of passage from adolescence to manhood is clearly of interest and concern to a teenage audience. 6. Superpowers and politics The theme of restraint and limitation leads rather nicely to the question of the superheroes and the politicians. In fact, this theme is only lightly touched on in Action Comics 1. All that is established is Superman's ability (and willingness) to act clandestinely and even illegally if he believes that national interests may be at stake. His loyalty and patriotism are above even his devotion to the law. This entails some important consequences for a superhero such as Super- man, who is beyond the power of the armed forces, should he choose to oppose state power. Endless story possibilities can be designed around the theme of the superhero wrestling with his conscience over which order should be followed — moral or politi- cal, temporal or divine.16 MASKED HEROES. 7. Science as magic This feature is fundamental to the nature of the universe which the superhero comic portrays. Science is treated as a special form of magic, capable of both good and evil. Scientific concepts and terms are introduced freely into plots and used to create atmosphere and add background detail to artwork — but the science itself is at most only superficially plausible, often less so, and the prevailing mood is mystical rather than rational. Explicitly ‘magic’ powers are able to coexist quite comfortably with apparently scientific ones. A good example of this is the partnership between Iron Man (science) and Thor (magic) developed over the years in Marvel’s Avengers title. This question is discussed more fully in chapter three. Although further removed from the character of the heroes them- selves than the other points raised above, the depiction of science as magic is crucial to the way in which the superhero comic mytholo- gizes certain aspects of the society it addresses. This question is followed up in chapter three. These seven headings can be pulled together to construct a first- stage working definition of the superhero genre; a definition which at least has the authenticity of being constructed from the motifs of the first ever superhero comic. 1, The hero is marked out from society. He often reaches maturity without having a relationship with his parents. 2. At least some of the superheroes will be like earthbound gods in their level of powers. Other superheroes of lesser powers will con- sort easily with these earthbound deities. 3. The hero’s devotion to justice overrides even his devotion to the law. 4. The extraordinary nature of the superhero will be contrasted with the ordinariness of his surroundings. 5. Likewise, the extraordinary nature of the hero will be contrasted with the mundane nature of his alter-ego. Certain taboos will govern the actions of these alter-egos. 6. Although ultimately above the law, superheroes can be capable of considerable patriotism and moral loyalty to the state, though not necessarily to the letter of its laws. 7. The stories are mythical and use science and magic indiscriminately to create a sense of wonder. Turning some of these laws on their heads, such as 3 and 6, would give us a good working definition of the superhero’s opponent, the supervillain. Such characters are implicit in the set of governingMASKED HEROES 17 codes supplied to Superman in his first ever appearance, although they did not become a regular feature of superhero comics until around 1940.*° The early Superman stories were a resounding success. Readers asked for more of “That magazine with Superman in it.’ Publisher Harry Donenfield — initially sceptical — realized that he had a pheno- menal success on his hands. The superhero market boomed. By 1942, several dozen superhero titles were on the American market, forming the largest share of the 150-odd individual comic-book titles on sale. Some were blatant copies of Superman: a lawsuit killed Fox Features’ Wonderman, and another case was soon out- standing against Fawcett’s Captain Marvel.** Other characters only derived from the Superman model in the most generic way: famous heroes already well-established included Batman, The Human Torch, The Sub Mariner, Captain America, Hawkman, Wonder Woman and the Green Lantern.** The new medium had created a new genre all its own, and one perfectly suited for the comic-book’s ability to create unfettered fantasy at a price that even children could afford. Moreover, the idealistic but law-abiding superheroes fitted the mood of a United States about to go to war against the fascist powers. Budgetary considerations make the superhero particularly suitable for the comics medium. Parallels can be drawn between the comic book and the cinema, but in one respect the two media are totally unalike. Film is an expensive art form. Budgets for feature films today rarely go lower than $4 million — they may go as high as $50 million or more. Comics are cheaper, and they are cheaper just where the cinema is most expensive. It costs DC comics no more to have John Byrne draw Superman replacing a space-station in orbit or bathing on the surface of a star, than to show Clark Kent crossing the street on his way to the office. Clearly, any film pro- ducer has a much tougher and tightly constrained set of choices to make about a project which may be perfectly sound when viewed simply from the angle of character and plot development. The comic artist develops a familiarity, indeed almost a casual ease, in handling’ extraordinary and exotic locations. Such scenes can be casually introduced, for a few panels only, or a bewildering variety of settings can be made use of in one story, if required. The film producer, having decided to let his director build one or two expensive sets, is more or less obliged to ‘shoot the money’ — i.e. to make all this costly set-building pay off as part of the climactic action of the movie. Often this presents no insoluable problems, but it remains an additional pressure on story structure from which the comic-book artist-writer team remain refreshingly free.18 MASKED HEROES Superman and the superhero emerged at the end of the Great Depression and during the run-up to the outbreak of the European war. Millions of Americans had experienced poverty and unemploy- ment, millions more had had their faith in the notion of uninter- rupted economic progress seriously undermined. Avenging ‘Lone Wolf heroes abounded in popular narrative of the 1930s and ’40s on both sides of the Atlantic: from Doc Savage to Philip Marlowe, from Hannay in Hitchcock’s 39 Steps to the Green Hornet, from Rick Blaine in Casablanca to Captain Midnight** of the radio ser- ials. A new kind of popular hero had emerged: the self-reliant individualist who stands aloof from many of the humdrum concerns of society, yet is able to operate according to his own code of honour, to take on the world on his own terms, and win. For Americans, the historical path from Munich to Pearl Harbor coin- cides with the emergence of Superman and Captain America — solitary but socialized heroes, who engage in battle from time to time as proxies of US foreign policy. A darker side of the Lone Wolf hero is embodied by the Batman, a hero whose motivations and emotions are turned inward against the evils within society, and even the social and psychological roots of crime itself. The tension between these two veins in the superhero tradition remains to the present day. The locus of superhero comics was then, as it largely remains, New York. Writers and artists living in the city depict it in their work — so successfully that superhero stories set in any other city may require a certain degree of justification for their choice of locale. The New York of the early 1940s was a place seemingly chosen for the preservation of the values of European civilization, and a destination for large numbers of artists and intellectuals seek- ing refuge from the Nazi conquest of Europe: Auden, Isherwood, Ernst, Tanguy, Mondrian. The anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss described his reactions on arriving in the city in the essay ‘New York in 1941’, The French surrealists and their friends settled in Greenwich Village, where, just a few subway stops from Times Square, one could still lodge — just as in Balzac’s time — in a small two- or three-story house with a tiny garden in back. A few days after my arrival, when visiting ‘Yves Tanguy, I discovered and immediately rented, on the street where he lived, a studio whose windows faced a neglected garden. You reached it by way of a long basement corridor leading to a private stairway in the rear of a red-brick house . . . Just two or three years ago, I learned that Claude Shannon had also lived there, but on an upper story and facing the street. Only a few yards apart, he was creating cybernetics and I was writing Elementary Structures of Kin- ship. Actually, we had a mutual friend in the house, a young woman,MASKED HEROES 19 and I recall that, without mentioning his name, she once spoke to me about one of our neighbours, who, she explained, was busy ‘inventing an artificial brain.” . ++ If I did not have it now before my eyes, it would be hard to believe that I bought one day a sixteenth-century Tuscan sideboard for a few dollars, However, New York (and this is the source of its charm and its peculiar fascination) was then a city where anything seemed possible. Like the urban fabric, the social and cultural fabric was riddled with holes. All you had to do was pick one and slip through if, like Alice, you wanted to get to the other side of the looking glass and find worlds so enchanting that they seemed unreal.** This is the New York (or Gotham City, or Metropolis) that domi- nates the superhero story and has become its almost inevitable milieu. New York draws together an impressive wealth of signs, all of which the comic-reader (of the 1940s or the 1990s ) is adept at deciphering. It is a city which signifies all cities, and, more specifi- cally, all modern cities, since the city itself is one of the signs of modernity. It is the place where — since the comedies of Terence - the author takes the reader in order that something may be made to happen. And New York has always been the great point of disem- barkation in the history and mythology of the New World (although today, Ellis Island has been opened as a museum and migration now occurs through El Paso, Los Angeles or Miami). New York is a sign in fictional discourse for the imminence of such possibilities — simul- taneously a forest of urban signs and an endlessly wiped slate on which unlimited designs can be inscribed — cop shows, thrillers, comedies, ‘ethnic’ movies such as Mean Streets, Moonstruck or Do The Right Thing, and cyclical adventures of costumed heroes as diverse as Bob Kane’s Batman and Alan Moore’s Watchmen. Artists and characters might even rub shoulders with each other on Madison Avenue. Marvel under Stan Lee and Jim Shooter has often blurred the distinction between New York as fictional milieu and New York as publishing centre — as in Doctor Doom’s appear- ance in the Marvel Offices in Fantastic Four 10, explaining his escape from a runaway meteor.** Sometimes a thin disguise is the easiest way of summoning up an all-too-familiar subject. Batman writer Bill Finger describes the ori- gin of a famous by-name in the following way: Originally, I was going to call Gotham City ‘Civic City’, Then I tried Capital City, then Coast City. Then I flipped through the phone book and spotted the name Gotham Jewellers and said “That’s it, Gotham City’. We didn’t call it New York because we wanted anybody in any city to identify with it. Of course, Gotham is another name for New York.**