Journal of Intelligence

31 pages, 4185 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Knowledge Representations: Individual Differences in Novel Problem Solving

by Megan J. Raden and Andrew F. Jarosz

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040077 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1462

The present study investigates how the quality of knowledge representations contributes to rule transfer in a problem-solving context and how working memory capacity (WMC) might contribute to the subsequent failure or success in transferring the relevant information. Participants were trained on individual figural [...] Read more.

The present study investigates how the quality of knowledge representations contributes to rule transfer in a problem-solving context and how working memory capacity (WMC) might contribute to the subsequent failure or success in transferring the relevant information. Participants were trained on individual figural analogy rules and then asked to rate the subjective similarity of the rules to determine how abstract their rule representations were. This rule representation score, along with other measures (WMC and fluid intelligence measures), was used to predict accuracy on a set of novel figural analogy test items, of which half included only the trained rules, and half were comprised of entirely new rules. The results indicated that the training improved performance on the test items and that WMC largely explained the ability to transfer rules. Although the rule representation scores did not predict accuracy on the trained items, rule representation scores did uniquely explain performance on the figural analogies task, even after accounting for WMC and fluid intelligence. These results indicate that WMC plays a large role in knowledge transfer, even when transferring to a more complex problem-solving context, and that rule representations may be important for novel problem solving. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Differential Psychology and Individual Differences in Intelligence)

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17 pages, 2816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tell Us What You Really Think: A Think Aloud Protocol Analysis of the Verbal Cognitive Reflection Test

by Nick Byrd, Brianna Joseph, Gabriela Gongora and Miroslav Sirota

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040076 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6909

Abstract

The standard interpretation of cognitive reflection tests assumes that correct responses are reflective and lured responses are unreflective. However, prior process-tracing of mathematical reflection tests has cast doubt on this interpretation. In two studies (N = 201), we deployed a validated think-aloud protocol [...] Read more.

The standard interpretation of cognitive reflection tests assumes that correct responses are reflective and lured responses are unreflective. However, prior process-tracing of mathematical reflection tests has cast doubt on this interpretation. In two studies (N = 201), we deployed a validated think-aloud protocol in-person and online to test how this assumption is satisfied by the new, validated, less familiar, and non-mathematical verbal Cognitive Reflection Test (vCRT). Verbalized thoughts in both studies revealed that most (but not all) correct responses involved reflection and that most (but not all) lured responses lacked reflection. The think-aloud protocols seemed to reflect business-as-usual performance: thinking aloud did not disrupt test performance compared to a control group. These data suggest that the vCRT usually satisfies the standard interpretation of the reflection tests (albeit not without exceptions) and that the vCRT can be a good measure of the construct theorized by the two-factor explication of ‘reflection’ (as deliberate and conscious). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments)

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The effect of thinking aloud on (A) the number of lured responses and (B) the number of correct responses on the verbal cognitive reflection test (vCRT) in Study 1 (N = 99). Error bars represent a standard error. Full article ">Figure 2
Correlations between the “two-factor” coding of reflective responses (deliberate and/or conscious) and (A) the number of lured—or so-called “unreflective”—responses and (B) the number of correct—or so-called “reflective”—responses on the verbal reflection test (vCRT) in the think-aloud condition of Study 1 (N = 47) with gray standard error bands. Full article ">Figure 3
Correlations between consideration of lures and (A) acceptance of lures and (B) acceptance of correct responses on the verbal reflection test (vCRT) in Study 1 (N = 99). Gray bands represent a standard error. Full article ">Figure 4
The number of (A) lured responses and (B) correct responses on the verbal reflection test (vCRT) among participants in the think-aloud condition of Study 1 (N = 47) depending on their unsolicited self-report of familiarity with the vCRT with standard error bars. Full article ">Figure 5
Correlations between the “two-factor” coding of reflective responses (deliberate and/or conscious) and (A) the number of lured—or so-called “unreflective”—responses and (B) the number of correct—or so-called “reflective”—responses on the verbal reflection test (vCRT) performance in Study 2 (N = 102). Gray bands represent a standard error. Full article ">Figure 6
Correlations between consideration of lures and (A) acceptance of lures and (B) acceptance of correct responses on the verbal reflection test (vCRT) performance Study 2 (N = 102). Gray bands represent a standard error. Full article ">Figure 7
The number of (A) lured responses and (B) correct responses on the verbal reflection test (vCRT) among participants in Study 2 (N = 102) depending on their unsolicited self-report of familiarity with the vCRT. Error bars represent a standard error. Full article ">Figure A1
Practice effect tests in Study 1 (N = 99). Performance did not increase but decreased during the survey. The magnitude of this decrease was not dramatically different between conditions (Z-score). Error bands indicate standard error. Full article ">Figure A2
Practice effect test in Study 2 (N = 102). Performance did not increase or decrease during the survey. Error bands indicate standard error. Full article ">

22 pages, 1965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eye Gaze Patterns during Reasoning Provide Insights Regarding Individual Differences in Underlying Cognitive Abilities

by Paulo Guirro Laurence, Tatiana Abrão Jana, Silvia A. Bunge and Elizeu C. Macedo

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040075 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1851

Abstract

Sequences of eye movements during performance of a reasoning task has provided insights into the strategies individuals use to solve that specific task; however, prior studies have not examined whether eye gaze metrics reflect cognitive abilities in a way that transcends a specific [...] Read more.

Sequences of eye movements during performance of a reasoning task has provided insights into the strategies individuals use to solve that specific task; however, prior studies have not examined whether eye gaze metrics reflect cognitive abilities in a way that transcends a specific task. Thus, our study aimed to explore the relationship between eye movement sequences and other behavioral measures. Here, we present two studies that related different eye gaze metrics in a matrix reasoning task with performance on a different test of fluid reasoning and tests of planning, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Additionally, we related gaze metrics to self-reported executive functioning in daily life, as measured by BRIEF-A. To perform this, we classified the participants’ eye gaze in each item of the matrices test using an algorithm and then used LASSO regression models with the cognitive abilities as the dependent variable to select eye-tracking metrics to predict it. Overall, specific and distinct eye gaze metrics predicted 57% variance in the fluid reasoning scores; 17% variance in the planning scores; and 18% variance in the working memory scores. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that the selected eye-tracking metrics reflect cognitive abilities that transcend specific tasks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Differential Psychology and Individual Differences in Intelligence)

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(a) Sample problem based on the WMT-2 task overlaid with a schematic representing an eye gaze pattern in red. Circles represent fixation locations, and lines represent eye movements, or saccades, between fixations; (b) sample problem on the D.70 test with the missing domino piece described as “?”. Full article ">Figure 2
Scatter plot with box plots on the margin for the behavioral variables used in Study 1. The dots indicate the given test score of each participant, and the box plots present the data distribution for each variable. Full article ">Figure 3
An example of (a) a WMT-2 item with an example of eye gaze (in red). The eye gaze metrics were correlated with the (b) Tower of London test, (c) Corsi block-tapping test, and (d) Wisconsin Card-Sorting test. Full article ">Figure 4
Raincloud plots for the behavioral variables used in Study 2. The dots indicate the given test score of each participant, and the box and violin plots present the data distribution. Note: All measures are in proportion correct of the total score, with exception of the WCST, which is the total raw number, the Tower of London Time, which is in seconds, and the BRIEF scores, which are in raw score. BRI: behavior regulation index; GEC: general executive composite; MCI: metacognitive index. Full article ">Figure 5
Forest plot presenting the correlation estimates and their 95% confidence interval for the correlation between the select eye gaze metrics and performance on cognitive tasks. The colors of the lines and dots are related to each cognitive test. Note: ratio of time: ratio of time spent on the matrix vs. answer; M-A Transitions: matrix–answer transitions; ToL: Tower of London test; Corsi: Corsi block-tapping test; WCST PE: Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test Perseverative Errors. Full article ">

15 pages, 2620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alpha ERS-ERD Pattern during Divergent and Convergent Thinking Depends on Individual Differences on Metacontrol

by Chunlei Liu, Yuhong Lin, Chaoqun Ye, Jiaqin Yang and Wenguang He

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040074 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2186

Abstract

The role of metacontrol in creativity is theoretically assumed, but experimental evidence is still lacking. In this study, we investigated how metacontrol affects creativity from the perspective of individual differences. Sixty participants completed the metacontrol task, which was used to divide participants into [...] Read more.

The role of metacontrol in creativity is theoretically assumed, but experimental evidence is still lacking. In this study, we investigated how metacontrol affects creativity from the perspective of individual differences. Sixty participants completed the metacontrol task, which was used to divide participants into a high-metacontrol group (HMC) versus a low (LMC) group. Then, these participants performed the alternate uses task (AUT; divergent thinking) and the remote associates test (RAT; convergent thinking), while their EEG results were recorded continuously. Regarding their behavior, the HMC group showed superior creative performance in the AUT and RAT, compared with the LMC group. For the electrophysiology, the HMC group showed larger stimulus-locked P1 and P3 amplitudes than the LMC group. Furthermore, the HMC group exhibited smaller alpha desynchronization (ERD) than the LMC group at the initial stages of the AUT task, followed by a flexible switching between alpha synchronization and desynchronization (ERS-ERD) during the process of selective retention in the AUT. In addition, the HMC group evoked smaller alpha ERD during the initial retrieval and the backtracking process in the RAT, associated with cognitive control adaptability. The aforementioned results indicate that metacontrol reliably contributes to the idea generation process, and HMC individuals could flexibly adjust their cognitive control strategies according to the demand for creative idea generation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Understanding Scientific Creativity)

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22 pages, 1302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Construction and Validation of the HeiQ: An Operation-Oriented Figural Matrices Test

by Vanessa S. Pallentin, Daniel Danner and Jan Rummel

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040073 - 18 Apr 2023

Viewed by 2404

Abstract

Figural matrices tests are among the most popular and well-investigated tests used to assess inductive reasoning abilities. Solving these tests requires the selection of a target that completes a figural matrix among distractors. Despite their generally good psychometric properties, previous matrices tests have [...] Read more.

Figural matrices tests are among the most popular and well-investigated tests used to assess inductive reasoning abilities. Solving these tests requires the selection of a target that completes a figural matrix among distractors. Despite their generally good psychometric properties, previous matrices tests have limitations associated with distractor construction that prevent them from realizing their full potential. Most tests allow participants to identify the correct response by eliminating distractors based on superficial features. The goal of this study was to develop a novel figural matrices test which is less prone to the use of response elimination strategies, and to test its psychometric properties. The new test consists of 48 items and was validated with N = 767 participants. Measurement models implied that the test is Rasch scalable, inferring a uniform underlying ability. The test showed good to very good reliability (retest-correlation: r = 0.88; Cronbach’s alpha: α = 0.93; split-half reliability: r = 0.88) and good construct validity (r = 0.81 with the Raven Progressive Matrices Test, r = 0.73 with global intelligence scores of the Intelligence Structure Test 2000R, and r = 0.58 with the global score of the Berlin Intelligence Structure Test). It even superseded the Raven Progressive Matrices Tests in criterion-related validity (correlation with final year high school grades (r = −0.49 p < .001)). We conclude that this novel test has excellent psychometric properties and can be a valuable tool for researchers interested in reasoning assessment. Full article

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8 pages, 426 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices for Adolescents: A Case for a Shortened Version

by Anne-Wil Kramer and Hilde M. Huizenga

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040072 - 13 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3408

Abstract

Cognitive ability of adolescents is often measured using the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM). However, the RSPM knows a long administration time which may be suboptimal, as time-on-task effects are known to increase fatigue, to lower motivation, and to worsen performance on cognitive [...] Read more.

Cognitive ability of adolescents is often measured using the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM). However, the RSPM knows a long administration time which may be suboptimal, as time-on-task effects are known to increase fatigue, to lower motivation, and to worsen performance on cognitive tasks. Therefore, a shortened version for adolescents was developed recently. In the current preregistered study we investigated this shortened version in a sample of adolescents (N = 99) of average educational backgrounds. We tested whether the shortened RSPM is a valid alternative to the original RSPM, which proved to be the case, as we observed a moderate to high correlation between the two versions. Moreover, we tested version effects on fatigue, motivation and performance. Fatigue was lower and motivation was higher after completing the short compared to the original version, and performance was better in the short compared to the original version. However, additional analyses suggested that beneficial version effects on performance were not due to reduced time-on-task, but due to the short version containing less difficult items than the original version. Moreover, version related differences in performance were not related to version related differences in fatigue and motivation. We conclude that the shortened version of the RSPM is a valid alternative to the original version, and that the shortened version is beneficial in terms of fatigue and motivation, but that these beneficial effects on fatigue and motivation do not carry over to performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Interplay between Motivational, Affective Factors and Cognitive Factors in Learning)

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28 pages, 1013 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Five-Factor Model and DSM-5 Alternative Model of Personality Disorder Profile Construction: Associations with Cognitive Ability and Clinical Symptoms

by Chloe Lau, R. Michael Bagby, Bruce G. Pollock and Lena Quilty

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040071 - 8 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4777

Abstract

Although numerous studies have explored latent profiles using the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of normative personality, no studies have investigated how broad personality traits (i.e., FFM) and pathological personality traits using the alternative model of personality disorder (AMPD) may combine for latent personality profiles. [...] Read more.

Although numerous studies have explored latent profiles using the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of normative personality, no studies have investigated how broad personality traits (i.e., FFM) and pathological personality traits using the alternative model of personality disorder (AMPD) may combine for latent personality profiles. The present study recruited outpatients (N = 201) who completed the Big Five Aspects Scales (BFAS), Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5), Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID-I/P), gambling and alcohol use measures, and the Weschler Intelligence subtests. When FFM and AMPD measures were combined, latent profile analyses revealed four profiles, Internalizing-Thought disorder, Externalizing, Average-Detached, and Adaptive. Detachment and openness to experience were the most and least essential traits for profile distinction, respectively. No associations between group membership and cognitive ability measures were found. Internalizing-Thought disorder membership was linked with a current mood and anxiety disorder diagnosis. Externalizing profile membership was associated with younger age, problematic gambling, alcohol use, and a current substance use disorder diagnosis. The four FFM–AMPD profiles overlapped with the four FFM-only and three AMPD-only profiles. Overall, the FFM–AMPD profiles appeared to have better convergent and discriminant validity with DSM-relevant psychopathology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personality and Individual Differences)

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23 pages, 1166 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluid Intelligence Is (Much) More than Working Memory Capacity: An Experimental Analysis

by Dirk Hagemann, Max Ihmels, Nico Bast, Andreas B. Neubauer, Andrea Schankin and Anna-Lena Schubert

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040070 - 6 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5517

Abstract

Empirical evidence suggests a great positive association between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory capacity, which implied to some researchers that fluid intelligence is little more than working memory. Because this conclusion is mostly based on correlation analysis, a causal relationship between [...] Read more.

Empirical evidence suggests a great positive association between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory capacity, which implied to some researchers that fluid intelligence is little more than working memory. Because this conclusion is mostly based on correlation analysis, a causal relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory has not yet been established. The aim of the present study was therefore to provide an experimental analysis of this relationship. In a first study, 60 participants worked on items of the Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) while simultaneously engaging in one of four secondary tasks to load specific components of the working memory system. There was a diminishing effect of loading the central executive on the APM performance, which could explain 15% of the variance in the APM score. In a second study, we used the same experimental manipulations but replaced the dependent variable with complex working memory span tasks from three different domains. There was also a diminishing effect of the experimental manipulation on span task performance, which could now explain 40% of the variance. These findings suggest a causal effect of working memory functioning on fluid intelligence test performance, but they also imply that factors other than working memory functioning must contribute to fluid intelligence. Full article

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13 pages, 403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are Intelligent People Better Liars? Relationships between Cognitive Abilities and Credible Lying

by Justyna Sarzyńska-Wawer, Krzysztof Hanusz, Aleksandra Pawlak, Julia Szymanowska and Aleksander Wawer

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040069 - 3 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4720

Abstract

Lying is essential to social communication. Despite years of research, its detection still poses many challenges. This is partly because some individuals are perceived as truthful and reliable, even when lying. However, relatively little is known about these effective liars. In our study, [...] Read more.

Lying is essential to social communication. Despite years of research, its detection still poses many challenges. This is partly because some individuals are perceived as truthful and reliable, even when lying. However, relatively little is known about these effective liars. In our study, we focused on the cognitive functioning of effective liars. We tested 400 participants who completed tasks measuring executive functions, verbal fluency, and fluid intelligence, and also made four statements (two true and two false, half of them written and half oral). The reliability of the statements was then assessed. Only fluid intelligence was found to be relevant for reliable lying. This relationship was only evident for oral statements, suggesting that the importance of intelligence is highlighted when statements are made spontaneously without prior preparation. Full article

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30 pages, 2299 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Task Switching: On the Relation of Cognitive Flexibility with Cognitive Capacity

by Florian Schmitz and Raimund J. Krämer

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040068 - 30 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6403

Abstract

The task-switching paradigm is deemed a measure of cognitive flexibility. Previous research has demonstrated that individual differences in task-switch costs are moderately inversely related to cognitive ability. However, current theories emphasize multiple component processes of task switching, such as task-set preparation and task-set [...] Read more.

The task-switching paradigm is deemed a measure of cognitive flexibility. Previous research has demonstrated that individual differences in task-switch costs are moderately inversely related to cognitive ability. However, current theories emphasize multiple component processes of task switching, such as task-set preparation and task-set inertia. The relations of task-switching processes with cognitive ability were investigated in the current study. Participants completed a task-switching paradigm with geometric forms and a visuospatial working memory capacity (WMC) task. The task-switch effect was decomposed with the diffusion model. Effects of task-switching and response congruency were estimated as latent differences using structural equation modeling. Their magnitudes and relations with visuospatial WMC were investigated. Effects in the means of parameter estimates replicated previous findings, namely increased non-decision time in task-switch trials. Further, task switches and response incongruency had independent effects on drift rates, reflecting their differential effects on task readiness. Findings obtained with the figural tasks employed in this study revealed that WMC was inversely related to the task-switch effect in non-decision time. Relations with drift rates were inconsistent. Finally, WMC was moderately inversely related to response caution. These findings suggest that more able participants either needed less time for task-set preparation or that they invested less time for task-set preparation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Flexibility: Concepts, Issues and Assessment)

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Schematic of the task-switching paradigm. The leftmost column shows the monitor display, the next columns illustrate the task-set preparation and stimulus processing requirements as well as the required response. The rightmost column presents the trial type as defined by task sequence and response–congruency of the task-relevant and irrelevant stimulus attributes (i.e., size vs. color). The trial code specifies the processing requirements, whether the trial necessitates a task switch (s1) or not (s0), and whether the response–relevant and irrelevant stimulus attributes are associated with incongruent responses (i1) or not (i0). Trial 1 would be a task-repeat trial if the preceding warm-up trial (not shown here) was a color classification trial, too. Trial types were balanced but their pseudo-random sequence was unpredictable for participants. Full article ">Figure 2
Schematic of the figural updating task. The trials shown here present the first four trials of a block. The monitor display is shown in the leftmost column. The next columns present the recall, response, and updating requirements in the respective trials. Trials 2–4 exemplify 1-back, 2-back, and 3-back recall requirements. In reality, the sequence of recall requirements was pseudo-random and unpredictable for participants. Full article ">Figure 3
Boxplots of diffusion model (DM) parameters. Upper panel: response caution split by block; middle panel: non-decision time, split by block and task repeat (RP)/switch (SW) trials; lower panel: drift rates, split by block, task repeat (RP)/switch (SW) and response congruent (C)/incongruent (I) trials. Full article ">Figure 4
Specification of the latent difference score (LDS) model, as exemplified for the task-switch effect in the diffusion model (DM) non-decision time parameter (t0), and its relations with visuospatial working memory capacity (WMC) that was assessed using three parallel parcels of the figural Recall-N-Back (RNB) task. Analogous models were estimated for the other parameters. Indicators of the LDS models are systematically named taking into consideration their task switch (s1; s0) and response incongruency (i1; i0) requirements (see <a href="#jintelligence-11-00068-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a> for details). Parameters numerically fixed at either 1 or 0 zero are displayed using dashed lines; parameters constrained to be equal are named identically in this figure. The latent correlations between factors (ρ1–ρ3) are provided in <a href="#jintelligence-11-00068-t003" class="html-table">Table 3</a>. Full article ">Figure A1
Mean squared error (MSE) for six alternative models fitted to the RT data of the switching task. The numbers in the legend correspond with the conditions the respective parameter was allowed to depend on, i.e., 1 = equal for all conditions, 2 = split by task-switch vs. repeat, and 4 = separate for all four conditions (task-switch <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>×</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> response–congruency). Full article ">Figure A2
Scatterplot of observed and model-predicted proportion of errors and quantiles of correct responses (in milliseconds) for participants in the respective trial types, as defined by task repeat vs. task-switch (s0; s1) trials with response–congruent vs. incongruent (i0; i1) stimulus attributes. Full article ">

13 pages, 1318 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Phantom Recollection in 8–10-Year-Olds and Young Adults

by Marlène Abadie and Manon Rousselle

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040067 - 30 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1838

Abstract

Illusory conscious experience of the “presentation” of unstudied material, called phantom recollection, occurs at high levels in long-term episodic memory tests and underlies some forms of false memory. We report an experiment examining, for the first time, the presence of phantom recollection in [...] Read more.

Illusory conscious experience of the “presentation” of unstudied material, called phantom recollection, occurs at high levels in long-term episodic memory tests and underlies some forms of false memory. We report an experiment examining, for the first time, the presence of phantom recollection in a short-term working memory (WM) task in 8- to 10-year-old children and young adults. Participants studied lists of eight semantically related words and had to recognize them among unpresented distractors semantically related and unrelated to the studied words after a retention interval of a few seconds. Regardless of whether the retention interval was filled with a concurrent task that interfered with WM maintenance, the false recognition rate for related distractors was very high in both age groups, although it was higher in young adults (47%) than children (42%) and rivaled the rate of target acceptance. The conjoint recognition model of fuzzy-trace theory was used to examine memory representations underlying recognition responses. In young adults, phantom recollection underpinned half of the false memories. By contrast, in children, phantom recollection accounted for only 16% of them. These findings suggest that an increase in phantom recollection use may underlie the developmental increase in short-term false memory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Working Memory and Attention)

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23 pages, 1551 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Different Perspectives on Retest Effects in the Context of Spatial Thinking: Interplay of Behavioral Performance, Cognitive Processing, and Cognitive Workload

by Benedict C. O. F. Fehringer

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040066 - 29 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1969

Abstract

Retest effects refer to performance improvements in a final test by completing previous tests with the same or similar testing materials. Improvements in test-related skills and/or increasing familiarity with the stimulus materials are considered sources of the retest effect. The present study analyzes [...] Read more.

Retest effects refer to performance improvements in a final test by completing previous tests with the same or similar testing materials. Improvements in test-related skills and/or increasing familiarity with the stimulus materials are considered sources of the retest effect. The present study analyzes retest effects in the context of spatial thinking, considering complementing perspectives (behavioral performance, cognitive processing, and cognitive workload). N = 141 participants completed a recently developed ability test for the visualization factor of spatial thinking (R-Cube-Vis Test). This test provides the opportunity to monitor the progression of changes in solving behavior from item to item within each of the six distinct difficulty levels. Items of one difficulty level all require the same spatial solving strategy but vary in visual appearance. Multi-level models were estimated, with items on level 1 and participants on level 2. Results demonstrated retest effects as changes from the beginning to the end of a set of items within each difficulty level by increasing accuracy. Gaze patterns showed the development of solving strategies by participants through, e.g., shifting the focus on relevant item parts. Increasing familiarity with the stimulus materials was indicated in reduced reaction times and increased confidence ratings, but also by the results of a pupillary-based cognitive workload measure. Furthermore, differences between participants with overall high vs. low spatial ability were considered. In addition to a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the retest effect, the complementing perspectives provide more detailed information about individual ability profiles for diagnostic purposes. Full article

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Possible items of the R-Cube-Vis Test for each difficulty level, ordered from easy (a) to difficult (f). The task is always to decide whether both cubes are equal, except for rotated elements. Full article ">Figure 2
Changes of item accuracy depending on test performance (ACC-poss, x-axis) and item position (grouped into four intervals, indicated by four lines) with a .95-confidence-interval for Level a. Full article ">Figure 3
Changes of the logarithmized reaction times depending on test performance (ACC-poss, x-axis) and item position (grouped into four intervals, indicated by four lines) with a .95-confidence-interval for Level d. Full article ">Figure 4
Changes of the confidence rating depending on item position with .95-confidence-interval for Level a. Full article ">Figure 5
Interaction effect of item position (grouped in four intervals, indicated by four lines) with .95-confidence-interval and test performance (ACC-poss, x-axis) on the Levenshtein distance ratio for Level d. Full article ">Figure 6
Changes of IPA (difference) depending on the item position (x-axis) and the test performance (ACC-poss, grouped in four intervals, indicated by four lines) with .95-confidence-interval for Level e. The four test performance groups consisted of N = 11 (ACC-poss < .63), N = 23 (≥.63 and <.75), N = 44 (≥.75 and <.88), N = 63 (≥.88) participants. Notice, larger values of IPA (difference) indicate lower cognitive workload, and the item position is standardized with the range 0 (1st item) to 1 (24th item). Full article ">

14 pages, 2047 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Elizabeth P. Handing, Yuqin Jiao and Stephen Aichele

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040065 - 29 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1916

Abstract

There have been few studies on associations between age-related declines in fluid cognition and functional ability in population-representative samples of middle-aged and older adults. We used a two-stage process (longitudinal factor analysis followed by structural growth modeling) to estimate bivariate trajectories of age-related [...] Read more.

There have been few studies on associations between age-related declines in fluid cognition and functional ability in population-representative samples of middle-aged and older adults. We used a two-stage process (longitudinal factor analysis followed by structural growth modeling) to estimate bivariate trajectories of age-related changes in general fluid cognition (numeracy, category fluency, executive functioning, and recall memory) and functional limitation (difficulties in daily activities, instrumental activities, and mobility). Data came from the Health and Retirement Study (Waves 2010–2016; N = 14,489; ages 50–85 years). Cognitive ability declined on average by −0.05 SD between ages 50–70 years, then −0.28 SD from 70–85 years. Functional limitation increased on average by +0.22 SD between ages 50–70 years, then +0.68 SD from 70–85 years. Significant individual variation in cognitive and functional changes was observed across age windows. Importantly, cognitive decline in middle age (pre-age 70 years) was strongly correlated with increasing functional limitation (r = −.49, p < .001). After middle age, cognition declined independently of change in functional limitation. To our knowledge, this is the first study to estimate age-related changes in fluid cognitive measures introduced in the HRS between 2010–2016. Full article

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19 pages, 1350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship between Executive Functions, Working Memory, and Intelligence in Kindergarten Children

by Ebru Ger and Claudia M. Roebers

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040064 - 29 Mar 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4650

Abstract

Executive functions (EF), working memory (WM), and intelligence are closely associated, but distinct constructs. What underlies the associations between these constructs, especially in childhood, is not well understood. In this pre-registered study, along with the traditional aggregate accuracy and RT-based measures of EF, [...] Read more.

Executive functions (EF), working memory (WM), and intelligence are closely associated, but distinct constructs. What underlies the associations between these constructs, especially in childhood, is not well understood. In this pre-registered study, along with the traditional aggregate accuracy and RT-based measures of EF, we investigated post-error slowing (PES) in EF as a manifestation of metacognitive processes (i.e., monitoring and cognitive control) in relation to WM and intelligence. Thereby, we aimed to elucidate whether these metacognitive processes may be one underlying component to explain the associations between these constructs. We tested kindergarten children (M_age = 6.4 years, SD_age = 0.3) in an EF, WM (verbal and visuospatial), and fluid (non-verbal) intelligence task. We found significant associations of mainly the inhibition component of EF with fluid intelligence and verbal WM, and between verbal WM and intelligence. No significant associations emerged between the PES in EF and intelligence or WM. These results suggest that in the kindergarten age, inhibition rather than monitoring and cognitive control might be the underlying component that explains the associations between EF, WM, and intelligence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Working Memory and Metacognition)

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19 pages, 2053 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Faster ≠ Smarter: Children with Higher Levels of Ability Take Longer to Give Incorrect Answers, Especially When the Task Matches Their Ability

by Martin Tancoš, Edita Chvojka, Michal Jabůrek and Šárka Portešová

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040063 - 29 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2103

Abstract

The stereotype that children who are more able solve tasks quicker than their less capable peers exists both in and outside education. The F > C phenomenon and the distance–difficulty hypothesis offer alternative explanations of the time needed to complete a task; the [...] Read more.

The stereotype that children who are more able solve tasks quicker than their less capable peers exists both in and outside education. The F > C phenomenon and the distance–difficulty hypothesis offer alternative explanations of the time needed to complete a task; the former by the response correctness and the latter by the relative difference between the difficulty of the task and the ability of the examinee. To test these alternative explanations, we extracted IRT-based ability estimates and task difficulties from a sample of 514 children, 53% girls, M(age) = 10.3 years; who answered 29 Piagetian balance beam tasks. We used the answer correctness and task difficulty as predictors in multilevel regression models when controlling for children’s ability levels. Our results challenge the ‘faster equals smarter’ stereotype. We show that ability levels predict the time needed to solve a task when the task is solved incorrectly, though only with moderately and highly difficult items. Moreover, children with higher ability levels take longer to answer items incorrectly, and tasks equal to children’s ability levels take more time than very easy or difficult tasks. We conclude that the relationship between ability, task difficulty, and answer correctness is complex, and warn education professionals against basing their professional judgment on students’ quickness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Differential Psychology and Individual Differences in Intelligence)

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Sample task and individual game features of Triton. Full article ">Figure 2
Predicted response time values according to Model A3 for correct (green) and incorrect (red) responses depending on children’s ability. With correctly answered items (green line), there is no substantial relationship between a person’s ability and the time needed to solve an item. On the other hand, with incorrectly answered items (red line), the time required to answer an item increases with the ability level. Children with greater ability, therefore, take longer to answer an item incorrectly. Full article ">Figure 3
Predicted response time values according to the exploratory model A3 for correct (green line) and incorrect (red line) responses depending on children’s ability. The graph is divided into three panels based on different item difficulty levels. The observed difference in slopes of correct and incorrect responses is visibly weaker in Model A4. This further expands Model A3, as the proposition that the time required to answer incorrectly answered items (red line) increases with ability level is applicable only for moderately (e.g., difficulty = 0) and highly (e.g., difficulty = 2) difficult items. Full article ">Figure 4
Predicted response time values according to Model B3 as a function of ability–difficulty distance separated by whether the answer was correct (green) or incorrect (red). Regardless of the response correctness, items whose difficulty matches the participant’s ability level take the longest time to solve (with incorrect answers taking the longest). The relationship changes for very difficult and easy items—with these, correctly answered items take longer than the incorrect ones. Full article ">

15 pages, 529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reducing Black–White Racial Differences on Intelligence Tests Used in Hiring for Public Safety Jobs

by Harold W. Goldstein, Kenneth P. Yusko, Charles A. Scherbaum and Elliott C. Larson

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040062 - 28 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3427

Abstract

This paper explores whether a diversity and inclusion strategy focused on using modern intelligence tests can assist public safety organizations in hiring a talented diverse workforce. Doing so may offer strategies for mitigating the issues of systematic racism with which these occupations have [...] Read more.

This paper explores whether a diversity and inclusion strategy focused on using modern intelligence tests can assist public safety organizations in hiring a talented diverse workforce. Doing so may offer strategies for mitigating the issues of systematic racism with which these occupations have historically struggled. Past meta-analytic research shows that traditional forms of intelligence tests, which are often used in this sector, have not consistently demonstrated predictive validity but have negatively impacted Black candidates. As an alternative, we examine a modern intelligence test that consists of novel unfamiliar cognitive problems that test takers must solve without relying on their prior experience. Across six studies of varying public safety jobs (e.g., police, firefighter) in different organizations, we found a pattern of results that supports the criterion-related validity of the modern intelligence test. In addition to consistently predicting job performance and training success, the modern intelligence test also substantially mitigated the observed Black–White group differences. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of how to alter the legacy of I/O psychology and human resource fields when it comes to our impact on facilitating employment opportunities for Black citizens, particularly in public safety positions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Ability Testing in the Workplace: Modern Approaches and Methods)

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17 pages, 410 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Language: Its Origin and Ongoing Evolution

by Ilia Markov, Kseniia Kharitonova and Elena L. Grigorenko

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040061 - 28 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8292

Abstract

With the present paper, we sought to use research findings to illustrate the following thesis: the evolution of language follows the principles of human evolution. We argued that language does not exist for its own sake, it is one of a multitude of [...] Read more.

With the present paper, we sought to use research findings to illustrate the following thesis: the evolution of language follows the principles of human evolution. We argued that language does not exist for its own sake, it is one of a multitude of skills that developed to achieve a shared communicative goal, and all its features are reflective of this. Ongoing emerging language adaptations strive to better fit the present state of the human species. Theories of language have evolved from a single-modality to multimodal, from human-specific to usage-based and goal-driven. We proposed that language should be viewed as a multitude of communication techniques that have developed and are developing in response to selective pressure. The precise nature of language is shaped by the needs of the species (arguably, uniquely H. sapiens) utilizing it, and the emergence of new situational adaptations, as well as new forms and types of human language, demonstrates that language includes an act driven by a communicative goal. This article serves as an overview of the current state of psycholinguistic research on the topic of language evolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Higher-Order Cognitive Abilities and Their Development in the Anthropocene)

17 pages, 874 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Scientific Intelligence: Recognising It to Nurture It

by Debra McGregor and Sarah Frodsham

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040060 - 27 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3407

Abstract

Successful scientists need to think carefully about the particular aspect of the world around them they are investigating. They build on what is known in their area of science to identify how they might examine the issue or problem they are concerned with [...] Read more.

Successful scientists need to think carefully about the particular aspect of the world around them they are investigating. They build on what is known in their area of science to identify how they might examine the issue or problem they are concerned with to offer further insights. Through investigating natural phenomena, they can solve problems and communicate new ways of looking at the world. Their work serves to address global and societal challenges and often offers improved ways of living. The ways that scientists’ work can have implications for educational processes designed to prepare would-be scientists or scientifically aware citizens of the future. Eliciting reflections from experienced scientists recounting how they came to develop their scientific intellect, expertise and problem-solving know-how is useful to inform science education. This article reports on an aspect of a larger project involving 24 scientists specialising in biological or physical science research from Higher Education Institutions, located in either Manchester, Oxford or London. The study adopts a retrospective phenomenographical methodology and applies two fresh theoretical perspectives to eight in-depth interviews with professional scientists working in university departments involved in ground-breaking research. Conversations with the scientists were framed to explore the nature and extent of formal and informal learning influences affecting the development of their inventiveness and expertise in becoming scientists. The reified perspectives collated here show how a range of experiences have afforded expert scientists the opportunity to apply their intellectual capabilities. These kinds of demonstrable abilities have enabled them to scientifically contribute to being able to solve real-world problems. Additionally, a cross-case analysis of scientists’ reported learning experiences could inform science education policy and practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Personality, Intelligence, Cognitive Skills, and Life Outcomes)

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20 pages, 1309 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Role of Semantic Associations as a Metacognitive Cue in Creative Idea Generation

by Yoed N. Kenett, Noam Gooz and Rakefet Ackerman

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040059 - 27 Mar 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2617

Abstract

Is my idea creative? This question directs investing in companies and choosing a research agenda. Following previous research, we focus on the originality of ideas and consider their association with self-assessments of idea generators regarding their own originality. We operationalize the originality score [...] Read more.

Is my idea creative? This question directs investing in companies and choosing a research agenda. Following previous research, we focus on the originality of ideas and consider their association with self-assessments of idea generators regarding their own originality. We operationalize the originality score as the frequency (%) of each idea within a sample of participants and originality judgment as the self-assessment of this frequency. Initial evidence suggests that originality scores and originality judgments are produced by separate processes. As a result, originality judgments are prone to biases. So far, heuristic cues that lead to such biases are hardly known. We used methods from computational linguistics to examine the semantic distance as a potential heuristic cue underlying originality judgments. We examined the extent to which the semantic distance would contribute additional explanatory value in predicting originality scores and originality judgments, above and beyond cues known from previous research. In Experiment 1, we re-analyzed previous data that compared originality scores and originality judgments after adding the semantic distance of the generated ideas from the stimuli. We found that the semantic distance contributed to the gap between originality scores and originality judgments. In Experiment 2, we manipulated the examples given in task instructions to prime participants with two levels of idea originality and two levels of semantic distance. We replicated Experiment 1 in finding the semantic distance as a biasing factor for originality judgments. In addition, we found differences among the conditions in the extent of the bias. This study highlights the semantic distance as an unacknowledged metacognitive cue and demonstrates its biasing power for originality judgments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments)

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13 pages, 513 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Childhood Maltreatment and Creativity among Chinese College Students: A Serial Mediation Model

by Wenfu Li, Shuai Zhang, Hao Lin, Keke Zhang, Xiaolong Zhang, Jingting Chen, Fangfang Xu and Chuanxin Liu

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040058 - 24 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2205

Abstract

Creativity plays a very crucial impact on our cultural life and has also been important to the improvement of human civilization. Numerous studies have indicated that family circumstance plays an important role in the development of individual creativity. However, little is known about [...] Read more.

Creativity plays a very crucial impact on our cultural life and has also been important to the improvement of human civilization. Numerous studies have indicated that family circumstance plays an important role in the development of individual creativity. However, little is known about the mediating mechanisms underlying the association between childhood maltreatment and creativity. This study intended to explore the serial multiple mediation model in which undergraduates’ cognitive flexibility and self-efficacy were proposed to mediate the potential influence of childhood maltreatment on their creativity. Participants were 1069 undergraduates (573 males and 496 females, mean age was 20.57 ± 1.24 years ranging from 17 to 24) from a university in Shandong Province, China. Participants were required to complete an internet survey including the Short Form of Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ-SF), General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI), and Williams Creativity Aptitude Test (WCAT). Serial multiple mediation analysis and the bootstrap method were used to investigate the mediation effects of cognitive flexibility and self-efficacy. The results showed that childhood maltreatment indirectly influenced undergraduates’ creativity through three indirect paths: childhood maltreatment→cognitive flexibility→creativity, childhood maltreatment→self-efficacy→creativity, and childhood maltreatment→cognitive flexibility→self-efficacy→creativity. The ratios of the total indirect effects and branch-indirect effects to the total effects were 92.73%, 34.61%, 35.68%, and 22.44%, respectively. These results indicated that cognitive flexibility and self-efficacy could completely mediate the potential impact of childhood maltreatment on individuals creativity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Understanding Scientific Creativity)

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