Electroluminescence and Electron Avalanching in Two-Phase Detectors
<p>Basic concepts of light signal amplification in two-phase detectors, using proportional electroluminescence (EL) in the EL gap. <b>Left:</b> with indirect optical readout via wavelength shifter (WLS), in two-phase Ar using excimer emission in the vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) at 128 nm. <b>Right:</b> with direct optical readout, either in two-phase Xe using excimer emission in the VUV at 175 nm, or in two-phase Ar using neutral bremsstrahlung (NBrS) emission in the non-VUV range (at 200–1000 nm).</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Basic concept of charge signal amplification in two-phase detectors, using gas electron multiplier (GEM)-like structures [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>].</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Energy levels of the lower excited and ionized states relevant to the ternary mixture of Ar doped with Xe and N<sub>2</sub> in the two-phase mode [<a href="#B7-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">7</a>]. These are shown for gaseous Ar, gaseous N<sub>2</sub>, gaseous Xe, liquid Ar and Xe in liquid Ar. The solid arrows indicate the radiative transitions observed in experiments and relevant to the present review (i.e., when the excitation is induced by ionization or electroluminescence). The numbers next to each arrow show the photon emission band of the transition, defined by major emission lines or by full width of the emission continuum. The dashed arrows indicate the most probable non-radiative transitions induced by atomic collisions for Ar, Xe and N<sub>2</sub> species and their pair combinations in the gas and liquid phase.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Photon emission spectra in gaseous Ar due to ordinary scintillations in the VUV measured in [<a href="#B8-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">8</a>], NBrS EL at 8.3 Td theoretically calculated in [<a href="#B9-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">9</a>] and avalanche scintillations in the near infrared (NIR) measured in [<a href="#B10-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">10</a>,<a href="#B11-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">11</a>]. Also shown are the photon detection efficiency (PDE) of SiPM (MPPC 13360-6050PE (Hamamatsu)) at overvoltage of 5.6 V and the transmittance of the acrylic plate (1.5 mm thick) [<a href="#B12-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">12</a>].</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Summary of experimental data on reduced electroluminescence (EL) yield in gaseous Ar for all known (EL) mechanisms: for NBrS EL below 1000 nm, measured in [<a href="#B9-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">9</a>,<a href="#B13-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">13</a>] at 87 K; for ordinary EL in the VUV, due to excimer emission going via Ar<sup>*</sup>(3p<sup>5</sup>4s<sup>1</sup>) excited states, measured in [<a href="#B9-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">9</a>,<a href="#B13-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">13</a>] at 87 K and in [<a href="#B14-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">14</a>] at 293 K; for EL in the NIR due to atomic transitions going via Ar<sup>*</sup>(3p<sup>5</sup>4p<sup>1</sup>) excited states measured in [<a href="#B15-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">15</a>] at 163 K.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Reduced EL yields for ordinary (excimer) EL in Xe measured by different groups, as a function of the reduced electric field [<a href="#B17-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">17</a>]. The references in the figure are those of [<a href="#B17-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Measured reduced EL yield for ordinary (excimer) EL at room temperature for Ar and Xe (data points), as a function of the reduced electric field, compared to Monte Carlo simulation data (curves), for Ne, Ar, Kr and Xe (from [<a href="#B16-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">16</a>], with permission from Elsevier).</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Electron scattering cross sections in Ar: elastic (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>), momentum-transfer (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> ), excitation (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> ) and ionization (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> ) (from [<a href="#B9-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">9</a>], with permission from Elsevier).</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Reduced EL yield in gaseous Ar as a function of the reduced electric field, for neutral bremsstrahlung EL (below 1000 nm) calculated theoretically in [<a href="#B9-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">9</a>], compared to ordinary (excimer) EL calculated in [<a href="#B16-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">16</a>] (from [<a href="#B9-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">9</a>], with permission from Elsevier).</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Photon emission spectra of proportional EL in Ar in the UV and visible range [<a href="#B19-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">19</a>], measured at room temperature in [<a href="#B19-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">19</a>] (data points) in comparison with those of the NBrS EL theory [<a href="#B9-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">9</a>] (lines), at reduced electric field of 4.6 and 8.3 Td.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>Reduced EL yield in gaseous Ar as a function of the reduced electric field, for ordinary EL (due to excimer emission in the VUV) near its threshold, measured at 87 K [<a href="#B9-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">9</a>] and at 293 K [<a href="#B14-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">14</a>] (from [<a href="#B9-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">9</a>], with permission from Elsevier). The theoretical calculation of [<a href="#B16-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">16</a>] is also shown.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>Reduced EL yield in gaseous Ar as a function of the reduced electric field, for atomic EL in the NIR due to atomic transitions going via Ar<sup>*</sup>(3p<sup>5</sup>4p<sup>1</sup>) excited states, measured in [<a href="#B15-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">15</a>] at 163 K (data points) and theoretically calculated in [<a href="#B23-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">23</a>] (hatched area between two curves) (from [<a href="#B23-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">23</a>], with permission from Elsevier). For comparison, that for ordinary EL in the VUV going via Ar<sup>*</sup>(3p<sup>5</sup>4s<sup>1</sup>) (solid curve) and the number of secondary electrons due to electron avalanching in 2 mm gap (dashed-dot curve, right scale), theoretically calculated in [<a href="#B23-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">23</a>], are shown.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Gallery of concepts of charge signal amplification in two-phase detectors, using electron avalanching in the gas phase and charge or optical readout, by 2012 in order of introduction.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>Gain characteristics of GEM multipliers at cryogenic temperatures [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>]. <b>Left:</b> in gaseous He, Ar and Kr, in the Penning mixture Ne+0.1%H<sub>2</sub> (its density corresponding to saturated Ne vapor in the two-phase mode) and in Xe+2%CH<sub>4</sub>. <b>Right:</b> in gaseous He at low temperatures (down to 4.2 K). The appropriate temperatures and densities are indicated. In He at 39 K and 4.2 K, the maximum gains were limited by discharges, while at other temperatures and in other gases the discharge limit was not reached. The multiplier active area was 2.8 × 2.8 cm<sup>2</sup>.</p> "> Figure 15
<p>Gain characteristics in two-phase Ar, Kr and Xe detectors with triple-GEM multiplier charge readout [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B40-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">40</a>]. The appropriate temperatures, pressures and electric fields in the liquids are indicated. The multiplier active area was 2.8 × 2.8 cm<sup>2</sup>; the maximum gains were limited by discharges.</p> "> Figure 16
<p>Pulse-height spectra in two-phase Ar detector with triple-GEM multiplier charge readout, operated in single electron counting mode with external trigger, at charge gains of 6000 and 17,000 [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B68-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">68</a>]. The electronic noise spectrum (dashed line), corresponding to the equivalent noise charge of σ = 940 e<sup>−</sup>, is also shown. The multiplier active area was 2.8 × 2.8 cm<sup>2</sup>. The results were obtained for specially selected GEM foils resistant to discharges, to reach the highest gain. Note that the stable maximum gain of typical triple-GEM multipliers in two-phase Ar was somewhat lower: of about 5000.</p> "> Figure 17
<p>Typical anode signals in two-phase Ar detector with triple-GEM multiplier charge readout at emission electric field in the liquid of 1.7 kV/cm [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B69-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">69</a>]. The fast and slow components of electron emission through liquid-gas interface are distinctly seen.</p> "> Figure 18
<p>Gain characteristics of double-THGEM multipliers in two-phase Xe detector for THGEM active area of 2.5 × 2.5 cm<sup>2</sup> [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B70-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">70</a>]. Gain characteristics of triple-GEM [<a href="#B40-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">40</a>] and single-GEM [<a href="#B71-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">71</a>] multipliers (of similar active area) are shown for comparison. Here the maximum gains were limited by discharges.</p> "> Figure 19
<p><b>Left:</b> gain characteristic of double-THGEM multipliers in a two-phase Ar detector for a THGEM active area of 10 × 10 cm<sup>2</sup> (maximum gain was limited by discharges) compared to that of 2.5 × 2.5 cm<sup>2</sup> (maximum gain was not reached) [<a href="#B72-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">72</a>]; a comparison to that of a single-THGEM multiplier (maximum gain was limited by discharges) is also shown. <b>Right:</b> gain characteristics of hybrid 3-stage 2THGEM/GEM multiplier in two-phase Ar detector for active area of 10 × 10 cm<sup>2</sup> [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B72-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">72</a>]. Shown is the overall multiplier gain as a function of the voltage across GEM, at two fixed voltages across each THGEM, i.e., at two values of 2THGEM gain indicated in the figure. Here the maximum gains were limited by discharges.</p> "> Figure 20
<p><b>Left:</b> electric field configuration in two-phase detector with THGEM (LEM) 2D readout [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B73-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">73</a>]. <b>Right:</b> “Effective” gain characteristic for single-THGEM multiplier charge 2D readout in two-phase Ar detector, of an active area of 10 × 10 cm<sup>2</sup> [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B73-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">73</a>], as a function of the nominal electric field in THGEM. The maximum gain was limited by discharges. The “effective” gain value should be multiplied by about a factor of 3, to be normalized to the gain definition of the present review (see details in [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>]).</p> "> Figure 21
<p><b>Left:</b> microscope images of two THGEM electrodes used as interface grids in two-phase Ar detectors in [<a href="#B9-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">9</a>,<a href="#B12-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">12</a>]: with 28% (a) and 75% (b) optical transparency (from [<a href="#B79-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">79</a>], with permission from Elsevier). <b>Right:</b> calculated electron transmission through 28% THGEM acting as an interface grid immersed in liquid Ar as a function of the voltage across THGEM (bottom axis) and nominal electric field in THGEM (top axis) (from [<a href="#B79-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">79</a>], with permission from Elsevier). The electric fields below and above the THGEM were 0.56 and 4.3 kV/cm respectively.</p> "> Figure 22
<p>Concept of combined charge/light signal amplification in two-phase detector with EL gap, using avalanche scintillations and combined THGEM/SiPM-matrix multiplier.</p> "> Figure 23
<p>Total SiPM-matrix amplitude spectrum for gamma-rays of <sup>109</sup>Cd source (<b>left</b>) and its position resolution (<b>right</b>), in two-phase Ar detector with EL gap and combined THGEM/SiPM-matrix multiplier, shown in <a href="#instruments-04-00016-f022" class="html-fig">Figure 22</a> [<a href="#B12-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">12</a>]. The THGEM charge gain was 37. The two characteristic peaks of low (22–25 keV) and high energy (60–70 and 88 keV) lines of <sup>109</sup>Cd source on W substrate are well separated in the amplitude spectrum. The position resolution (standard deviation) is shown as a function of the total number of photoelectrons recorded by the SiPM matrix. The curve is the fit by inverse root function.</p> "> Figure 24
<p><b>Left:</b> concept of combined charge/light signal amplification in two-phase detector [<a href="#B61-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">61</a>], using avalanche scintillations in combined THGEM/CCD-camera multiplier [<a href="#B60-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">60</a>], in the most elaborated way realized in [<a href="#B61-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">61</a>], with 54 × 54 cm<sup>2</sup> active area and overall liquid Ar mass of 1 t. <b>Right:</b> light signal amplitude on the CCD-cameras as a function of the nominal electric field in THGEM holes (data points) [<a href="#B61-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">61</a>].</p> "> Figure 25
<p>Charge gain as a function of applied voltage for different diameters of the anode wire in liquid Xe [<a href="#B28-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. The maximum gains are limited by discharges.</p> "> Figure 26
<p><b>Left:</b> proportional EL gain expressed in photoelectrons (PE) recorded by PMT as a function of applied voltage for 10 μm anode wire in liquid Xe [<a href="#B30-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">30</a>]. The curve is the linear fit to the data points. Notice that the experimental data points diverge from this fit near and below the nominal EL threshold. <b>Right:</b> the EL pulse width at 10% of pulse maximum as a function of applied voltage. Notice that the EL pulse width decreases below the nominal EL threshold, presumably indicating on alternative EL mechanism below the threshold.</p> "> Figure 27
<p>Proportional EL gain of needle-type device in liquid Xe as a function of the applied voltage [<a href="#B80-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">80</a>]. The electric field near the tip of needle varies from 30 × 10<sup>3</sup> kV/cm to 2 × 10<sup>3</sup> kV/cm over distance of 0.1 μm. If to extrapolate to zero, light emission has a threshold at 44 V.</p> "> Figure 28
<p>Relative amplitude of the proportional EL signal generated in THGEM (<b>left</b>) [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B49-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">49</a>] and GEM (<b>right</b>) [<a href="#B4-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">4</a>] plate immersed in liquid Ar as a function of the voltage across the plate. The appropriate electric fields in the THGEM and GEM hole centers are shown on the top axes.</p> "> Figure 29
<p>Amplitude of proportional EL signal (pulse-area) and its EL yield (number of photons per drifting electron) produced by THGEM in liquid Xe as a function of the THGEM voltage [<a href="#B83-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">83</a>].</p> "> Figure 30
<p>Concept of liquid-hole multiplier (LHM) detector [<a href="#B57-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">57</a>,<a href="#B58-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">58</a>,<a href="#B59-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">59</a>].</p> "> Figure 31
<p>Example of EL signals (S2 signals) induced by alpha particles, recorded from a LHM detector [<a href="#B59-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">59</a>]: (<b>left</b>) in liquid Xe and bare-PMT and (<b>right</b>) in liquid Ar and TPB-coated PMT.</p> "> Figure 32
<p>Breakdown field versus stressed area of the cathode in liquid Ar [<a href="#B82-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">82</a>]. The stressed area is defined as the area with electric field greater than 90% of the maximum electric field in the gap. The fit line represents the dependence <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mi>m</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>C</mi> <mo>·</mo> <msup> <mi>A</mi> <mi>p</mi> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> with <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>C</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>139</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>0.22</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> "> Figure 33
<p>Photon emission spectra of electroluminescence at the first (field emission cone) stage and the second (streamer) stage for a breakdown in liquid Ar [<a href="#B82-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">82</a>]: the curves are that of blue with a broad continuum and that of red with distinct peaks, respectively. The first stage curve, with a broad continuum, is similar to the scintillation continuous spectrum of liquid Ar observed in [<a href="#B89-instruments-04-00016" class="html-bibr">89</a>], while the second stage curve, featuring distinct peaks around 700 and 750 nm, is attributed to the line spectrum of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mo>*</mo> </msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>3</mn> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mn>5</mn> </msup> <mn>4</mn> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msup> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>→</mo> <mi>A</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mo>*</mo> </msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>3</mn> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mn>5</mn> </msup> <mn>4</mn> <msup> <mi>s</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msup> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </semantics></math> transitions in gaseous Ar.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Basic Concepts of Signal Amplification in Two-Phase Detectors
3. Light Signal Amplification in the Gas Phase of a Two-Phase Detector, Using Proportional Electroluminescence
3.1. Three EL Mechanisms
3.2. Electroluminescence Due to Excimer Emission
3.3. Electroluminescence Due Neutral Bremsstrahlung Effect
3.4. Electroluminescence Due to Atomic Transitions in the NIR
3.5. Concepts of Light Signal Amplification
4. Charge Signal Amplification in the Gas Phase of Two-Phase Detector, Using Electron Avalanching
4.1. Charge Signal Amplification Concepts at Cryogenic Temperatures
4.2. GEM Operation in Pure Noble Gases at Cryogenic Temperatures
4.3. Two-Phase Detectors with GEM Multipliers
4.4. Two-Phase Detectors with THGEM Multipliers
4.5. Gain Limit, Gain Stability and Discharge-Resistance Problems in Two-Phase Detectors with GEM and THGEM Multipliers
4.6. THGEM as Interface Grid in Two-Phase Detectors
5. Combined Charge/Light Signal Amplification in the Gas Phase of Two-Phase Detector, Using Avalanche Scintillations
5.1. Two-Phase Ar Detector with Combined THGEM/SiPM-Matrix Multiplier
5.2. Two-Phase Ar Detector with Combined THGEM/CCD-Camera Multiplier
6. Charge and Light Signal Amplification in the Liquid Phase
6.1. Charge and Light Signal Amplification in Liquid Xe and Liquid Ar Using wires, Strips and Needles
6.2. Light Signal Amplification in Liquid Ar Using THGEMs and GEMs
6.3. Liquid-Hole Multipliers in Liquid Ar and Liquid Xe
6.4. Breakdowns in Noble-Gas Liquids
7. Conclusions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Buzulutskov, A. Electroluminescence and Electron Avalanching in Two-Phase Detectors. Instruments 2020, 4, 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments4020016
Buzulutskov A. Electroluminescence and Electron Avalanching in Two-Phase Detectors. Instruments. 2020; 4(2):16. https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments4020016
Chicago/Turabian StyleBuzulutskov, Alexey. 2020. "Electroluminescence and Electron Avalanching in Two-Phase Detectors" Instruments 4, no. 2: 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments4020016