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Volume 9
Issue 11
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Processes, Volume 9, Issue 11 (November 2021) – 238 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The search for alternative protein sources as a complete or partial replacement to conventional protein ingredients for food and feed applications has gained significant momentum in the past decade. Among the novel protein alternatives, a saprophytic insect known as the black soldier fly satisfies all of the requirements, including waste valorization, nutrition upcycling and circular economy. The objective of this study was to investigate simple wet mode fractionation of the fresh larvae to obtain functional ingredients. The various fractions emerging from the process were characterized and the overall material distribution of the chemical constituents present was articulated.View this paper
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16 pages, 5213 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Wound Healing Potential of Novel Hydrogel Based on Ocimum basilicum and Trifolium pratense Extracts
by Ina Andreea Antonescu (Mintaș), Angela Antonescu, Florina Miere (Groza), Luminița Fritea, Alin Cristian Teușdea, Laura Vicaș, Simona Ioana Vicaș, Ilarie Brihan, Maria Domuța, Mihaela Zdrinca, Marcel Zdrinca and Simona Cavalu
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2096; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112096 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4382
Abstract
Plants are an inexhaustible source of compounds with different medicinal properties, suitable as alternative options for the prevention and treatment of various pathologies. They are safe, effective and economical. In this paper, a combined extract made of Ocimum basilicum and Trifolium pratense extracts [...] Read more.
Plants are an inexhaustible source of compounds with different medicinal properties, suitable as alternative options for the prevention and treatment of various pathologies. They are safe, effective and economical. In this paper, a combined extract made of Ocimum basilicum and Trifolium pratense extracts (EOT) was used for the first time to demonstrate its healing effect on dermal pathologies. To evaluate the wound healing effect of EOT, a novel gel formulation was prepared and subsequently tested in vitro (using the scratch test assay) and in vivo (on an animal model). The in vitro tests demonstrated the complete recovery of the dermal fibroblast monolayer when treated with EOT in a concentration of 50 µg/mL. In vivo results using a hydrogel formulation based on EOT demonstrated improved wound contraction time and complete healing after 13 days of treatment. Moreover, a clinical case of Psoriasis vulgaris was presented, in which one week of treatment led to the significant improvement of the patient’s health. In conclusion, the topical use of the novel gel formulation containing EOT is a successful therapeutic alternative in the treatment of dermal diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Significance and Applicability of Bioactive Compounds from Plants for Innovative Technologies and Processes)
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<p>The preparation of gel formulation containing <span class="html-italic">Trifolium pratense</span> L. and <span class="html-italic">Ocimum basilicum</span> L. extract.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Spontaneous migration of dermal fibroblasts and evolution of “gap” closure in time: Column <b>A</b>—C50, original images of fibroblasts treated with EOT (50 µg/mL), objective 20×; Column <b>B</b>—C50, the same samples, after image processing; Column <b>C</b>—CTRL, fibroblasts treated with 50 µg/mL allantoin, after image processing; Column <b>D</b>—CTRL0, treatment-free fibroblasts.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Evolution of the migration of fibroblasts and “gap coverage” (which is similar to wound closure), with respect to the statistical factor “Sample” (average values). The quantitative parameters were: wound closure by width, wound closure by area and normalized cell density inside the wound.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Evolution of the migration of fibroblasts and “gap coverage” with respect to statistical factor “Time” (average values). The quantitative parameters were: wound closure by width, wound closure by area and normalized cell density inside the wound.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Evolution of the migration of fibroblasts and “gap coverage” with respect to statistical factor “Sample*Time” (average values). The quantitative parameters were: wound closure by width, wound closure by area and normalized cell density inside the wound.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Biplots of PCA results: (<b>A</b>) 2D representation for PC1 and PC2 principal components; (<b>B</b>) 3D representation for PC1, PC2 and PC3 principal components. All sample values were involved in PCA calculus.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Biplots in original PCA coordinates of MANOVA and AHC results with clusters: (<b>A</b>) 2D representation for PC1 and PC2 principal components; (<b>B</b>) 3D representation for PC1, PC2 and PC3 principal components.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Evolution in time (contraction) of the wound healing process in both groups (the control group and the EOT hydrogel-treated group).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Evolution of the wound healing process in the case of EOT gel compared to control (CTRL0—no treatment) as a function of time, expressed as a percentage (%).</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Clinical aspects of <span class="html-italic">Psoriasis vulgaris</span> treated with gel formulation of <span class="html-italic">Ocimum basilicum</span> and <span class="html-italic">Trifolium pratense</span> extract mixture.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 4860 KiB  
Article
Random Forest Regression-Based Machine Learning Model for Accurate Estimation of Fluid Flow in Curved Pipes
by Ganesh N., Paras Jain, Amitava Choudhury, Prasun Dutta, Kanak Kalita and Paolo Barsocchi
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2095; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112095 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 51 | Viewed by 4641
Abstract
In industrial piping systems, turbomachinery, heat exchangers etc., pipe bends are essential components. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), which is frequently used to analyse the flow behaviour in such systems, provides extremely precise estimates but is computationally expensive. As a result, a computationally efficient [...] Read more.
In industrial piping systems, turbomachinery, heat exchangers etc., pipe bends are essential components. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), which is frequently used to analyse the flow behaviour in such systems, provides extremely precise estimates but is computationally expensive. As a result, a computationally efficient method is developed in this paper by leveraging machine learning for such computationally expensive CFD problems. Random forest regression (RFR) is used as the machine learning algorithm in this work. Four different fluid flow characteristics (i.e., axial velocity, x-velocity, y-velocity and z-velocity) are studied in this work. The accuracy of the RFR models is assessed by using a number of statistical metrics such as mean-absolute error (MAE), mean-squared-error (MSE), root-mean-squared-error (RMSE), maximum error (Max.Error) and median error (Med.Error) etc. It is observed that the RFR models can produce considerable cost reductions in computing by surrogating the CFD model. Minor loss in estimation accuracy as compared to the CFD models is observed. While the magnitude of intricate flow characteristics such as the additional vortices are correctly predicted, some error in their location is observed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Digital and Other Processes)
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of the flow domain and (<b>b</b>) present CFD model with computational grid.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Assessment of normalized axial velocity profile at bend outlet (<b>a</b>) grid convergence test (<b>b</b>) validation of the present CFD model.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Scatter plot matrix of the feature and the targets.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Correlation heat map between features and targets.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>CFD versus RFR predicted velocity parameters for training (subfigure (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>,<b>e</b>,<b>g</b>)) and testing (subfigure (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>,<b>f</b>,<b>h</b>)) data. (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) axial velocity (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) x-velocity (<b>e</b>,<b>f</b>) y-velocity (<b>g</b>,<b>h</b>) z-velocity.</p> Full article ">Figure 5 Cont.
<p>CFD versus RFR predicted velocity parameters for training (subfigure (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>,<b>e</b>,<b>g</b>)) and testing (subfigure (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>,<b>f</b>,<b>h</b>)) data. (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) axial velocity (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) x-velocity (<b>e</b>,<b>f</b>) y-velocity (<b>g</b>,<b>h</b>) z-velocity.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Prediction residuals while training and testing the RFR models for different target variables (<b>a</b>) velocity (<b>b</b>) x-velocity (<b>c</b>) y-velocity (<b>d</b>) z-velocity.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Flow structure at central cross-section of the bend for different Re. (<b>left section</b>: CFD result; <b>right section</b>: RFR result). The oval shaped red dotted lines indicate the region in which maximum discrepancy in CFD and RFR results is observed.</p> Full article ">Figure 7 Cont.
<p>Flow structure at central cross-section of the bend for different Re. (<b>left section</b>: CFD result; <b>right section</b>: RFR result). The oval shaped red dotted lines indicate the region in which maximum discrepancy in CFD and RFR results is observed.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Flow structure at bend outlet (θ = 90°) of the bend for different Re. (<b>left section</b>: CFD result; <b>right section</b>: RFR result).</p> Full article ">
9 pages, 1658 KiB  
Article
Performance of a Gasifier Reactor Prototype without a Blower Using Palm Oil Waste
by Arief Suardi Nur Chairat, Vendy Antono, Prayudi Prayudi, Roswati Nurhasanah and Hakimul Batih
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2094; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112094 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2129
Abstract
The usage of palm oil empty fruit bunches (EFBs) in the gasification process adds value to the empty bunches as a renewable energy source. In this study, we design and manufacture a new updraft type of gasifier reactor without a blower so that [...] Read more.
The usage of palm oil empty fruit bunches (EFBs) in the gasification process adds value to the empty bunches as a renewable energy source. In this study, we design and manufacture a new updraft type of gasifier reactor without a blower so that it does not require electric power in its operation, but uses power from engine suction. Our test results compare the use of biomass waste in conjunction with diesel fuel to run a diesel power plant for 20 min at a load of 10,000 W: diesel with coconut shell charcoal (350 mL), diesel with acacia wood charcoal (380 mL), and diesel with EFB charcoal (400 mL). The test shows that the highest efficient and the most optimal biomass in the gasification process is coconut shell charcoal, because coconut shell charcoal has a dense structure and, at the time of the experiment, the coconut shell charcoal was filled 15 cm below the gas outlet pipe hole. From the standpoint of the economic value of the gasifier reactor that is proposed in this study, the result with the lowest cost is that of diesel with EFB charcoal, because, in this experiment, EFBs were the biomass that was not purchased. The additional use of empty fruit bunches of charcoal is able to save 50% diesel usage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass to Renewable Energy Processes)
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<p>A 3D design of the gasifier reactor without a blower.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>A 3D design of the power plant with palm oil empty fruit bunch as fuel to produce syngas.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The experiment setup of biomass power plant with the generator set used in the testing process is the Yamakoyo GFH 4500.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The test is carried out directly by utilizing syngas to operate a generator that is loaded with 20 incandescent light bulbs with a capacity of 50 W each.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Temperature profile for all tests.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 4758 KiB  
Article
Photoplethysmography Analysis with Duffing–Holmes Self-Synchronization Dynamic Errors and 1D CNN-Based Classifier for Upper Extremity Vascular Disease Screening
by Pi-Yun Chen, Zheng-Lin Sun, Jian-Xing Wu, Ching-Chou Pai, Chien-Ming Li, Chia-Hung Lin and Neng-Sheng Pai
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2093; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112093 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1788
Abstract
Common upper limb peripheral artery diseases (PADs) are atherosclerosis, embolic diseases, and systemic diseases, which are often asymptomatic, and the narrowed arteries (stenosis) will gradually reduce blood flow in the right or left upper limbs. Upper extremity vascular disease (UEVD) and atherosclerosis are [...] Read more.
Common upper limb peripheral artery diseases (PADs) are atherosclerosis, embolic diseases, and systemic diseases, which are often asymptomatic, and the narrowed arteries (stenosis) will gradually reduce blood flow in the right or left upper limbs. Upper extremity vascular disease (UEVD) and atherosclerosis are high-risk PADs for patients with Type 2 diabetes or with both diabetes and end-stage renal disease. For early UEVD detection, a fingertip-based, toe-based, or wrist-based photoplethysmography (PPG) tool is a simple and noninvasive measurement system for vital sign monitoring and healthcare applications. Based on time-domain PPG analysis, a Duffing–Holmes system with a master system and a slave system is used to extract self-synchronization dynamic errors, which can track the differences in PPG morphology (in amplitudes (systolic peak) and time delay (systolic peak to diastolic peak)) between healthy subjects and PAD patients. In the preliminary analysis, the self-synchronization dynamic errors can be used to evaluate risk levels based on the reflection index (RI), which includes normal condition, lower PAD, and higher PAD. Then, a one-dimensional convolutional neural network is established as a multilayer classifier for automatic UEVD screening. The experimental results indicated that the self-synchronization dynamic errors have a positive correlation with the RI (R2 = 0.6694). The K-fold cross-validation is used to verify the performance of the proposed classifier with recall (%), precision (%), accuracy (%), and F1 score. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Machine Learning and Applications)
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<p>Wrist-based photoplethysmography (PPG) measurement tool for detecting UEVD. (<b>a</b>) Narrowed arteries (stenosis) in the upper limb, (<b>b</b>) Wrist-based PPG measurement tool.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Duffing-Holmes (D–H)-based quantizer for feature extraction from normal and abnormal PPG signals.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Dynamic error scatter diagrams for different risk levels: (<b>a</b>) normal condition (Nor), (<b>b</b>) lower PAD (LPAD), and (<b>c</b>) higher PAD (HPAD).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) One PPG waveform consisting of a systolic peak (systole region), dicrotic notch, and diastolic peak. (<b>b</b>) Linear regression predictor (<span class="html-italic">R</span><sup>2</sup> = 0.6994) for the reflection index and comprehensive dynamic error, Φ.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Configuration of the proposed 1D CNN-based classifier consisting of the D–H-based quantizer, 1D convolution operations, 1D subsampling processes, and a multilayer classifier.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Original PPG stream data (10 cycles), self-synchronization dynamic errors (Φ<sub>1</sub> and Φ<sub>2</sub>) for each cycle feature extraction, convolution-processed patterns for each cycle feature enhancement, pooling-processed patterns for reducing the pattern’s dimension for different PAD risk levels. (<b>a</b>) Nor, (<b>b</b>) LPAD case, and (<b>c</b>) HPAD case.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Original PPG signals (10 cycles), feature patterns (after the pooling processes), and chaos patterns for different PAD risk levels. (<b>a</b>) Nor: single eye in the chaos pattern, (<b>b</b>,<b>c</b>) LPAD cases, (<b>d</b>) HPAD case.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Training history curves for training the multilayer classifier. (<b>a</b>) Optimal parameters versus iteration numbers, (<b>b</b>) mean squared errors versus iteration numbers.</p> Full article ">
16 pages, 583 KiB  
Article
Towards Enterprise Sustainable Innovation Process: Through Boundary-Spanning Search and Capability Reconfiguration
by Ning Cao, Jianjun Wang, Yulu Wang and Li’e Yu
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2092; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112092 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2914
Abstract
In the open innovation environment, enterprise sustainable innovation is no longer the result of individual decision-making. Extensive contact with suppliers, customers, scientific research institutions, and other subjects for boundary-spanning knowledge search, absorption, and reconfiguration is considered a critical path to enterprise sustainable innovation. [...] Read more.
In the open innovation environment, enterprise sustainable innovation is no longer the result of individual decision-making. Extensive contact with suppliers, customers, scientific research institutions, and other subjects for boundary-spanning knowledge search, absorption, and reconfiguration is considered a critical path to enterprise sustainable innovation. Studying the process of “how boundary-spanning search affects enterprise sustainable innovation” has become an urgent and valuable task. Therefore, based on an innovation search perspective, this study explored the path and mechanism of boundary-spanning search affecting enterprise sustainable innovation, revealed the intermediary effect of capability reconfiguration, and clarified the regulatory role of information technology (IT) governance. We also proposed an integrated model promoting enterprise sustainable innovation process. Using questionnaire data from manufacturing companies in China, this study empirically tested the proposed model hypothesis. The results demonstrated that all boundary-spanning searches (supply-side, demand-side, and cross-regional searches) positively and significantly impacted enterprise sustainable innovation. However, the effects of the search types varied. Capability reconfiguration played a partial intermediary role between boundary-spanning search and enterprise sustainable innovation. IT governance positively moderated the relationship between boundary-spanning search and enterprise capability reconfiguration, particularly between cross-regional search and enterprise capability reconfiguration. This study enriches our understanding of the sustainable innovation process and provides theoretical guidance for enterprises to improve their sustainable innovation performance by effectively using boundary-spanning search strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Renewable Energy Technologies and Systems: Technical, Environmental, Economic, Social, and Cultural Challenges)
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<p>The theoretical model.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 4232 KiB  
Article
Splitting Physical Exergy by Its Feasible Working Ways
by Dongbo Gao, Xiaoqi Peng, Yanpo Song and Ping Zhou
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2091; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112091 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1618
Abstract
This paper analyzed the problems associated with physical exergy splitting, and based on this, presented a new splitting method. This new method splits the physical exergy into three parts according to the feasible working ways, i.e.,: the direct, indirect, and adaptive exergy. The [...] Read more.
This paper analyzed the problems associated with physical exergy splitting, and based on this, presented a new splitting method. This new method splits the physical exergy into three parts according to the feasible working ways, i.e.,: the direct, indirect, and adaptive exergy. The computational method and the physical meaning of the three exergy parts were presented in detail in terms of graphic representation and mathematical derivation. Then, it was applied to the exergy analysis of a thermal power cycle. The results show that compared with the conventional method which splits the physical exergy into thermal and mechanical parts, the current exergy splitting method can better represent the change rule of the working ability of the real working stream in the cycle and the influence of some operation parameters, such as the turbine inlet temperature, on the real working ability. The study suggests that the new method can make the exergy analysis more helpful and guidable in its applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Manufacturing and Low-Carbon Control of Mechanical and Electrical Products)
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<p>Graphic representation of specific mechanical exergy and specific thermal exergy on (<b>a</b>) a p-v diagram and (<b>b</b>) a T-s diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Graphic representation of the feasible shifting direction of the thermodynamic state on (<b>a</b>) a p-v diagram and (<b>b</b>) a T-s diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Graphic representation of the thermodynamic state shifting and exergy splitting on (<b>a</b>) a p-v diagram and (<b>b</b>) a T-s diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>T-s diagram for a basic s-CO<sub>2</sub> Brayton cycle.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Comparison of the different methods.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Specific physical exergy of an s-CO<sub>2</sub> stream in the cycle and the three parts split by the proposed method in different regions: (<b>a</b>) from the compressor inlet to the heater outlet and (<b>b</b>) from the turbine inlet to the cooler outlet. Here, the stream temperature at the turbine inlet temperature was 550 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Specific physical exergy of an s-CO<sub>2</sub> stream in the cycle and the two parts split by the conventional method in different regions, corresponding to <a href="#processes-09-02091-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>: (<b>a</b>) from the compressor inlet to the heater outlet and (<b>b</b>) from the turbine inlet to the cooler outlet.</p> Full article ">Figure 7 Cont.
<p>Specific physical exergy of an s-CO<sub>2</sub> stream in the cycle and the two parts split by the conventional method in different regions, corresponding to <a href="#processes-09-02091-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>: (<b>a</b>) from the compressor inlet to the heater outlet and (<b>b</b>) from the turbine inlet to the cooler outlet.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Specific mechanical exergy and specific thermal exergy of an s-CO<sub>2</sub> stream in the cycle.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Max direct working proportions of the S-CO<sub>2</sub> stream at different system settings.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Increments in the specific available direct work of the s-CO<sub>2</sub> stream under different high pressures, calculated by (<b>a</b>) per unit mass and (<b>b</b>) per unit volume.</p> Full article ">
10 pages, 3879 KiB  
Article
Ionic Conductivity of Hybrid Composite Solid Polymer Electrolytes of PEOnLiClO4-Cubic Li7La3Zr2O12 Films
by Parisa Bashiri, T. Prasada Rao, Gholam-Abbas Nazri, Ratna Naik and Vaman M. Naik
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2090; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112090 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2148
Abstract
Ionic conductivity of the polyethylene oxide-LiClO4 (PEOnLiClO4) solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) films with an EO:Li ratio (n) of 10, 12, 15, as well as the hybrid composite solid polymer electrolyte (CSPE) films of PEOnLiClO [...] Read more.
Ionic conductivity of the polyethylene oxide-LiClO4 (PEOnLiClO4) solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) films with an EO:Li ratio (n) of 10, 12, 15, as well as the hybrid composite solid polymer electrolyte (CSPE) films of PEOnLiClO4 containing 50 wt% of cubic-Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) sub-micron sized particles, have been studied by varying Li-salt content in the films. The complex AC dielectric permittivity and conductivity data obtained from electrical impedance measurements were fitted using a generalized power-law, including the effects of electrode polarization applied at low AC frequencies to obtain various relaxation times. In addition to increased mechanical and thermal robustness, the CSPE films show higher values of ionic conductivity, >10−4 S/cm at room temperature compared to those of SPE films with n = 12 and 15. On the contrary, the ionic conductivity of CSPE with n = 10 decreases by a factor of three compared to the corresponding SPE film due to increased polymer structural reorientation and Li-ion pairing effects. The Vogel–Tammann–Fulcher behavior of the temperature-dependent conductivity data indicates a close correlation between the ionic conductivity and polymer segmental relaxation. The PEO12LiClO4-LLZO film shows the lowest activation energy of ~0.05 eV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Lithium-Ion Batteries and Materials)
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<p>(<b>a</b>) XRD patterns of PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub> and (<b>b</b>) XRD patterns of PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub>-LLZO. LLZO peaks are marked with asterisks.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Scanning electron micrographs of (<b>a</b>) PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub> and (<b>b</b>). PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub>-LLZO films.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Frequency dependence of <b><span class="html-italic">ε</span></b>′ and <b><span class="html-italic">ε</span></b>″ of (<b>a</b>) PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub> and (<b>b</b>) PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub>-LLZO. The open circles and solid lines represent the experimental data and the fitted data.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Loss tangent of PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub> and (<b>b</b>) PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub>-LLZO films. The open circles and solid lines represent the experimental data and the fitted data.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The frequency dependence of <b><span class="html-italic">σ</span></b>′ and <b><span class="html-italic">σ</span></b>″ of (<b>a</b>) PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub> and (<b>b</b>) PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub>−LLZO films. The open circles and solid lines represent the experimental data and the fitted data.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Ionic conductivity vs. 1000 T<sup>−1</sup> for (<b>a</b>) PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>-LiClO<sub>4</sub> and (<b>b</b>) PEO<span class="html-italic"><sub>n</sub></span>LiClO<sub>4</sub>-LLZO films. Filled circles represent the experimental data and the solid lines represent the VTF fit.</p> Full article ">
32 pages, 5062 KiB  
Review
Antimicrobial Effect of Phytochemicals from Edible Plants
by Efrat Hochma, Ludmila Yarmolinsky, Boris Khalfin, Marina Nisnevitch, Shimon Ben-Shabat and Faina Nakonechny
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2089; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112089 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 8447
Abstract
Current strategies of combating bacterial infections are limited and involve the use of antibiotics and preservatives. Each of these agents has generally inadequate efficacy and a number of serious adverse effects. Thus, there is an urgent need for new antimicrobial drugs and food [...] Read more.
Current strategies of combating bacterial infections are limited and involve the use of antibiotics and preservatives. Each of these agents has generally inadequate efficacy and a number of serious adverse effects. Thus, there is an urgent need for new antimicrobial drugs and food preservatives with higher efficacy and lower toxicity. Edible plants have been used in medicine since ancient times and are well known for their successful antimicrobial activity. Often photosensitizers are present in many edible plants; they could be a promising source for a new generation of drugs and food preservatives. The use of photodynamic therapy allows enhancement of antimicrobial properties in plant photosensitizers. The purpose of this review is to present the verified data on the antimicrobial activities of photodynamic phytochemicals in edible species of the world’s flora, including the various mechanisms of their actions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of Antimicrobial in Bioengineering)
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<p>Schematic presentation of light-mediated cell damage during photodynamic treatment.</p> Full article ">
21 pages, 4041 KiB  
Article
Synthesis of Polynomial Fuzzy Model-Based Designs with Synchronization and Secure Communications for Chaos Systems with H∞ Performance
by Gwo-Ruey Yu, Yong-Dong Chang and Chih-Heng Chang
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2088; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112088 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1469
Abstract
This paper presents the sum of squares (SOS)-based fuzzy control with H∞ performance for a synchronized chaos system and secure communications. To diminish the influence of the extrinsic perturbation, SOS-based stability criteria of the polynomial fuzzy system are derived by using the polynomial [...] Read more.
This paper presents the sum of squares (SOS)-based fuzzy control with H∞ performance for a synchronized chaos system and secure communications. To diminish the influence of the extrinsic perturbation, SOS-based stability criteria of the polynomial fuzzy system are derived by using the polynomial Lyapunov function. The perturbation decreasing achievement is indexed in a H∞ criterion. The submitted SOS-based stability criteria are more relaxed than the existing linear matrix inequality (LMI)-based stability criteria. The cryptography scheme based on an n-shift cipher is combined with synchronization for secure communications. Finally, numerical simulations illustrate the perturbation decay accomplishment of the submitted polynomial fuzzy compensator. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Process Control and Monitoring)
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<p>Secure communication block diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Synchronization discrepancy <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> <mo>(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> of Chua’s circuit in case 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Synchronization discrepancy <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msub> <mo>(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> of Chua’s circuit in case 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Synchronization discrepancy <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mn>3</mn> </msub> <mo>(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> of Chua’s circuit in case 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Synchronization discrepancy <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mrow> <mo>‖</mo> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mo>(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>‖</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </semantics></math> of Chua’s circuit in case 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Synchronization discrepancy <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> <mo>(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> at various <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>ξ</mi> </semantics></math> in case 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Synchronization discrepancy <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msub> <mo>(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> at various <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>ξ</mi> </semantics></math> in case 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Synchronization discrepancy <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mn>3</mn> </msub> <mo>(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> at various <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>ξ</mi> </semantics></math> in case 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>The encryption message of Chua’s circuit in case 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>The recovered message of Chua’s circuit in case 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Feasible space of stability criteria via the SOS approach for Chua’s circuit (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>ξ</mi> </semantics></math> = 0.2).</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Feasible space of stability criteria via the LMI approach for Chua’s circuit (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>ξ</mi> </semantics></math> = 0.2).</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Synchronization discrepancy <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> <mo>(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> of Chua’s circuit in case 2.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Synchronization discrepancy <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msub> <mo>(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> of Chua’s circuit in case 2.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Synchronization discrepancy <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mn>3</mn> </msub> <mo>(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> of Chua’s circuit in case 2.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>The recovered message of Chua’s circuit in case 2.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 1605 KiB  
Perspective
PBPK Modeling and Simulation and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring: Possible Ways for Antibiotic Dose Adjustment
by Abigail Ferreira, Rui Lapa and Nuno Vale
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2087; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112087 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6418
Abstract
Pharmacokinetics (PK) is a branch of pharmacology present and of vital importance for the research and development (R&D) of new drugs, post-market monitoring, and continued optimizations in clinical contexts. Ultimately, pharmacokinetics can contribute to improving patients’ clinical outcomes, helping enhance the efficacy of [...] Read more.
Pharmacokinetics (PK) is a branch of pharmacology present and of vital importance for the research and development (R&D) of new drugs, post-market monitoring, and continued optimizations in clinical contexts. Ultimately, pharmacokinetics can contribute to improving patients’ clinical outcomes, helping enhance the efficacy of treatments, and reducing possible adverse side effects while also contributing to precision medicine. This article discusses the methods used to predict and study human pharmacokinetics and their evolution to the current physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling and simulation methods. The importance of therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) and PBPK as valuable tools for Model-Informed Precision Dosing (MIPD) are highlighted, with particular emphasis on antibiotic therapy since dosage adjustment of antibiotics can be vital to ensure successful clinical outcomes and to prevent the spread of resistant bacterial strains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Studies of the Dosage Form and Stability of the Drug by Various Techniques)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Schematic summary of ADME properties.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Diversity of applications of PK.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Outline and summary of the stages of new drugs’ R&amp;D.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Schematic comparison between models with (<b>A</b>) 1, (<b>B</b>) 2, and (<b>C</b>) 3 compartments; first-order rate transfer constants for drug absorption (<span class="html-italic">k<sub>a</sub></span>), movement of drug between compartments (<span class="html-italic">k</span><sub>12</sub>, <span class="html-italic">k</span><sub>21</sub>, <span class="html-italic">k</span><sub>13</sub>, <span class="html-italic">k</span><sub>31</sub>), and drug elimination (<span class="html-italic">k</span><sub>10</sub>) are indicated.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>GastroPlus™ advanced compartmental absorption and transit model (ACAT™). Adapted from [<a href="#B38-processes-09-02087" class="html-bibr">38</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The core elements for antibiotic stewardship programs.</p> Full article ">
28 pages, 4320 KiB  
Review
New Analytical Approaches for Effective Quantification and Identification of Nanoplastics in Environmental Samples
by Christian Ebere Enyoh, Qingyue Wang, Tanzin Chowdhury, Weiqian Wang, Senlin Lu, Kai Xiao and Md. Akhter Hossain Chowdhury
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2086; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112086 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4864
Abstract
Nanoplastics (NPs) are a rapidly developing subject that is relevant in environmental and food research, as well as in human toxicity, among other fields. NPs have recently been recognized as one of the least studied types of marine litter, but potentially one of [...] Read more.
Nanoplastics (NPs) are a rapidly developing subject that is relevant in environmental and food research, as well as in human toxicity, among other fields. NPs have recently been recognized as one of the least studied types of marine litter, but potentially one of the most hazardous. Several studies are now being reported on NPs in the environment including surface water and coast, snow, soil and in personal care products. However, the extent of contamination remains largely unknown due to fundamental challenges associated with isolation and analysis, and therefore, a methodological gap exists. This article summarizes the progress in environmental NPs analysis and makes a critical assessment of whether methods from nanoparticles analysis could be adopted to bridge the methodological gap. This review discussed the sample preparation and preconcentration protocol for NPs analysis and also examines the most appropriate approaches available at the moment, ranging from physical to chemical. This study also discusses the difficulties associated with improving existing methods and developing new ones. Although microscopical techniques are one of the most often used ways for imaging and thus quantification, they have the drawback of producing partial findings as they can be easily mixed up as biomolecules. At the moment, the combination of chemical analysis (i.e., spectroscopy) and newly developed alternative methods overcomes this limitation. In general, multiple analytical methods used in combination are likely to be needed to correctly detect and fully quantify NPs in environmental samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Environmental and Green Processes)
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Figure 1
<p>Analytical method framework for NPs analysis in environmental samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>A flow diagram of the progressive filtering method used to remove PE NPs from commercial face scrubs. Ref [<a href="#B15-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">15</a>] Reproduced with permission from Hernandez, et al., Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett., published by American Chemical Society, 2017.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Solvent evaporation process. Ref [<a href="#B34-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">34</a>] Reproduced with permission from Mehta et al. International Journal of Advanced Scientific Research; published by Gupta, 2016.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Diagrammatic representation of the AF4’s operation. (<b>a</b>) In the elution step, the fine blue arrows represent the channel flow (horizontal arrows) and cross-flow (vertical arrows); the fine black arrows represent the channel flow that transports the nanoparticles through the channel (the lengths of the arrows represent magnitude of the flow rate); the thick blue arrows represent the inlet and outlet flows; and the red-outlined arrows represent the injection flow (the filled arrow indicates the injection flow is ON and the empty arrows indicate the injection flow is OFF). All of the arrowheads point in the direction of the flow. Fine green arrows indicate the direction of particle movement caused by cross-flow; fine red arrows in parts (<b>b</b>,<b>c</b>) denote the direction of particle movement due to their diffusion (<b>b</b>) or the physical position of particles in the channel as a result of their physical sizes (<b>c</b>). [<a href="#B35-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">35</a>] Reproduced with permission from H. Zhang and D. Lyden, Nat. Protoc.; published by Nature 2019.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>HPLC process scheme.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Fluorescently tagged PS beads of (<b>A</b>) 50 nm intake by <span class="html-italic">T. japonicas</span> copepod Reproduced with permission from Lee et al. Environmental Science &amp; Technology; published by American Chemical Society, 2013. (<b>B</b>) 200 nm uptake by lettuce root and stem. Ref [<a href="#B61-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">61</a>,<a href="#B62-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">62</a>] Reproduced with permission from Li et al., Chinese Sci. Bull.; published by Elsevier 2019.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>PS NPs imaged with a conventional transmission electron microscope. This image shows the difficulty of distinguishing clearly between NPs (<b>A</b>) and cellular structures (<b>B</b>) using standard transmission electron microscopy. CC stands for clathrin coated vesicle; PM is for plasma membrane; and AJ stands for adherens junction. Ref [<a href="#B74-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">74</a>] Reproduced with permission from Mühlfeld et al., Particle and Fibre Toxicology; published by BioMed Central, 2007.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Optical arrangement of a common experimental setup for studies of dynamic light scattering. Ref [<a href="#B84-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">84</a>] Reproduced with permission from Lim et al., Nanoscale Research Letters; published by Springeropen, 2013.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Typical FE-SEM/EDX result. Ref [<a href="#B78-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">78</a>] Reproduced with permission from Naji et al., Mar. Pollut. Bull.; published by Elsevier, 2019.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Unlabeled imaging of Polylactic acid (PLA) NPs in a cell analyzed by ATM-IR. (<b>a</b>) AFM topography of a THP-1 macrophage (color grading = 0–3 µm). (<b>b</b>) IR map of the cell at 1770 cm<sup>−1</sup>. The selected zone (dashed yellow circle) includes several PLA NPs (color grading = 0–100 A.U.). (<b>c</b>) Zoomed AFM topography showing two intracellular compartments containing NPs (red dashed circles (<b>b</b>,<b>c</b>)). The multicolor arrow represents a row of spectra acquired with a 50 nm step, (<b>d</b>) IR spectra acquired along this line. Ref [<a href="#B114-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">114</a>] Reproduced with permission from Pancani et al., Part. Part. Syst. Charact.; published by Wiley-VCH, 2018.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>TD-Pyr-GC/MS analysis flowchart. To begin, the sample is thermodesorbed (120–280 °C), desorbing volatile compounds and cryofocusing them in the Cooled Injections System (CIS) at 50 °C. Following that, the sample is transferred to a GC column for MS analysis (TD-GC/MS). The identical sample (B) is then pyrolyzed at 800 °C and analyzed by GC/MS (Pyr-GC/MS). The TD-chromatogram and the pyrogram are used to conduct the assessments. Ref [<a href="#B132-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">132</a>] Reproduced with permission from Reichel et al., Molecule; published by MDPI, 2020.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Chromatogram/pyrogram analysis of PS 78-nm particles using extracted-ion chromatography (EIC) for dimer (I) and trimer (II): (<b>a</b>) TD-chromogram (TD-GC/MS), (<b>b</b>) pyrogram (Pyr-GC/MS). Ref [<a href="#B132-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">132</a>] Reproduced with permission from Reichel et al., Molecule; published by MDPI, 2020.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Schematic representation of the protocol for thermally improved detection and quantification of PS NPs by MALDI-TOF MS. Ref [<a href="#B144-processes-09-02086" class="html-bibr">144</a>] Reproduced with permission from Lin et al., Talanta; published by Elsevier, 2019.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 2595 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Spent Coffee Grounds Oil Using Response Surface Methodology
by Malek Miladi, António A. Martins, Teresa M. Mata, Miguel Vegara, María Pérez-Infantes, Rania Remmani, Antonio Ruiz-Canales and Dámaris Núñez-Gómez
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2085; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112085 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4362
Abstract
Spent coffee grounds (SCGs) generated in coffee processing for beverages and other products are a very significant organic residue that needs to be properly treated. Waste valorization via oil extraction has the potential to obtain compounds that can be used for producing biodiesel [...] Read more.
Spent coffee grounds (SCGs) generated in coffee processing for beverages and other products are a very significant organic residue that needs to be properly treated. Waste valorization via oil extraction has the potential to obtain compounds that can be used for producing biodiesel or other high-value products, such as polymers. This work focuses on the ultrasound-assisted extraction of SCG oil using n-hexane as a solvent. Three key process parameters are analyzed: temperature, extraction time, and liquid/solid (L/S) rate of solvent, using a central composite rotatable design (CCRD), an analysis that, to the author’s knowledge, is not yet available in the literature. The data were analyzed using the software StatSoft STATISTICA 13.1 (TIBCO Software Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA). Results show that all parameters have a statistical influence on the process performance (p < 0.05), being the L/S ratio the most significant, followed by extraction time and temperature. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the empirical model is a good fit to the experimental data at a 95% confidence level. For the range of conditions considered in this work, the optimal operating conditions for obtaining an oil extraction yield in the range of 12 to 13%wt are a solvent L/S ratio of around 16 mL g−1, for a temperature in the range of 50 to 60 °C, and the longest contact time, limited by the process economics and health and safety issues and also, by the n-hexane boiling temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Edible and Non-edible Oil Extraction Processes, Modeling and Optimization)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Experimental setup for the ultrasound-assisted extraction of SCG oil (own authorship).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Pareto diagram of the experimental variables studied for the optimization of oil yield in the SCG extraction, using n-hexane as solvent.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>2D and 3D response surface plots of the SCG oil yield (%), obtained as a function of the combined effect of time (min), temperature (°C) and L/S ratio (mg·g<sup>−1</sup>) as follows: (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) extraction time and L/S ratio; (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) L/S ratio and temperature; (<b>e</b>,<b>f</b>) extraction time and temperature.</p> Full article ">
25 pages, 2511 KiB  
Article
An Effective Communication Prototype for Time-Critical IIoT Manufacturing Factories Using Zero-Loss Redundancy Protocols, Time-Sensitive Networking, and Edge-Computing in an Industry 4.0 Environment
by Kahiomba Sonia Kiangala and Zenghui Wang
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2084; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112084 - 21 Nov 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3593
Abstract
The Industrial Internet of things (IIoT), the implementation of IoT in the industrial sector, requires a deterministic, real-time, and low-latency communication response for its time-critical applications. A delayed response in such applications could be life-threatening or result in significant losses for manufacturing plants. [...] Read more.
The Industrial Internet of things (IIoT), the implementation of IoT in the industrial sector, requires a deterministic, real-time, and low-latency communication response for its time-critical applications. A delayed response in such applications could be life-threatening or result in significant losses for manufacturing plants. Although several measures in the likes of predictive maintenance are being put in place to prevent errors and guarantee high network availability, unforeseen failures of physical components are almost inevitable. Our research contribution is to design an efficient communication prototype, entirely based on internet protocol (IP) that combines state-of-the-art communication computing technologies principles to deliver a more stable industrial communication network. We use time-sensitive networking (TSN) and edge computing to increase the determinism of IIoT networks, and we reduce latency with zero-loss redundancy protocols that ensure the sustainability of IIoT networks with smooth recovery in case of unplanned outages. Combining these technologies altogether brings more effectiveness to communication networks than implementing standalone systems. Our study results develop two experimental IP-based industrial network communication prototypes in an intra-domain transmission scenario: the first one is based on the parallel zero-loss redundancy protocol (PRP) and the second one using the high-availability seamless zero-loss redundancy protocol (HSR). We also highlight the benefits of utilizing our communication prototypes to build robust industrial IP communication networks with high network availability and low latency as opposed to conventional communication networks running on seldom redundancy protocols such as Media Redundancy Protocol (MRP) or Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP) with single-point of failure and delayed recovery time. While our two network communication prototypes—HSR and PRP—offer zero-loss recovery time in case of a single network failure, our PRP communication prototype goes a step further by providing an effective redundancy scheme against multiple link failures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digitalized Industrial Production Systems and Industry 4.0)
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<p>Edge computing architecture.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Ethernet v2 frame [<a href="#B50-processes-09-02084" class="html-bibr">50</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Ethernet IEEE 802.3 frame [<a href="#B50-processes-09-02084" class="html-bibr">50</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Switching frame sequence part 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Switching frame sequence part 2.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>TSN implementation on the automation pyramid [<a href="#B58-processes-09-02084" class="html-bibr">58</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>TSN common finalized standards [<a href="#B61-processes-09-02084" class="html-bibr">61</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Bus network topology.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Ring network topology.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Mesh network topology.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Star network topology.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>PRP network topology.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>HSR network topology.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Network communication prototype using PRP.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Network communication prototype using HSR.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>RSTP ring network with no cable failure.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>RSTP ring network with one cable (link) failure.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>MRP ring network with no cable failure.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>MRP ring network with one cable (link) failure.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 5994 KiB  
Article
Study of the Transcription Effects of Pressing Dies with Ultrasonic Polishing on Glass Molding
by Ken-Chuan Cheng, Chien-Yao Huang, Jung-Chou Hung, A-Cheng Wang and Yan-Cherng Lin
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2083; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112083 - 21 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2043
Abstract
The micro lens array (MLA) has played an important role in optical systems for the past few years, and the precision of pressing dies has dominated the quality of MLAs in glass molding. Few studies have covered the transcription effects on surface roughness [...] Read more.
The micro lens array (MLA) has played an important role in optical systems for the past few years, and the precision of pressing dies has dominated the quality of MLAs in glass molding. Few studies have covered the transcription effects on surface roughness of pressing dies for this technology. Therefore, this research utilized pressing dies to produce a sine-wave lens array on glass molding, to transform the Gauss-distributed spotlight into a uniform straight one and then characterize the transcription effects of these lenses. Pressing dies with a sine-wave shape were firstly cut by wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM), and then ultrasonic polishing using diamond abrasives was applied to finish the sine-wave surface with an original roughness of 0.2 μm Ra. Next, the sine-wave lens arrays were pressed by glass molding at the appropriate pressure and temperature, before evaluating the transcription effects of transforming the Gauss-distributed spotlight into a uniform straight one. The result showed that the sine-wave lens array stuck easily to the pressing die and then ruptured during glass molding due to the poor surface roughness of pressing tool. However, the diamond abrasive with appropriate sizes could establish good surface roughness on pressing dies via ultrasonic polishing, and the pressing die with a low surface roughness of 0.08 μm Ra was able to successfully perform MLA in the glass molding. However, only pressing dies with a surface roughness smaller than 0.023 μm Ra could produce precision glass lenses to transform the Gauss-distributed spotlight into a uniform straight one. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Manufacturing Processes and Systems)
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<p>Optical design of lens for transforming Gauss-distributed spotlight into a uniform straight line.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Diagram of the ultrasonic polishing process.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The ultrasonic polishing path followed by CNC machine.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Hot-pressing stage of glass molding.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Flowchart of the experimental procedure to make the MLA.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Effects of temperature on surface roughness between pressing die and MLA.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>SEM diagrams at different molding temperature: (<b>a</b>) 680 °C; (<b>b</b>) 690 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Effects of pressing force on surface roughness between pressing die and MLA.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>SEM diagrams at different molding pressure: (<b>a</b>) F = 210 N; (<b>b</b>) F = 250 N.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Effects of ultrasonic polishing on surface roughness and material removal.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Profiles of pressing dies with or without ultrasonic polishing.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Machined surface of the pressing dies without and with ultrasonic vibration: (<b>a</b>) machined surface without ultrasonic vibration; (<b>b</b>) polished surface with ultrasonic vibration.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>The effects of abrasive size on surface roughness and material removal.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Pressing die with sine-wave shape (surface roughness 0.023 μm Ra) and MLA produced using this die.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Glass stuck on the pressing die (<b>left</b>) and seriously ruptured MLA (<b>right</b>) when using the pressing die with a surface roughness of 0.2 μm Ra.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>The appearances of glass MLA after PGM; the glass lens on the right was made using a pressing die with a surface roughness of 0.08 μm Ra, while the glass lens on the left was made using a pressing die with a surface roughness of 0.023 μm Ra.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Transcription effects of pressing dies after PGM according to a laser being emitted on the lens: (<b>a</b>) MLA made using a pressing die with a surface roughness of 0.08 μm Ra; (<b>b</b>) MLA made using the pressing die with a surface roughness of 0.023 μm Ra.</p> Full article ">
10 pages, 550 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Hydrochar and Liquid Products Obtained by Hydrothermal Carbonization and Wet Torrefaction of Poultry Litter in Mixture with Wood Sawdust
by Rafail Isemin, Natalia Muratova, Sergey Kuzmin, Dmitry Klimov, Vadim Kokh-Tatarenko, Alexander Mikhalev, Oleg Milovanov, Antoine Dalibard, Olayinka Ahmed Ibitowa, Manuel Nowotny, Mathieu Brulé, Fouzi Tabet and Bernd Rogge
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2082; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112082 - 20 Nov 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2745
Abstract
Poultry farms with floor-standing poultry generate large amounts of poultry litter waste. The direct application of this waste as an organic fertilizer does not ensure sustainable and cost-efficient utilization of all waste fractions, and can also be linked to environmental hazards. Therefore, the [...] Read more.
Poultry farms with floor-standing poultry generate large amounts of poultry litter waste. The direct application of this waste as an organic fertilizer does not ensure sustainable and cost-efficient utilization of all waste fractions, and can also be linked to environmental hazards. Therefore, the development of new technologies is required for processing poultry litter into a safe product with higher added value. In this work, the characteristics of activated carbon derived from hydrochar, along with the liquid products obtained from hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) and the wet torrefaction (WT) of poultry litter, were investigated. Poultry litter (PL) was applied in a mixture with sawdust (SD) in the following ratios: 1:0 (PL/SD 1:0), 1:1 (PL/SD 1:1), 1:2 (PL/SD 1:2), and 2:1 (PL/SD 2:1). WT processing took place in an innovative fluidized bed system in a superheated steam medium with low overpressure (less than 0.07 MPa) at 300 °C and 350 °C for 30–45 min. Conventional HTC processing was performed in a water medium at 220 °C for 1–4 h. The hydrochar produced in the experiments was activated with steam for 1 h at 450–750 °C. The porosity characteristics of activated hydrochar were measured, including pore size, pore volume, and specific surface area, in view of potential industrial applications as an adsorbent. Additionally, the contents of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), as high-value product, were determined in the liquid products obtained from HTC processing, as well as in the condensate obtained after WT processing. Specific surface areas of the activated hydrochars may still be too low for application as adsorbent material. Hence, its use as a biofertilizer and soil improver should be preferred. Interestingly, the liquid fraction obtained from the innovative WT process displayed a significantly higher 5-HMF content compared to the conventional HTC process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater and Waste Treatment: Overview, Challenges and Current Trends)
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<p>Diagram of the vapothermal carbonization apparatus of biowaste in a fluidized bed in a superheated steam environment: (<b>1</b>) feedstock bunker for biomass; (<b>2</b>) reactor; (<b>3</b>) cyclone; (<b>4</b>) product bunker for hydrochar recovery.</p> Full article ">
10 pages, 1304 KiB  
Article
Modelling Sessile Droplet Profile Using Asymmetrical Ellipses
by Du Tuan Tran, Nhat-Khuong Nguyen, Pradip Singha, Nam-Trung Nguyen and Chin Hong Ooi
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2081; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112081 - 20 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2817
Abstract
Modelling the profile of a liquid droplet has been a mainstream technique for researchers to study the physical properties of a liquid. This study proposes a facile modelling approach using an elliptic model to generate the profile of sessile droplets, with MATLAB as [...] Read more.
Modelling the profile of a liquid droplet has been a mainstream technique for researchers to study the physical properties of a liquid. This study proposes a facile modelling approach using an elliptic model to generate the profile of sessile droplets, with MATLAB as the simulation environment. The concept of the elliptic method is simple and easy to use. Only three specific points on the droplet are needed to generate the complete theoretical droplet profile along with its critical parameters such as volume, surface area, height, and contact radius. In addition, we introduced fitting coefficients to accurately determine the contact angle and surface tension of a droplet. Droplet volumes ranging from 1 to 300 µL were chosen for this investigation, with contact angles ranging from 90° to 180°. Our proposed method was also applied to images of actual water droplets with good results. This study demonstrates that the elliptic method is in excellent agreement with the Young–Laplace equation and can be used for rapid and accurate approximation of liquid droplet profiles to determine the surface tension and contact angle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Materials Processes)
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Figure 1
<p>Schematic of the coordinate system for the elliptic model. O is the coordinate of the origin, whereas (<span class="html-italic">i</span>, <span class="html-italic">j</span>) is the coordinate of the three-phase contact point.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Comparison between droplet profiles with the Young–Laplace theoretical model (continuous lines) and elliptic model (scattered data points) at different nominal contact angles.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) Images of 10 μL droplets with constructed fitting curves using ImageJ’s plugin LBADSA. Scale bar is 1 mm.</p> Full article ">
3 pages, 166 KiB  
Editorial
Photocatalytic Processes for Environmental Applications
by Olivier Monfort and Yanlin Wu
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2080; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112080 - 20 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1660
Abstract
Photocatalysis, especially heterogeneous photocatalysis, is one of the most investigated processes for environmental remediation [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photocatalytic Processes for Environmental Applications)
14 pages, 3265 KiB  
Article
Non-Specific Interactions of Rhizospheric Microbial Communities Support the Establishment of Mimosa acutistipula var. ferrea in an Amazon Rehabilitating Mineland
by Paulo Henrique de Oliveira Costa, Sidney Vasconcelos do Nascimento, Hector Herrera, Markus Gastauer, Silvio Junio Ramos, Cecílio Frois Caldeira, Guilherme Oliveira and Rafael Borges da Silva Valadares
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2079; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112079 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2997
Abstract
Mimosa acutistipula var. ferrea (Fabaceae) is endemic to ferruginous tropical rocky outcrops in the eastern Amazon, also known as canga. Canga are often associated with mining activities and are the target of protection and rehabilitation projects. M. acutistipula stands out in this [...] Read more.
Mimosa acutistipula var. ferrea (Fabaceae) is endemic to ferruginous tropical rocky outcrops in the eastern Amazon, also known as canga. Canga are often associated with mining activities and are the target of protection and rehabilitation projects. M. acutistipula stands out in this biodiversity hotspot with high growth rates, even in rehabilitating minelands (RMs). However, little is known about the diversity of soil microorganisms interacting with M. acutistipula in canga and RMs. This study analyzed the rhizosphere-associated bacterial and fungal microbial communities associated with M. acutistipula growing in an RM and a native shrub canga. The fungal phylum Ascomycota was the dominant taxa identified in the rhizosphere of the canga (RA: 98.1) and RM (RA: 93.1). The bacterial phyla Proteobacteria (RA: 54.3) and Acidobacteria (RA: 56.2) were the dominant taxa identified in the rhizosphere in the canga and RM, respectively. Beneficial genera such as Bradyrhizobium, Rhodoplanes, and Paraconiothyrium were identified in the rhizosphere of M. acutistipula in both areas. However, the analyses showed that the fungal and bacterial diversity differed between the rhizosphere of the canga and RM, and that the microbial taxa adapted to the canga (i.e., Rasamsonia, Scytalidium, Roseiarcus, and Rhodomicrobium) were lacking in the RM. This influences the microbe-mediated soil processes, affecting long-term rehabilitation success. The results showed that M. acutistipula established non-specific interactions with soil microorganisms, including beneficial taxa such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria, mycorrhizal fungi, and other beneficial endophytes, well known for their importance in plant adaptation and survival. High levels of microbe association and a plant’s ability to recruit a wide range of soil microorganisms help to explain M. acutistipula’s success in rehabilitating minelands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biotechnology for Environmental Remediation and Restoration)
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<p>Shannon and Simpson diversity indices of fungal 18S rRNA (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) and bacterial 16S rRNA (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) sequences in rhizospheric (R) and bulk (B) soil samples associated with <span class="html-italic">Mimosa acutistipula</span> growing in a <span class="html-italic">canga</span> (<span class="html-italic">canga</span>) or rehabilitating mineland (RM) in Serra dos Carajás, eastern Amazon. Different lowercase letters indicate statistical differences (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Relative abundance at the phylum level of major fungal 18S rRNA sequences associated with: (<b>a</b>) Rhizosphere (R) of <span class="html-italic">Mimosa acutistipula</span> growing in a <span class="html-italic">canga</span>; (<b>b</b>) bulk (B) soil of <span class="html-italic">M. acutistipula</span> growing in a <span class="html-italic">canga</span>; (<b>c</b>) rhizosphere of <span class="html-italic">M. acutistipula</span> growing in a rehabilitating mineland (RM); (<b>d</b>) bulk soil of <span class="html-italic">M. acutistipula</span> growing in a rehabilitating mineland in Serra dos Carajás, eastern Amazon (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Relative abundance at the phylum level of major bacterial 16S rRNA sequences associated with: (<b>a</b>) Rhizosphere (R) of <span class="html-italic">Mimosa acutistipula</span> growing in a <span class="html-italic">canga</span>; (<b>b</b>) bulk (B) soil of <span class="html-italic">M. acutistipula</span> growing in a <span class="html-italic">canga</span>; (<b>c</b>) rhizosphere of <span class="html-italic">M. acutistipula</span> growing in a rehabilitating mineland (RM); (<b>d</b>) bulk soil of <span class="html-italic">M. acutistipula</span> growing in rehabilitating mineland in Serra dos Carajás, eastern Amazon (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Principal coordinate analysis for cumulative sum scaling (CSS)-normalized counts of the fungal 18S rRNA (<b>a</b>) and bacterial 16S rRNA (<b>b</b>) sequences obtained from the rhizospheric (R) and bulk (B) soils samples of <span class="html-italic">Mimosa acutistipula</span> growing in a <span class="html-italic">canga</span> (<span class="html-italic">canga</span>) and rehabilitating mineland (RM) in Serra dos Carajás, eastern Amazon.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) of effect size (LEfSe) scores, identifying preferential taxa in the rhizosphere of <span class="html-italic">Mimosa acutistipula</span> in a <span class="html-italic">canga</span> (<span class="html-italic">canga</span>) or rehabilitating mineland (RM) in Serra dos Carajás, eastern Amazon: (<b>a</b>) Preferential fungal 18S rRNA; (<b>b</b>) preferential bacterial 16S rRNA sequences.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Functional analysis of the communities of 18S rRNA (<b>a</b>) and bacterial 16S rRNA (<b>b</b>) obtained from <span class="html-italic">Mimosa acutistipula</span> soils from plants growing in a <span class="html-italic">canga</span> ecosystem (<span class="html-italic">canga</span>) or a rehabilitating mineland (RM) in Serra dos Carajás, eastern Amazon.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Heatmap showing the relative abundance between beneficial fungal 18S rRNA (<b>a</b>) and bacterial 16S rRNA (<b>b</b>) sequences in rhizospheric (R) and bulk (B) soil samples of <span class="html-italic">Mimosa acutistipula</span> growing in a <span class="html-italic">canga</span> (<span class="html-italic">canga</span>) or a rehabilitating mineland (RM) in Serra dos Carajás, eastern Amazon. Numbers after B and R refer to the soil replicate (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4).</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 19236 KiB  
Article
Effects of Albedo and Thermal Inertia on Pavement Surface Temperatures with Convective Boundary Conditions—A CFD Study
by Tathagata Acharya, Brooke Riehl and Alan Fuchs
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2078; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112078 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3474
Abstract
The urban heat island (UHI) effect increases the ambient temperatures in cities and alters the energy budget of building materials. Urban surfaces such as pavements and roofs absorb solar heat and re-emit it back into the atmosphere, contributing towards the UHI effect. Over [...] Read more.
The urban heat island (UHI) effect increases the ambient temperatures in cities and alters the energy budget of building materials. Urban surfaces such as pavements and roofs absorb solar heat and re-emit it back into the atmosphere, contributing towards the UHI effect. Over the past few decades, researchers have identified albedo and thermal inertia as two of the most significant thermal properties that influence pavement surface temperatures under a given solar load. However, published data for comparisons of albedo and thermal inertia are currently inadequate. This work focuses on asphalt and concrete as two important materials used in the construction of pavements. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses are performed on asphalt and concrete pavements with the same dimensions and under the same ambient conditions. Under given conditions, the pavement top surface temperature is evaluated with varying albedo and thermal inertia values. The results show that the asphalt surface temperatures are consistently higher than the concrete surface temperatures. Surface temperatures under solar load reduce with increasing albedo and thermal inertia values for both asphalt and concrete pavements. The CFD results show that increasing the albedo is more effective in reducing pavement surface temperatures than increasing the thermal inertia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in CFD Analysis of Convective Heat Transfer)
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<p>The urban heat island (UHI) effect in cities.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Simulation geometry.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Mesh independency est.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Mesh around the pavement geometry.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Validation of CFD results against experimental results shown by previous researchers.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Temperature profile with asphalt albedo value of 0.1.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Temperature profile with asphalt albedo value of 0.9.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Asphalt pavement top surface temperatures with changing albedo values.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Concrete pavement top surface temperatures with changing albedo values.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Asphalt pavement surface temperatures with changing thermal inertia values.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Asphalt pavement surface temperatures with changing thermal inertia values.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 878 KiB  
Article
Automatic Tolerance Analysis of Permanent Magnet Machines with Encapsuled FEM Models Using Digital-Twin-Distiller
by Tamás Orosz, Krisztián Gadó, Mihály Katona and Anton Rassõlkin
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2077; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112077 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2865
Abstract
Tolerance analysis is crucial in every manufacturing process, such as electrical machine design, because tight tolerances lead to high manufacturing costs. A FEM-based solution of the tolerance analysis of an electrical machine can easily lead to a computationally expensive problem. Many papers have [...] Read more.
Tolerance analysis is crucial in every manufacturing process, such as electrical machine design, because tight tolerances lead to high manufacturing costs. A FEM-based solution of the tolerance analysis of an electrical machine can easily lead to a computationally expensive problem. Many papers have proposed the design of experiments, surrogate-model-based methodologies, to reduce the computational demand of this problem. However, these papers did not focus on the information loss and the limitations of the applied methodologies. Regardless, the absolute value of the calculated tolerance and the numerical error of the applied numerical methods can be in the same order of magnitude. In this paper, the tolerance and the sensitivity of BLDC machines’ cogging torque are analysed using different methodologies. The results show that the manufacturing tolerances can have a significant effect on the calculated parameters, and that the mean value of the calculated cogging torque increases. The design of the experiment-based methodologies significantly reduced the calculation time, and shows that the encapsulated FEM model can be invoked from an external system-level optimization to examine the design from different aspects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synergies in Combined Development of Processes and Models)
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<p>The tolerance on the required function parameter (<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>) can be increased if a linear material property (M2) is changed by another one (M1).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Automatic tolerance analysis with the enclosed parametric FEM in digital-twin-distiller (<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mn>0</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> </semantics></math>).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Deployment of the containerized parametric FEM calculation using a DT as a standardized REST-API.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Illustration of the sampling points in the used design of experiment methodologies in the case of a three level, three parameter design.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The geometry of the analyzed BLDC machine, which is built from the colored segments of the machines via the Digital-Twin-Designer. The right side of the image shows the parameterization of these different elements.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Simulated and benchmark line-to-line voltage [<a href="#B53-processes-09-02077" class="html-bibr">53</a>,<a href="#B54-processes-09-02077" class="html-bibr">54</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Comparison of the simulated and the reference cogging torque.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>An example configuration for the mesh selectivity analysis. The mesh size is set to <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>0.18</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> mm on the <tt>rotor_steel, airgap, magnet</tt> regions.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Cogging torque in relation to different mesh settings. The labels show the total number of elements in a particular configuration. In magenta, the smart mesh option was turned on.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>The peak cogging torque in relation to the number of elements. (<b>a</b>) The peak cogging torque in each simulation, (<b>b</b>) the distribution of the results.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>The root mean square torque in relation to the number of elements. (<b>a</b>) The RMS torque in each simulation, (<b>b</b>) the distribution of the results.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>The geometrical parameters, which tolerances were considered during the analysis.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>The mean value of the calculated cogging torque and its tolerances with different DoE strategies: Full-facorial designs represented by the gray zone and its results compared by Box-Behnken design (<b>a</b>), Plackett-Burman (<b>b</b>), CCF (<b>c</b>) and Taguchi design (<b>d</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>The distribution of the peak value of the cogging torque with the different Doe strategies: Box-Behnken (<b>a</b>), Plackett-Burman (<b>b</b>), CCF (<b>c</b>), and Taguchi (<b>d</b>), which were compared with the Full-factorial design.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>The distribution of the calculated rms value of the cogging torque with the different Doe strategies: Box-Behnken (<b>a</b>), Plackett-Burman (<b>b</b>), CCF (<b>c</b>), and Taguchi (<b>d</b>), which were compared with the Full-factorial design.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 13623 KiB  
Article
Laminar Burning Velocity of Lean Methane/Air Flames under Pulsed Microwave Irradiation
by Elna J. K. Nilsson, Tomas Hurtig, Andreas Ehn and Christer Fureby
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2076; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112076 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1554
Abstract
Laminar burning velocity of lean methane/air flames exposed to pulsed microwave irradiation is determined experimentally as part of an effort to accurately quantify the enhancement resulting from exposure of the flame to pulsed microwaves. The experimental setup consists of a heat flux burner [...] Read more.
Laminar burning velocity of lean methane/air flames exposed to pulsed microwave irradiation is determined experimentally as part of an effort to accurately quantify the enhancement resulting from exposure of the flame to pulsed microwaves. The experimental setup consists of a heat flux burner mounted in a microwave cavity, where the microwave has an average power of up to 250 W at an E-field in the range of 350–380 kV/m. Laminar burning velocities for the investigated methane/air flames increase from 1.8 to 12.7% when exposed to microwaves. The magnitude of the enhancement is dependent on pulse sequence (duration and frequency) and the strength of the electric field. From the investigated pulse sequences, and at a constant E-field and average power, the largest effect on the flame is obtained for the longest pulse, namely 50 μs. The results presented in this work are, to the knowledge of the authors, the first direct determination of laminar burning velocity on a laminar stretch-free flame exposed to pulsed microwaves. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Combustion and Combustion Diagnostic Techniques)
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<p>Evolution of coefficient <span class="html-italic">C</span> with time in an experiment with a flame at ϕ = 0.7 and <span class="html-italic">V<sub>g</sub></span> = 16.0 cm/s: Symbols represent experiments. Solid line is an exponential fit to the data, starting at <span class="html-italic">t</span> = 30 s, and extrapolated beyond the experimental time. Dashed line at <span class="html-italic">C</span> = −0.1509 K cm<sup>2</sup> is the value that the <span class="html-italic">C</span> coefficient approach according to the fitted curve.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Determination of laminar burning velocity for a flame at ϕ = 0.65, using the mean of <span class="html-italic">C</span> coefficients at around 175 s (open symbols and dash-dotted line) and extrapolated <span class="html-italic">C</span> (closed symbols and solid line). Error bars include uncertainties in <span class="html-italic">C</span> as a result of thermocouple scatter.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Trace of coefficient <span class="html-italic">C</span> for an experiment with a flame at ϕ = 0.65 and <span class="html-italic">V<sub>g</sub></span> = 12.0 cm/s. The solid black line corresponds to data from the flame exposed to pulsed microwaves with a pulse duration of 50 μs and a frequency of 1 kHz at an electric field of <span class="html-italic">E<sub>RMS</sub></span> = 350 kV/m. The dotted green line displays the <span class="html-italic">C</span>-trace for the corresponding experiment without microwaves and the dashed blue line is the difference between the two.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Determination of laminar burning velocity for a flame at ϕ = 0.75, exposed to pulsed microwaves with a pulse duration of 50 μs and a frequency of 1 kHz at an electric field of <span class="html-italic">E<sub>RMS</sub></span> = 350 kV/m. Open symbols and solid line represent the data with microwaves and filled symbols and dotted line represent the corresponding flame without microwave exposure.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Laminar burning velocities at lean conditions for standard conditions methane/air flame, results from present study (open diamonds) and recent literature [<a href="#B28-processes-09-02076" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B29-processes-09-02076" class="html-bibr">29</a>,<a href="#B30-processes-09-02076" class="html-bibr">30</a>,<a href="#B31-processes-09-02076" class="html-bibr">31</a>,<a href="#B32-processes-09-02076" class="html-bibr">32</a>,<a href="#B33-processes-09-02076" class="html-bibr">33</a>,<a href="#B34-processes-09-02076" class="html-bibr">34</a>,<a href="#B35-processes-09-02076" class="html-bibr">35</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Trace of coefficient <span class="html-italic">C</span> for flames at ϕ = 0.7 and <span class="html-italic">V<sub>g</sub></span> = 17.0 cm/s, <span class="html-italic">E<sub>RMS</sub></span> = 350 kV/m for pulse sequences 50 μs/1 kHz (thick solid line), 25 μs/2 kHz (dashed line), and 10 μs/5 kHz (thin solid line).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Percent increase in laminar burning velocity as a function of pulse duration for flames at ϕ = 0.7. Electric field strength is <span class="html-italic">E<sub>RMS</sub></span> = 350 kV/m (open symbols) and <span class="html-italic">E<sub>RMS</sub></span> = 370 kV/m (filled symbol).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Trace of coefficient <span class="html-italic">C</span> for flames at ϕ = 0.7 and <span class="html-italic">V<sub>g</sub></span> = 17.0 cm/s, with pulse duration of 10 μs and a frequency of 5 kHz at electric fields of 350 kV/m (red), 370 kV/m (blue) and 380 kV/m (black).</p> Full article ">
23 pages, 3902 KiB  
Article
Central Composite Design, Kinetic Model, Thermodynamics, and Chemical Composition of Pomelo (Citrus Maxima (Burm.) Merr.) Essential Oil Extraction by Steam Distillation
by Tan Phat Dao, Thanh Viet Nguyen, Thi Yen Nhi Tran, Xuan Tien Le, Ton Nu Thuy An, Nguyen Huu Thuan Anh and Long Giang Bach
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2075; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112075 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3889
Abstract
Pomelo peel-derived essential oils have been gaining popularity due to greater demand for stress relief therapy or hair care therapy. In this study, we first performed optimization of parameters in the pomelo essential oil extraction process on a pilot scale to gain better [...] Read more.
Pomelo peel-derived essential oils have been gaining popularity due to greater demand for stress relief therapy or hair care therapy. In this study, we first performed optimization of parameters in the pomelo essential oil extraction process on a pilot scale to gain better insights for application in larger scale production. Then extraction kinetics, activation energy, thermodynamics, and essential oil quality during the extraction process were investigated during the steam distillation process. Three experimental conditions including material mass, steam flow rate, and extraction time were taken into consideration in response surface methodology (RSM) optimization. The optimal conditions were found as follows: sample weight of 422 g for one distillation batch, steam flow rate of 2.16 mL/min and extraction time of 106 min with the coefficient of determination R2 of 0.9812. The nonlinear kinetics demonstrated the compatibility of the kinetic model with simultaneous washing and unhindered diffusion with a washing rate constant of 0.1515 min−1 and a diffusion rate constant of 0.0236 min−1. The activation energy of the washing and diffusion process was 167.43 kJ.mol−1 and 96.25 kJ.mol−1, respectively. The thermodynamic value obtained at the ΔG° value was −35.02 kJ.mol−1. The quality of pomelo peel essential oil obtained by steam distillation was characterized by its high limonene content (96.996%), determined by GC-MS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Significance and Applicability of Bioactive Compounds from Plants for Innovative Technologies and Processes)
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<p>Steam distillation system.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Effect of input sample weight over time in steam distillation.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Effect of steam flow rate over time in steam distillation.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>3D diagram showing the effect of (<b>a</b>): AB, (<b>b</b>): (AC), (<b>c</b>): BC on the yield of essential oil.</p> Full article ">Figure 4 Cont.
<p>3D diagram showing the effect of (<b>a</b>): AB, (<b>b</b>): (AC), (<b>c</b>): BC on the yield of essential oil.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Optimal conditions obtained from RSM.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Kinetic model of steam distillation at different steam flow rates with (<b>A</b>): model 1; (<b>B</b>): model 2; (<b>C</b>): model 3; (<b>D</b>): model 4.</p> Full article ">Figure 6 Cont.
<p>Kinetic model of steam distillation at different steam flow rates with (<b>A</b>): model 1; (<b>B</b>): model 2; (<b>C</b>): model 3; (<b>D</b>): model 4.</p> Full article ">Figure 6 Cont.
<p>Kinetic model of steam distillation at different steam flow rates with (<b>A</b>): model 1; (<b>B</b>): model 2; (<b>C</b>): model 3; (<b>D</b>): model 4.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Spectral chromatography of GC-MS.</p> Full article ">
12 pages, 31759 KiB  
Article
Machine Learning Models for the Classification of CK2 Natural Products Inhibitors with Molecular Fingerprint Descriptors
by Yuting Liu, Mengzhou Bi, Xuewen Zhang, Na Zhang, Guohui Sun, Yue Zhou, Lijiao Zhao and Rugang Zhong
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2074; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112074 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2211
Abstract
Casein kinase 2 (CK2) is considered an important target for anti-cancer drugs. Given the structural diversity and broad spectrum of pharmaceutical activities of natural products, numerous studies have been performed to prove them as valuable sources of drugs. However, there has been little [...] Read more.
Casein kinase 2 (CK2) is considered an important target for anti-cancer drugs. Given the structural diversity and broad spectrum of pharmaceutical activities of natural products, numerous studies have been performed to prove them as valuable sources of drugs. However, there has been little study relevant to identifying structural factors responsible for their inhibitory activity against CK2 with machine learning methods. In this study, classification studies were conducted on 115 natural products as CK2 inhibitors. Seven machine learning methods along with six molecular fingerprints were employed to develop qualitative classification models. The performances of all models were evaluated by cross-validation and test set. By taking predictive accuracy(CA), the area under receiver operating characteristic (AUC), and (MCC)as three performance indicators, the optimal models with high reliability and predictive ability were obtained, including the Extended Fingerprint-Logistic Regression model (CA = 0.859, AUC = 0.826, MCC = 0.520) for training test andPubChem fingerprint along with the artificial neural model (CA = 0.826, AUC = 0.933, MCC = 0.628) for test set. Meanwhile, the privileged substructures responsible for their inhibitory activity against CK2 were also identified through a combination of frequency analysis and information gain. The results are expected to provide useful information for the further utilization of natural products and the discovery of novel CK2 inhibitors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Artificial Intelligence in Industry and Medicine)
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Distributions of the experimental pIC<sub>50</sub> values for the whole dataset (n = 115, grey bars), training set (n = 92, green bars), and test set (n = 23, blue bars); (<b>B</b>) Chemical space of the entire dataset (n = 115) using top three principal components of dragon molecular descriptors (57% variance explained). (<b>C</b>) Radar map of molecular properties of the entire dataset; (<b>D</b>) Heat map of molecular similarity constructed by Euclidian distance metrics for the entire dataset.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Performance of 10-fold cross-validation for training set in 42 classification models. (<b>A</b>) CA, AUC (<b>B</b>) SE, and SP, which are the classification accuracy; the area under the ROC curve, sensitivity, and specificity, respectively.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Binding modes of compounds 73 (<b>A</b>) and 2 (<b>B</b>) with CK2 indicated from molecular docking.</p> Full article ">
23 pages, 4245 KiB  
Article
Off-Gas-Based Soft Sensor for Real-Time Monitoring of Biomass and Metabolism in Chinese Hamster Ovary Cell Continuous Processes in Single-Use Bioreactors
by Tobias Wallocha and Oliver Popp
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2073; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112073 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4917
Abstract
In mammalian cell culture, especially in pharmaceutical manufacturing and research, biomass and metabolic monitoring are mandatory for various cell culture process steps to develop and, finally, control bioprocesses. As a common measure for biomass, the viable cell density (VCD) or the viable cell [...] Read more.
In mammalian cell culture, especially in pharmaceutical manufacturing and research, biomass and metabolic monitoring are mandatory for various cell culture process steps to develop and, finally, control bioprocesses. As a common measure for biomass, the viable cell density (VCD) or the viable cell volume (VCV) is widely used. This study highlights, for the first time, the advantages of using VCV instead of VCD as a biomass depiction in combination with an oxygen-uptake- rate (OUR)-based soft sensor for real-time biomass estimation and process control in single-use bioreactor (SUBs) continuous processes with Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell lines. We investigated a series of 14 technically similar continuous SUB processes, where the same process conditions but different expressing CHO cell lines were used, with respect to biomass growth and oxygen demand to calibrate our model. In addition, we analyzed the key metabolism of the CHO cells in SUB perfusion processes by exometabolomic approaches, highlighting the importance of cell-specific substrate and metabolite consumption and production rate qS analysis to identify distinct metabolic phases. Cell-specific rates for classical mammalian cell culture key substrates and metabolites in CHO perfusion processes showed a good correlation to qOUR, yet, unexpectedly, not for qGluc. Here, we present the soft-sensoring methodology we developed for qPyr to allow for the real-time approximation of cellular metabolism and usage for subsequent, in-depth process monitoring, characterization and optimization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mathematical Modeling and Control of Bioprocesses)
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Figure 1
<p>Schematic overview of (<b>A</b>) continuous process consisting of perfusion-based dynamic state (red marked area) and cell-bleed-based steady-state phase and (<b>B</b>) the off-gas measurement set-up for continuous processes in single-use bioreactors.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Workflow overview for biomass model generation and consequent validation.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Time course of (<b>A</b>) normalized viable cell density (VCD), (<b>B</b>) normalized viable cell volume (VCV) vs. normalized volumetric oxygen uptake rate (OUR), (<b>C</b>) cell volume, (<b>D</b>) cell-specific OUR, (<b>E</b>) cell doubling time and (<b>F</b>) cell-specific OUR vs. normalized VCV of 14 different CHO cell lines (training data set, see <a href="#processes-09-02073-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>) expressing different target proteins in a seven-day perfusion process. Black arrows and blue dotted lines show the perfusion rate protocol with respective normalized perfusion rate (in volume media per volume fermenter and day, vvd<sub>n</sub>) and timing strategy. The black lines represent the fit among all tested clones and runs and the grey area highlights the confidence of the fit with α = 0.05.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>A</b>) Example of normalized OUR raw data fit from process P-04 with high signal–noise ratio in the first 100 h and following stable signal towards end of fermentation. A polynomial fit of fourth grade was used to describe the OUR with an R<sup>2</sup> of 0.89. (<b>B</b>) Example of normalized OUR raw data fit from process P-09 with high signal–noise ratio in the first 85 h and also towards end of fermentation. A polynomial fit of fourth grade was used to describe the OUR with an R<sup>2</sup> of 0.95.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>A</b>) Soft-sensor model for VCV prediction with model assessment RMSE and R<sup>2</sup>. Black dots represent normalized values, red line describes the found model with prediction confidence α = 0.05. (<b>B</b>) Soft-sensor model for VCD prediction with model assessment RMSE and R<sup>2</sup>. Black dots represent normalized values, red line describes the found model with prediction confidence of α = 0.05. (<b>C</b>) VCV normalized residuals plotted against normalized predicted values with process time indication. (<b>D</b>) VCD normalized residuals plotted against normalized predicted values with process time indication. (<b>E</b>) VCV-model-derived absolute percentage errors plotted against normalized predicted VCV values with process time indication. (<b>F</b>) VCD-model-derived absolute percentage errors plotted against normalized predicted VCD values with process time indication.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>A</b>) Normalized measured VCV vs. real-time normalized predicted VCV data using the LOESS filter algorithm with model assessment for all three processes represented by colored dots. (<b>B</b>) Normalized measured VCV vs. real-time normalized predicted VCV data using the SG filter algorithm with model assessment for all three processes represented by colored dots. (<b>C</b>) Normalized measured VCD vs. real-time normalized predicted VCD data using the LOESS filter algorithm with model assessment for all three processes represented by colored dots. (<b>D</b>) Normalized measured VCD vs. real-time normalized predicted VCD data using the SG filter algorithm with model assessment for all three processes represented by colored dots. (<b>E</b>) Exemplary normalized predicted VCV<sub>LOESS/SG</sub> values (orange and gray lines) and actual normalized VCV values from process P-15 with clone C-15 represented by blue dots. Error bars describe an assumed 11% error for all VCV measurements. (<b>F</b>) Exemplary normalized predicted VCD<sub>LOESS/SG</sub> values (orange and gray lines) and actual normalized VCD values from process P-15 with clone C-15 represented by blue dots. Error bars describe an assumed 10% error for all VCD measurements. Biomass measures VCV and VCD are normalized to the maximum value in the training data set (P-01-P-14).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Metabolic analysis of the dynamic state of continuous CHO SUB processes. Kinetic of key substrates glucose and glutamine and metabolites lactate and ammonium concentrations (<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) cell-specific rates. Time-resolved analysis of the cell-specific rate-based yield coefficients (<b>C</b>) Y<sub>Lac/Glc</sub> and (<b>D</b>) Y<sub>NH4/Gln</sub>. The colored dots represent the tested 14 clones and the black, blue, red and green lines represent the fit of Gln concentration or cell-specific Gln consumption/production rate qGln, NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> concentration or cell-specific NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> consumption/production rate qNH4, glucose concentration or cell-specific glucose consumption rate and lactate concentration or cell-specific lactate consumption/production rate, respectively. The black, blue, red and green areas highlight the confidence of the fits with α = 0.05. Black arrows and blue dotted lines show the perfusion rate protocol with respective normalized perfusion rate (in volume media per volume fermenter and day, vvd<sub>n</sub>) and timing strategy.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Real-time prediction of qPyr in dynamic state of continuous CHO SUB processes. (<b>A</b>) Analysis of pyruvate concentration over perfusion process time. The colored dots represent the tested 14 clones from the training data set and the black line represents the fit with α = 0.05. (<b>B</b>) qPyr cell-specific consumption/production rates. The black area highlights the confidence of the fit with = 0.05. (<b>C</b>) Actual vs. predicted plot of a logistic regression model for qPyr for all tested clones from the training data set C-1 to C-14 (black dots) with regression model prediction (red line) and mean of all tested qPyr (blue line). (<b>D</b>) Online prediction of qPyr for a model validation perfusion process with C-15 (grey line) with qPyr actuals (blue dots). Error bars describe an assumed 10% error for actual qPyr values.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Correlation of (<b>A</b>) cell-specific substrate and metabolite formation/consumption rates and (<b>B</b>) product formation rate. The colored dots represent the tested 14 clones and for (<b>A</b>) the black, blue, red, green, violet and brown lines represent the fit of qGluc, qGln, qAla, qPyr, qLac and qNH4 cell-specific consumption/production rates and for (<b>B</b>) the black line represent the fit of qP. The dark black, blue, red, green, violet and brown areas highlight the confidence of the fits with α= 0.05 and light-colored areas the respective confidences of the predictions.</p> Full article ">
20 pages, 9355 KiB  
Article
A Comparison of Uric Acid Optical Detection Using as Sensitive Materials an Amino-Substituted Porphyrin and Its Nanomaterials with CuNPs, PtNPs and Pt@CuNPs
by Camelia Epuran, Ion Fratilescu, Diana Anghel, Mihaela Birdeanu, Corina Orha and Eugenia Fagadar-Cosma
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2072; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112072 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2276
Abstract
Hybrid nanomaterials consisting in 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-amino-phenyl)-porphyrin (TAmPP) and copper nanoparticles (CuNPs), platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs), or both types (Pt@CuNPs) were obtained and tested for their capacity to optically detect uric acid from solutions. The introduction of diverse metal nanoparticles into the hybrid material proved their [...] Read more.
Hybrid nanomaterials consisting in 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-amino-phenyl)-porphyrin (TAmPP) and copper nanoparticles (CuNPs), platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs), or both types (Pt@CuNPs) were obtained and tested for their capacity to optically detect uric acid from solutions. The introduction of diverse metal nanoparticles into the hybrid material proved their capacity to improve the detection range. The detection was monitored by using UV-Vis spectrophotometry, and differences between morphology of the materials were performed using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The hybrid material formed between porphyrin and PtNPs hasthe best and most stable response for uric acid detection in the range of 6.1958 × 10−6–1.5763 × 10−5 M, even in the presence of very high concentrations of the interference species present in human environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Small Molecules to High-Value Chemicals: Theory and Practice)
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<p>The Structure of 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-amino-phenyl-)porphyrin, (TAmPP) and of uric acid (UA) in its lactam form.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The UV-vis spectrum of Cu colloid solution (7.131 × 10<sup>−4</sup> M) and AFM images.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>UV-vis spectrometry of CuNPs interference with TAmPP and AFM images of TAmPP-CuNPs complex.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Linear dependence between the increasing of intensity of absorption on the Soret band and the concentration of CuNPs in the range 2.841 × 10<sup>−6</sup>–8.456 × 10<sup>−6</sup> M.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The UV-Vis spectrum of <span class="html-italic">Pt@CuNPs</span> in water, together with 2D and 3D-AFM images.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>UV-Vis spectrometry of obtaining the hybrid complex between Pt@CuNPs and TAmPP porphyrin and AFM images of complex.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>The UV-Vis spectrum and the 2D AFM image of the PtNPs.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Overlapped UV-Vis spectra, monitoring the obtaining of TAmPP- PtNPs hybrid material. Detail (<b>a</b>): AFM image of TAmPP- PtNPs hybrid material. Detail (<b>b</b>): AFM image of TAmPP.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>XRD diagrams for: (a) CuNPs; (b) PtNPs; (c) Pt@CuNPs.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>SEM images with EDAX in detail for: (<b>a</b>) CuNPs; (<b>b</b>) PtNPs; (<b>c</b>) Pt@CuNPs.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>The changes in UV-Vis spectra shape and position during the adding of UA to TAmPP solution in DMSO.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>The dependence between the intensity of absorption measured for TAmPP at Soret band (425 nm) and the UA concentration.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Overlapped UV-Vis spectra representing the influence of diverse interfering species (at concentrations 1000-fold higher than UA) on the TAmPP material: glucose (Glu), ascorbic acid (AA), NaCl, KCl, CH<sub>3</sub>COONa, MgSO<sub>4</sub>, KI, lactic acid (LA), and sodium salicylate (SS).</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Average percentage errors for UA optical detection using TAmPP, introduced by different interferences.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>The mechanism ofuric acid detection based on a proton transfer from the protonated TAmPP porphyrin toward the urate ion, with regeneration of lactim form.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>The UV-vis spectra registered by adding UA to TAmPP- Pt@CuNPs hybrid material in DMSO solution; AFM images of TAmPP- Pt@CuNPs hybrid material after exposure to UA.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>The linear dependence of the absorption intensity of TAmPP-Pt@CuNPs hybrid material measured as function of UA concentration: (<b>a</b>) on theSoret band; (<b>b</b>) on the QI band.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Overlapped UV-Vis spectra representing the influence of diverse interfering species: glucose (Glu), ascorbic acid (AA), NaCl, KCl, CH<sub>3</sub>COONa, MgSO<sub>4</sub>, KI, lactic acid (LA), sodium salicylate (SS), on the TAmPP-Pt@CuNPs hybrid complex at concentrations 1000-fold higher than UA.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Average percentage errors for UA optical detection using TAmPP-Pt@CuNPs hybrid complex hybrid complex, introduced by different interferences.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Overlapped UV-Vis spectra of complex TAmPP-PtNPs after continuous adding of uric acid. In detail AFM image of the material after treatment with uric acid.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Linear dependence between absorption intensity of TAmPP-PtNPs hybrid material and uric acid concentration.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Superposed UV-Vis spectra representing the influence of the following interfering species: glucose (Glu), ascorbic acid (AA), NaCl, KCl, CH<sub>3</sub>COONa, MgSO<sub>4</sub>, KI, lactic acid (LA), and sodium salicylate (SS) on the TAmPP-PtNPs hybrid complex at concentrations 1000-fold higher than UA.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>Average percentage errors for UA optical detection using TAmPP-PtNPs complex, introduced by different interferences.</p> Full article ">Figure 24
<p>The field of UA detection covered by the materials containing TAmPP used in this study.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 2589 KiB  
Article
Research and Implementation of Lean Production Mode in Shipbuilding
by Tingxin Song and Jincheng Zhou
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2071; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112071 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4468
Abstract
This paper studies the production process of a shipbuilding enterprise. The company suffers from long manufacturing cycle, low utilization rate of personnel and an unbalanced production line. To solve these problems, the lean shipbuilding mode, mainly divided into shipbuilding work breakdown, production plan [...] Read more.
This paper studies the production process of a shipbuilding enterprise. The company suffers from long manufacturing cycle, low utilization rate of personnel and an unbalanced production line. To solve these problems, the lean shipbuilding mode, mainly divided into shipbuilding work breakdown, production plan and virtual flow operation in this paper, is put forward, which combines the lean production and modern information management technology with shipbuilding. Supported by the theory of work breakdown structure and task package scheduling, the shipbuilding task package is reasonably divided. The priority of task package manufacturing is determined by calculating the task package manufacturing sequence coefficient, and a reasonable number of operators is calculated to ensure the continuity of segmented manufacturing. After determining the manufacturing priority of the task pack and the number of allocable personnel, the corresponding work can be scheduled. Production planning drives all production activities of the shipbuilding enterprise, and just-in-time production is achieved through the reasonable arrangement of these production plans, thus reducing the waste of personnel and time. Then, the virtual flow operation is carried out, which can achieve high efficiency of flow production and high flexibility of fixed workstation production during the production process of large-scale and heavy-duty products. The virtual assembly production system of the workshop is established according to the characteristics of shipbuilding operation and the actual production situation. On this basis, a lean shipbuilding manufacturing execution system for small and medium-sized shipbuilding enterprises is developed to achieve lean production in a shipbuilding workshop. Through the implementation of the lean shipbuilding mode based on task package scheduling and its manufacturing execution system, compared with the original data, the ship production cycle is reduced to 76.7%, the number of workers is reduced by 16.7% and the production balance rate is up to 81%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Modern Technologies and Manufacturing Systems)
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<p>Pre-construction plan process.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic diagram of the virtual flow production system in shipbuilding workshop.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Overall structure of the patrol boat.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Schematic diagram of patrol boat section subdivision.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Composition of the section A06 task package.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The overall framework of MES.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Business flow chart of production planning and scheduling module.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>The scheduling process of lean shipbuilding.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Main interface of lean shipbuilding MES.</p> Full article ">
4 pages, 160 KiB  
Editorial
Control and Optimization of Multi-Agent Systems and Complex Networks for Systems Engineering
by Manuel Herrera, Marco Pérez-Hernández, Ajith Kumar Parlikad and Joaquín Izquierdo
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2070; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112070 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2201
Abstract
Systems engineering crosses multiple engineering disciplines for the design, control, and overall management of engineered systems [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Control and Optimization of Multi-Agent Systems and Complex Networks for Systems Engineering)
31 pages, 3651 KiB  
Review
Low-Temperature Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Processes for the Deposition of Nanocomposite Coatings
by Antonella Uricchio and Fiorenza Fanelli
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2069; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112069 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4751
Abstract
Low-temperature atmospheric pressure (AP) plasma technologies have recently proven to offer a range of interesting opportunities for the preparation of a variety of nanocomposite (NC) coatings with different chemical compositions, structures, and morphologies. Since the late 2000s, numerous strategies have been implemented for [...] Read more.
Low-temperature atmospheric pressure (AP) plasma technologies have recently proven to offer a range of interesting opportunities for the preparation of a variety of nanocomposite (NC) coatings with different chemical compositions, structures, and morphologies. Since the late 2000s, numerous strategies have been implemented for the deposition of this intriguing class of coatings by using both direct and remote AP plasma sources. Interestingly, considerable progress has been made in the development of aerosol-assisted deposition processes in which the use of either precursor solutions or nanoparticle dispersions in aerosol form allows greatly widening the range of constituents that can be combined in the plasma-deposited NC films. This review summarizes the research published on this topic so far and, specifically, aims to present a concise survey of the developed plasma processes, with particular focus on their optimization as well as on the structural and functional properties of the NC coatings to which they provide access. Current challenges and opportunities are also briefly discussed to give an outlook on possible future research directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro and Nanotechnology: Application in Surface Modification)
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Simplified scheme of an aerosol-assisted AP plasma process used for the deposition of nanocomposite coatings. (<b>b</b>) Picture of a classical dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) system used for the direct deposition of thin films at atmospheric pressure. (<b>c</b>) Picture of an AP plasma jet with DBD configuration used for the remote deposition of thin films.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Selected examples of APP systems used for the preparation of nanocomposite coatings. (<b>a</b>) Classical symmetric parallel-plate DBD system [<a href="#B60-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">60</a>,<a href="#B62-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">62</a>,<a href="#B64-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">64</a>] used for the direct PECVD or AAPD of NC films. (<b>b</b>) Parallel-plate DBD system used in [<a href="#B59-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">59</a>,<a href="#B80-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">80</a>] for NC film deposition from aerosols of NPs dispersions or precursors solution. (<b>c</b>) Corona discharge-based plasma jet (PlasmaStream™) used for remote AAPD processes [<a href="#B57-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">57</a>,<a href="#B81-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">81</a>,<a href="#B82-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">82</a>]. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B81-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">81</a>]. (<b>d</b>) Arc jet commercialized by Plasmatreat used for the remote AAPD [<a href="#B83-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">83</a>] or PECVD [<a href="#B84-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">84</a>] of NC films.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of different nanocomposite films deposited by AP plasma from conventional single-source or double-source precursors. (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) NC film consisting of inorganic nitrogen-doped TiO<sub>2</sub> NPs wrapped by a nitrogen-rich plasma polymer deposited by direct PECVD using a DBD fed with nitrogen and vapors of titanium tetraisopropoxide (TTIP). Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B106-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">106</a>]. (<b>c</b>–<b>f</b>) NC films consisting of crystalline TiO<sub>2</sub> NPs embedded into a SiO<sub>2</sub> matrix deposited by using an arc-jet fed with nitrogen and the aerosols of TTIP and hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDSO). SEM images refer to the NC coatings deposited by increasing the HMDSO delivery rate from 0 to 10 μL·min<sup>−1</sup> and keeping constant the TTIP delivery rate (6 μL·min<sup>−1</sup>). Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B66-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">66</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Representative SEM images of a hydrocarbon polymer/ZnO NPs nanocomposite coating deposited for 10 min in a parallel-plate DBD fed with He and the aerosol of dispersion of oleate-capped ZnO NPs in n-octane. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B60-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">60</a>]. (<b>b</b>) Schematic of the nebulization process explaining NPs agglomeration and SEM image of a NPs aggregate collected after atomization of a NPs dispersion. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B130-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">130</a>]. (<b>c</b>) Schematic representation of the gas flow profile between the electrodes of a parallel-plate DBD system, and of the forces considered in [<a href="#B64-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">64</a>] for the calculation of the NPs trajectory: F<sub>e</sub> is the electrostatic force, F<sub>n-x</sub> is the neutral drag force along the x-axis, F<sub>n-y</sub> is the neutral drag force along the y-axis. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B64-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">64</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Effect of the composition of the starting NPs dispersion on the chemical composition and morphology of hydrocarbon polymer/ZnO NPs NC coatings deposited in a parallel-plate DBD fed with He and the aerosol of dispersion of oleate-capped ZnO NPs in hydrocarbon precursors. (<b>a</b>) ZnO loading and cross-sectional SEM images of NC coatings deposited from dispersions at different concentration of the oleate-capped ZnO NPs in n-octane (0–5 wt%). Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B60-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">60</a>]. (<b>b</b>) ZnO loading and cross-sectional SEM images of coatings deposited from dispersions characterized by different concentrations of 1,7-octadiene in the n-octane/1,7-octadiene solvent mixture. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B124-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">124</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic representation summarizing the influence of the frequency of the sinusoidal voltage applied to the electrodes of a parallel-plate DBD system during the deposition of NC coatings from a dispersion of preformed NPs in a liquid precursor: low-frequency (LF) excitation voltage, high-frequency (HF) excitation voltage, and frequency-shift keying (FSK) modulation alternating a high-frequency and a low-frequency voltage. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B128-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">128</a>]. (<b>b</b>) Example of a frequency-shift keying (FSK) double modulation oscillogram with frequencies of 1 kHz (LF) and 15 kHz (HF), a 50% duty cycle, and T<sub>FSK</sub> of 5 ms. The high-frequency voltage is applied for 2.5 ms (T<sub>HF</sub>), and the low-frequency voltage is applied for 2.5 ms (T<sub>LF</sub>). Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B129-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">129</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic of the apparatus used to deposit Ag/TiO<sub>2</sub> nanocomposite coating by spraying a dispersion of Ag nanoparticles in titanium tetraisopropoxide liquid precursor in the vicinity of AP plasma jet (see <a href="#processes-09-02069-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>d). Anatase TiO<sub>2</sub> crystal size in the NC coating as a function of (<b>b</b>) the Ag NPs concentration in the starting dispersion and (<b>c</b>) the discharge pulse frequency. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B83-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">83</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of the two-zone vertical reactor used in [<a href="#B91-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">91</a>,<a href="#B135-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">135</a>] for the AP deposition of inorganicNC coatings consisting of MoS<sub>2</sub> NPs embedded in a SiO<sub>2</sub> matrix (1, piezoelectric nebulizer; 2, quartz reactor; 3, heaters; 4, high-voltage corona electrode; 5, substrate plate). The MoS<sub>2</sub> NPs are synthesized in the upper zone by spray-pyrolysis, while the lower zone is used for co-depositing on the substrate surface the MoS<sub>2</sub> NPs and a SiO<sub>2</sub> layer formed by using a corona discharge fed with helium and TEOS. (<b>b</b>) Top-view and cross-sectional SEM images of the NC coatings. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B91-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">91</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>SEM images (at a magnification of 10k×, left and 50k×, right) of gentamicin-loaded NC coatings deposited for 20 min in a parallel-plate DBD fed with helium, ethylene, and an aqueous gentamicin solution (10 mg/mL). The DBD is generated using different electrical excitation conditions: (<b>a</b>) continuous mode, high power; (<b>b</b>) pulsed mode, high power; (<b>c</b>) continuous mode, low power. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B148-processes-09-02069" class="html-bibr">148</a>].</p> Full article ">
26 pages, 5705 KiB  
Article
Adsorption and Desorption Behavior of Ectoine Using Dowex® HCR-S Ion-Exchange Resin
by Yu-Chi Wu, Yu-Hong Wei and Ho-Shing Wu
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2068; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112068 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4130
Abstract
Dowex® HCR-S ion-exchange resin was used to adsorb ectoine in a batch system under varying operation conditions in terms of contact time, temperature, pH value, initial concentration of ectoine, and type of salt. Six adsorption isotherm models (Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Sips, [...] Read more.
Dowex® HCR-S ion-exchange resin was used to adsorb ectoine in a batch system under varying operation conditions in terms of contact time, temperature, pH value, initial concentration of ectoine, and type of salt. Six adsorption isotherm models (Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Sips, and Redlich–Peterson) and three kinetic models (pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion) were used to investigate the ectoine adsorption mechanism of ion-exchange resin. According to the experimental results, the mechanism of ectoine adsorption using an ion exchanger includes the ion-exchange reaction and physisorption. Both the Langmuir and Freundlich models were found to have a high fitting. For the kinetic analysis, the pseudo-second-order and intraparticle diffusion models were suitable to describe the ectoine adsorption. Dowex® HCR-S resin has an average saturated adsorption capacity of 0.57 g/g and 93.6% of ectoine adsorption at 25~65 °C, with an initial concentration of 125 g/L. By changing the pH of the environment using NaOH solution, the adsorbed ectoine on the ion-exchange resin can be desorbed to 87.7%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction and Purification of Bioactive Compounds)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Effect of adsorption time on ectoine adsorption using ion-exchange resin (ectoine = 1000 mg/L, solution/resin = 10 mL/g, reaction time = 6 h, stirring rate = 100 rpm, temperature = 35 °C).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Zwitterion form of ectoine containing both acid and base centers and its isomer.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Plot of ectoine’s zeta potential and adsorption capacity of ectoine on pH (Dowex<sup>®</sup> HCR-S resin/aqueous = 0.1 g/mL).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Adsorption isotherm of ectoine using Dowex<sup>®</sup> HCR-S and (<b>b</b>) effect of adsorption capacity of ectoine on temperature at different initial ectoine concentrations (initial ectoine = 1000~9000 mg/L, dry resin/aqueous = 0.1 g/mL, agitated rate = 100 rpm, time = 8 h, temperature = 25~65 °C).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Nonlinear regression fitting curve using the isotherm models (<b>a</b>) Freundlich, (<b>b</b>) Langmuir, (<b>c</b>) Temkin, (<b>d</b>) D–R, (<b>e</b>) R–P, and (<b>f</b>) Sips for the simulation of ectoine adsorption.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Effect of adsorption time on ectoine adsorption percentage at different temperatures (Dowex<sup>®</sup> HCR-S = 1 g, initial ectoine = 1000 mg/L, aqueous solution = 10 mL).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Regression analysis of the adsorption of ectoine by the (<b>a</b>) pseudo-first-order equation, (<b>b</b>) pseudo-second-order equation, (<b>c</b>) Elovich equation, and (<b>d</b>) intraparticle diffusion model.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Effect of salt on adsorption of ectoine using a cation-exchange resin (Dowex<sup>®</sup> HCR-S = 1 g, initial ectoine = 1000−9000 mg/L, aqueous solution = 10 mL).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Effect of saturation adsorption capacity of ectoine using Dowex<sup>®</sup> HCR-S on (<b>a</b>) initial ectoine concentration, (<b>b</b>) temperature, and (<b>c</b>) resin dosage (aqueous/resin = 4 mL/g, agitation = 100 rpm, reaction time = 8 h).</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Effect of NaOH on the equilibrium desorption of ectoine using Dowex<sup>®</sup> HCR-S at different temperatures (saturated resin: 1 g, NaOH solution: 10 mL, time: 8 h).</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Effect of time on ectoine desorption from Dowex<sup>®</sup> HCR-S with different temperatures (saturated resin/NaOH solution = 0.1 g/mL, NaOH concentration: 0.5 mol/L).</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Comparison of NaOH and NaCl in ectoine desorption (temperature: 35 °C).</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Mechanism of ectoine desorption using Dowex<sup>®</sup> HCR-S. <span class="html-fig-inline" id="processes-09-02068-i001"> <img alt="Processes 09 02068 i001" src="/processes/processes-09-02068/article_deploy/html/images/processes-09-02068-i001.png"/></span>: <b>adsorbed ectoine ion</b>, <span class="html-fig-inline" id="processes-09-02068-i002"> <img alt="Processes 09 02068 i002" src="/processes/processes-09-02068/article_deploy/html/images/processes-09-02068-i002.png"/></span>: <b>free ectoine ion</b>, <span class="html-fig-inline" id="processes-09-02068-i003"> <img alt="Processes 09 02068 i003" src="/processes/processes-09-02068/article_deploy/html/images/processes-09-02068-i003.png"/></span>: <b>sodium ion</b>, <span class="html-fig-inline" id="processes-09-02068-i004"> <img alt="Processes 09 02068 i004" src="/processes/processes-09-02068/article_deploy/html/images/processes-09-02068-i004.png"/></span>: <b>hydroxide ion</b>.</p> Full article ">
10 pages, 25858 KiB  
Article
The Effect of PVA Binder Solvent Composition on the Microstructure and Electrical Properties of 0.98BaTiO3-0.02(Ba0.5Ca0.5)SiO3 Doped with Dy2O3
by Nak-Beom Jo, Jin-Seok Baek and Eung-Soo Kim
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2067; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112067 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2945
Abstract
In this study, the effect of the polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) binder solvent composition on the electrical properties of sintered 0.98BaTiO3-0.02(Ba0.5Ca0.5)SiO3 ceramics doped with x wt.% Dy2O3 (0.0 ≤ x ≤ 0.3) was investigated. [...] Read more.
In this study, the effect of the polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) binder solvent composition on the electrical properties of sintered 0.98BaTiO3-0.02(Ba0.5Ca0.5)SiO3 ceramics doped with x wt.% Dy2O3 (0.0 ≤ x ≤ 0.3) was investigated. In the absence of the PVA binder, the specimens sintered at 1260 and 1320 °C for 1 h in a reducing atmosphere showed a single BaTiO3 phase with the perovskite structure. The relative densities of the specimens were higher than 90%, and the grain morphologies were uniform for all the solvent compositions. At 1 kHz, the dielectric constant of the specimens depended not only on their crystal structural characteristics, but also on their microstructural characteristics. The microstructural characteristics of the specimens with the PVA binder were affected by the ethyl alcohol:water ratio of the 10 wt.% PVA-111 solution. A homogeneous microstructure was observed for the 0.1 wt.% Dy2O3-doped specimens sintered at 1320 °C for 1 h when the ethyl alcohol/water ratio of the binder solution was 40/60. These specimens showed the maximum dielectric constant (εr = 2723.3) and an insulation resistance of 270 GΩ. The relationships between the microstructural characteristics and dissipation factor (tanδ) of the specimens were also investigated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Ceramic Materials: Processing, Characterization and Applications)
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Figure 1
<p>X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the 0.98BaTiO<sub>3</sub>-0.02(Ba<sub>0.5</sub>Ca<sub>0.5</sub>)SiO<sub>3</sub> ceramics doped with x wt.% Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (0.0 ≤ <span class="html-italic">x</span> ≤ 0.3) and (<b>a</b>) sintered at 1260 °C for 1 h and (<b>b</b>) 1320 °C for 1 h.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Dielectric constant and dissipation factor (tanδ) of the 0.98BaTiO<sub>3</sub>-0.02(Ba<sub>0.5</sub>Ca<sub>0.5</sub>)SiO<sub>3</sub> ceramics doped with <span class="html-italic">x</span> wt.% of Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (0.0 ≤ <span class="html-italic">x</span> ≤ 0.3) without binder solution and sintered at 1320 °C for 1 h.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>–doped 0.98BaTiO<sub>3</sub> -0.02(Ba<sub>0.5</sub>Ca<sub>0.5</sub>)SiO<sub>3</sub> ceramics sintered at 1320 °C for 1 h. (bar: 100 nm): (<b>a</b>) 0.0, (<b>b</b>) 0.1, (<b>c</b>) 0.2, (<b>d</b>) 0.3 wt.% Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>XRD patterns of the 0.1 wt.% Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-doped 0.98BaTiO<sub>3</sub>-0.02(Ba<sub>0.5</sub>Ca<sub>0.5</sub>)SiO<sub>3</sub> ceramics sintered at 1320 °C for 1 h with different binders.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Rietveld refinement patterns of the 0.1 wt.% Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-doped 0.98BaTiO<sub>3</sub>-0.02(Ba<sub>0.5</sub>Ca<sub>0.5</sub>)SiO<sub>3</sub> specimens sintered at 1320 °C for 1 h with various types of binders: (<b>a</b>) binder A, (<b>b</b>) binder B, (<b>c</b>) binder C, and (<b>d</b>) binder D.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Relative densities and dielectric constants of the 0.1 wt.% Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-doped 0.98BaTiO<sub>3</sub>-0.02(Ba<sub>0.5</sub>Ca<sub>0.5</sub>)SiO<sub>3</sub> specimens sintered at 1320 °C for 1 h with different binders.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>SEM images of the 0.1 wt.% Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-doped 0.98BaTiO<sub>3</sub>-0.02(Ba<sub>0.5</sub>Ca<sub>0.5</sub>)SiO<sub>3</sub> specimens sintered at 1320 °C for 1 h with various types of binders: (<b>a</b>) binder A, (<b>b</b>) binder B, (<b>c</b>) binder C, and (<b>d</b>) binder D (bar: 100 nm).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Insulation resistances, dissipation factors (tanδ), and relative densities of the 0.1 wt.% Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-doped 0.98BaTiO<sub>3</sub>-0.02(Ba<sub>0.5</sub>Ca<sub>0.5</sub>)SiO<sub>3</sub> specimens sintered at 1320 °C for 1 h with different binders.</p> Full article ">
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